Class T\S T 
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A NEW 



CLASSICAL DICTIONARY 



OF GREEK AND ROMAN 



BIOGRAPHY, MYTHOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY, 



PARTLY BASED OPON THE 



DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY. 



/ 

BY WILLIAM gMITH, LL.D., 

EDITOR OF THE DICTIONARIES OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, AND OF GREEK ANT» 
ROMAN BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY. 



3£tebiseB, toitt) numerous ffiocwtions ana ^trtutions, 



BY CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D., 

PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE. 




NEW YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

PEARL STREET, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
1862. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand 
eight hundred and fifty, by 
Harper & Brothers, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District 
of New York. 



TO 

CHARLES KING, LL.D., 

PRESIDENT OF COLUMBIA COLLEGE, 

THE STAUNCH FRIEND OF CLASSICAL LEARNING, 

AND 

WHO HAS RETAINED AMID THE BUST SCENES OF PUBLIC LIFE 
SO ACCURATE A PERCEPTION OF, AND SO KEEN A 
RELISH FOR, THE CHARMS OF 



<0rnk ntiii Unman jDibratan. 



PREFACE OF THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 



The volume here presented to the American public is one of a series of Diction 
aries prepared under the editorial supervision of Dr. William Smith, aided by a 
number of learned men, and designed to present in an English dress the valuable 
historical and archaeological researches of the scholars of Germany. For it is a 
fact not to be denied, that classical learning has found its proper abode in the 
latter country, and that whatever of value on these subjects has appeared in 
England for many years past, has been, with a few honorable exceptions — rari 
nantes in gurgite vasto — derived immediately or remotely from German sources. 
For instance, an English " Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge " desires 
a " History of Greek Literature; " none but a German can be found competent to 
prepare it, and when death removes him in the midst of his noble efforts, a 
continuator can not be found on English soil, and the ablest history of Greek 
literature (as far as it goes) remains a fragment. Turn over the pages of the most 
elaborate and valuable English histories of Greece, and how few names are there 
quoted as authorities out of the limits of the land of antiquarian research. Thirl- 
wall's and Grote's splendid superstructures rest on Teutonic foundations. The 
text-books used even in the Universities, which claim a Bentley and a Porson 
among their illustrious dead, and where Gaisford still labors in a green old age, 
the Nestor of English scholarship, are mere reprints from, or based on, German 
recensions. The University press sends forth an Aristotle, an iEschylus, a 
Sophocles, and what English alumnus of Oxford or Cambridge performs the critical 
revision — we read on the title-page the Teutonic names of Bekker, Dindorf, &c. 
As in every other department of classical learning English scholarship is indebted 
to German labors, so, until the appearance of the present series of dictionaries 
(mostly the result of German erudition), she had nothing to put in comparison 
with the valuable classical encyclopaedias of Germany but the miserable compen- 
diums of Lempriere and Dymock — compilations in which the errors were so glaring 
and so absurd, that when the American editor of the present work prepared a 
revised edition of Lempriere, pruning away many of its faults, correcting many of 
its misstatements, supplying many of its deficiencies, and introducing to his coun- 
trymen the latest results of German scholarship, his work was immediately 
reprinted, and found extensive circulation in England. Though he had to work 
single-handed, and amid many discouragements and disadvantages, yet his labors 
seemed to meet with favor abroad, and this approbation was distinctly manifested 
in the fact that his last revision of Lempriere was republished in its native land in 
several different forms and in abridgments. What he sought to do unaided, and 
in the intervals of laborious professional duties, has now been undertaken on a 
more extended scale by an association of scholars, both English and foreign. The 
increased attention paid to this department in Germany, the recent discoveries 
made by travellers in more thorough explorations, the vast amount of literary 



PEEFACE OF THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 



material collected in separate works, or scattered through the published proceed 
ings of learned societies, at length suggested to these scholars the propriety of 
exhibiting in one body the latest results of German learning. An able and useful 
guide was found at hand in the learned and copious " Real-Encyclopadie der Alter- 
thumswissenschaft von Aug. Pauly." Following in the footsteps of Pauly and his 
fellow-laborers, and using freely the materials and the references of these writers, 
as well as other works of standard excellence not otherwise accessible to English 
students, Dr. "William Smith, aided by some twenty-eight collaborateurs, English 
and German, prepared, 

1st. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, London, 1842, in one vol. 
8vo., of 1121 pages; reprinted in a new edition, London, 1850. 

2dly. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, in 3 vols. 
8vo., of about 3600 pages; to be followed by, 

3dly. A Dictionary of Ancient Geography, now in preparation. 

After the completion of the second of these works, Dr. W. Smith and his 
brother, the Rev. Philip Smith, from that work, from Pauly's Encyclopadie, and 
other works, drew up a "Classical Dictionary for Schools" (of Greek and Roman 
Biography, Mythology, and Geography), which should by its size and price be 
accessible to all students, and present in a brief and convenient form the latest and 
most reliable results in these departments. The plan and detail of the work are 
stated at length in the preface of the English editor, subjoined to this, on p. xiii.- 
xv., to which the reader is referred. When the printing of this work commenced, 
the publishers of the American edition immediately made an arrangement with the 
English publishers, and purchased at a considerable cost the sheets in advance, to 
be revised and edited for circulation in this country ; and the two books were to 
appear nearly simultaneously. The present work is the revised edition of the 
English one, and will be found, the editor believes, greatly improved, as well as 
much more complete. It is not, however designed to, and, in the editor's opinion, 
will not supersede his own " Classical Dictionary" published in 1841, since the 
articles are purposely brief, and results only are stated, without that fullness of 
detail which is desirable to the more advanced scholar and the educated man 
of leisure ; but it is intended for the use of those whose means will not allow a 
more expensive, or their scanty time the use of a more copious work ; in other 
words, it is meant to take the place, by reason of its convenient size and low price, 
of Lempriere's old dictionary, which, with all its absurd errors and defects, still 
has a lingering existence in certain parts of our country on account of its cheapness. 
On this head the English editor speaks strongly ; in point of literary or scientific 
value, Lempriere's dictionary is dead — " requiescat in pace" — and to put it into a 
boy's hands now as a guide in classical matters would be as wise and as useful as 
giving him some" mystic treatise of the Middle Ages on alchemy to serve as a text- 
book in chemistry. The present work contains all the names of any value to a 
schoolboy occurring in Lempriere, and a great many not in that work, while the 
information is derived from the fountain-head, and not from the diluted stream of 
French encyclopedias. 

As regards the plan pursued in revising the work, the editor has been guided by 
the wants of the class for whom it is specially designed ; he has therefore inserted 



PREFACE OF THE AMERICAN EDITOR 



TO 



more fully than in the original the names occurring in the authors most frequently 
read by younger students, as Caesar, Sallust, Virgil, Cicero, Ovid, Xenophon, Hero- 
dotus, Homer, &c, and has endeavored to give briefly such information as a boy 
meeting with any of these names in his author would seek in a classical dictionary. 
For this purpose he has used freely the most recent and most reliable authorities ; 
he has added brief notices from Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Biography and Mytho- 
logy, and from his own Classical Dictionary, of course, abridging to suit the 
character of the work ; he has also, among other works less frequently consulted, 
and single books on special topics unnecessary to be enumerated, derived materials 
from Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopadie (A-F, H-Italien, O-Phokyl 
ides), 97 vols. 4to, from Kitto's and Winer's Bible Cyclopaedia, from the indexes 
and notes to the best editions of the classic authors, especially the valuable index 
to Groskurd's translation of Strabo, and the Onomasticon Ciceronianum and Pla- 
tonicum of Orelli, from Gruber's Mythologisches Lexicon, 3 vols. 8vo, from Man- 
nert's, Ukert's, and especially Forbiger's Alte Geographie, from Cramer's Ancient 
Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor, from numerous recent books of travel in classic and 
sacred lands, from Grote's and Thirlwall's Greece, and Niebuhr's Rome and Lec- 
tures ; but particularly would he acknowledge, in the most explicit terms, his obli- 
gations to Pauly's Eeal-Encyclopadie der Alterthumswissenschaft (A-Thymna), and 
to Kraft and Miiller's improved edition of Funke's Real-Schullexicon (of which, 
unfortunately, only the first volume, A-K, has appeared) : from these two works 
he has derived many of his own articles, and has been enabled to correct many of 
those in the English work taken from the same sources. In this connection, the 
editor regrets to find that Dr. W. Smith and some of his coadjutors have studi- 
ously avoided, in all their dictionaries hitherto published, making any direct 
acknowledgment of their indebtedness to the former of these two works. Although 
the plan and much of the detail of the works in question are taken from Pauly's, 
there is no indication of the existence of such a book in the preface to the Diction- 
ary of Antiquities, or to the Dictionary of Biography and Mythology, and this 
omission has led a distinguished German scholar, in a notice of the latter work in 
the Leipziger Repertorium for February, 1846, to complain of this conduct as 
unscholarlike and reprehensible : he says, " Under this head the editor (Dr. W. 
Smith) ought not to have omitted stating of how great service to him and several 
of his coadjutors the 'Encyclopedia of Classical Antiquity,' begun by Aug. Pauly 
and continued after his (Pauly's) death by Chr. Walz and W. Teuffel, has been, 
and especially since we can show that the above-named production of German 
scholars has been actually adopted as the basis of the English Dictionary, although 
the plan of the latter is considerably altered." . ..." In regard to its (Smith's 
Dictionary of Biography and Mythology) relation to the Stuttgard (Pauly's) Ency- 
clopaedia, we have still further to remark, that the articles which have been bor- 
rowed from it, namely, by Dr. Schmitz and the editor, have been revised, and in 
some respects considerably enlarged." * 

* " Hier h'atte der Herausgeber nicht verschweigen sollen, von wie grossem Nutzen ihm 
und mehreren seiner mitarbeiter die von Aug. Pauly begonnene und nach dessen Tode von 
Ch. Walz and W. Teuffel forgesetzte ' Real-Encyclopadie der Classischen Alterthumswia- 



yih 



PREFACE OF THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 



The present edition is called an enlarged and corrected one, and the editor thinks 
he may justly claim to have improved as well as enlarged the work: his own addi- 
tions are inclosed in brackets, and amount to more than 1400 independent articles, 
while the additions to articles already in the work, but either too briefly or incor- 
rectly stated, or omitting some important matter, are net a few. The editor has 
bestowed considerable care on the department of bibliography, and under this head 
many additions will be found. Dr. Smith has been content in most cases to copy 
the statements in the Dictionary of Biography and Mythology, without noticing 
many valuable books which have appeared since the publication of that work. 
Many corrections of names, or erroneous statements too short to be marked in the 
text, will also be found on a comparison of the two editions ; we have kept a list 
of these, and subjoin some of the more important of them here, that the public may 
see that the revision of the work has been pretty thorough. Many mere verbal 
alterations and corrections of oversight or carelessness in reading the proofs might 
also be adduced. 

Ab.e is said to be in Phocis, on the boundaries of Eubcea ! 

iEsACUs ! Thetis is used for Tethys, and the error is very frequently repeated, in most 
eases copied from the Dictionary of Biography and Mythology, in the present instance 
adopted by Dr. Schmitz from Pauly, s. v. 

Alexandria : oftener la, rarely ea, a statement just the reverse of the fact, and for cor- 
rection, vide the article in the Dictionary. 

Ancsius : the Greek quotation is wrong : the line as given by us from the scholiast is a 
hexameter verse, as it is also given by Thirlwall in the Philological Museum, vol. i., page 
107, quoted by Dr. Schmitz for his authority, though he copies the altered Greek from 
Pauly. 

Anius : Dryope is copied erroneously from the Dictionary of Biography and Mythology, 
and the account of the daughters of Anius is taken incorrectly from Kraft and Mullei, 
though right in the Dictionary of Biography and Mythology. 

Antonia 1 is called husband of L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and Antonia 2, the husband 
of Drusus ; where the editor, copying from the German of Kraft and Miiller, has taken Ge- 
mahlin (wife) for Gemahl (husband) ; and so again under 

Cretheus, by way probably of compensation. Kraft and Miiller's Gemahl (husband) is 
translated wife, and Cretheus is made " wife of Tyro." 

Aphroditopolis, No. 3, 1, from Kraft and Miiller, AphroditopoHs Nomos for -lites. 

Apis (the city) is said to be 10 stadia west of Paratonium for 100, which erroneous 
statement, probably a typographical slip in the German work, is copied from Kraft and 
Miiller. 

Assus : ruins near Beram, a typographical error from Kraft and Miiller for Beram or 
Beirant. 

Arcadia (p. 70), the greatest river of Peloponnesus is said to be the Achelous ! ! 
Argonauts (p. 76) : " And when Pollux was slain by Amycus," copied from an article 



senschaft,' gewesen ist, und zwar um so weniger, da wir diese Arbeit deutscher Gelehrten 
geradezu als die Grundlage des englischen Dictionary bezeichnen diirfen, obschon der Plan 
derselben vielfach anders angelegt ist." * * * " Ueber das Verhaltniss zu der Stuttgarter 
Encyklopadie ist noch zu bemerken, das die Artikel, welche daher entlehnt sind, namentlieh 
von Schmitz und dem Herausgeber, aufs Neue durchgesehen und zum Theil schatzbar erwei- 
tert sind." 



PEEPACE OP THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 'a 

in the Dictionary of Biography and Mythology by Dr. L. Schmitz, who has compiled 
the account from Grotefend's in Pauly, and falls into Grotefend's unaccountable blun- 
der of making Amycus slay Pollux, though Apollodorus, whose narrative both profess to 
follow, says plainly enough the reverse (llo?.vdevKj;g 6e, vnoaxopevos Trvicrevaetv Ttpbs ahrov, 
■KlrjZag Kara tov avxeva &neKTUve, i., 9, 20, $ 2), and yet Dr. Schmitz, at the end of his article, 
quotes Schcenemann, de Geogr. Argonaut. ; Vkert, Geographie der Griech. und Rb'mer j Mill- 
ler, Orchomenos, &c, but says not a word about Pauly's Encyclopadie or Grotefend. 

Other instances of similarity to Pauly's work are frequent in the articles of this contri- 
butor, but this is not the place to point them out. 

Aulis : a strange fatality seems to hang over this unfortunate place : the editors, 
infected with the American spirit of annexation, transfer it, port and all, from the main 
land to the island of Eubcea ! ! 

Bebryces, after Craft and Miiller, for Bebryces, or, at least, Bebryces ; and in the 
account of their king, the editor, copying hastily from Pauly, has mistaken the German 
Ihren for Ihrer. Pauly has " Ihren Kbnig Amycus erschlug Pollux," the termination of 
the accusative indicating sufficiently the object ; but Dr. Smith, in following the same 
order in English, has made quite a difference in the result: "whose king, Amycus, slew 
Pollux F 

Cesar, No. 5: L. Caesar is called the uncle, and afterward nephew, of M. Antony hi 
the same article. 

Chares (at the end), the colossus, overthrown B.C. 224, and removed A.D. 672; ot 
course it could not have remained on the ground 923 years, as stated. 
Chion : thirteen letters for seventeen. 

Cocalus : it is said that he received Daedalus, and afterward killed him, when Minos 
came in pursuit of him. It was Minos that was killed ; the error is taken from Dr. 
Schmitz, in the Dictionary of Biography and Mythology. 

Cratos : " Uranus and Ge" for " Pallas and Styx;" taken from Dr. Schmitz, in the Dic- 
tionary of Biography and Mythology. 

Cyme, in iEolis : it is said to have been Hesiod's birth-place ! though, under Hesiod, it 
is correctly stated that " we learn from his own poem that he was born in the village of 
Ascra, in Boeotia." 

Erinnyes : reference is made to Eumenid<£ / for a feminine plural ; and so again, 
under Phaethon, his sisters are called Heliad^ .' the same error occurs under Tisiphono 
(EumenidcE .') and under Valens (the islands Stcechad<E / for des), in part from the Diction 
ary of Biography and Mythology. 

Halesus : he is said to have been slain by " Evander'' 1 for "Pallas," copied from Dr 
Schmitz in the larger dictionary. 

Halmyris : we have 'Afynipjf, sc. Xi/ajv for Tujivr]. 

Halosydne : Thetys (or Thetis), as usual, for Tethys ; from Dr. Schmitz, in the Diction- 
ary of Biography and Mythology. 
Helios : Pha&usa, and, under Heliades, Phaeion, for " thP 

Hercules (p. 310) : he is said to have taken Pylos and slain Periclymenus, a son of 
Neleus ; elsewhere, all #ie sons of Neleus, except Nestor. 
Ithome : " last " Messenian war for " first." 
Leander: "Herois" is made the genitive of "Hero." 
Leontiades : Spartan" exiles for " Theban." 

Leucippus : his birth-place is inferred to be Elis ! ! because he was of the " Eleatic " 
school, instead of « Elea," in Italy ! copied from the Dictionary of Biography and 
Mythology. 

Maximus No. 2 : Dionysius is styled Halicarnassus / 



1 



PREFACE OF THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 



Mycens; : the treasury of Atreus, in Mycenae, is called the treasury of Athens ! and tno 
ime error is repeated under Pelasgi (near the end) . 
Myronides : Megara is used for Megam. 
Nereus : just as Proteus, in the story of Ulysses, for Menelaus. 
NitrIjE : vo/ibg has the feminine adjective Nirpiorie ! agreeing with it. 
Oasis : ai 'Oaalrai is used for ol 'Oaa. 
Ogyris : 2000 stadia = 20 geographical miles for 200. 
Padus : Mount Ye&ula for -lus! 
Panda : the Siraces for Siraci, as used by Tacitus. 

Pasitigris : it is said to be now Karoon, which name is given to the Eulseus, s. v. 
Paulinus (p. 531) : " Nero's" for " Otho's." 

Peloponnesus : in the enumeration of its provinces, Argolis is strangely omitted. 
Phocis : Daphnus is placed on the Euboean Sea, between the Locri Ozolce ! ! and 
Opuntii. 

Phocis : The Crisscean plain is placed in the southeast, on the borders of Locri Ozolae ! 
and anti-historical for ante-historical. 

Picenum : along the northern ! coast of the Adriatic for western. 

Pirithous : Theseus is said to have placed Helen at £: Mthra I " under the care of 
" Plmdra If 

Poseidon (p. 610): Pasiphae is made "daughter!" of Minos. 
Sassula : Tiber for Tibwr / 

Scopas, No. 1 : he is put to death B.C. 296, though alive in B.C. 204; copied from the 
larger dictionary. 

Silanus, No. 6: the dates refer to B.C. for A.D. 

Taviom : now Boghaz-Kieni for Kieui is a typographical error copied from Pauly. 
Theophrastus (p. 763) is said to have presided in the Academy! (for Lyceum), 35 years 
Terentia, the wife of Cicero, is called Tullia, and this error is copied from the Diction- 
ary of Biography and Mythology. 

In some instances references are made to articles which are omitted ; these the 
editor has been careful to supply, while in other cases important names have been 
passed over altogether : a few of these are given in the English work in the 
addenda, and many others not there supplied might be quoted, but any one running 
over the additions marked with brackets can judge of the extent of this improve- 
ment in the American edition for himself. The editor ought to add on this point, 
that, before receiving the page of addenda, he had already inserted in their proper 
places the only important articles there given. The biographical and mythological 
notices in the present work, which have been chiefly taken from the Dictionary of 
Biography and Mythology, have been compared with the corresponding ones in 
that work, and several errors are found to have been made in the process of 
Abridgment, e. g., 

Feronia (p. 263) is said to have had her chief sanctuary at Terracina, near Mount 
Soracte ! ! Now Terracina is in Latium, southeast of Rome, while Mount Soraete was in 
Etruria, some distance north of Rome : the larger dictionary says, " Besides the sanctua- 
ries at Terracina and near Mount Soracte, she had others at," &c. 

Other errors from the same cause will be found (in the English work, corrected in this) 
under Octavius No. 8, Masinissa, Orestes, Tissaphernes, &c. 

Another great blemish in the English work is the utter carelessness exhibited in 



PREFACE OF THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 



S3 



the accentuation of the Greek names. If it be desirable to have the Greek 
accented at all, it should be done correctly. The editor has carefully revised thia 
portion of the work also, and hopes no gross error will be found uncorrected. In 
the historical and mythological names the errors are copied from the Dictionary 
of Biography and Mythology, which exhibits the same carelessness in this respect, 
and these errors are not of that nature that they might result merely from haste, 
or a disinclination to turn to the pages of a lexicon or an author to find the place 
of the accent, but such as the slightest acquaintance with the principles of Greek 
accentuation would indicate to the eye at once ; e. g., dissyllables with long penult 
and short final syllable having the acute on the penult ; the circumflex placed on 
the antepenult ; the acute placed on the penult of feminine adjectives in is and as; 
or final syllable long by nature, with circumflex on the penult, &c. ; as instances 
almost at random, Boufiatfrij, KXs'av^j, Kr^tfiaj, 'Ap^r/af, rsvsraloj, TXauxog, KaX- 
"k'lpeSuv, 'ItfjAijvoff, "IXoff, Mi&xj, Kp^vai, MoipoxXijj, ©aXaTTa, HeXiaSsg, &c. &c. In 
the English edition the Greek names of the Greek divinities are commonly given, 
but with considerable inconsistency ; e. g., Ge is usually employed, though it does 
not occur in the work as a separate article at all, Gsea being the form in the alpha- 
betical order, and this is frequently used instead of Ge ; Pluto or Aidoneus some- 
times instead of Hades, Bacchus interchangeably with Dionysius ; while, on the 
other hand, iEsculapius and Hercules, Ulysses and Pollux, Ajax, and other heroes, 
are uniformly written after the Latin form of the name ; these the editor has 
allowed to stand, and so, too, he has retained the Greek names of the divinities, 
but has placed by the side of this form the more usual one inclosed in parentheses, 
or has placed the parentheses around the former. The change, familiar enough to 
the Germans and those well acquainted with German literature, seems yet, among 
us, too great and radical a one to be made at once. Time may effect this, but 'at 
present, as a matter of expediency, " sub judice lis est." 

To impart additional value to the work, and render it still more complete as a 
classical guide and book of reference, the editor has appended from the Dictionary 
of Biography and Mythology the " Chronological Tables of Greek and Roman 
History" subjoined to that work, and which have been drawn up with great care 
from the Fasti Hellenici and Romani of Clinton, the Griechische and Romische 
Zeittafeln of Fischer and Soetbeer, and the Annales Veterum Regnorum et Popu- 
lorum of Zumpt, and in addition to these, the " Tables of Weights, Measures, 
and Money," from the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. With these 
various improvements and additions, the editor now presents the book to the American 
public, and ventures to recommend it as a reliable guide to those, for whom it is 
designed, in the various departments which on its title-page it professes to comprise. 

In conclusion, the editor would be guilty of great injustice were he not to 
acknowledge in the warmest terms the obligations which he is under to his learned 
and accurate friend Professor Drisler, whose very efficient co-operation has been 
secured in the revisal and correction of the entire work. Every article has been 
read over and examined in common, and a frank interchange of opinions has been 
made wherever any point occurred of sufficient importance to warrant this. And 
it is on this account that he ventures to recommend the present volume with more 
confidence to the young student, than if it had been the result merely of his own 
individual exertions. 

Columbia College, December, 1850. 




i 



I 



i 



PREFACE. 



Thb great progress which classical studies have made in Europe, and more espe. 
cially in Germany, during the present century, has superseded most of the -works 
usually employed in the elucidation of the Greek and Roman writers. It had long 
been felt by our best scholars and teachers that something better was required thau 
we yet possessed in the English language for illustrating the Antiquities, Litera- 
ture, Mythology, and Geography of the ancient writers, and for enabling a diligent 
student to read them in the most profitable manner. It was with a view of sup- 
plying this acknowledged want that the series of classical dictionaries was under- 
taken ; and the very favorable manner in which these works have been received 
by the scholars and teachers of this country demands from the editor his most 
grateful acknowledgments. The approbation with which he has been favored has 
encouraged him to proceed in the design which he had formed from the beginning, 
of preparing a series of works which might be useful not only to the scholar and 
the more advanced student, but also to those who were entering on their classical 
studies. The dictionaries of " Greek and Roman Antiquities " and of " Greek and 
Roman Biography and Mythology," which are already completed, and the " Dic- 
tionary of Greek and Roman Geography," on which the editor is now engaged, 
are intended to meet the wants of the more advanced scholar ; but these works 
are on too extended a scale, and enter too much into details, to be suitable for the 
use of junior students. For the latter class of persons a work is required of the 
same kind as Lempriere's well-known dictionary, containing in a single volume 
the most important names, biographical, mythological, and geographical, occurring 
in the Greek and Roman writers usually read in our public schools. It is invidious 
for an author to speak of the defects of his predecessors ; but it may safely be 
said that Lempriere's work, which originally contained the most serious mistakes, 
has long since become obsolete, and that since the time it was compiled we 
have attained to more correct knowledge on a vast number of subjects comprised 
in that work. 

The present dictionary is designed, as already remarked, chiefly to elucidate the 
Greek and Roman writers usually read in schools ; but, at the same time, it has 
not been considered expedient to omit any proper names connected with classical 
antiquity, of which it is expected that some knowledge ought to be possessed by 
every person who aspires to a liberal education. Accordingly, while more space 
has been given to the prominent Greek and Roman writers, and to the more dis- 
tinguished characters of Greek and Roman history, other names have not been 
omitted altogether, but only treated with greater brevity. The chief difficulty 
which every author has to contend with in a work like the present is the vastness 
of his subject and the copiousness of his materials. It has therefore been neces- 
sary in all cases to study the greatest possible brevity, to avoid all discussions, 
and to be satisfied with giving simply the results at which the best modern scholars 



PREFACE. 



have arrived. The writer is fully aware that in adopting this plan he has fre 
quently stated dogmatically conclusions which may be open to much dispute ; but 
he has thought it better to run this risk, rather than to encumber and bewilder the 
junior student with conflicting opinions. With the view likewise of economizing 
space, few references have oeen given to ancient and modern writers. In fact, such 
references are rarely of service to the persons for whom such a work as the pre- 
sent is intended, and serve more for parade than for any useful purpose ; and it 
has been the less necessary to give them in this work, as it is supposed that the 
persons who really require them will be in possession of the larger dictionaries. 

The present work may be divided into the three distinct parts, Biography, Myth- 
ology, and Geography, on each of which a few words may be necessary. 

The biographical portion may again be divided into the three departments of 
History, Literature, and Art. The historical articles include all the names of any 
importance which occur in the Greek and Roman writers, from the earliest times 
down to the extinction of the Western Empire, in the year 476 of our era. Very 
few names are inserted which are not included in this period, but still there are 
some persons who lived after the fall of the "Western Empire who could not with 
propriety be omitted in a classical dictionary. Such is the case with Justinian, 
whose legislation has exerted such an important influence upon the nations of 
Western Europe ; with Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, at whose court lived 
Cassiodorus and Boethius ; and with a few others. The lives of the later Western 
emperors and their contemporaries are given with greater brevity than the lives 
of such persons as lived in the more important epochs of Greek and Roman his 
tory, since the students for whom the present work is intended will rarely require 
information respecting the later period of the empire. The Romans, as a general 
rule, have been given under the cognomens, and not under the gentile names ; but 
in cases where a person is more usually mentioned under the name of his gens 
than under that of his cognomen, he will be found under the former. Thus, for 
example, the two celebrated conspirators against Caesar, Brutus and Cassius, are 
given under these names respectively, though uniformity would require either that 
Cassius should be inserted under his cognomen of Longinus, or Brutus under his 
gentile name of Junius. But in this as in all other cases, it has been considered 
more advisable to consult utility than to adhere to any prescribed rule, which 
would be attended with practical inconveniences. 

To the literary articles considerable space has been devoted. Not only are all 
Greek and Roman writers inserted whose works are extant, but also all such as 
exercised any important influence upon Greek and Roman literature, although their 
writings have not come down to us. It has been thought quite unnecessary, how- 
ever, to give the vast number of writers mentioned only by Athenaeus, Stobaeus, 
the Lexicographers, and the Scholiasts ; for, though such names ought to be found 
in a complete history of Greek and Roman literature, they would be clearly out 
of place in a work like the present. In the case of all writers whose works are 
extant, a brief account of their works, as well as of their lives, is given ; and at 
the end of each article one or two of the best modern editions are specified. As 
the present work is designed for the elucidation of the classical writers, the Chris- 
tian writers are omitted, with the exception of the more distinguished fathers, who 
form a constituent part of the history of Greek and Roman literature. Tha 



PREFACE. 



XT 



Byzantine historians are, for the same reason, inserted ; though in their case, as 
well as in the case of the Christian Fathers, it has been impossible to give a com- 
plete account either of their lives or of their writings. 

The lives of all the more important artists have been inserted, and an account 
has also been given of their extant works. The history of ancient art has received 
so little attention from the scholars of this country, that it has been deemed advi- 
sable to devote as much space to this important subject as the limits of the work 
would allow. Accordingly, some artists are noticed on account of their celebrity 
in the history of art, although their names are not even mentioned in the ancient 
writers. This remark applies to Agasias, the sculptor of the Borghese gladiator, 
which is still preserved in the Louvre at Paris ; to Agesander, one of the sculptors 
of the group of Laocoon ; to Glycon, the sculptor of the Farnese Hercules, and 
to others. On the contrary, many of the names of the artists in Pliny's long list 
are omitted, because they possess no importance in the history of art. 

In writing the mythological articles, care has been taken to avoid, as far as pos- 
sible, all indelicate allusions, as the work will probably be much in the hands of 
young persons. It is of so much importance to discriminate between the Greek 
and Eoman mythology, that an account of the Greek divinities is given under their 
Greek names, and of the Eoman divinities under their Latin names, a practice 
which is universally adopted by the Continental writers, which has received the 
sanction of some of our own scholars, and which is, moreover, of such great 
utility in guarding against endless confusions and mistakes as to require no apology 
for its introduction into this work. 

For the geographical articles the editor is alone responsible. The biographical 
and mythological articles are founded upon those in the " Dictionary of Greek and 
Roman* Biography and Mythology," but the geographical articles are written 
entirely anew for the present work. In addition to the original sources, the editor 
has availed himself of the best modern treatises on the subject, and of the valua- 
ble works of travels in Greece, Italy, and the East, which have appeared within 
the last few years, both in England and in Germany. It would have been impos- 
sible to give references to these treatises without interfering with the general plan 
of the present work, but this omission will be supplied in the forthcoming " Dic- 
tionary of Greek and Roman Geography." It is hoped that in the geographical 
portion of the work very few omissions will be discovered of names occurring in 
the chief classical writers ; but the great number of names found only in Strabo, 
Pliny, Ptolemy, and the Itineraries, have been purposely omitted, except in cases 
where such names have become of historical celebrity, or have given rise to 
important towns in modern times. At the commencement of every geographical 
article the Ethnic name and the modern name have been given, whenever they 
could be ascertained. In conclusion, the editor has to express his obligations to 
his brother, the Rev. Philip Smith, who has rendered him valuable assistance by 
writing the geographical articles relating to Asia and Africa. 

WILLIAM SMITH. 

London, August 12th, 1850. 



I 



CLASSICAL DICTIONARY, 

BIOGRAPHICAL, MYTHOLOGICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL 



AARASSUS. 

[Aauassus ('Aapacrooc), a city of Pisidia ; more 
correctly, perhaps, Arassus, as given in some 
MSS. ; the old Latin version of Strabo having 
also Arasum.] 

[Aba ("A6a), daughter of Zenophanes, made 
herself queen of Olbe in Cilicia; her authority 
was confirmed by Antony and Cleopatra : she 
was subsequently deposed and driven out.] 

[Aba ("A6a), more usually Abce, q. v.'] 

Abac^enum ('ASaicaivov or tcL 'AGaKaiva: 'A6a- 
Kaivlvog : ruins near Tripi), an ancient town of 
the Siculi in Sicily, west of Messana, and south 
of Tyndaris. 

Ab^e ("A6ai : 'A6alo£ : ruins near Exarcho), 
an ancient town of Phocis, on the boundaries 
of Bceotia, said to have been founded by the Ar- 
give Abas, but see Abantes. It possessed an 
ancient temple and oracle of Apollo, who hence 
derived the surname of Abceus. The temple 
was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion 
of Xerxes, and a second time by the Boeotians 
in the sacred war : it was rebuilt by Hadrian. 

[Abaius, an island in the North or German 
Ocean, ■where amber -was said to have been 
washed up by the waves, and used by the in- 
habitants for fuel. The more usual name was 
Basilia.] 

[Abann,e or Abanni, a people of Mauretania, 
brought iDto subjection to the Roman power by 
Theodosius, father of the Emperor Theodosius.] 

^Abantes ("AGavrec), the ancient inhabitants 
i' /lubcea. (Horn., 11., ii., 636). They are said 
to have been of Thraeian origin, to have first 
settled in Phocis, where they built Aba?, and 
afterward to have crossed over to Euboea. The 
Abantes of Eubcea assisted in colonizing several 
of the Ionic cities of Asia Minor. 

Abantiades ('A6avrid6ric), any descendant of 
Abas, but especially Perseus, great-grandson of 
Abas, and Acrisius, son of Abas. A female de- 
scendant of Abas, as Danae and Atalante, was 
called Abantias. 

Abantias. Vid. Abantiades. 

AbANTiDAs {'A6avTi6ag), son of Paseas, be- 
came t pant of Sicyon, after murdering Clinias, 
1 



ABAS. 

the father of Aratus, B.C. 264, but was soon 
after assassinated. 

[Abantis ('ASavrtc), an early name of Eubcea, 
from the Abantes.] 

[Abaebabea ('AGapSapeTi), name of a Naiad, 
mother of iEsepus and Pedasus.] 

[Abaeis ("Adaptf), son of Seuthes, was a Hy- 
perborean priest of Apollo, and came from the 
country about the Caucasus to Greece, while 
his own country was visited by a plague. In 
his travels through Greece he carried with him 
an arrow as the symbol of Apollo, and gav<» 
oracles. His history is entirely mythical, and 
is related in various ways : he is said to have 
taken no earthly food, and to have ridden on 
his arrow, the gift of Apollo, through the air. 
He cured diseases by incantations, and delivered 
the world from a plague. Later writers as- 
cribe to him several works ; but if such works 
were really current in ancient times, they were 
not genuine. The time of his appearance in 
Greece is stated differently: he may, perhaps, 
be placed about B.C. 570. [Abaris occurs in 
Nonnus, Dionys., 11, 132, but the short quantity 
seems preferable. — 2. A Latin hero, who fought 
on the side of Turnus against ^Eneas : he was 
slain by Euryalus. — 3. Called Oaucasius by Ovid, 
a friend of Phineas, slain by Perseus.] 

[Abasis ("ACapis or Avapig), a city of Egypt 
called, also, Avaris. Manetho places it to the 
east of the Bubastic mouth of the Nile, in the 
Saitic nome, while Mannert identifies it with 
what was afterward called Pelusium.] 

Abarnis ('ASapvie or "Abapvog : 'ACapvevg), a 
town and promontory close to Lampsacus on 
the Asiatic side of the Hellespont. [Abarnis 
was also the name of the country lying around 
and adjacent to the city.] 

[Abartus ("A6aprog) 7 one of the Codridae, chosen 
king of the Phocseans.] 

Abas ( y A6ag). 1. Son of Metanira, was chang 
ed by Ceres (Demeter) into a lizard, because 
he mocked the goddess when she had come on 
her wanderings into the house of his mother, 
and drank eagerly to quench her thirst. — 2. 



ABASITUS. 



ABORRHAb. 



Twelth king of Argos, son of Lynceus and Hy- 
permnestra, grandson of Danaiis, and father of 
Acrisius and Prcetus. When he informed his 
father of the death of Danaiis, he was rewarded 
with the shield of his grandfather, which was 
sacred to Juno (Hera). This shield performed 
various marvels, and the mere sight of it could 
reduce a revolted people to submission. He is 
described as a successful conqueror and as the 
founder of the town of Aba? in Phocis, and of 
the Pelasgic Argos in Thessaly. — [3. A centaur, 
son of Ixion and Nephele, a celebrated hunter, 
one of those who escaped the fury of the Lap- 
tha; in the fight that arose at the nuptials of 
Pirithous and Deidamia. — 4. A follower of Per- 
seus, who slew Pelates in the contest with Phin- 
eus. — 5. A warrior in the Trojan army, son of 
Eurydamas, slain by Diomede. — Others of this 
name occur in Virgil and Ovid, who probably 
derived their accounts of them from the Cyclic 
poets.] 

[Abasitis ('Adaamf), a district of Phrygia 
Major, on the borders df Lydia.] 

[ Abatos ("Afiarof ; now £iggek), a small rocky 
island near Philae in the Nile, to which priests 
.ilone were allowed access, whence the name.] 

[Abdageses, a Parthian nobleman who revolt- 
ed from his king Artabanus, and aided Tiri- 
dates.] 

Abdera (t& "A65rjpa, Abdera, ae, and Abdera, 
crum : 'Abdripirric, Abderites and Abderita). 1. 
(Now Polystilo), a town of Thrace, near the 
mouth of the Nestus, which flowed through the 
town. According to mythology, it was founded 
by Hercules in honor of his favorite Abderus ; 
but according to history, it was colonized by 
Timesius of Clazomena? about B.O. 656. Time- 
sius was expelled by the Thracians, and the 
town was colonized a second time by the in- 
habitants of Teos in Ionia, who settled there 
after their own town had been taken by the 
Persians, B.C. 544. Abdera was a flourishing 
town when Xerxes invaded Greece, and con- 
tinued a place of importance under the Romans, 
who made it a free city. It was the birthplace 
of Democritus, Protagoras, Anaxarchus, and 
other distinguished men ; but its inhabitants, 
notwithstanding, were accounted stupid, and an 
" Abderite" was a term of reproach. — 2. (Now 
Adra), a town of Hispania Bastica on the coast, 
founded by the Phoenicians. 

Abderus ("ABdjipog), a favorite of Hercules, 
was torn to pieces by the mares of Diomedes, 
which Hercules had given him to [guard while 
he himself] pursued the Bistones. Hercules is 
^aid to have built the town of Abdera in honor 
of him. 

Abdolonymus or AbdalonLuus, also called 
Ballonymus, a gardener, but of royal descent, 
was made king of Sidon by Alexander the Great. 

Abella or Avella ('ASeXXa : Abellanus ; now 
Avella Vecchia), a town of Cutnpania, not far from 
Nola, founded by a colony from Chalcis in Eu- 
bcea. It was celebrated for its apples, whence 
Virgil (uEn., vii., 740) calls it malifera, and for 
its great hazel-nuts, nuces Avellance. 

Abellintjm (Abelllnas : now Avellino), a town 
of the Hirpini in Samuium, near the sources of 
the Sabatus. — [2. (Now Marsico Vetere), a town 
of Lucania, near the sources of the Aciris, called, 
for distinction' sake, Abellinum Marsicum.] 
2 



Abgarus, Acbarus, or Augards ('ASyapoii 
"Anbapog, Avyapog), a name common to many 
rulers of Edessa, the capital of the district of 
Osrhoene in Mesopotamia. Of these rulers, one 
is supposed by Eusebius to have been the author 
of a letter written to Christ, which he found in 
a church at Edessa and translated from the 
Syriac. The letter is believed to be spurious. 

Abia (fj A6ia : near Zarnata), a town of Mes- 
senia on the Messenian Gulf. It is said to 
have been the same town as the Ire of the Iliad 
(ix., 292), and to have acquired the name of 
Abia in honor of Abia, the nurse of Hyllus, a 
son of Hercules. At a later time Abia belonged 
to the Achaean League. 

Abii ("A6toi), a tribe mentioned by Homer 
(11., xiii., 6), and apparently a Thracian people. 
This matter is discussed by Strabo (p. 296). 

Abila (rd. "A6c?ia : 'A6iXrjv6g, probably Nebi 
Abel), a town of Coele-Syria, afterward called 
Claudiopolis, and the capital of the tetrarchy of 
Abilene (Luke iii., 1). The position seems 
doubtful. A town of the same name is men- 
tioned by Josephus as being sixty stadia east of 
the Jordan. — [2. A mountain of Mauretania: 
Vid. Abyla.] 

[Abilene ('A6l?i^v^), vid. Abila, No. 1.] 

Abisares ('ACtadpTie), also called Embisarus, 
an Indian king beyond the River Hydaspes, sent 
embassies to Alexander the Great, who not only 
allowed him to retain his kingdom, but increased 
it, and on his death appointed his son his suc- 
cessor. 

[Ablertjs (*A6Aj7pof), a Trojan, slain by An- 
tiloehus.] 

Abnoba Mons, the range of hills covered by 
the Black Forest in Germany, not a single 
mountain. 

[ AbobrIca (now Bayonne), a city of Gallaecia in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, near the mouth of the 
Minius.] 

[Abocois (now Aboo Simbel), a city of Ethi- 
opia, on the western bank of the Nile, with very 
remarkable ruins.] 

Abonitichos ('A6uvov rnxog), a town of Paph- 
lagonia, on the Black Sea, with a harbor, after- 
ward called Ionopolis ('Igjtwo/Uc), whence its 
modern name Ineboli, the birth-place of the pre- 
tended prophet Alexander, of whom Lucian has 
left us an account. 

Aborigines, the original inhabitants of a 
country, equivalent to the Greek avToxBovec;. 
But the Aborigines in Italy are not in the Latin 
writers the original inhabitants of all Italy, but 
the name of the ancient people who drove the 
Siculi out of Latium, -and there became the pro- 
genitors of the Latini. 

Aborrhas ('ASop'p'ac: now Khabur), a branch 
of the Euphrates, which joins that river on the 
east side near Arcesium. It is called the Arax- 
es by Xenophon (Anab., i., 4, § 19), and was 
crossed by the army of Cyrus the Younger in 
the march from Sardis to the neighborhood of 
Babylon, B.C. 401. A branch of this river 
which rises near Nisibis, and is now called Jakh 
jakhah, is probably the ancient Mygdonius. The 
Khabur rises near Orfah, and is joined near the 
Lake of Khatuniyah by the Jakhjakhah, after 
which the united stream flows into the Eu- 
phrates. The course of the Khabur is very in- 
correctly represented in the maps. 



ABRADATAS. 



ACAOETES. 



Abeadatas ('ASpaSdrac), a king of Susa, and 
an ally of the Assyrians against Cyrus, accord- 
ing to Xenophon's Cyropsedia. His wife, Pan- 
thea, was taken on the conquest of the Assyrian 
camp. In consequence of the honorable treat- 
ment which she received from Cyrus, Abrada- 
tas joined the latter with his forces. He fell in 
the first battle in which he fought for him, while 
fighting against the Egyptians in the army of 
Croesus at Thymbrana, on the Pactolus. In- 
consolable at her loss, Panthea put an end to 
her own life. Cyrus had a high mound raised 
in honor of them. 

[Abrettene ('A6peTT7]vy), a region of Mysia, 
on the borders of Bithynia, said to have been 
so called from the nymph Abretia.] 

Abrincatui, a people of Gallia Lugdunensis, 
in the neighborhood of the modern Avranches. 

Abrocomas ('A6poKa/iac), one of the satraps 
of Artaxerxes Mnemon, was sent with an army 
to oppose Cyrus on his march into Upper Asia, 
B.C. 401. He retreated on the approach of Cy- 
rus, but did not join the king in time for the 
battle of Cunaxa. . 

[Abrocomes ('ABpoKoftTjc, Ion.), son of Darius 
and Phratagune, accompanied the army of Xerx- 
es to Greece, and was slain at Thermopylas.] 

[Abron ("A6pu>v), son of the Attic orator Ly- 
curgus. — 2. Son of Callia's, of the deme of Bate 
in Attica, who wrote on the festivals of the 
Greeks.] 

Abronychus ('A6puvvxoc), an Athenian, who 
served in the Persian war, B.C. 480, and was 
subsequently sent as ambassador to Sparta, with 
Themistocles and Aristides, respecting the for- 
tifications of Athens. 

Abrotonum, mother of Themistocles. 

Abrotonum: ('A6pciTovov : now Sabart or Old 
Tripoli), a city on the coast of Africa, between 
the Syrtes, founded by the Phoenicians ; a colony 
under the Romans. It was also called Sabrata 
and Neapolis, and it formed, with (Ea and Lep- 
tis Magna, the African Tripolis. 

[Abronius Silo, a Latin poet of the Augustan 
age, pupil of Porcius Latro. According to Vos- 
sius, there were two of this name, father and 
son.] 

[Abrozelmes {'A6po^7^nc), a Thracian, inter- 
preter of the Thracian king Seuthes, mentioned 
in the Anabasis of Xenophon.] 

Absyrtides or Apsyrtides, sc. insula? ('Aipvp- 
t'i6bq : now Cherso, Osero, Ferosina, and Chao), 
the name of four islands off the coast of Illyri- 
cum, [the principal one of which was Absorus, 
with a town of the same name.] According to 
one tradition, Absyrtus was slain in these isl- 
ands by his sister Medea and by Jason. 

Absyrtus or Apsyrtus ('Aipvproc), son of 
/Eetes, long of Colchis, and brother of Medea. 
When Medea fled with Jason, she took her 
brother Absyrtus with her ; and when she was 
nearly overtaken by her father, 6he murdered 
Absyrtus, cut his body in pieces and strewed 
them on the road, that her father might thus be 
detained by gathering the limbs of his child. 
Tomi, the place where this horror was com- 
mitted, was believed to have derived its name 
from Tefivo, " to cut." According to another tra- 
dition, Absyrtus did not accompany Medea, but 
was sent out by his father in pursuit of her. He 
overtook her iu Corcyra, where she had been 



kindly received by king Alcinous, who refused 
to surrender her to Absyrtus. When he over- 
took her a second time in certain islands off the 
Illyrian coast, he was slain by Jason. The son 
of J3etes, who was murdered by Medea, is called 
by some writers ^Egialeus. 

Abulites ('ASovMrnc), the satrap of Susiana, 
surrendered Susa to Alexander. The satrapy 
was restored to him by Alexander, but he and 
his son Oxyathres were afterward executed by 
Alexander for the crimes they had committed. 

Abornus Valens. Vid. Valens. 

Abus (now ffumber), a river in Britain. 

[Abus ("A6oc : now Aghri-Bagh), a mountain 
chain of Armenia Major, and believed by the 
natives at the present day to be the Ararat of 
Scripture.] 

Abydenus ('A6v6ijv6c), a Greek historian, who 
wrote a history of Assyria. His date is uncer 
tain : he made use of the works of Megasthe- 
nes and Berosus, and he wrote in the Ionic di- 
alect. His work was particularly valuable for 
chronology. The fragments of his history have 
been published by Scaliger, Be Emendatione 
Temporum ; and Richter, Berosi Glialdasorum 
Historic, <Sce, Lips., 1825. 

Abydos ( "A&vdoc : 'A6vdnv6c). 1. A town ot 
the Troad on the Hellespont, and a Milesian 
colony. It was nearly opposite to Sestos, but a 
little lower down the stream. The bridge of 
boats which Xerxes constructed over the Hel- 
lespont, B.C. 480, commenced a little higher up 
than Abydos, and touched the European shore 
between Sestos and Madytus. The site of Aby- 
dos is a little north of Sultania or the old castle 
of Asia, which is opposite to the old castle of 
Europe. — 2. (Ruins near Arabat el Matfoon and 
El Birbeh), a city of Upper Egypt, near the west 
bank of the Nile ; once second only to Thebes, 
but in Strabo's time (A.D. 14) a small village. 
It had a temple of Osiris and a Memnonium, both 
still standing, and an oracle. Here was found 
the inscription known as the Table of Abydos, 
which contains a list of the Egyptian kings. 

Abyla or Abila Mons or Columna ('AfiiJA^ or 
'A6lXrj GTrfkn or bpog : now Jebel Zatout, i. e., 
Apes' Hill, above Geuta), a mountain in Maure- 
tania Tingitana, forming the eastern extremity 
of the south or African coast of the Fretum 
Gaditanum. This and Mount Calpe {Gibraltar), 
opposite to it on the Spanish coast, were called 
the Columns of Hercules, from the fahle that they 
were originally one mountain, which, was torn 
asunder by Hercules. 

Acaoallis {' AnanaXkic), daughter of Minos, 
by whom Apollo begot a son, Miletus, as well as 
other children. Acacallis was in Crete a com- 
mon namefor a narcissus. 

Acacesium ('AKamjatov : 'AKaKijaioc), a town 
of Arcadia, at the foot of a hill of the same name, 

Acacesius ('AnanTjoioc), a surname of Mer 
cury (Hermes), for which Homer uses the form 
Acacetes. Some writers derive it from the Ar- 
cadian town of Acacesium, in which he was be- 
lieved to have been brought up ; others from a 
priv. and naicoc, and suppose it to mean " the 
god who does not hurt." The same surname 
is given to Prometheus, whence it may be in- 
ferred that its meaning is that of benefactor oi 
deliverer from evil. 

Acacetes. Vid. Acacesius. 

3 



AOACUS. 



ACCA LATJRENTLA. 



[Aolccs (*A/£a/cof), son of Lycaon, a king in 
Arcadia, who brought up Mercury (Hermes), 
xnd founded Acacesium: vid. Acacesius.] 

Academia ('AKaS^fieia or 'Anatcdriiua : also 
Academia in the older Latin writers), a piece of 
land on the Oephissus, sis stadia from Athens, 
originally belonging to the hero Academus, and 
subsequently a gymnasium, which was adorned 
by Cimon with plane and olive plantations, 
statues, and other works of art. Here taught 
Plato, who possessed a piece of land in the 
neighborhood, and after him his followers, who 
were hence called the Academici. or Academic 
philosophers. When Sulla besieged Athens in 
B.C. 87, he cut down the plane trees in order to 
construct his military machines ; but the place 
was restored soon afterward. Cicero gave the- 
name of Aeademia to his villa near Puteoli, 
where he wrote his " Quaestiones Academicae." 

Academici. Vid. Academia. 

Academus ('A/cddyfioc), an Attic hero, who be- 
trayed to Castor and Pollux, when they invaded 
Attica to liberate their sister Helen, that she 
was kept concealed at Aphidnae. For this the 
Tyndarids always showed him gratitude, and 
whenever the Lacedaemonians invaded Attica, 
they spared the land belonging to Academus. 
Vid. Academia. 

Acalandrus (now Salandrella), a river in Lu- 
cania, flowing into the Gulf of Tarentum. 

[Acalanthis ('AicaAavdic), daughter of Pierus, 
changed by the muses into a thistle-finch. Vid. 
Pierus.] 

[Acamantis ('AKafiavric), one of the Attic 
tribes, so named from the hero Aeamas I.] 

Acamas (' Antlfiag). 1. Son of Theseus and 
Phaedra, accompanied Diomedes to Troy to de- 
mand the surrender of Helen. During his stay 
at Troy he won the affection of Laodiee, daughter 
of Priam, and begot by her a son, Munitus. He 
was one of the Greeks concealed in the wooden 
horse at the taking of Troy. The Attic tribe 
Acamantis derived its name from him. — 2. Son 
of Antenor and Theano, one of the bravest Tro- 
jans, slain by Meriones. — 3. Son of Eussorus, one 
of the leaders of the Thraeians in the Trojan 
war, slain by the Telamonian Ajax. — [4. Son of 
Asius, fought on the side of the Trojans, slain by 
Meriones.] 

, [Acamas ('AKdjiac : now Cape Salizano or St. 
Pifano), a promontory at the northwest end of 
Cyprus.] 

[ Acampsis ("Afcafiipic : now Tschorak or Bilu- 
mi), a river of Asia forming the boundary be- 
tween Pontus and Colchis, and so named from 
its impetuous course, a priv. and nd/mru. It was 
called by the natives themselves Boas.] 

Acanthus ("Aicavdoc : 'Aicdvdwc). 1. (Ruins 
near Erso), a town on the Isthmus, which con- 
nects the peninsula of Athos with Chalcidice, on 
the canal cut by Xerxes (vid. Amos). It was 
founded by the inhabitants of Andros, and con- 
tinued to be a place of considerable importance 
from the time of Xerxes to that of the Romans. 
— 2. (Now Dashur^, a town on the west bank of 
the Nile, 120 stadia south of Memphis, with a 
temple of Osiris. 

[Acanthus (" Aicavdoc), a Lacedaemonian, victor 
at Olympia in the SiavXoc, was said to have been 
the first who ran naked at these games.] 

Acarnan ('Aicapvdv, -dvoc), one of the Epigo- 



ni, sou of Alemseon and Callirrhoe, and brother 
of Amphoterus. Their father was murdered by 
Phegeus when they were very youDg, and Callir- 
rhoe prayed to Jupiter (Zeus) to make her sons 
grow quickly, that they might be able to avenge 
the death of their father. The prayer was grant- 
ed, and Acarnan with his brother slew Phegeus, 
his wife, and his two sons. The inhabitants of 
Psophis, where the sons had been slain, pursued 
the murderers as far as Tegea, where, however, 
they were received and rescued. They after- 
ward went to Epirus, where Acarnan founded 
the state called after him Aearnania. 

Acarnania ('Anapvavia : 'Ampvdv, -dvoc), the 
most westerly province of Greece, was bound- 
ed on the north by the Ambracian Gulf, on the 
west and southwest by the Ionian Sea, on the 
northeast by Amphiloehia, which is sometimes 
included in Aearnania, and on the east by ^Eto- 
lia, from which at a later time it was separated 
by the Achelous. The name of Aearnania does 
not occur in Homer. In the most ancient times 
the land was inhabited by the Taphii, Telebooe, 
and Leleges, and subsequently by the Curetes, 
who emigrated from ^Etolia and settled there. 
At a later time a colony from Argos, said to 
have been led by Acarnan, the son of Alcniaeon, 
settled in the country. In the seventh century 
B.C. the Corinthians founded several towns on 
the coast. The Acarnanians first emerge from 
obscurity at the beginning of the Pelopbnnesian 
war, B.C. 431. They were then a rude people, 
living by piracy and robbery, and they always 
remained behind the rest of the Greeks in civili- 
zation and refinement. They were good sling- 
ers, and are praised for their fidelity and courage. 
The different towns formed a league with a 
strategus at their head in time of war : the mem- 
bers of the league met at Stratos, and subse- 
quently at Thyrium or Leucas. Under the 
Romans Aearnania formed part of the province 
of Macedonia. 

[Acaste (' Akuotij), a daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys.] 

Acastus ("AKaaroc), son of Pelias, king of 
Iolcus, and of Anaxibia or Philomache. He 
was one of the Argonauts, and also took part iD 
the Calydonian hunt. His sisters were induced 
by Medea to cut up their father and boil him, 
in order to make him young again. Acaskis, 
in consequence, drove Jason and Medea from 
Iolcus, and instituted funeral games in honor 
of his father. During these games Astydamia. 
the wife of Acastus, also called Hippolyte, first 
saw Peleus, whom Acastus had purified from 
the murder of Eurytion. When Peleus, faithful 
to his benefactor, refused to listen to her ad- 
dresses, she accused him to her husband of im- 
proper conduct. Shortly afterward, when Acastus 
and Peleus were hunting on Mount Pelion, and 
the latter had fallen asleep, Acastus took his 
sword from him, and left him alone. He was, in 
consequence, nearly destroyed by the Centaurs ; 
but he was saved by Chiron or Mercury (Hermes), 
returned to Acastus, and killed him, together 
with his wife. — [2. A king of Dulichium, men- 
tioned in the Odyssey.] 

Acbarus. Vid. Abgarus. 

[Acca, a companion of the Volscian heroine 
Camilla.] 

Acca Laurentia or Larentia, a mythical 



ACCIUS. 



AORML 



woman in early Roman storj. According to 
one account, she was the wife of the shepherd 
Faustulus, and the nurse of Romulus and Remus 
after they had been taken from the she-wolf. 
Another account connects her with the legend 
of Hercules, by whose advice she succeeded in 
making Carutius or Tarrutius, an Etruscan, 
love and marry her. After his death she in- 
herited his large property, which she left to the 
Roman people. Ancus Marcius, in gratitude 
for this, allowed her to be buried in the Vela- 
brum, and instituted an annual festival, the 
Larentalia, at which sacrifices were offered to 
the Lares. According to other accounts, again, 
she was not the wife of Faustulus, but a pros- 
titute, who, from her mode of life,^vas called 
lupa by the shepherds, and who left the property 
she gained in that way to the Roman people. 
Thus much seems certain, whatever we may 
think of the stories, that she was of Etruscan 
origin, and connected with the worship of the 
Lares, from which her name Larentia seems to 
be derived. 

L. Accius or Arrius, an early Roman tragic 
poet and the son of a freedman, was born B.C. 
170, and lived to a great age. Cicero, wheD a 
young man, frequently conversed with him. 
His tragedies were chiefly imitated from the 
Greek, but he also wrote some on Roman sub- 
jects (Prcetextata) ; one of which, entitled Brutus, 
was probably in honor of his patron, D. Brutus. 
We possess only fragments of his tragedies, 
but they are - spoken of in terms of admiration 
by the ancient writers. Accius also wrote An- 
nates in verse, containing the history of Rome, 
like those of Ennius ; aud a prose work, Libri 
Didascalion, which seems to have been a his- 
tory of poetry. The fragments of his tragedies 
are given by Bothe, Poet. Scenici Latin., vol. v., 
Lips., 1834; and those of the Didascalia by 
Madvig, Be L. Attii, Didascaliis Comment, Haf- 
uiae, 1831. 

Acco, a chief of the Senones in Gaul, who in- 
duced his countrymen to revolt against Caesar, 
B.C. 53, by whom he was put to death. 

Ace. Vid. Ptolemais. 

[Aceratus ('A.KijpaTog), a priest and prophet 
at Delphi, who with Bixty men alone did not 
abandon the place on the approach of Xerxes and 
his army. — 2. A poet of the Greek anthology.] 

Acerbas, a Tyrian priest of Hercules, who 
married Elissa, the sister of King Pygmalion. 
He had concealed his treasures in the earth, 
knowing the avarice of Pygmalion, but he was 
murdered by Pygmalion, who hoped to obtain 
his treasures through his sister. The prudence 
of Elissa saved the treasures, and she emigrated 
from Phoenicia. In this account, taken from 
Justin, Acerbas is the same person as Sichaeus, 
and Elissa the same as Dido in Virgil (JEn., i., 
343, seq.). The names in Justin are undoubtedly 
more correct than in Virgil : for Virgil here, as in 
other cases, has changed a foreign name into one 
more convenient to him. 

Acerr^ (Acerranus). 1. (Now Acerra), a 
town in Campania on the Clanius, received 
the Roman franchise in B.C. 332. It was de- 
stroyed by Hannibal, but was rebuilt 2. (Now 
Oerra), a town of the Insubres in Gallia Trans- 
padana. 

Acersecomes ^AnepasKofiric), a surname of 



Apollo, expressive of his beautiful hair, which 
Was never cut or shorn. 

[Aces ("Kane), a river in the interior of Asia, 
from which the country of the HyrcaD ; -as, Par- 
thians, Chorasrnians, &c, was watered Dy meana 
of canals. On the conquest of this region by 
the Persian king, the stoppage of this irrigation 
converted many fertile lands into barren wastes. 
This river has been supposed to be the same 
with the Ochus or Oxus, and Wilson (Ariana, p. 
129), following Gatterer, inclines to the latter.] 

[Acesamenus ('AKeca/ievoc), a king of Thrace, 
father of Periboea, and said to have founded the 
city Aeesamenas in Macedonia.] 

[Acesander ('AKEcavdpoe), a Greek historian, 
who wrote an account of Cyrene.] 

Acesas ('Aneadc), a native of Salamis in Cy- 
prus, famed for his skill in weaving cloth with 
variegated patterns (polymitarius). He and his 
son Helicon were the first who made a peplus 
for Minerva (Athena) Polias. They must have 
lived before the time of Euripides and Plato, 
who mention this peplus. 

[Aoesimbrotus (' AxeaiftSpoToc), an admiral of 
the Rhodians, and a delegate to the conference 
between T. Elamininus and Philippus.] 

Acesines ('AKea'ivrfc : ' Anealvoc). 1. (Now 
Chenaub), a river in India, into which the Hydas- 
pes flows, and which itself flows into the Indus. 
— 2. (Now Alcantara), a river in Sicily, near 
Tauromenium, called also Onobalas. 

[Acesius ('Akeowc), an appellation of Apollo, 
" the healer," from a.Keo/j.ai.'] 

[Acesta. Vid. Segesta.] 

Acestes ('AKearrjc), son of a Trojan woman 
of the name of Egesta or Segesta, who was sent 
by her father to Sicily, that she might not be 
devoured by the monsters' which infested the 
territory of Troy. When Egesta arrived in Sic- 
ily, the river-god Crimisus begot by her a son, 
Acestes, who was afterward regarded as the 
hero who had founded the town of Segesta. 
^Eneas, on his arrival in Sicily, was hospitably 
received by "Acestes. 

[Acestodorus (' Atcearodopoc), a Greek histo- 
rian from whom Plutarch quotes some incidents 
relating to the battle of Salamis, in his Life of 
Themistocles.] 

Acestor {' AneoTup). 1. Surnamed Sacas, on 
account of his foreign origin, was a tragic poet 
at Athens, and a contemporary of Aristophanes. 
— 2. A sculptor of Cnosus, who flourished about 
B.C. 452.] 

[Acestorides ('AKearopcSnc), a Corinthian 
chosen general by the Syraeusans, but banished 
from Syracuse by Agathocles.] 

Aoh/ea ('Axaia, from &xoc, "grief"), "the 
distressed one," a surname of Ceres (Demeter) 
at Athens, so called on account of her sorrow for 
the loss of her daughter. 

AchjEI ('Axaioi), one of the chief Hellenic 
races, were, according to tradition, descended 
from Achaeus, who was the son of Xuthus and 
Creusa, and grandson of Hellen. The Achasi 
originally dwelt in Thessaly, and from thence 
migrated to Peloponnesus, the whole of which 
became subject to them, with the exception 
of Arcadia, and the country afterward called 
Achaia. As they were the ruling nation in 
Peloponnesus in the heroic times, Homer fre- 
quently gives the name of Achaei to the collect 

5 



ACHZEMENES. 



ACHATES. 



ivc Greets. On the conquest of the greater 
part of Peloponnesus by the Heracllda? aud the 
Dorians eighty years after the Trojan war, 
many of the Aehasi under Tisamenus, the son 
of Orestes, left their country and took posses- 
sion of the northern coast of Peloponnesus, then 
called jEgialea, and inhabited by the Ionians, 
whom they expelled from the country, which 
was henceforth called Achaia. The expelled 
Ionians migrated to Attica and Asia Minor. The 
Achaei settled in twelve cities : Pellene, JEgira, 
-*Egae, Bura, Heliee, iEgiurn, Rhypae, Patra?, 
Pharae, Olenus, Dyme, and Tritaea. These 
cities are said to have been governed by Tisa- 
menus and his descendants till Ogyges, upon 
whose death a democratical form of govern- 
ment was established in each state; but the 
twelve states formed a league for mutual de- 
fence and protection. In the Persian war the 
Achaei took no part ; and they had little influ- 
ence in the affairs of Greece till the time of 
the successors of Alexander. In B.C. 281 the 
Achaei, who were then subject to the Macedo- 
nians, resolved to renew their ancient league for 
the purpose of shaking off the Macedonian yoke. 
This was the origin of the celebrated Achaean 
League. It at first consisted of only four towns, 
Dyme, Patrae, Tritaea, and Pharae, but was sub- 
sequently joined by the other towns of Achaia, 
with the exception of Olenus and Helice. It 
did not, however, obtain much importance till 
B.C. 251, when Aratus united to it his native 
towr., Sicyon. The example of Sicyon was 
followed by Corinth and many other towns in 
Greece, and the league soon became the chief 
political power in Greece. At length the Achaei 
declared war against the Romans, who destroyed 
the league, and thus put an end to the independ- 
ence of Greece. Corinth, then the chief town 
of the league, was taken by the Roman general 
Mummius, in B.C. 146, and the whole of south- 
ern Greece made a Roman province under the 
name of Achaia. The different states composing 
the Achaean League had equal rights. The 
assemblies of the league were held twice a year, 
in the spring and autumn, in a grove of Jupiter 
(Zeus) Homagyrius near jEgium. At these 
assemblies all the business of the league was 
conducted, and at the spring meeting the public 
functionaries were chosen. These were : 1. A 
strategus (arparnyoe) or general, and a hippar- 
ehus (^innapxoc) or commander of the cavalry ; 
2. A secretary (ypaftfiarevc) ; and, 3. Ten demi- 
urgi (drj/iiovpyoi, also called apxovrec), who appear 
to have had the right of convening the assembly. 
For further particulars, vid. Diet, of Ant, art. 
Achaicum Fccdus. 

Ach^emenes ('Axatfiivjic). 1. The ancestor of 
the Persian kings, who founded the family of the 
AchcemenidcB ('Axaiftevidai), which was the no- 
blest family of the Pasargadae, the noblest of the 
Persian tribes. The Roman poets use the adjec- 
tive Achccmenius in the sense of Persian. [Some 
writers identify him with the Djemschid of the 
Oriental historians.]— 2. Son of Darius I, gover- 
nor of Egypt, commanded the Egyptian fleet in 
the expedition of Xerxes against Greece, B.C. 
480. He was defeated and killed in battle by 
Inarus the Libyan, B.C. 460. 

AchvEm£nides or Achemenides, son of Ada- 
mastus of Ithaca, and a companion of Ulysses, 
6 



who left him behind in Sicily, when he fled from 
the Cyclopes. Here he was fouu'd by jEneas, 
who took him with him. 

Ach^eus ('Axaioc). 1. Son of Xuthus, the 
mythical ancestor of the Achjei. — 2. Governor 
under Antiochus III. of all Asia west of Mount 
Taurus. He revolted against Antiochus, but was 
defeated by the latter, taken prisoner at Sardis, 
and put to death B.C. 214— 3. Of Eretria in 
Eubcea, a tragic poet, born B.C. 484. In 447, he 
contended with Sophocles and Euripides, and 
though he subsequently brought out many dra- 
mas, according to some as many as thirty-four 
or forty, he nevertheless only gained the prize 
once. In the satyrical drama he possessed 
considerable merit. The fragments of his pieces 
have been published by Urlichs, Bonn, 1834; 
[and by Wagner in his Fragmenta Tragicorum 
Grcecorum (in Didot's Biblioth. Graec.), p. 36-52. 
The satjrie pieces have been published sepa- 
rately in Friebel's Grcecorum Satyrographorum 
Fragmenta, Berlin, 1837. — 4. A Greek tragic 
poet of Syracuse, who flourished at a later period 
than the foregoing, belonging to the Alexandrine 
period : he was said to have written ten or four- 
teen tragedies.] 

Achaia ('Ajawf : 'Axald). 1. The northern 
coast of the Peloponnesus, originally called jEgi- 
alea (AiyidXeia) or ^Egialus (AiyiaXoc), i. e. the 
coast land, was bounded on the north by the 
Corinthian Gulf and the Ionian Sea, on the south 
by Elis and Arcadia, on the west by the Ionian 
sea, and on the east by Sieyonia. It was a nar- 
row slip of country sloping down from the moun- 
tains to the sea. The coast is generally low, and 
has few good ports. Respecting its inhabitants, 
vid. Achaei. — 2. A district in Thessaly, which 
appears to have been the original seat of the 
Achaei. It retained the name of Achaia in the 
time of Herodotus. — 3. The Roman province in- 
cluded Peloponnesus and northern Greece south 
of Thessaly. It was formed on the dissolution 
of the Achaean League in B. C. 146, and Lence 
derived its name. 

[Achaia, ('Axata), a city and harbor on the 
northeastern coast of the Euxine, mentioned by 
Arrian in his Periplus.] 

[Achakaca {'AxdpaKa), a village near Nysa in 
Lydia, having a celebrated Plutonium, and au 
oracular cave of Charon, where intimations were 
given to the sick respecting the cure of their 
maladies.] 

[ Achardeus ('Axapdeoc : now Egorlih), a river 
of Asiatic Sarmatia, flowing from the Caucasus 
into the Palus Maeotis.] 

Acharn^e ('Axapvac : 'Axapvevc, pi., 'Axapvijc), 
the principal demus of Attica, belonging to the 
tribe CEneis, sixty stadia north of Athens, pos- 
sessed a rough and warlike population, who were 
able to furnish three thousand hoplitae at the 
commencement of the Peloponnesian war. Their 
land was fertile, and they carried on considerable 
traffic in charcoal. One of the plays of Aristo- 
phanes bears the name of the inhabitants of this 
demus. 

AcHAEEiE, a town in Thessaliotis in Thessaly, 
on the River Pamisus. 

[Achates, a friend and companion of ^Eneas, 
so remarkable for the fidelity of his attachment, 
that " fidus Achates " became subsequently a 
proverb.] 



ACHATES. 



ACHILLES. 



Achates (now Dirillo), a river in southern 
8ieily, between Camarina and Gela, in which the 
first agate is said to have been found. 

Acheloides, a surname of the Sirens, the 
daughters of Achelous and a Muse ; also a sur- 
name of water nymphs. 

Achelous ('A^eAcpof : 'A^'E^u'tof in Horn. : now 
Aspro Potamo), more anciently called Thoas, 
Axenus, and Thestius, the largest river in 
Greece. It rises in Mount Piudus, and flows 
eouthward, forming the boundary between Acar- 
nania and ^Etolia, and falls into the Ionian Sea 
opposite the islands called Echinades, [which 
were supposed to have been formed in part by 
the depositions of this very rapid river.] It is 
about one hundred and thirty miles in length. 
The god of this river is described as the offspring 
of Oceanus and Tethys, and as the eldest of their 
three thousand sons. He fought with Hercules 
for Deianira, but was conquered in the contest. 
He then took the form of a bull, but was again 
overcome by Hercules, who deprived him of 
one of his horns, which, however, he recovered 
by giving up the horn of Amalthea. According 
to Ovid. {Met, ix., 87), the Naiads changed the 
horn which Hercules took from Achelous into 
the horn of plenty. Achelous was, from the 
earliest times, considered to be a great divinity 
throughout Greece, and Avas invoked in prayers, 
sacrifices, &c. On several coins of Acarnania, 
the god is represented as a bull with the head 
of an old man. Achelous was also the name of 
a river in Arcadia, and of another in Phthiotis 
in Thessaly. 

AcHEMENIDES. Vid. AcHuEMENIDES. 

Acheron ('A^cpuv), the name of several riv- 
ers, all of which were, at least at one time, be- 
lieved to be connected with the lower world. — 1. 
[Now Gurla, or River of Suit.] A river in Thes- 
protia in Epirus, which flows through the Lake 
Acherusia into the Ionian Sea. — 2. A river in 
Elis, which flows into the Alpheus. — 3. [Proba- 
bly Lose or Arconti.'] A river in southern Italy, 
in the country of the Bruttii, on which Alexan- 
der of Epirus perished. — 4. The river of the 
lower world, round which the shades hover, and 
jito which the Pyriphlegethon and Cocytus flow. 
In late writers the name of Acheron is used, in 
a general sense, to designate the whole of t]je 
lower world. The Etruscans were acquainted 
with the worship of Acheron (Acheruns) from 
very early times, as we must infer from their 
Acheruntici libri, which treated of the deification 
of souls, and of the sacrifices (Acfteruntia sacra) 
by which this was to be effected. 

Acherontia. 1. (Now Acerenza), a town in 
Apulia, on a summit of Mount Vultur, whence 
Horace (Carm., iii., 4, 14) speaks of celsm nidum 
Acherontia;. — 2. A town on the River Acheron, 
in the country of the Bruttii. Vid. Acheron, 
No. 3. 

Acherusia ('Axspovaia Vipii) or 'Axepovcic), 
the name of several lakes and swamps, which, 
like the various rivers of the name of Acheron; 
were at the same time believed to be connected 
with the lower world, until at last the Ache- 
rusia came to be considered to be in the lower 
world itself. The lake to which this belief 
teems to have been first attached was the Ache- 
rusia in Thesprotia, through which the Acheron 
flowed. Other lakes or swamps of the same 



name were near Hermione in Argolis, between 
Cumaa and Cape Misenum in Campania, and 
lastly in Egypt, near Memphis. Acherusia was 
also the name of a peninsula, near Heraclea in 
Bithynia, with a deep chasm, into which Her- 
cules is said to have descended to bring up the 
dog Cerberus. 

Achetum, a small town in Sicily, the site of 
which is uncertain. 

Achilla or Acholla ("Axolha : 'Axollaloc 
Achillitanus : dow El Aliah, ruins), a town on 
the sea-coast of Africa, in the Carthaginian ter- 
ritory (Byzacena), a little above the northern 
point of the Syrtis Minor. 

Achillas ('AxMdc), one of the guardians 
of the Egyptian king Ptolemy Dionysius, and 
commander of the troops when Pompey fled to 
Egypt, B.C. 48. It was he and L. Septimius 
who killed Pompey. He subsequently joined 
the eunuch Pothinus in resisting Caesar, and 
obtained possession of the greatest part of Alex- 
andrea. He was shortly afterwards put tt 
death by Arsinoe, the youngest sister of Ptolemy, 
B.C. 47. 

[Achilleis, a poem of Statius, turning on the 
story of Achilles. Vid. Statius.] 

Achilles ('AxMevc), the great hero of the 
Iliad. — Homeric story. Achilles was the son of 
Peleus, king of the Myrmidones in Phthiotis, in 
Thessaly, and of the Nereid Thetis. From his 
father's name, he is often called Pelides, Peleia- 
des, or Pellon, and from his grandfather's, JEaci- 
des. He was educated by Phcenix, who taught 
him eloquence and the arts of war, and accom- 
panied him to the Trojan war. In the healing 
art he was instructed by Chiron, the centaur. 
His mother, Thetis, foretold him that his fate 
was either to gain glory and die early, or to live 
a long but inglorious life. The hero chose the 
former, and took part in the Trojan war, from 
which he knew that he was not to return. In 
fifty ships, he led his hosts of Myrmidones, Hel- 
lenes, and Achaeans, against Troy. Here the 
swift-footed Achilles was the great bulwark of 
the Greeks, and the worthy favorite of Minerva 
(Athena) and Juno (Hera). Previous to the dis- 
pute with Agamemnon, he ravaged the country 
around Troy, and destroyed twelve towns on 
the coast and eleven in the interior of the coun- 
try. When Agamemnon was obliged to give 
up Chryseis to her father, he threatened to take 
away Briseis from Achilles, who surrendered 
her on the persuasion of Minerva (Athena), but 
at the same time refused to take any further 
part in the war, and shut himself up in his tent. 
Jupiter (Zeus), on the entreaty of Thetis, prom- 
ised that victory should be on the side of the 
Trojans, until the Achaaans should have hon- 
ored her son. The affairs of the Greeks de- 
clined in consequence, and they were at last 
pressed so hard, that an embassy was sent to 
Achilles, offering him rich presents and the res- 
toration of Briseis ; but in vain. Finally, how- 
ever, he was persuaded by Patroclus, his dear 
est friend, to allow him to make use of his men, 
his horses, and his armor. Patroclus was slain, 
and when this news reached Achilles, he was 
seized with unspeakable grief. Thetis consoled 
him, and promised new arms, to be made by 
Vulcan (Hephaestus), and Iris appeared to rous<j 
him from his lamentations, and exhorted hiia 
7 



AUHILLES. 

to rescue the body of Patroclus. Achilles now 
rose, and his thundering voice alone put the 
Trojans to flight. When his new armor was 
brought to him, he hurried to the field of battle, 
disdaining to take any drink or food until the 
death of his friend should be avenged. He 
wounded and slew numbers of Trojans, and at 
length met Hector, whom he chased thrice 
around the walls of the city. He then slew 
him, tied his body to his chariot, and dragged 
him to the ships of the Greeks. After this, he 
burned the body of Patroclus, together with 
twelve young captive Trojans, who were sac- 
rificed to appease the spirit of his friend ; and 
subsequently gave up the body of Hector to 
Priam, who came in person to beg for it. Achil- 
les himself fell in the battle at the Scsean gate, 
before Troy was taken. His death itself does 
not occur in the Iliad, but it is alluded to in a 
few passages (xxii., 358 ; xxi., 278). It is ex- 
pressly mentioned in the Odyssey (xxiv., 36), 
where it is said that his fall — his conqueror is 
not mentioned — was lamented by gods and men, 
that his remains, together with those of Patro- 
clus, were buried in a golden urn, which Bac- 
chus (Dionysus) had 'given as a present to The- 
tis, and were deposited in a place on the coast 
of the Hellespont, where a mound was raised 
over them. Achilles is the principal hero of 
the Iliad : he is the handsomest and bravest of 
all the Greeks ; he is affectionate toward his 
mother and his friends : formidable in battles, 
which are his delight ; open-hearted and without 
fear, and, at the same time, susceptible of the 
gentle and quiet joys of home. His greatest 
passion is ambition, and when his sense of hon- 
or is hurt, he is unrelenting in his revenge and 
anger, but withal submits obediently to the will 
of the grds. — Later traditions. These chiefly 
consist in accounts which fill up the history of 
his youth &sd death. His mother, wishing to 
make her son immortal, is said to have con- 
cealed him by night in the fire, in order to de- 
stroy the mortal parts he had inherited from his 
father, and by day to have anointed him with 
ambrosia. But Peleus one night discovered his 
child in the fire, and cried out in terror. Thetis 
left her son and fled, and Peleus intrusted him 
to Chiron, who educated and instructed him in 
the arts of riding, hunting, and playing the phor- 
minx, and also changed his original name, Li- 
gyron, i. «., the " whining," into Achilles. Chi- 
ron fed his pupil with the hearts of lions and the 
marrow of bears. According to other accounts, 
Thetis endeavored to make Achilles immortal 
by dipping him in the River Styx, and succeed- 
ed with the exception of the ankles, by which 
she held him. When he was nine years old, 
Calchas declared that Troy could not be taken 
without his aid, and Thetis, knowing that this 
War would be fatal him, disguised him as a 
maiden, and introduced him among the daugh- 
ters of Lycomedes of Scyros, where he was 
sailed by the name of Pyrrha on account of his 
golden locks. But his real character did not 
remain concealed long, for one of his compan- 
ions, De'idamia, became mother of a son, Pyr- 
rhus or Neoptolemus, by him. Ulysses at last 
discovered his place of concealmeut, and Achil- 
les immediately promised his assistance. Dur- 
ing the war against Troy, Achilles slew Pen- 
8 



ACH1LLEUS DROMOS. 

thesilea, an Amazon. He also fought with 
Memnon and Troilus. The accounts of his 
death differ very much, though all agree in 
stating that he did not fall by human hands, or, 
at least, not without the interference of the god 
Apollo. According to some traditions, he was 
killed by Apollo himself; according to others, 
Apollo assumed the appearance of Paris in kill- 
ing him, while others say that Apollo merely 
directed the weapon of Paris against Achilles, 
and thus caused his death, as had been sug- 
gested by the dying Hector. Others, again, re- 
late that Achilles loved Polyxena, a daughter of 
Priam, and, tempted by the promise that he 
should receive her as his wife, if he would join 
the Trojans, he went without arms into the 
temple of Apollo at Thymbra, and was assas- 
sinated there by Paris. His body was rescued 
by Ulysses and Ajax the Telamonian ; his ar- 
mor was promised by Thetis to the bravest 
among the Greeks, which gave rise to a con- 
test between the two heroes who had rescued 
his body. Vid. Ajax. After his death, Achil- 
les became one of the judges in the lower world, 
and dwelled in the islands of the blessed, where 
he was united with Medea or Iphigenla — [2. A 
son of the Earth (ynyevrjg), to whom J uno (Hera) 
fled for refuge from the pursuit of Jupiter (Zeus), 
and who persuaded her to return and marry that 
deity. Jupiter (Zeus), grateful for this service, 
promised him that all who bore this name for 
the time to come should be illustrious person- 
ages. — 3. The preceptor of Chiron, after whom 
Chiron named the son of Peleus. — i. The in 
ventor of the ostracism in Athens, according 
to one account. — 5. Son of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Lamia, so. beautiful that Pan awarded to him 
the prize of beauty over every competitor. Ve- 
nus was so offended at this, that she inspired 
Pan with a fruitless passion for the nymph 
Echo, and also wrought a hideous change in his 
person.] 

Achilles Tatius, or, as others call him, Achil- 
les Statius, an Alexandrine rhetorician, lived in 
the latter half of the fifth or the beginning of 
the sixth century of our era. He is the author 
of a Greek romance in eight books, containing 
the adventures of two lovers, Clitophon and 
Leueippe, which has come down to us. The 
best edition is by Fr. Jacobs, Lips., 1821. Sui- 
das ascribes to this Achilles a work on the 
sphere (irepl c$aipa(;) l a fragment of which, pro- 
fessing to be an introduction to the Phenomena 
of Aratus, is still extant. But this work was 
written at an earlier period. It is printed in 
Petavius, Uranologia, Paris, 1630, and Amster- 
dam, 1703. 

Achilleum (' ' kx't-^-eiov), a fortified place near 
the promontory Sigeum in the Troad, [founded 
by the Mytileneans, and in the neighborhood of 
which Achilles was supposed to have been 
buried.] There was a place of the same name 
on the Cimmerian Bosporus, Straits of Kaffa, on 
the Asiatic side. 

Achilleus assumed the title of emperor un- 
der Diocletian, and reigned over Egypt for some 
time. He was taken by Diocletian after a siege 
of eight months in Alexandrea, and put to death 
AD. 296. 

Achillelus Dromos ('A^i'X/lfioc 5pofxo^: now 
Tendera or Tendra), a narrow tongue of laud in 



ACHILLEUS. 



ACRiEA. 



the Euxine Sea, not far from the mouth of the 
Borysthenes, where Achilles is said to have 
made a raee-eourse. Before it lay the cele- 
brated Island of Achilles {Insula Achillis) or 
Leuee (AevKrj), where there was a temple of 
Achilles. 

Achilleus Portus ('A^iA/lewc Xi/nrjv), a har- 
bor in Laconia, near the promontory Taenarum. 

AchillIdes, a patronymic of Pyrrhus, son of 
Achilles. 

Achillis Insula. Vid. Achilleus Dromos. 

Achiroe ('Axipotj), daughter of Nilus and wife 
of Belus, by whom she became the mother of 
jEgyptus and Danaus. 

Achivi, the name of the Aehasi in the Latin 
writers, and frequently used, like Aeha?i, to sig- 
nify the whole Greek nation. Vid. Ach^ei. 

Acholla. Vid. Achilla. 

Acholoe. Vid. Harpyl^e. 

Achradina or AcradIna. Vid. Syracuse] 

Acichorius ('AKixuptoe), one of the leaders of 
the Gauls, who invaded Thrace and Macedonia 
in B- C. 280. In the following year he accom- 
panied Brennus in his invasion of Greece. Some 
writers suppose that Brennus and Acichorius are 
the same person, the former being only a title, 
and the latter the real name. 

Aoidalia (mater), a surname of Venus, from 
the well Acidalius, near Orchomenos, where she 
used to bathe with the Graces. 

[Acidas ('A/cidag), a small river of Triphylian 
Elis, which ran into the Anigrus.] 

Acidinus, L. Manlius. 1. One of the Roman 
generals in the second Punic war, prastor ur- 
banus, B. C. 210, served against Hasdrubal in 
207, and was sent into Spain in 206, where he 
remained till 199. — 2. Surnamed Fulvianus, be- 
cause he originally belonged to the Fulvia gens, 
praetor B. C. 188 in Nearer Spain, and consul in 
179 with his own brother Q. Fulvius Flaccus, 
which is the only instance of two brothers hold- 
ing the consulship at the same time. 

[Acidon ('AmoW), same as the Acidas, q. v.~\ 

Acilia Gens, plebeian. Its members are 
mentioned under the family names of Aviola, 
Balbus, and Glabrio. 

[Acilisene (' AklXlctivi]), a district of Armenia 
Major, between Antitaurus and the Euphrates.] 

[Acimincum or Acumincum (now Peterward- 
ein), a town in Lower Paauonia, on the Danube.] 

[Acincum or Aquincum (now Buda or Ola 
Ofen,) a strongly fortified town of Pannonia, on 
the Danube.] 

[Acinipo (ruins near Honda), a town of His- 
pania Bsetica, of which some remarkable remains 
still exist.] 

[Aciris ("A/cipig : now Agri), a river of Lu- 
cania, flowing into the Sinus Tarentinus.] 

Acis ( T A«tf) son of Faunus and Symasthis, was 
beloved by the nymph Galatea : Polyphemus 
the Cyclops, jealous of him, crushed him under 
a huge'rock. His blood, gushing forth from un- 
der the rock, was changed by the nymph into 
the River Acis or Acinius (now Fiume di Jaci). 
at the foot of Mount jEtna. This story, which 
is related only by Ovid (Met., xiii., 760, seq.), is 
perhaps no more than a happy fiction suggested 
by the manner in which the little river springs 
forth from under a rock 

JAcis ( r A/ac), a river of Sicily. Vid. the fore- 
going.] 



[Acmon ("Ak^uv). 1. A companion of Di<v 
medes, who was changed into a bird for disre- 
spect to Venus. 2. Son of Ely this of Lyrnes- 
sus, a companion of ^Eneas.] 

Acmonia {'Aic/iovia : 'AKfiovtrTjc : Acmonensis), 
a city of the Greater Phrygia. 

AcmonIdes, one of the three Cyclopes in Ovid, 
is the same as Pyracmon in Virgil, and as Arges 
in most other accounts of the Cyclopes. 

Accetes ('AKO(r^f), son of a poor fisherman 
of Maeonia, who served as a pilot in a ship. 
After landing at the Island of Naxos, the sailors 
brought with them on board a beautiful boy 
asleep, whom they wished to take with them ; 
but Accetes, who recognized in the boy the god 
Bacchus, dissuaded them from it, but in vain. 
When the ship had reached the open sea, the 
boy awoke, and desired to be carried back to 
Naxos. The sailors promised to do so, but did 
not keep their word. Hereupon the god dis- 
closed himself to them in his majesty ; vines 
began to twine round the vessel, tigers appear- 
ed, and the sailors, seized with madness, jump- 
ed into the sea and perished. Accetes alone 
was saved and conveyed back to Naxos, where 
he was initiated into the Bacchic mysteries, 
This is the account of Ovid (Met, iii., 582, Ac). 
Other writers call the crew of the ship Tyrrhe- 
nian pirates, and derive the name of the Tyr- 
rhenian Sea from them. 

Acontius ('Akovtioc;), a beautiful youth of the 
Island of Ceos. On one occasion he came to 
Delos to celebrate the annual festival of Diana, 
and fell in love with Cydippe, the daughter of a 
noble Athenian. In order to gain her, he had 
recourse to a stratagem. While she was sitting 
in the temple of Diana, he threw before her 
an apple, upon which he had written the words, 
" I swear by the sanctuary of Diana to marry 
Acontius." The nurse took up the apple and 
handed it to Cydippe, who read aloud what was 
written upon it, and then threw the apple away. 
But the goddess had heard her vow, and the 
repeated illness of the maiden, when she was 
about to marry another man, at length compel- 
led her father to give her in marriage to Acon- 
tius. This story is related by Ovid (Heroid., 
20, 21), who borrowed it from a lost poem of 
Callimachus, entitled " Cydippe." 

Acoris ("AKopic), king of Egypt, assisted Evag- 
oras, king of Cyprus, against Artaxcrxes, king 
of Persia, about B. C. 385. He died about 374, 
before the Persians entered Egypt, vhich was 
in the following year. 

[Acra ("A/cpa), a name of many places situ 
ated on heights and promontories. 1. A vil 
lage on the Cimmerian Bosporus. — 2. A town 
in Eubcea. — 3. A town in Arcadia. — 4. Aura 
Leuce (?.Evicij), a town in Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, founded by Hamilcar Barcas.] 

Acr^e ("AKpai). 1. (Ruins near Palazzalo), a 
town in Sicily, west of Syracuse, and ten stadia 
from the River Anapus, was founded by the Syr 
acusans seventy years after the foundation Oi 
their own city. — 2. A town in ^Etolia. 

[AcR^EA ('AKpaia), a daughter of the river-god 
Asterion (near Mycenae), one of the nurses of 
Juno. A mountain in Argolis, opposite to the 
Heraeum, was named after her Acrcea.'] 

Acrjea ('Aicpata) and Acr^eus are surnames 
given to various goddesses and gods whose 

9 



ACRJ3PHEUS. 



ACT^EUS. 



temples were situated upon hills, such as Jupi- 
ter (Zeus), Juno (Hera), Venus (Aphrodite), 
Minerva (Pallas), Diana (Artemis), and others. 

AcE^EPHEUS. Vid. ACE.SBPHIA. 

Ace^ephia, Ace^ephLe, or AcE^EPHION ('AKpai- 
tyca, 'Atcpaifiai, 'AKpaifiov : 'AicpacfLoc, 'Anpai- 
tyiaiog : now Kardhitza), a town in Boetia, on 
the Lake Copais, said to have been founded by 
Acraepheus, the son of Apollo. 

[Ace^eus. Vid. Ace^ea.] 

[Aceagas ('Anpayag : now Girgenti or Fiume 
di 8. Biagio), a small river of Sicily, on which 
was the celebrated city of Acragas or Agrigen- 
tum.] 

Aceagas. Vid. Agrigentum. 

[Acrathos ('AKpddag uicpov, i. e., "Anpog 
'A6o>g : now Cape Monte Santo), the northeast- 
ern promontory in the peninsula Acte in Mace- 
donia.] 

Acratus, a freedman of Nero, sent into Asia 
and Aehaia (A.D. 64) to plunder the temples 
and take away the statues of the gods. 

Acrls: ('A/cptai' or 'Anpalac), a town in La- 
jonia, not far from the mouth of the Eurotas. 

Aoeill^e, a town in Sicily between Agrigen- 
tum and Acrse. 

Aceisione CAKpiaiuvn), a patronymic of Da- 
nae, daughter of Acrisius. Perseus, grandson 
of Acrisius, was called, in the same way, Acris- 
loniadSs. 

Acrisius (^AnpLoiog), son of Abas, king of Ar- 
gos, and of Ocalla, grandson of Lynceus, and 
great grandson of Danaus. His twin-brother 
was Proetus, with whom he is said to have quar- 
relled even in the womb of his mother. Acris- 
ius expelled Proetus from his inheritance ; but, 
supported by his father-in-law Iobates, the Ly- 
cian, Proetus returned, and Acrisius was com- 
pelled to share his kingdom with his brother by 
giving up to him Tiryns, while he retained Ar- 
gos for himself. An oracle had declared that 
Danae, the daughter of Acrisius, would give 
birth to a son who would kill his grandfather. 
Eor this reason he kept Danae shut up in a sub- 
terraneous apartment, or in a brazen tower, 
but here she became mother of Perseus, not- 
withstanding the precautions of her father, ac- 
cording to some accounts by her uncle Proetus, 
and according to others by Jupiter (Zeus), who 
visited her in the form of a shower of gold. 
Acrisius ordered mother and child to be ex- 
posed on the wide sea in a chest ; but the chest 
floated toward the Island of Seriphus, where 
both were rescued by Dictys. As to the man- 
ner in which the oracle was subsequently ful- 
filled, vid. Perseus. 

Acritas ('AKpetrag : now Cape Gallo), the 
most southerly promontory in Messenia. 

Acboceraunia (rci 'A/cponepavvia, sc. opj? : 
now Cape Linguetta), a promontory in Epirus, 
jutting out into the Ionian sea, was the most 
westerly part of the Ceraunh Montes. The 
coast of the Acroceraunia was dangerous to 
ships, whence Horace (Carm. 1., 3, 20) speaks 
of infames scopulos Acroceraunia. 

ACROCORINTHUS. Vid. COEINTHUS. 

Acrolissus. Vid. Liskps. 

■Acron. 1. King of the Caeninenses, whom 
Romulus slew in battle, and whose arms he 
dedicated to Jupiter Feretrius as Spolia Opima. 
— 2. An eminent physician of Agrigentum in 
10 



Sicily, is said to have been in Athens during 
the great plague (B.C. 430) in the Peloponne- 
sian war, and to ha,ve ordered large fires to be 
kindled in the streets for the purpose of purify- 
ing the air, which proved of great service to 
several of the sick. This fact, however, is not 
mentioned by Thucydides. The medical sect 
of the Empirici, in order to boast of a greater 
antiquity than the Dogmatici (founded about B. 
C. 400), claimed Acron as their founder, though 
they did not really exist before the third cen- 
tury B.C. — [3. An Etrurian of Corythus, an ally 
of iEneas, slain by Mezentius.] 

Acron, Helenius, a Roman grammarian, 
probably of the fifth century A.D., wrote notes 
on Horace, part of which are extant, and also, 
according to some critics, the scholia which we 
have on Persius. 

[Aceonids Lacus. Vid. Brigantinus Lacus.] 

Acropolis. Vid. Athene. 

Acropolita Georgius (Teupyioc 'AK.pono7u 
Tng), a Byzantine writer, was born at Constan- 
tinople in A.D. 1220, and died in 1282. He 
wrote several works which have come down 
to us. The most important of them is a his- 
tory of the Byzantine empire, from the taking 
of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, down 
to the year 1261, when Michael Palaeologus de- 
livered the city from the foreign yoke. Edited 
by Leo Allatius, Paris, 1651 ; reprinted at Ven- 
ice, 1729. 

Aceoeea {t] 'Aicpupeia), a mountainous tract 
of country in the north of Elis. 

Aceotatus ('AKporaroc). 1. Son of Cleome- 
nes II., king of Sparta, sailed to Sicily in B.C. 
314 to assist the Agrigentines against Agatho- 
cles of Syracuse. On his arrival at Agrigen- 
tum, he acted with such tyranny that the in- 
habitants compelled him to leave the city. He 
returned to Sparta, and died before his father, 
leaving a son, Areus. — 2. Grandson of the pre- 
ceding, and the son of Areus I., king of Sparta ; 
bravely defended Sparta against Pyrrhus, in B.C. 
272; succeeded his father as king in 265, but 
was killed in the same year in battle against 
Aristodemus, the tyrant of Megalopolis. 

Acrothoum or Acrothoi {'AKpoduov, ' Anpo- 
daoi : 'AKpoduirrjc : now Lavra), afterward call- 
ed Uranopolis, a town near the extremity of the 
peninsula of Athos. ' m 

Act.ea ('A/craj'a), daughter of Nereus and 
Doris. 

Action ('Aktolov). 1. A celebrated hunts- 
man, son of Aristasus and Autonoe, a daughter 
of Cadmus, was trained in the art of huntiug by 
the centaur Chiron. One day as he was hunt- 
ing, he saw Diana (Artemis) with her nymphs 
bathing in the vale of Gargaphia, whereupon 
the goddess changed him into a stag, in which 
form he was torn to pieces by his fifty dogs on 
Mount Cithaeron. Others relate that he pro- 
voked the anger of the goddess by boasting 
that he excelled her in hunting. 2. Son of Me- 
lissus, and grandson of Abron, who had fled 
from Argos to Corinth for fear of the tyrant 
Phidon. Archias, a Corinthian, enamored with 
the beauty of Actoeon, endeavored to carry him 
off ; but in the struggle which ensued between 
Melissus and Archias, Actaeon was killed. Vid. 
Archias. 

AciiEus ('AKraloc), son of Erisichthon, and 



ACTE. 



ADHERE AL. 



the earliest king of Attica. He had three daugh- 
ters, Agraulos, Herse, and Pandrosus, and was 
succeeded by Cecrops, who married Agraulos. 

Acte, the concubine of Nero, was originally 
a slave from Asia Minor. Nero at one time 
thought of marrying her ; whence he pretend- 
ed that she was descended from King Attalus. 
She survived Nero. 

Acte ('Akt^), properly a piece of land run- 
ning into the sea, and attached to another larger 
piece of land, but not necessarily by a narrow 
neck. 1. An ancient name of Attica, used espe- 
cially by the poets. — 2. The eastern coast of 
Peloponnesus, near Trcezen and Epidaurus. — 
3. The peninsula between the Strymonic and 
Singitic gulfs, on which Mount Athos is. 

AcTIACUS. Vid. ACTCUM. 

[Actis, one of the Heliada?, who, according 
to Diodorus, migrated from Rhodes to Egypt, 
founded Heliopolis, which he named after his 
father, and taught the Egyptians astrology. The 
same writer states that the Greeks, having lost 
by a deluge nearly all the memorials of previ- 
ous events, became ignorant of their claim to 
the invention of this science, and allowed the 
Egyptians to arrogate it to themselves. Wesse- 
ling considers this a mere fable, based on the na- 
tional vanity of the Greeks.] 

Actisanes ('AnTiauvrjc), a king of ^Ethiopia, 
who conquered Egypt and governed it with jus- 
tice, in the reign of Amasis. This Amasis is 
either a more ancient king than the contempo- 
rary of Cyrus, [or else we must read Ammosis 
for Amasis.] 

Actium ("Aktiov : 'AKrcaicog, "Aktioc : now 
La Punta, not Azio), a promontory, and likewise 
a j)lace in Acarnania, at the entrance of the 
Ambraeian Gulf, off which Augustus gained the 
celebrated victory over Antony and Cleopatra, 
on September 2, B.C. 31. At Actium there was 
originally no town, but only a temple of Apollo, 
who was hence called Actiacus and Actius. This 
temple was beautified by Augustus, who estab- 
lished, or rather revived a festival to Apollo, 
called Actio, (vid. Diet, of Ant., s. v.), and erect- 
ed Nicopolis on the opposite coast, in commem- 
oration of his victory. A few buildings sprung 
up around the temple at Actium, but the place 
was only a kind of suburb of Nicopolis. 

[Actius ("Aktioc), an appellation of Apollo 
from his temple at ActiumT] 

Actius. Vid. Attius. 

Actoe ("AKTup). 1. Son of Deion and Dio- 
mede, father of Mencetius, and grandfather of 
Patroclus. — 2. Son of Phorbas and Hyrmine, 
and husband of Molione, — 3. A companion of 
Mneas, of whose conquered lance Turnus made 
a boast This story seems to have given rise 
to the proverb Actoris spolium (Juv., ii., 100) 
for any poor spoil. 

ACTOEIDES Or AcTORION ('AKTOpidlJC OT 'AttTO- 

otav), patronymics of descendants of an Actor, 
such as Patroclus, Erithus, Eurytus, and Ctea- 
tus. 

Actuaeius, Joannes, a Greek physician of 
Constantinople, probably lived in the reign of 
Andronicus II. Paheologus, A.D. 1281-1328. 
He was the author of several medical works, 
which are extant, [and most of which have been 
published by Ideler in his " Physici et Medici 
Graeci Minores," Berlin, 1841, seq.] 



Aculeo, C, an eminent Roman lawyer, who 
married the sister of Helvia, the mother of Cic- 
ero : his son was 0. Visellius Varro ; whence it 
would appear that Aculeo was only a surnamo 
given to the father from his acuteness, and that 
his full name was C. Visellius Varro Aculeo. 

[Acumenus ('AKovfievoc), a celebrated physi- 
cian of Athens; who lived in the fifth century, be- 
fore Christ, a friend and companion of Socrates.] 

Acusilaus ('AKOvaiXaog), of Argos, one of the 
earlier Greek logographers, flourished about B. 
C. 525. Three books of his Genealogies are 
quoted, which were, for the most part, only a 
translation of Hesiod into prose. He wrote in 
the Ionic dialect. His fragments- are published 
by Sturz, Lips, 1824, and in Didot's Fragment. 
Histor. Grcec, p. 100, seq. — [2. An Athenian, 
who taught rhetoric at Rome in the time of 
Galba, and having amassed there great wealth, 
left it at his death to his countrymen.] 

[Ad. This preposition was often prefixed by 
the Romans to some natural object on the line 
of their marches, to indicate their stopping-place, 
especially when encamping in any quarter where 
they did nat find any habitation or settlement by 
which the spot might be designated. Sometimes 
the preposition was prefixed to the ordinal num- 
ber, designating the distance in miles. Thus, 
Ad Aquas indicated a spot near which there was 
water, or an encampment near water ; Ad Quar- 
tum, " at the fourth mile-stone :" supply lapidem, 
&c.] 

Ada ("A5a), daughter of Hecatomnus, king of 
Caria, and sister of Mausolus, Artemisia, Hi- 
drieus, and Pixodarus. She was married to het 
brother Hidrieus, on whose death (B.C. 344) she 
succeeded to the throne of Caria, but was ex- 
pelled by her brother Pixodarus in 340. When 
Alexander entered Caria in 334, Ada, who was 
in possession of the fortress of Alinda, surren- 
dered this place to him. After taking Halicar- 
nassus, Alexander committed the government 
of Caria to her. 

Adamantea. Vid. Amai/thea. 

Adamantius ('Adafidvrioc), a Greek physician, 
flourished about A.D. 415, the author of a Greek 
treatise on Physiognomy, which is borrowed in 
a great measure from Polemo's work on the 
same subject. Edited by Eranzius, in /Scrip 
tores Physiognomies Veteres, 1780, 8vo. 

[Adamas ('Adafiac), a Trojan hero, slain by 
Meriones.] 

[Adamas ('AMfiac), a river of India, where 
diamonds were found. It is now the Soank, 
but near its mouth is called Brammi. 

[Adana (tQ. "Adava : 'Adavevc : now Adana), 
a city in the interior of Cilicia, on the west side 
of the River Sarus, in a fruitful district of coun- 

Addua (now Adda), a river of Gallia Cisal- 
pina, which rises in the Rastian Alps, and flows 
through the Lacus Larius (now Lago di Como) 
into the Po, about eight miles above Cremona. 

Adheebal ('ATap6ac), son of Micipsa, and 
grandson of Masinissa, had the kingdom of Nu- 
midia left to him by his father in conjunction 
with his brother Hiempsal and Jugurtha, B.C. 
118. After the murder of his brother by Ju- 
gurtha, Adherbal fled to Rome, and was restored 
to his share of the kingdom by the Romans in 
117. But he was again stripped of his domin- 
11 



ADIABENE. 



ADEASTIA. 



ions by Jugurtha, and besieged in Cirta, where 
he was treacherously killed by Jugurtha in 112. 
[According to Geseuius, the more Oriental form 
of the name is Atherbal, signifying " the wor- 
shipper of Baal :" from this the softer form Ad- 
herbal arose.] 

Adiabene ('Adta67]V7j), a district of Assyria, 
east of the Tigris, and between the Eiver Lycus, 
called Zabatus in the Anabasis of Xenophon, 
and the Oaprus, both of which are branches of 
the Tigris. 

Adimantus ('Adetfiavrof;). 1. The commander 
of the Corinthian fleet when Xerxes invaded 
Greece (B.C. 480), vehemently opposed the ad- 
vice of Thenfistocles to give battle to the Per- 
sians. — 2. An Athenian, one of the command- 
ers at the battle of ^Egospotami, B.C. 405, where 
he was taken prisoner. He was accused of 
treachery in this battle, and is ridiculed by Aris- 
tophanes in the " Erogs." — 3. The brother of 
Plato, frequently mentioned by the latter. 

Adis ('AdZc : now Rhades ?), a considerable 
town on the coast of Africa, in the territory of 
Carthage (Zeugitana), a short distance east of 
Tunis. Under the Romans it appears to have 
been supplanted by a new city, named Maxula. 

Admete ('Ad/z^rj?). 1. Daughter of Oceanus 
and Tethys. — 2. Daughter of Eurystheus and 
Antimache or Admete. Hercules was obliged 
by her father to fetch for her the girdle of Mars 
(Ares), which was worn by Hippolyte, queen of 
the Amazons. 

Admetus ("AS/it/toc;). 1. Son of Pheres and 
Periclymene or Clymene, was king of Phera? in 
Thessaly. He took part in the Calydonian hunt 
and in the expedition of the Argonauts. He sued 
for the hand of Alcestis, the daughter of Pelias, 
who promised her to him on condition that he 
should come to her in a chariot drawn by lions 
and boars. This task Admetus performed by 
the assistance of Apollo, who served him, ac- 
' cording to some accounts, out of attachment to 
him, or, according to others, because he was 
obliged to serve a mortal for one year for hav- 
ing slain the Cyclopes. On the day of his mar- 
riage with Alcestis, Admetus neglected to offer 
a sacrifice to Diana (Artemis), but Apollo recon- 
ciled the goddess to him, and at the same time 
induced the Moirffi to grant to Admetus deliver- 
ance from death, if at the hour of his death his 
father, mother, or wife would die for him. Al- 
cestis died in his stead, but was brought back 
by Hercules from the lower world. — 2. King of 
the Molossians, to whom Themistocles fled for 
protection, when pursued as a party to the trea- 
son of Pausanias. 

Adonis ("Aduvig), a beautiful youth, beloved 
by Venus (Aphrodite). He was, according to 
Apollodorus, a son of Cinyras and Medarme, or, 
according to the cyclic poet Panyasis, a son of 
Theias, king of Assyria, and Smyrna (Myrrha). 
The ancient story ran thus : Smyrna had neg- 
lected the worship of Venus (Aphrodite), and 
was punished by the goddess with an unnatural 
love for her father. With the assistance of her 
nurse she contrived to share her father's bed. 
When he discovered the crime he wished to 
kill her ; but she fled, and on being nearly over- 
taken, prayed to the gods to make her invisible. 
They were moved to pity and changed her into 
a tree called ajivpva. After the lapse of nine 
12 



months the tree burst, and Adonis was born 
Venus (Aphrodite) was so much charmed with 
the beauty of the infant, that she concealed it in 
a chest which she intrusted to Proserpina (Per- 
sephone) ; but the latter refused to give it up. 
Zeus decided the dispute by declaring that dur 
ing four months of every year Adonis should be 
left to himself, during four months he should 
belong to Proserpina (Persephone), and during 
the remaining four to Venus (Aphrodite). Ado- 
nis, howefer, preferring to live with Venus 
(Aphrodite), also spent with her the four months 
over which he had control. Adonis afterward 
died of a wound which he received from a boar 
during the chase. The grief of the goddess at 
the loss of her favorite was so great, that the 
gods of the lower world allowed him to spend 
six months of every year with Venus (Aphro- 
dite) upon the earth. The worship of Adonis, 
which in later times was spread over nearly ali 
the countries round the Mediterranean, was, as 
the story itself sufficiently indicates, of Asiatic, 
or more especially of Phoenician origin. Thence 
it was transferred to Assyria, Egypt, Greece, 
and even to Italy, though, of course, with vari- 
ous modifications. In the Homeric poems no 
trace of it occurs, and the later Greek poets 
changed the original symbolic account of Ado- 
nis into a poetical story. In the Asiatic religions 
Venus (Aphrodite) was the passive or vegeta- 
tive principle of nature. [Adonis represented 
the sun as the fructifying principle, while the 
boar, said to have killed him, was the emblem 
of winter, during which the productive powers 
of nature being suspended, Venus (Aphrodite) 
was said to lament the loss of Adonis until he 
was again restored to life.] Hence he spends 
six months in the lower and six in the upper 
world. His death and his return to life were 
celebrated in annual festivals (Adonia) at By- 
blos, Alexandrea in Egypt, Athens, and other 
places. 

Adonis ("AtWtf : now Nahr Ibrahim), a small 
river of Phoenicia, which rises in the range of 
Libanus. [At the anniversary of the death of 
Adonis, which was in the rainy season, its wa- 
ters were tinged red with the ochrous particles 
from the mountains of Libanus, and were hence 
fabled to flow with his blood.] 

Adeamyttium ('A6pa/j.vTTEiov or 'Afipafivmov : 
'Adpa/ivTTrjvog : now Adramyti), a town of Mys- 
ia, near the head of the Gulf of Adramyttium, 
and opposite to the Island of Lesbos. 

Adeana (now Eder), a river in Germany, 
which flows into the Fulda, near Cassel. 

Adeanum or Hadeanum ("Adpavov, "ASpavov, 
'AdpavcTijc : now Aderno), a town in Sicily, on 
the river Adranus, at the foot of Mount JEtna, 
was built by Dionysius, and was the seat of tho 
worship of the god Adranus. 

Adeanus ( 'Adpavbg). Vid< Adeanum. 

Adeastia ('ASpuoTEia). 1. A Cretan nymph, 
daughter of Melisseus, to whom Rhea intrusted 
the infant Jupiter (Zeus), to be reared in the 
Dictean grotto. — 2. A surname of Nemesis, de- 
rived by 6ome writers from Adrastus, who is 
said to have built the first sanctuary of Nemesis 
on the River Asopus,and by others from a,priv^ 
and Sidpaaneiv, i. e., the goddess whom nona 
can escape. 

[Adeastia ('AdpdoTeid), a district of Mysia, 



ADRASTUS. 



iEACIDES. 



along the Propontis, through which the Granicus 
flowed, containing a city of the same name, said 
to have been founded by a King Adrastus, in 
which were a temple and oracle of Apollo and 
Diana.] 

Adrastus ("ASpaarog). l. Son of Talaus, 
king of Argos, and Lysimache, or Lysianassa, or 
Eurynome. Adrastus was expelled from Argos 
by Amphiaraus, and fled to Polybus, king of 
Sicyon, whom he succeeded on the throne of 
Sicyon, and instituted the Nemean games. Af- 
terward he became reconciled to Amphiaraus, 
and returned to his kingdom of Argos. He 
married his two daughters, Deipyle and Argia, 
the former to Tydeus of Calydon. and the latter 
to Polynices of Thebes, both fugitives from their 
native countries. He now prepared to restore 
Polynices to Thebes, who had been expelled by 
his brother Eteoeles, although Amphiaraus fore- 
told that all who should engage in the war should 
perish, with the exception of Adrastus. Thus 
arose the celebrated war of the " Seven against 
Thebes," in which Adrastus was joined by six 
other heroes, viz., Polynices, Tydeus, Amphia- 
raus, Capaneus, Hippomedon, and Partheno- 
pa;us. Instead of Tydeus and Polynices other 
legends mention Eteoeles and Mecisteus. This 
war ended as unfortunately as Amphiaraus had 
predicted, and Adrastus alone was saved by the 
swiftness of his horse Arion, the gift of Hercu- 
les. Creon of Thebes refusing to allow the 
bodies of the six heroes to be buried, Adrastus 
went to Athens and implored the assistance of 
the Athenians. Theseus was persuaded to un- 
dertake an expedition against Thebes ; he took 
the city, and delivered up the bodies of the fallen 
heroes to their friends for burial. Ten years 
after this, Adrastus persuaded the seven sons of 
the heroes who had fallen in the war to make a 
new attack upon Thebes, and the oracle now 
promised success. This war is known as the 
war of the " Epigoni" ('Emyovoi), or descend- 
ants. Thebes was taken and razed to the 
ground. The only Argive hero that fell in this 
war was iEgialeus, the son of Adrastus : the 
latter died of grief at Megara, on his way back 
to Argos, and was buried in the former city. 
He was worshiped in several parts of Greece, 
as at Megara, at Sicyon, where his memory was 
celebrated in tragic choruses, and in Attica. 
The legends about Adrastus, and the two wars 
against Thebes, furnished ample materials for 
the epic as well as tragic poets of Greece. — 2. 
Son of the Phrygian king Gordius, having un- 
intentionally killed his brother, fled to Croesus, 
who received him kindly. While hunting, he 
accidentally killed Atys, the son of Crcesus, and 
in despair put an end to his own life. — [3. Son 
of Merops, an ally of the Trojans, probable 
founder of the city Adrastia, q. v.] 

Adria or Hadria. 1. (Now Adria), also call- 
ed Atria, a town in Gallia Cisalpina, between 
the mouths of the Po and the Athesis (now 
Adige), from which the Adriatic Sea takes its 
name. It was originally a powerful town of 
the Etruscans. — 2. (Now Atri), a town of Pice- 
num in Italy, probably an Etruscan town origin- 
ally, afterward a Roman colony, at which place 
the family of the Emperor Hadrian lived. 

Adria ('Adplag, Ion. 'Adpirjc : 'Adpiavog) or 
Mare Adriaticcm, also Mare Superum, sq call- 



ed from the town Adria [No. 1], was, in its 
widest signification, the sea between Italy on 
the west, and Illyricum, Epirus, and Greece on 
the east. By the Greeks the name Adrias was 
only applied to the northern part of this sea, the 
southern part being called the Ionian Sea. 

[Adrianopolis. Vid. Hadrianopolis.] 

Adrianus. Vid. Hadrianus. 

Adrianus ('ASpiavog), a Greek rhetorician, 
born at Tyre in Phoenicia, was the pupil of He- 
rodes Atticus, and obtained the chair of philos- 
ophy at Athens during the lifetime of his mas- 
ter. He was invited by M. Antoninus to Rome, 
where he died about A.D. 1 92. Three of his de- 
clamations are extant, edited by Walz in Rhe- 
tores Grceci, vol. i., p. 526-33, Stuttg, 1832. 

[Adriaticdm Mare. Vid. Adria.] 

Adrumetum. Vid. Hadrumetum. 

Aduatuoa, a castle of the Eburones in Gaul 
probably the same as the later Aduaca Tongro 
rum (now Tongern). 

Aduatuci or Aduatict, a powerful people of 
Gallia Belgica in the time of Caasar, were the 
descendants of the Cimbri and Teutoni, and 
lived between the Scaldis (now Schelde) and 
Mosa (now Maas). 

Adula Mons. Vid. Alpes. 

Adule or Adulis ('Adovlr), "Adovlcg, and also 
other forms: . 'Adoi>/lm?c, Adulitanus: ruins at 
Zula), a maritime city of ^Ethiopia, on a bay 
of the Red Sea, called Adulitanus Sinus {'A&ov- 
XiTLK.bg KoXnog, Annesley Bay). It was believed 
to have been founded by slaves who fled from 
Egypt, and afterward to have fallen into the 
power of the Auxumitse, for whose trade it 
became the great Emporium. Cosmas Indico- 
pleustes (A.D. 535) found here the Monumentum 
Adulitanum, a Greek inscription recounting the 
conquests of Ptolemy II. Euergetes in Asia and 
Thrace. 

Adyrmachid^s ('Advpfiaxidai), a Lybian peo- 
ple, who appear to have once possessed the 
whole coast of Africa from the Canopic mouth 
of the Nile to the Catabathmus Major, but were 
afterward pressed further inland. In their man- 
ners and customs they resembled the Egyptians, 
to whom they were the nearest neighbors. 

AZa (Ala), sometimes with the addition of 
the word Colchis, may be considered either a 
part of Colchis or another name for the country. 
(Herod., i., 2.) [According to the scholium on 
Apoll. Rhod., the royal city of JEetes, on the 
Phasis, in Cholcis.] 

^Eaces (AldKTjg), son of Syloson, and grand- 
son of .iEaces, was tyraut of Samos, but was de- 
prived of his tyranny by Aristagoras, when the 
Ionians revolted from the Persians, B.C. 500. 
He then fled to the Persians, who restored him 
to the tyranny of Samos, B.C. 494. 

jEaceum (Aluksiov). Vid. jEgina. 

jEacides (Alaridrjc;), a patronymic of the de- 
scendants of -<Eacus, as Peleus, Telamon, and 
Phocus, sods of jEacus ; Achilles, son of Peleus, 
and grandson of jEacus ; Pyrrhns, son of Achil- 
les, and great-grandson of ./Eacus ; and Pyrrhus, 
king of Epirus, who claimed to be a descendant 
of Achilles. 

jEacides, son of Arymbas, king of Epirus, 
succeeded to the throne on the death of his 
cous:'n Alexander, who was slain in Italy, B.C. 
326. ./Eacides married Phthia, by whom he had 
13 



^EACUS. 

the celeorated Pyrrhus. He took an active 
part in favor of Olympias against Cassander; 
but his subjects disliked the war, rose against 
their king, and drove him from the kingdom. 
He was recalled to his kingdom by his subjects 
in B,0. 313 : Cassander sent an army against 
him under Philip, who conquered him the same 
year in two battles, in the last of which he was 
killed. 

^Eachs (A?a/cof), son of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
^Egina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus. 
He was born in the Island of CEnone or GEno- 
pia, whither jEgina had been carried by Ju- 
piter (Zeus), and from whom this island was 
afterward called iEgina. Some traditions re- 
lated that at the birth of iEacus, Mg'ma. was not 
yet inhabited, and that Jupiter (Zeus) changed 
the ants (fivpfiTjicec) of the island into men (Myr- 
midones), over whom JSacus ruled. Ovid (Met, 
vii., 520) relates the story a little differently. 
^Eaeus was renowned in all Greece for his jus- 
tice and piety, and was frequently called upon 
to settle disputes not only among men, but even 
among the gods themselves. He was such a 
favorite with the gods, that, when Greece was 
visited by a drought, rain was at length sent 
upon the earth in consequence of his prayers. 
Respecting the temple which iEacus erected to 
Jupiter (Zeus) Panhelleuius, and the iEaceurn, 
where he was worshiped by the ^Eginetans, see 
zEgina. After his death, JSacus became one of 
the three judges in Hades. The iEginetans re- 
garded him as the tutelary deity of their island. 

Mma (Alala). 1. A surname of Circe, the 
sister of jEetes. Her son, Telegonus, likewise 
bore the surname JEmm. — 2. A surname of Ca- 
lypso, who was believed to have inhabited a 
small island of the name of jEaea in the straits 
between Italy and Sicily. 

[tEanes (Auivrjg), a Locrian, slain by Patro- 
clus, to whom a grove (Aidveiov re/isvog) near 
Opus, in Locris, was consecrated.] 

[^Eanis (Mavis), a celebrated fountain near 
Opus, in Locris.] 

[JEanteum (AlavTEiov), a tomb and temple of 
the Telamonian Ajax, on the Rhcetean promon- 
tory in Troas.] 

JEantides (AlavTl&ris), tyrant of Lampsacus, 
to whom Hippias gave his daughter Arehedice 
in marriage. — 2. A tragic poet of Alexandrea, 
one of the tragic Pleiades. He lived in the time 
of the second Ptolemy.] 

[iEAS (A£ac), more commonly Aous, q. «.] 

jEbura (now Cuerva), a town of the Carpe- 
tani, in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

JEbuma Gens, patrician, was distinguished 
in the early ages of the Roman republic, when 
many of its members were consuls, viz., in B.C. 
499, 463, and 442. 

iEcA or JEgm (jEcanus), a town of Apulia, on 
the road from Aquilonia in Samnium to Venusia. 

jEculanum or jEclanum. a town of the Hir- 
pini in Samnium, a few miles south of Bene- 
ventum. 

jEdepsus (A.l6t]ipoc : klSijipLOQ : now Dipso), 
a town on the western coast of Eubcea, north 
of Chalcis, with warm baths (still famous), sa- 
cred to Hercules, which the dictator Sulla used. 

Aedon ('AtjSov), daughter of Pandareus of 
Ephesus, wife of Zethus, king of Thebes, and 
mother of Itylus. Envious of Niobe, the wife 
14 



JSGjEON. 

of her brother Amphion, who had six sons and 
six daughters, she resolved to kill the eldest of 
Niobe's sons, but by mistake slew her own son 
Itylus. Jupiter (Zeus) relieved her grief by 
changing her into a nightingale, whose melan- 
choly notes are represented by the poets as 
Aedon's lamentations about her child. Aedon's 
story is related differently in a later tradition. 

.<Edui or Hedtji, one of the most powerful 
people in Gaul, lived between the Liger (now 
Loire) and the Arar (now Saone), They were 
the first Gallic people who made an alliance 
with the Romans, by whom they were called 
"brothers and relations." On Caesar's arrival 
in Gaul, B.C. 58, they were subject tc Ariovis- 
tus, but were restored by Cassar to their former 
power. In B.C. 52 they joined in the insurrec- 
tion of Vercingetorix against the Romans, but 
were at the close of it treated leniently by Cae- 
sar. Their principal town was Bibracte. Their 
chief magistrate, elected annually by the priests, 
was called Vergobretus. 

jEetes or jEeta (AZ^r^f), son of Helios (the 
Sun) and Perseis, and brother of Circe, Pasi- 
phae, and Perses. His wife was Idyia, a daugh- 
ter of Oceanus, by whom he had two daughters, 
Medea and Chalciope, and one son, Absyrt^us. 
He was king of Colchis at the time when Phrix- 
us came thither on the ram with the golden 
fleece. For the remainder of his history, see 
Absyrttjs, Argonauts, Jason, Medea, and 
Phrixtjs. — [2. This name was also borne by 
later kings of Colchis, as mentioned by Xeno- 
phon in the Anabasis, and Strabo, who says it 
was a common appellation of the kings of Col- 
chis.] 

jEetis, ^Eetias, and jEetine, patronymics of 
Medea, daughter of ^Eetes. 

jEga (klyrf), daughter of Olenus, who, with 
her sister Helice, nursed the infant Jupiter 
(Zeus) in Crete, and was changed by the god 
into the constellation Capella. 

Mqm (Alyai : Aiyalog). 1. A town in Aeha 
ia on the Crathis, with a celebrated temple of 
Neptune (Poseidon), was originally one of the 
twelve Achasan towns, but its inhabitants sub- 
sequently removed to ^Egira. — 2. A town in 
Emathia, in Macedonia, the burial-place of the 
Macedonian kings, was probably a different 
place from Edessa. — 3. A town in Eubcea with 
a celebrated temple of Neptune (Poseidon), who 
was hence called iEgaeus. — 4. Also Mai&m. (Ai- 
yalai : Alyear^c), one of the twelve cities of 
jEolis in Asia Minor, north of Smyrna, on the 
River Hyllus : it suffered greatly from an earth- 
quake in the time of Tiberius. — 5. (Now Ayas), 
a sea-port town of Cilicia Campestris, at the 
mouth of the Pyramus. 

[^Egjea (Aiyaia), an appellation of Venus 
(Aphrodite), from her being worshiped in the 
isles of the iEgean.] 

jEgjson (Aiyaiuv), son of Uranus by Gaea. 
-iEgaeon and his brothers Gyges and Cottus are 
known under the name of the Uranids, and are 
described as huge monsters with a hundred 
arms (kK.ar6yxBtpsg) and fifty heads. Most writ- 
ers mention the third Uranid under the name 
of Briareus instead of ^Egaeon, which is explain- 
ed by Homer (//., i., 403), who says that men 
called him ^Egaeon, but the gods Briareus. Ac- 
cording to the most ancient tradition, JEgason 



MGMJJM MARE. 



^EGIMIUS. 



and his brothers conquered the Titans when 
they made war upon the gods, and secured the 
victory to Jupiter (Zeus), who thrust the Titans 
into Tartarus, and placed JEgeeon and his broth- 
ers to guard them. Other legends represent 
./Egason as one of the giants who attacked Olym- 
pus ; and many writers represent him as a ma- 
rine god living in the .iEgean Sea. .ZEgaaon and 
his brothers must be .regarded as personifica- 
tions of the extraordinary powers of nature, 
such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the 
like. 

-iEgjEUM Mare (to Alyaiov nelayoc, 6 Alyalog 
TTovrog), the part of the Mediterranean now 
called the Archipelago. It was bounded on the 
north by Thrace and Macedonia, on the west 
by Greece, and on the east by Asia Minor. It 
contains in its southern part two groups of 
islands, the Cyclades, which were separated 
from the coasts of Attica and Peloponnesus by 
the Myrtoan Sea, and the Sporades, lying off 
the coasts of Caria and Ionia. The part of the 
iEgaean which washed the Sporades was called 
the Icarian Sea, from the Island Icaria, one of 
the Sporades. The origin of the name of iEgffi- 
an is uncertain ; some derive it from iEgseus, 
the king of Athens who threw himself into it ; 
others from jEgaea, a queen of the Amazons, 
who perished there: others from Mg!& in Eu- 
boea ; and others from alyig, a squall, on account 
of its storms. 

M<3,MV&J(Alyaiog). Vid. JEgje, No. 3. 

^iEgaleos (AiydXeug , to AlydXeov bpog : now 
Skar'manga), a mountain in Attica, opposite Sal- 
amis, from which Xerxes saw the defeat of his 
fleet, B.C. 480. — [2. (to" Aiyateov, . now Mali), 
a mountain of Messenia, extending to Cory- 
phasium.] 

^Egates, the goat islands, were three islands 
off the west coast of Sicily, between Drepanum 
and Lilybaeum, near which the Romans gained 
a naval victory over the Carthaginians, and 
thus brought the first Punic war to an end, 
B.C. 241. The islands were ^Egusa (Aiyovaaa) 
or Capraria (now Favignana), Phorbantaa (now 
Levanzo), and Hiera (now Maretimo). 

JSgeria or Egeria, one of the Camenas in 
Roman mythology, from whom Numa received 
his instructions respecting the forms of Worship 
which he introduced. The grove in which the 
king had his interviews with the goddes*s, and 
in which a well gushed forth from a dark re- 
cess, was dedicated by him to the Camenaj. 
The Roman legends point out two distinct 
places sacred to ^Egeria, one near Aricia, and 
the other near Rome, at the Porta Capena, in 
the valley now called Caparella. ./Egeria was 
regarded as a prophetic divinity, and also as the 
giver of life, whence she was invoked by preg- 
nant women. [Niebuhr places the grove of 
Egeria below 8. Balbina, near the baths of Car- 
acalla. Wagner, in a dissertation on this sub- 
ject, is in favor of the valley of Caffarella, some 
few miles from the present gate of S. Sebastian^ 

JSgesta. Vid. Segesta. 

jEgestus. Vid. Aoestes. 

JSgeus (Alyevg). 1. Son of Pandion and king 
of Athens. He had no children by his first two 
wives, but he afterward begot Theseds by 
iEthra at Trcezen. When Theseus had grown 
up to manhood, he went to Athens and defeated 



the fifty sons of his uncle Pallas, who had made 
war upon -<Egeus, and had deposed him. Mg- 
eus was now restored. When Theseus went to 
Crete to deliver Athens from the tribute it had 
to pay to Minos, he promised his father that on 
his return he would hoist white sails as a signal 
of his safety. On approaching the coast of At- 
tica he forgot his promise, and his father, per 
ceiving the black sail, thought that his son had 
perished, and threw himself into the sea, which, 
according to some traditions, received from this 
event the name of the uEgean. Mgeus was one 
of the eponymous heroes of Attica ; and one of 
the Attic tribes (^Egeis) derived its name from 
him. — 2. The eponymous hero of the phyle 
called the iEgldoe at Sparta, son of (Eolycus, 
and grandson of Theras, the founder of the col- 
ony in Thera. All the jEge'ids were believed 
to be Cadmeans, who formed a settlement at 
Sparta previous to the Dorian conquest. 

Mgim (Aiyecat, Alyalai), a small town in La- 
conia, not far from Gythium, the Augiffi of Ho- 
mer (11., ii., 583). 

^Egiale or jEgialea (AlyidXr], AlyidXeia), 
daughter of Adrastus and Amphithea, or of 
^Egialeus, the son of Adrastus, whence she is 
called Adrastine. She was married to Diome- 
des, who, on his return from Troy, found her 
living in adultery with Cometea. The hero at- 
tributed this misfortune to the anger of Venus 
(Aphrodite), whom he had wounded in the war 
against Troy : when iEgiale threatened his life, 
he fled into Italy. 

^Egialea, ^Egialos. Vid. Aobaia : Sicton. 

^Egialeus (AlyiaXevg). 1. Son of Adrastus, 
the only one among the Epigoni that fell in the 
war against Thebes. Vid. Adrastus. — 2. Son 
of Inachus and the Oceanid Melia, from whom 
the part of Peloponnesus afterward called Acha- 
ia [was fabled to have] derived its name iEgia- 
lea : he is said to have been the first king of 
Sicyon. — 3. Son of -<Eetes, and brother of Medea, 
commonly called Absyrtus. 

^Egides (Alyd5r]c), a patronymic from Mg- 
eus, especially his son Theseus. 

jEgila (tS, AlyiXa), a town of Laconia, with 
a temple of Ceres (Demeter). 

jEgilia (Ab/ikla : AlycTlievc). 1. A demus 
of Attica belonging to the tribe Antiochis, cele- 
brated for its figs. — 2. (Now Cerigotto), an island 
between Crete and Cythera. — 3 [^Egilia (Aiyi- 
Xua, ffdt.).] An island west of Eubcea and op- 
posite Attica. 

^Egimius (Aiyl/iiog), the mythical ancestor of 
the Dorians, whose king he was when they were 
yet inhabiting the northern parts of Thessaly. 
Involved in a war with the Lapithse, he called 
Hercules to his assistance, and promised him 
the third part of his territory if he delivered 
him from his enemies. The Lapithaa were con- 
quered. Hercules did not take the territory far 
himself, but left it to the king, who was to pre- 
serve it for the sons of Hercules. ^Egimius 
had two sons, Dymas and Pamphylus, who mi- 
grated to Peloponnesus, and were regarded as 
the ancestors of two branches of the Doric race 
(Dymanes and Pamphylians), while the third 
branch derived its name from Hyllus (Hylle- 
ans,) the son of Hercules, who had been adopt- 
ed by iEgimius. There existed in antiquity an 
epic poem called jEgimius, which described the 



iEGIMURUS. 



uEGOSTHENA. 



war of ^Egimius and Hercules against the La- 
oithae. 

^Egimueus (Alyijiovpog, ^Egimori Ara3, Plin., 
and probably the Arse of Virg., JEn., i., 108 ; 
now Zowxmour or Zetnbra), a lofty island, sur- 
rounded by cliffs, off the African coast, at the 
mouth of the Gulf of Carthage. 

jEoJna (Alyiva : Aiyiv^TTjc : now Eghina), a 
rooky island in the middle of the Saronic Gulf, 
about two hundred stadia in circumference. It 
was originally called GSnone or (Enopia, and is 
said to have obtained the name of _<Egina from 
^Egina, the daughter of the river-god Asopus, 
who was carried to the island by Jupiter (Zeus), 
and there bore him a son, JEacus. As the island 
had then no inhabitants, Jupiter (Zeus) changed 
the ants into men (Myrmidones), over -whom 
iEacus ruled. Vid. Macvs. It was first colo- 
nized by Achseans, and afterward by Dorians 
from Epidaurus, whence the Doric dialect and 
customs prevailed in the island. It was at first 
closely connected with Epidaurus, and was sub- 
ject to the Argive Phidon, who ia said to have 
established a silver mint in the island. It early 
became a place of great commercial importance, 
and its silver coinage was the standard in most 
of the Dorian states. In the sixth century B.C. 
^Egina became independent, and for a century 
before the Persian war was a prosperous and 
powerful state. The ^Eginetans fought with 
thirty ships against the fleet of Xerxes at the 
battle of Salamis, B.C. 480, and are allowed to 
have distinguished themselves above all the 
other Greeks by their bravery. After this time 
its power declined. In B.C. 429 the Athenians 
took possession of the island and expelled its 
inhabitants, and though a portion of them were 
restored by Lysander in B.C. 404, the island 
never recovered its former prosperity. In the 
northwest of the island there was a city of the 
same name, which contained the jEaceum or 
temple of jSaeus, and on a hill in the northeast 
of the island was the celebrated temple of Jupi- 
ter (Zeus) Panhellenius, said to have been built 
by jEacus, the ruins of which are still extant. 
The sculptures which occupied the tympana of 
the pediment of this temple were discovered in 
1811, and are now preserved at Munich. In 
the half century preceding the Persian war, and 
for a few years afterward, iEgina was the chief 
seat of Greek art : the most eminent artists of 
the iEginetan school were Callon, Anaxagoras, 
Glaucias, Simon, and Onatas. 

[jEgina (Alyiva), daughter of Asopus, and 
mother of jEacus, q. v. and foregoing article.] 

^Egineta Paulus. Vid. Paulus JEgineta. 

iE&iNiuii (Aiyivtov : Aiyivievg : now Stagus), 
a town of the Tymphaei in Thessaly, on the con- 
fines of Athamania. 

^Egioohus (Alyioxoc), a surname of Jupiter 
(Zeus), because he bore the aegis. 

JEgipan (Aly'nrav), that is, Goat-Pan, was, 
according to some, a being distinct from Pan, 
while others regard him as identical with Pan. 
His story appears to be of late origin. Vid, Pan. 

jEgiplanctus Mons (to Aly'mXayKTov opog), 
a mountain in Megaris. 

jEgira (Alyupa: Alyeiparrig), formerly Hy- 
peresia ('yirepTjaia), a town in Achaia on a steep 
hill, with a sea-port about twelve stadia from 
the town. Vid. .iEg^e, No. 1. 
16 



[-<Egib0s (Aiyeipog), a village in the island of 
Lesbos, supposed by some scholars to be the 
town of JEolis alluded to by Herodotus under 
the name jEgirussa, but Herodotus says expli- 
citly that the towns there mentioned were on the 
main land.] 

jEgirussa (Aiyipoecoa, Alyipovoaa), one of 
the cities of ^Eolis in Asia Minor. 

^Egisthds (Aiyio-dog), son of Thyestes, who 
unwittingly begot him by his own daughter Pe- 
lopia. Immediately after his birth he was ex- 
posed, but was saved by shepherds, and suckled 
by a goat (all;), whence his name. His uncle 
Atreus brought him up as his son. When Pe- 
lopia lay with her father, she took from him his 
sword, which she afterward gave to ^Egisthus. 
This sword was the means of revealing the 
crime of Thyestes, and Pelopia thereupon put 
an end to ner own life. JEgisthus murdered 
Atreus, because he had ordered him to slay his 
father Thyestes, and he pjaced Thyestes upon 
the throne, of which he had been deprived by 
Atreus. Homer appears to know nothing of 
these tragic events ; and we learn from him 
only that JEgisthus succeeded his father Thy- 
estes in a part of his dominions. According to 
Homer, jEgisthus took no part in the Trojan 
war, and during the absence of Agamemnon, 
the son of Atreus, _<Egisthus seduced his wife 
Clytemuestra. jEgisthus murdered Agamem- 
non on his return home, and reigned seven 
years over Mycenae. In the eighth, Orestes, 
the son of Agamemnon, avenged the death of 
his father by putting the adulterer to death. 
Vid. Agamemnon, Clytemnestra, Orestes. 

jEgithallus (AiyldaTJaog : now C. di S. Teo- 
doro), a promontory in Sicily, between Lily- 
baeum and Drepanum, near which was the town 
iEgithallum. 

2Egitium (Alycnov : near Varnakova, Leake) 
a town in ^Etolia, on the borders of Locris. 

jEgidm (Alyiov: Aiyievg: now Vostitza), a 
town of Achaia, and the capital after the de- 
struction of Heliee. The meetings of tha 
Achaean League were held at iEgimn in a grov<s 
of Jupiter (Zeus), called Homarium. 

jEgle (Aiyli)), that is, " Brightness" or " Splen 
dor," is the name of several mythological fe 
males, such as, 1. The daughter of Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Neaara, the most beautiful of the Naiads. — 
2. A sister of Phaethon. — 3. One of the Hesper 
ides. — 4. A nymph beloved by Theseus, foi 
whom he forsook Ariadne. — 5. One of the daugh 
ters of jEsculapius. 

jEgletes (AiyA?jrtic), that is, the radiant god 
a surname of Apollo, 

jEgocerus (AlyoKepag), a surname of Pan 
descriptive of his figure with the horns of s 
goat, but more commonly the name of one of 
the signs of the Zodiac, Capricornus. 

./Egos-Potamos (Aiyog ■Korafiog [more usual!) 
in good authors, Alybg -xorajioi ; in Latin writers 
jjSgos Flumen ; AZyof Trora/ur^c]), the " goat's 
river," a small river, with a fown of the sanu 
name on it, [now probably Galata], in the Thra 
cian Chersonesus, flows into the Hellesponl 
Here the Athenians were defeated by Lysandei 
B.C. 405. 

jEgosthena (Aiyoudeva : Alyoodevtvc; : Aiyo 
cdevlTTjg), a town in Megaris, on the borders ol 
Bceotia, with a sanctuary of Melampv* 



^EGUS, 



jEGYPTUS. 



^Egos and Roscillus, two chiefs of the Allo- 
broges, who had served Caesar with fidelity in 
the Gallic war, deserted to Pompey in Greece 
(B.C. 48). 

JEGUSA. Vid. LEGATES. 

^Egypsus or J5gysus, a town of Mcesia on 
the Danube. 

[-iEgyptius (MyviTTLog), an Ithacan hero, of 
noble descent and much experience, who open- 
ed the first assembly of the people called after 
the departure of Ulysses for Troy.] 

^Egyptus (AlyvwToe), a son of Belus and An- 
chinoe or Achiroe, and twin-brother of Danaus. 
Belus assigned Libya to Danaus, and Arabia to 
iEgyptus, but the latter subdued the country of 
the Melampodes, which he called Egypt, after 
his own name. iEgyptus by his several wives 
had fifty sons, and his brother Danaus fifty 
daughters. Danaus had reason to fear the sons 
of his brother, and fled with his daughters to 
Argos in Peloponnesus. Thither he was fol- 
lowed by the sons of jEgyptus, who demanded 
his daughters for their wives, and promised 
faithful alliance. Danaus complied with their 
request, and distributed his daughters among 
them, but to each of them he gave a dagger, 
with which they were to kill their husbands in 
the bridal night. All the sons of ^Egyptus were 
thus murdered, with the exception of Lynceus, 
who was saved by Hypermnestra. The Danaids 
buried the heads of their murdered husbands in 
Lerna, and their bodies outside the town, and 
were afterwards purified of their crime by Mi- 
nerva (Athena) and Mercury (Hermes) at the 
command of Jupiter (Zeus). 

^Egyptus (fi AlyvizTog : AIjvktloc, iEgyptius : 
now Egypt), a country in the northeastern cor- 
ner of Africa, bounded on the north by the Med- 
iterranean, on the east by Palestine, Arabia Pe- 
traea, and the Red Sea, on the south by Ethiopia, 
the division between the two countries being at 
the First or Little Cataract of the Kile, close to 
Syene (now Assouan: lat. 24° 8'), and on the 
west by the Great Lybian Desert. This is the 
extent usually assigned to the country ; but it 
would be more strictly correct to define it as 
that part of the basin of the Nile which lies be- 
low the First Cataract. 

i. Physical Description of Egypt. — The River 
Nile, flowing from south to north through a nar- 
row valley, encounters, in lat. 24° 8', a natural 
barrier, composed of two islands (Philae and Ele- 
phantine), and between them a bed of sunken 
rocks, by which it is made to fall in a series 
of cataracts, or rather rapids, (to KardSovrra, 6 
(iLKpbg Kara^pdnrrjc, Catarrhactes Minor, com- 
pare Cataerhaotes), which have always been 
regarded as the southern limit assigned by na- 
ture to Egypt. The river flows due north be- 
tween two ranges of hills, so near each other 
as to leave scarcely any cultivable land, as far 
as Silsilis (uow Jebel Selseleh), about forty miles 
below Syene, where the valley is enlarged by 
the western range of hills retiring from the 
river. Thus the Nile flows for about five hun- 
dred miles, through a valley whose average 
breadth is about seven miles, between hills 
which in one place (west of Thebes) attain the 
height of ten or twelve hundred feet above the 
sea, to a point some few miles below Memphis, 
where the western range of hills runs to the 
2 



northwest, and the eastern range strikes off U 
the east, and the river divides into branches 
(seven in ancient time, but now only two), which 
flow through a low alluvial land, called, from its 
shape, the Delta, into the Mediterranean. To 
this valley and Delta must be added the coun- 
try round the great natural lake Mceris (now 
Birket-el-Keroun), called Nomos Arsino'ites (now 
Faioum), lying northwest of Heraeleopolis, and 
connected with the Valley of the Nile by a break 
in the western range of hills. The whole dis- 
trict thus described is periodically laid under 
water by the overflowing of the Nile from April 
to October. The river, in subsiding, leaves be- 
hind a rich deposit of fine mud, which forms 
the soil of Egypt. All beyond the reach of the 
inundation is rock or sand. Hence Egypt was 
called the " Gift of the Nile." The extent of the 
cultivable land of Egypt is in the Delta about 
4500 square miles, in the valley about 2255, in 
Faioum about 340, and in all about 7095 square 
miles. The outlying portions of ancient Egypt 
consisted of three cultivable valleys (called Oa- 
ses), in the midst of the Western or Libyan 
Desert, a valley in the western range of hills on 
the west of the Delta, called Nomos Nitriotes 
from the Natron Lakes which it contains, some 
settlements on the coast of the Red Sea, and in 
the mountain passes between it and the Nile, 
and a strip of coast on the Mediterranean, ex- 
tending east as far as Rhinocolura (now El- 
Arish), and west as far (according to some of 
the ancients) as the Catabathmus Magnus (long, 
about 25° 10' E.). The only river of Egypt is 
the Nile. Vid. Nuns. A great artificial canal 
(the Bahr-Yussouf, i. e, Joseph's Canal) runs 
parallel to the river, at the distance of about six 
miles from Diospolis Parva, in the Thebais, to 
a point on the west mouth of the river about 
half way between Memphis and the sea. Many 
smaller canals were cut to regulate the irriga 
tion of the country. A canal from the eastern 
mouth of the Nile to the head of the Red Sea 
was commenced under the native kings, and 
finished by Darius, son of Hystaspes. Thero 
were several lakes in the country, respecting 
which vid. Mqsris, Mareotis, Butos, Tanis, 
Sirbonis, and Lachs Amari. 

2. Ancient History. — At the earliest period tt 
which civil history reaches back, Egypt was 
inhabited by a highly civilized agricultural peo 
pie, under a settled monarchical government 
divided into castes, the highest of which was 
composed of the priests, who were the minis 
ters of a religion based on a pantheistic worship 
of nature, and having for its sacred symbols not 
only images, but also living animals and even 
plants. The priests were also in possession of 
all the literature and science of the country, and 
all the employments based upon such knowl- 
edge. The other castes were, second, the sol 
diers ; third, the husbandmen ; fourth, the art 
ificers and tradesmen ; and last, held in great 
contempt, the shepherds or herdsmen, poulter 
ers, fishermen, and servants. The Egyptians 
possessed a written language, which appears to 
have had affinities with both the great families 
of Language, the Semitic and the Indo-Euro 
pean ; and the priestly caste had, moreover 
the exclusive knowlege of a sacred system of 
writing, the characters of which are known by 
17 



J5GYPTUS 



J3GYPTUS. 



the name of Hieroglyphics, in contradistinction 
to which the common characters are called En- 
chorial (i.e., of the country). They were ac- 
quainted with all the processes of manufacture 
which are essential to a highly civilized com- 
munity : they had made great advances in the 
fine arts, especially architecture and sculpture 
(for in painting their progress was impeded by a 
want of knowledge of perspective) ; they were 
deterred from commercial enterprise by the poli- 
cy of the priests, but they obtained foreign pro- 
ductions to a great extent, chiefly through the 
Phoenicians, and at a later period they engaged 
in maritime expeditions ; in science they do not 
seem to have advanced so far as some have 
thought, but their religion led them to cultivate 
astronomy and its application to chronology, and 
the nature of their country made a knowledge 
of geometry (in its literal sense) indispensable, 
and their application of its principles to architect- 
ure is attested by their extant edifices. There 
can be little doubt that the origin of this remark- 
able people and of their early civilization is to 
be traced to the same Asiatic source as the 
early civilization of Assyria and India. The 
ancient history of Egypt may be divided into 
four great periods : (1.) From the earliest times 
to its conquest by Cambyses ; during which it 
was ruled by a succession of native princes, into 
the difficulties of whose history this is not the 
place to inquire. The last of them, Psammen- 
itus, was conquered and dethroned by Cambyses 
in B.C. 525, when Egypt became a province of 
the Persian empire. During this period Egypt 
was but little known to the Greeks. The Ho- 
meric poems show some slight acquaintance 
with the country and its river (which is also 
called Alyv-KTOC, Od., xiv., 25), and refer to the 
wealth and splendor of " Thebes with the Hund- 
red Gates." In the latter part of the period 
learned men among the Greeks began to travel 
to Egypt for the sake of studying its institu- 
tions ; among others, it was visited by Pythag- 
oras, Thales, and Solon. (2.) From the Persian 
conquest in B.C. 525, to the transference of their 
dominion to the Macedonians in B.C. 332. This 
period was one of almost constant struggles be- 
tween the Egyptians and their conquerors, until 

B. C. 340, when JSTectanebo II., the last native 
ruler of Egypt, was defeated by Darius Ochus. 
It was during this period that the Greeks acquir- 
ed a considerable knowledge of Egypt. In the 
wars between Egypt and Persia, the two leading 
states of Greece, Athens and Sparta, at different 
times assisted the Egyptians, according to the 
state of their relations to each other and to Per- 
sia; and, during the intervals of those wars, 
Egypt was visited by Greek historians and phi- 
losophers, such as Hellanicus, Herodotus, An- 
axagoras, Plato, and others, who brought back 
to Greece the knowledge of the country which 
they acquired from the priests and through per- 
sonal observation. (3.) The dynasty of Mace- 
donian kings, from the accession of Ptolemy, 
the son of Lagus, in B.C. 323, down to B.C. 30, 
when Egypt became a province of the Roman 
empire. " When Alexander invaded Egypt in B. 

C. 332, the country submitted to him without a 
struggle ; and while he left it behind him to re- 
turn to the conquest of Persia, he conferred upon 
it the greatest benefit that was in his power, by 

18 



giving orders for the building of Alexandrea In 
the partition of the empire of Alexander after 
his death in B.C. 323, Egypt fell to the share 
of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, who assumed the 
title of King in B.C. 306, and founded the dynas- 
ty of the Ptolemies, under whom the country 
greatly flourished, and became the chief seat of 
Greek learning. But soon came the period of 
decline. Wars with the adjacent kingdom of 
Syria, and the vices, weaknesses, and dissen- 
sions of the royal family, wore out the state, 
till in B.C. 81 the Romans were called upon to 
interfere in the disputes for the crown, and in 
B.C. 55 the dynasty of the Ptolemies came to 
be entirely dependent on Roman protection, and 
at last, after the battle of Aetium and the death 
of Cleopatra, who was the last of the Ptolemies, 
Egypt was made a Roman province, B.C. 30. 
(4.) Egypt under the Romans, down to its con- 
quest by the Arabs in A.D. 638. As a Roman 
province, Egypt was one of the most flourish- 
ing portions of the empire. The fertility of its 
soil, and its position between Europe and Ara- 
bia and India, together with the possession of 
such a port as Alexandrea, gave it the full bene- 
fit of the two great sources of wealth, agricul- 
ture and commerce. Learning continued to 
flourish at Alexandrea, and the patriarchs of the 
Christian Church in that city became so power- 
ful as to contend for supremacy with those of 
Antioch, Constantinople, and Rome, while a 
succession of teachers, such as Origen and 
Clement of Alexandrea, conferred real lustre 
on the ecclesiastical annals of the country. 
When the Arabs made their great inroad upon 
the Eastern empire, the geographical position 
of Egypt naturally caused it to fall an imme- 
diate victim to that attack, which its wealth 
and the peaceful character of its inhabitants in- 
vited. It was conquered by Amrou, the lieu- 
tenant of the Calif Omar, in A.D. 638. 

3. Political Geography. — From the earliest 
times the country was divided into (1.) The 
Delta, or Lower Egypt (to AeAra, r] naru %upa 
now El-Bahari, El-Kebit) ; (2.) The Heptanomis, 
or Middle Egypt ('EwTavo/iic,-!/ /xera^v ^wpa, now 
Mesr Mostani) ; (3.) The Thebais, or Upper Egypt, 
(&Tj6atc, 7} dvu X"P a ' now Said) : and it was fur- 
ther subdivided into thirty-six nomes or govern- 
ments. [Under the Ptolemies the number of 
nomes became enlarged, partly by reason of the 
new and improved state of things in that quar- 
ter of Egypt where Alexandrea was situated, 
partly by the addition of the Greater or Lesser 
Oasis to Egypt, and partly, also, by the altera- 
tions which an active commerce had produced 
along the borders of the Sinus Arabicus. A 
change also took place about this same period 
in the three main divisions of the country. 
Lower Egypt, now no longer confined itself to 
the limits of the Delta, but had its extent en- 
larged by the addition of some of the neighbor 
ing nomes. In like manner, Upper Egypt, or 
the Thebais, received a portion of what had 
formerly been included within the limits of Mid- 
dle Egypt, so that eventually but seven nomes 
remained to this last-mentioned section of the 
country, which, therefore, received the name 
of Heptanomis. The number of nomes became 
still further increased, at a subsequent period, 
by various subdivisions of the older ones. At 



^EGYS. 



-ZENEADES. 



i still later period we Lear little more of the 
floraes. A new division of the country took 
place under the Eastern empire. An imperial 
prefect exercised sway not only over Egypt, 
but also over Libya as far as Cyrene, while a 
Comes jllilitaris had charge of the forces. From 
this time the whole of Middle Egypt, previous- 
ly named Heptanomis, bore the name of Arcadia, 
in honor of Arcadius, eldest son of Theodosius. 
A new province had also arisen, a considerable 
time before this, called Augustamnica, from its 
lying chiefly along the Nile. It comprised the 
eastern half of the Delta, together with a por- 
tion of Arabia, as far as the Arabian Gulf, and 
also the cities on the Mediterranean as far as 
the frontiers of Syria. Its capital was Pelu- 
sium.] Respecting the Oases, vid. Oasis. 

.iEgys (Alyvc, Aiyvrrjc, Alyvevc: near Ghior- 
gitza), a town of Laconia on the borders of Ar- 
cadia. 

_<Elana (AlXava : AlTiavfrnc : now Akaba), a 
towu on the northern arm of the Red Sea, near 
the Bahr-el-Akaba, which was called by the 
Greeks JElanltes, from the name of the town. It 
is the Elath of the Hebrews, and one of the sea- 
ports of which Solomon possessed himself, to 
carry on trade with Ophir and the remote East. 

JEiLik Gens, plebeian, the members of which 
are given under their surnames, Gallus, Lamia, 
Pectus, Sejanus, Stilo, Tubero. 

^Elia, a name given to Jerusalem after its 
restoration by the Roman emperor iElius Ha- 
drianus. 

[^Elia, a name of females of the JElia gens. 
1. Wife of Sulla. — 2. Patina, of the family of 
theTuberos, and wife of the Emperor Claudius. 
She was repudiated by him in order to make 
way for Messalina.] 

JElianus, Claudius, was born at Prseneste 
in Italy, and lived at Rome about the middle of 
the third century of the Christian era. Though 
an Italian, he spoke and wrote Greek as well as 
a native Athenian. He never married, and lived 
to the age of sixty. Two of his works have 
come down to us : one a collection of miscel- 
laneous history (JloiniXn 'laropia), in fourteen 
books, commonly called Varia Historia; and 
the other a work on the peculiarities of animals 
(Tlspl Z6o)v idioTriTog), in seventeen books, com- 
monly called Be Animalium Natura. The for- 
mer work contains short narrations and anec- 
dotes, historical, biographical, antiquariau, &c, 
selected from various authors, generally with- 
out their names being given, and on a great 
variety of subjects. The latter work is of the 
same kind, scrappy and gossipping. It is part- 
ly collected from older writers, and partly the 
result of his own observations both in Italy and 
abroad. There are also attributed to him twen- 
ty letters on husbandry ('AypoiKtual 'E/noro/lat), 
written in a rhetorical style and of no value. — 
Editions : Of the Varia Historia, by Perizonius, 
Leyden, 1701 ; by Gronovius, Leyden, 1731; 
and by Kiihn, Le*ipsic, 1780. Of the Be Ani- 
malium Natura, by Gronovius, Loudon, 1744 ; 
by J. Schneider, Leipsic,' 1784 ; and by Fr. Ja- 
cobs, Jena,- 1832. Of the Letters, by Aldus 
Mauutius, in the Collectio Epistolarum Grxca- 
rum, Venice, 1499, 4to. 

[^Elianus, Lucius, one of the thirty tyrants 
under the Roman empire, about 267 A.D., who 



assumed the imperial purple in Gaul, but was 
killed by his own soldiers.] 

' jElianus Meccius, an ancient physician, who 
must have lived in the second century after 
Christ, as -he is mentioned by Galea as the 
oldest of his tutors. 

jElianus Tacticus, a Greek writer, who lived 
in Rome and wrote a work on the Military Tac- 
tics of the Greeks (TLepl IrparnyucCiv Tu&uv 
'EXXnviKuv), dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian. 
He also gives a brief account of the constitu 
tion of a Roman army at that time. — Editions . 
By Frauciscus Robortellus, Venice, 1552 ; and 
by Elzevir, Leyden, 1613. 

Aello, one of the Harpies. Vid. Haupyle. 

Aellopus ('AeXXoKovc), a surname of Iris, the 
messenger of the gods, by which she is described 
as swift-footed as a storm-wind. 

^Emilia. 1. The third daughter of L. JSmil- 
ius Paulus, who fell in the battle of Cannse, was 
the wife of Scipio Africanus I. and the mother 
of the celebrated Cornelia, the mother of the 
Gracchi. — 2. ^Emilia Lepida. Vid. Lepida. — 
3. A Vestal virgin, put to death B.C. 114 for 
having violated her vows upon several occa- 
sions. 

^Emilia Gens, one of the most ancient patri- 
cian gentes at Rome, said to have been descend- 
ed from Mamercus, who received the name of 
^Emilius on account of the persuasiveness of 
his language (oV alfivXiav Xoyov). This Mamer- 
cus is represented by some as the son of Py- 
thagoras, and by others as the son of Numa. 
The most distinguished members of the geus 
are given under their surnames, Barbula, Lep- 
idus, Mamercus or Mamercinus, Papus, Pau- 
lus, Regillus, Scaurus. 

^Emilia Via, made by M. ^Emihus Lepidus, 
cos. B.C. 187, continued the Via Flaminia from 
Ariminum, and traversed the heart of Cisalpine 
Gaul through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, Placen- 
tia (where it crossed the Po) to Mediolanum. It 
was subsequently continued as far as Aquileia. 

uEmilianus. 1. The son of L. jEmilius Pau 
lus Macedonicus, was adopted by P. Cornelius 
Scipio, the son of P. Cornelius Seipio Africanus, 
and was thus called P. Cornelius Scipio ^Emil- 
ianus Africanus. Vid. Scipio. — 2. The govern- 
or of Paunonia and Mcesia in the reign of Gal- 
lus, was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers in 
A.D. 253, but was slain by them after reigning 
a few months. — 3. One of the thirty tyrants 
(A.D. 259-268), assumed the purple in Egypt, 
but was taken prisoner and strangled by order 
of Gallienus. 

^Emilius Probus. Vid. Nepos, Cornelius. 

[^Emod^e Insula. Vid. H^emod^e.] 

^Emona or Emona (now Laibach), a fortified 
town in Pannonia, and an important Roman 
colony, said to have been built by the Argonauts. 

-iEnaria, also called Pithecusa and Inarime 
(now Ischia), a volcanic island off the coast of 
Campania, at the entrance of the Bay of Na- 
ples, under which the Roman poets represent- 
ed Typhoeus as lying. 

^Enea (AlvEia : Aiveuvc, Aiveidrric), a town 
in Chalcidiee, on the Thermaic Gulf. — [2. ./Enea 
Vetus, a city near the Achelous, in Acarnania, 
in Strabo's time destroyed : further south was 
JEnea Nona, now in ruins, near Palmo Catouna.~\ 

jEneades (Aiveid^T/c), a patronymic froru 
19 



^ENEAS 



jENTJS. 



i 



iEneas, given to his son Ascanius or lulus, and 
to those who were believed to be descended 
from him, such as Augustus, and the Romans 
in general. 

JEneas (Aivsiac). 1. Homeric Story. jEneas 
was the son of Anchises and Venus (Aphrodite), 
and born on Mount Ida. On his father's side 
he was a great-grandson of Tros, and thus near- 
ly related to the royal house of Troy, as Priam 
himsalf was a grandson of Tros. He was edu- 
cated from his infancy at Dardanus, in the house 
of Alcathous, the husband of his sister. At first 
he took no part in the Trojan war ; and it was 
not till Achilles attacked him on Mount Ida, 
and drove away his flocks, that he led his Dar- 
danians against the Greeks. Henceforth he 
and Hector are the great bulwarks of the Tro- 
jans against the Greeks, and iEneas appears 
beloved by gods and men. On more than one 
occasion he is saved in battle by the gods : 
Venus (Aphrodite) carried him off when he was 
wounded by Diomedes, and Neptune (Poseidon), 
when he was on the point of perishing by the 
hands of Achilles. Homer makes no allusion 
to the emigration of ^Eneas after the capture 
of Troy, but, on the contrary, he evidently con- 
ceives JEneas and his descendants as reigning 
at Troy after the extinction of the house of 
Priam. — Later Stories. The later stories pre- 
sent the greatest variations respecting the con- 
duet of .(Eneas at the capture of Troy and in 
the events immediately following. Most ac- 
counts, however, agree that after the city had 
fallen, he withdrew to Mount Ida with his friends 
and the images of the gods, especially that of 
Pallas (the Palladium) ; and that from thence 
he crossed over to Europe, and finally settled in 
Latium in Italy, where he became the ancestral 
hero of the Romans. A description of the wan- 
derings of .iEneas before he reached Latium, 
and of the various towns and temples he was 
believed to have founded during his wander- 
ings, is given by Dionysius of Halicarnassus 
(i., 50, &c), whose account is, on the whole, the 
same as th% one followed by Virgil in his jEneid, 
although the latter makes various embellish- 
ments and additions, some of which, such as 
his landing at Carthage and meeting with Dido, 
are irreconcilable with mythical chronology. 
From Pallene, where iEueas stayed the winter 
after the taking of Troy, he sailed with his com- 
panions to Delos, Cythera, Boia? in Laconia, 
Zacynthus, Leucas, Actium, Ambracia, and to 
Dodona, where he met the Trojan Helenus. 
From Epirus he sailed across the Ionian Sea to 
Italy, where he landed at the Iapygian promon- 
tory. Thence he crossed over to Sicily, where 
he met the Trojans, Elymus and uEgestus (Aces- 
tes), and built the towns of Elyme and ^Egesta. 
From Sicily he sailed back to Italy, landed in 
the port of Palinurus, came to the Island of 
Leucasia, and at last to the coast of Latium. 
Various signs pointed out this place as the end 
of his wanderings, and he and his Trojans ac- 
cordingly settled in Latium. The place where 
they had landed was called Troy. Latinus, 
king of the Aborigines, prepared for war, but 
afterward concluded an alliance with the strau- 
gers, gave up to them part of his dominions, and 
with their assistance conquered the Rutuliaus. 
^Eneas founded the town of Lavinium, called 
20 



after Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus, whom he 
married. A new war then followed between 
Latinus and Turnus, in which both chiefs fell, 
whereupon _<Eneas became sole ruler of the 
Aborigines and Trojans, and both nations were 
united into one. Soon after this iEneas fell in a 
battle with the Rutulians, who were assisted 
by Mezentius, king of the Etruscans. As his 
body was not found after the battle, it was be- 
lieved that it had been carried up to heaven, 
or that he had perished in the River Numicius. 
The Latins erected a monument to him, with 
the inscription To the father and native god. 
Virgil represents JEneas landing in Italy seven 
years after the fall of Troy, and comprises all 
the events in Italy from the landing to the death 
of Turnus, within the space of twenty days. 
The story of the descent of the Romans from 
the Trojans through .(Eneas was believed at an 
early period, but probably rests on no historical 
fouudation. — 2. jEneas Silvitjs, son of Silvius, 
and grandson of Ascanius, is the third in the list 
of the mythical kings of Alba in Latium : the Sil- 
vii regarded him as the founder of their house. 

.<Eneas Gaz^eus, so called from Gaza, his 
birth-place, flourished A.D. 487. He was at 
first a Platonist and a Sophist, but afterward 
became a Christian, when he composed a dia- 
logue, on the Immortality of the Soul, called 
Theophrastus. — Editions ; By Barthius, Lips., 
1655 ; By Boissonade, Par., 1886. 

jEneas Tacticus, a Greek writer, may be the 
same as the .(Eneas of Stymphalus, the general 
of the Arcadians, B.C. 362 (Xen., Hell, vii., 3 
§ 1) ; and he probably lived about that period. 
He wrote a work on the art of war, of which a 
portion only is preserved, commonly called Com 
mentarius Poliorceticus, showing how a siege 
should be resisted. An epitome of the whole 
book was made by Cineas. (Cic, ad Fam., ix.. 
25.) — Editions : By Ernesti, Lips., 1763 ; by 
Orelli, Lips., 1818. 

jEnesidemus (AivnciSn/noc), a celebrated skep- 
tic, born at Cnosus in Crete, probably lived a 
little later than Cicero. He differed on many 
points from the ordinary skeptics. The grand 
peculiarity of his system was the attempt to 
unite skepticism with the earlier philosophy, to 
raise a positive foundation for it by accounting 
from the nature of things for the never-ceasing 
changes both in the material and spiritual world. 
None of the works of jEnesidemus have come 
down to us. To them Sextus Empirieus was 
indebted for a considerable part of his work. — 
[2. (Dor. kivnaidafioc), father of Theron, tyrant 
of Agrigentum. Vid. Theuon.] 

[JEtHL Vid. jEnea.] 

^Entanes (Aa'tdi'tf, Ion. 'Eviijvec), an ancient 
Greek race, originally near Ossa, afterward in 
southern Thessaly, betweeu (Eta and Othrys, 
on the banks of the Spercheus. 

[jEni Pons (now Innsbruck), a town of Raetia, 
on the ^Enus.] 

^Enus (Alvoc: klvioc, klvMTn -. now Eno), 
an ancient town in Thrace, near the mouth of 
the Hebrus, mentioned in the Iliad. It was col- 
onized by the jEolians of Asia Minor. Virgil 
{JEn., iii., 18) supposes iEuos to have been built 
by .(Eneas, but he confouuds it with _<Enea in 
Chalcidice. Under the Romans Enos was a 
free town, and a place of importance. 



I 



mq;ui. 



jEnus (now Inn), a river in Raetia, the bound- 
ary between Rastia and Noricum. 

.Eoles or iEoLii (kio\slc), one of the chief 
branches of the Hellenic race, supposed to be 
descended from iEolus, the son of Hellen. Vid. 
jEolus, No. 1. They originally dwelt in Thes- 
saly, from whence they spread over various 
parts of Greece, and also settled in -<Eolis in 
Asia Minor, and in the Island of Lesbos. 

.EolLe Insula (ai kioTiov vi/coi : now Lipari 
Inlands), a group of islands northeast of Sicily, 
where iEolus, the god of the winds, reigned. 
Homer (Od., x., 1) mentions only one ^Eohau 
island, and Virgil (/En., i., 52) accordingly 
speaks of only one JEolia (sc. insula), where 
^Eolus reigned, supposed to be Strongyle or 
Lipara. These islands were also called Hephces- 
tlades or Vulcanice, because Hepbaastus or Vul- 
can was supposed to have had his workshop in 
one of them, called Hiera. (Virg., ^En., viii., 
415, seq.) They were also named Liparenses, 
from Lipara, the largest of them. The names 
of these islands were Lipara (now Lipari), Hiera 
(now Volcano), Strongyle (now Stromboli), Phce- 
uictisa (now Felicudi), Ericusa (now Alicudi), 
Euonymus (now Panaria), Didyme (now Sa- 
lvia), Hicesia (now Lisca Bianco), Basilidia (now 
Basilizzo), Osteodes (now Ustica). 

.Eolides (AioXtdnc), a patronymic given to 
the sons of .Eolus, as Athamas, Cretheus, Sis- 
yphus, Salmoneus, &c, and to his grandsons, 
as Cephalus, Ulysses, and Phrixus. [The name 
^Bolides, applied by Virgil (JEn., 6, 164) to Mi- 
senus, is supposed by some to have arisen from 
the legendary connection between the iEolian 
and Oampanian Cumas ; others suppose that, as 
Misenus played upon a wind-instrument, the 
poet, by a figurative genealogy, makes him the 
6on of the wind-god ^Eolus. It is much more 
probable, however, that Virgil calls him uEolides 
as indicating merely his descent from a mortal 
father named iEolus, the same, probably, with 
the one slain in battle with the Latins (JEn., 12, 
542, seq.).~] ^Eolis is the patronymic of the fe- 
male descendants of .Eolus, given to his daugh- 
ters Canace and Alcyone. 

J3olis (AloTuc), or .Eolia, a district of Mysia 
in Asia Minor, was peopled by ^Eolian Greeks, 
whose cities extended from the Troad along the 
shores of the ^Egean to the River Hermus. 
In early times their twelve most important 
cities were independent, and formed a league, 
the members of which celebrated an annual fes- 
tival (the Panaeolium) at Cyme. The twelve 
cities comprising this league were Cyme, La- 
rissse, Neontlchos, Temnus, Cilia, Notium, 
jEgirusa, Pitane, iEgaeye, Myrina, Grynea, and 
Smyrna; but Smyrna subsequently became a 
member of the Ionian confederacy. (Herod., 
i., 149, seq.) These cities were subdued by 
Crossus, and were incorporated in the Per- 
sian empire on the conquest of Crcesus by 
Cyrus. 

JEolus (AXohoc). Son of Hellen and the 
nymph Orse'is, and brother of Dorus and Xu- 
thus. He was the ruler of Thessaly, and the 
founder of the jEolic branch of the Greek na- 
tion. His children are said to have been very 
numerous ; but the most ancient story men- 
tions only four sons, viz., Sisyphus, Athamas, 
Cretheus, and Salmoneus. The great extent 



of country which this race occupied probably 
gave rise to the varying accounts about the 
number of his children. — 2. Son of Hippotes, or, 
according to others, of Neptune (Poseidon) and 
Arne, a descendant of the previous .Elolus. His 
story probably refers to the emigration of a 
branch of the .Eolians to the west. His mother 
was carried to Metapontum in Italy, where she 
gave birth to iEolus and his brother Boeotus. 
The two brothers afterward fled from Metapon- 
tum, and JSolus went to some islands in the 
Tyrrhenian Sea, which received from him the 
name of the ./Eolian Islands. Here he reigned 
as a just and pious king, taught the natives the 
use of sails for ships, and foretold them the na- 
ture of the winds that were to rise. In these 
accounts .Eolus, the father of the jEolian race, 
is placed in relationship with .Eolus, the ruler 
and god of the winds. In Homer, however, 
_<Eolus, the son of Hippotes, is neither the god 
nor the father of the winds, but merely the 
happy ruler of the iEolian Island, to whom Ju- 
piter (Zeus) had given dominion over the winds, 
which he might soothe or excite according to his 
pleasure. (Od., x., 1, seq.) This statement of 
Homer, and the etymology of the name of ^Eo- 
lus from ueXXu, led to ^Eolus being regarded in 
later times as the god and king of the winds, 
which he kept inclosed in a mountain. It is, 
therefore, to liim that Juno applies when she 
wishes to destroy the fleet of the Trojans. 
(Virg., ^En., I, 78.) The .Eolian Island of Ho- 
mer was in later times believed to be Lipara or 
Strongyle, and was accordingly regarded as the 
place in which the god of the winds dwelt. Vid. 
JEolde Insula. 

iEpEA (A'ineia : A'nredTnc). 1. A town in 
Messenia on the sea-coast, afterward Thuria, 
[as Strabo says, but, according to Pausanias, 
the later Corone.] — 2. A town in Cyprus, after- 
ward Soli. 

Mvy (Alnv), a town in Elis, situated on a 
height, as its name indicates. 

^Epytus (AlnvTOc). A mythical king of Ar- 
cadia, from whom a part of the country was 
called jEpytis. — 2. Youngest son of the Hera- 
clid Cresphontes, king of Messenia, and of Mer- 
ope, daughter of the Arcadian king Cypselus. 
When his father and brothers were murdered 
dui'ing an insurrection, ^Epytus alone, who was 
with his grandfather Cypselus, escaped the dan- 
ger. The throne of Cresphontes was, in the 
mean time, occupied by the Heraclid Polyphon- 
tes, who also forced Merope to become his wife. 
"When jEpytus had grown to manhood, he re- 
turned to his kingdom, and put Polyphontes to 
death. From him the kings of Messenia were 
called JSpytids instead of the more general 
name Heraclids. — 3. Son of Hippothous, king 
of Arcadia, and great-grandson of the iEpytus 
mentioned first — [4. Son of Neleus, grandson 
of Codrus, founder of Priene.] 

jEqui, ^Equicoli, .Equicolae, ^Equiculani, 
an ancient warlike people of Italy, dwelling in 
the upper valley of the Anio, in the mountains 
forming the eastern boundary of Latium, and 
between the Latini, Sabini, Herniei, and Marsi. 
In conjunction with the Volsci, who were of the 
same race, they carried on constant hostilities 
with Rome, but were finally subdued in B.C. 
302. One of their chief seats was Mount 
21 



JSQUI FALISCI. 



.ESOHINES. 



Algidus, from which they were accustomed to i 
make their marauding expeditions. 

JSqui Falisci. Vid. Faleeii. 

jEquim^elium. Vid. Melius. 

[jEquum Tuticum. Vid. Equus Tuticus.] 

[Aeeia (now Mont Venteux), a city of Gallia 
Narbonensis, having an elevated and airy situa- 
tion.] 

[A.ERiAS,»an ancient king of Cyprus, who is 
said to have founded the temple of Venus (Aph- 
rodite) at Paphos.] 

Aeeope ( AepoTTTi), daughter of Catreus, king 
of Crete, and grand-daughter of Minos. Her 
father, who had received an oracle that he 
should lose his life by one of his children, gave 
her and her sister Clymene to Nauplius, who 
was to sell them in a foreign land. Aerope mar- 
ried Plisthenes, the son of Atreus, aDd became 
by him the mother of Agamemnon and Menelaus. 
After the death of Plisthenes, Aerope married 
Atreus ; and her two sons, who were educated 
by Atreus, were generally believed to be his 
sons. Aerope was faithless to Atreus, being 
seduced by Thycstes. 

[Aeeopus ('AipOTvog), brother of Perdiccas, 
who was the first Macedonian king of the race 
of Temenus, B.C. 670.— 2. Aeropus I, king of 
Macedonia, great-grandson of Perdiccas, father 
of Alcetas. — 3. Aeropus II., king of Macedonia, 
guardian of Orestes, the son of Archelaus, whom 
he murdered, after reigning jointly with him for 
four years ; after this he ruled for two years 
alone, and was then succeeded by his son Pausa- 
nias.] 

[.ZEeeopus Mons (now Trtbusin), a mountain 
range of Illyricum, at the base of which flows 
the Aous.] 

jEsacus {kloaiiot;), son of Priam and Alex- 
irrhoe. He lived far from his father's court, 
in the solitude of mountain forests. Hespe- 
ria, however, the daughter of Cebren, kindled 
love in his heart, and on one occasion, while he 
was pursuing her, she was stung by a viper and 
died. JEsacus in his grief threw himself into 
the sea, and was changed by Tethys into an 
aquatic bird. This is the story related by Ovid 
(Met, si, 761, seg.), but it is told differently by 
Apollodorus. 

JEsae, the name of the deity among the 
Etruscans. 

-iEsAR or ^saeus (now JEsaro), a river near 
Croton, in the country of the Brutti, in Southern 
Italy. 

jEsohines (Aiox'ivns). I. The Athenian ora- 
tor, born B.C. 389, was the son of Atrometus 
and Glaucothea. According to Demosthenes, 
his political antagonist, his parents were of dis- 
reputable character, and not even citizens of 
Athens; but ^Eschines himself says that his 
father was descended from an honorable family, 
and lost his property during the Peloponnesian 
war. In his youth, jEscbines appears to have 
assisted his father in his school ; he next acted 
as secretary to Aristophon, and afterward to 
Eubulus ; he subsequently tried his fortune as 
an actor, but was unsuccessful ; and at length, 
after serving with distinction in the army, came 
forward as a publip speaker, and soon acquired 
great reputation. In 347 he was sent, along 
with Demosthenes, as one of the ten ambassa- 
dors to negotiate a peace with Philip : from this 
22 



time he appears as the friend of the Macedonian 
party and as the opponent of Demosthenes. 
Shortly afterward jEschines formed one of the 
second embassy sent to Philip to receive the 
oath of Philip to the treaty which had been con- 
cluded with the Athenians ; but, as the delay 
of the ambassadors in obtaining the ratification 
had been favorable to the interests of Philip. 
iEschines, on his return to Athens, was ac- 
cused by Timarchus. He evaded the danger by 
bringing forward a counter-accusation against 
Timarchus (345), and by showing that the moral 
conduct of his accuser was such that he had no 
right to speak before the people. The speech 
in which ^Eschines attacked Timarchus is still 
extant: Timarchus was condemned, and -<Es- 
chines gained a brilliant triumph. In 343, De- 
mosthenes renewed the charge against /F.schi- 
nes of treachery during his second embassy to 
Philip. This charge of Demosthenes (irepl tto- 
paTrp£o-6da<;) was not spoken, but published as a 
memorial, and jEschines answered it in a sim- 
ilar memorial on the embassy (irepl napa-pea- 
6eiag), which was likewise published. Short- 
ly after the battle of Chseronea, in 338, which 
gave Philip the supremacy in Greece, Ctesiphon 
proposed that Demosthenes should be rewarded 
for his services with a golden crown in the the- 
atre at the great Dionysia. Eschines availed 
himself of the illegal form in which this reward 
was proposed to be given to bring a charge 
against Ctesiphon on that ground, but he did 
not prosecute the charge till eight years later 
330. The speech which he delivered on the 
occasion is extant, and was answered by De- 
mosthenes in his celebrated oration on the 
crown {nepl ore^uvov). jEschines was defeat- 
ed, and withdrew from Athens. He went to 
Asia Minor, and at length established a school 
of eloquence at Rhodes. On one occasion he 
read to his audience in Rhodes his speech 
against Ctesiphon, [and, after receiving much 
applause, he was desired to read the speech of 
his antagonist. When he had done this, his 
auditors expressed great admiration ; " but," 
exclaimed ^Eschines, " how much greater would 
have been your admiration if you had heard (De- 
mosthenes) himself!"] From Rhodes he went 
to Samos, where he died in 314. Besides the 
three orations extant, we also possess twelve 
letters which are ascribed to Eschines, but 
which are the work of late sophists. — Editio7is. 
In the editions of the Attic orators {vid. Demos- 
thenes), and by Bremi, Zurich, 1823. — 2. Au 
Athenian philosopher and rhetorician, and a 
disciple of Socrates. After the death of his 
master, he went to Syracuse ; but returned to 
Athens after the expulsion of Dionysius, and 
supported himself, receiving money for his in- 
structions. He wrote several dialogues, but 
the three which have come down to us under 
his name are not genuine. — Editions : By Fis- 
cher, Lips, 1786; by Bockh, Heidel., 1810; and 
in many editions of Plato. — 3. Of Neapolis, a 
Peripatetic philosopher, who was at the head 
of the Academy at Athens, together with Char- 
madas and Clitomachus, about B.C. 109. — 4. Of 
Miletus, a contemporary of Cicero, and a dis- 
tinguished orator in the Asiatic style of elo- 
quence. — [5. A distinguished individual among 
the Eretrians, who disclosed to the Athenians 



^SCHRION. 



iESCULAPlCS. 



the treacherous designs of some of his country- 
men, when the former had come to their aid 
against the Persians.— 6. An Acarnanian, com- 
mander of a company of light-armed troops in 
the retreat of the ten thousand under Xeno- 
phon.] 

-zEschrion {kloxpLUv). 1. Of Syracuse, whose 
wife Pippa was one of the mistresses of Verres, 
and who was himself one of the scandalous in- 
struments of Verres. — 2. An iambic poet, a na- 
tive of Samos. There was an epic poet of the 
Bame name, who was a native of Mytilene and 
a pupil of Aristotle, and who accompanied Alex- 
ander on some of his expeditions. He may 
perhaps be the same person as the Samian. — 
3. A native of Pergamus, and a physician in 
the second century after Christ, was one of 
Galen's tutors. 

^Esohylus (klaxvXoe). 1. The celebrated 
tragic poet, was born at Eleusis in Attica, B.C. 
525, so that he was thirty-five years of age at 
the time of the battle of Marathou, and contem- 
porary with Simonides and Pindar. His father 
Euphorion was probably connected with the 
worship of Ceres (Demeter), and ^Eschylus 
himself was, according to some authorities, ini- 
tiated in the mysteries of this goddess. At the 
age of twenty-five (B.C. 499), he made his first 
appearance as a competitor for the prize of 
tragedy, without being successful. He, with 
his brothers Cynaeglrus and Aminius, fought at 
the battle of Marathon (490), and also at those 
of Salamis (480) and Platea (479). In 484 he 
gained the prize of tragedy ; and in 472 he gain- 
ed the prize with the trilogy, of which the Per- 
sa3, the earliest of his extant dramas, was one 
piece. In 468 he was defeated in a tragic con- 
test by his younger rival, Sophocles ; and he is 
said in consequence to have quitted Athens in 
disgust, and to have gone to the court of Hiero, 
Irmg of Syracuse, where he found Simonides, 
the lyric poet. In 467 his friend and patron 
King Hiero died ; and in 458 it appears that 
/Eschylus was again at Athens, from the fact 
that the trilogy of the Oresteia was produced 
in that year. In the same or the following 
year he again visited Sicily, and he died at 
Gela in 456, in the sixty-ninth year of his age. 
It is said that an eagle, mistaking the poet's 
bald head for a stone, let a tortoise fall upon it 
to break the shell, and so fulfilled an oracle, ac- 
cording to which iEschylus was fated to die by 
a blow from heaven. The alterations made by 
zEschylus in the composition and dramatic rep- 
resentation of Tragedy were so great, that he 
was considered by the Athenians as the father 
of it, just as Homer was of Epic poetry and 
Herodotus of History. Even the improve- 
ments and alterations introduced by his suc- 
cessors were the natural results and sugges- 
tions of those of ^Eschylus. The first and prin- 
cipal alteration which he made was the intro- 
duction of a second actor (devTepayuvior^c), and 
the consequent formation of the dialogue prop- 
erly so called, and the limitation of the choral 

Earts. The innovation was of course adopted 
y his contemporaries, just as iEschylus him- 
self followed the example of Sophocles, in sub- 
sequently introducing a third actor. But the 
improvements of iEschylus were not limited to 
the composition of tragedy : he added the re- 1 



sources of art in its exhibition. Thus he ia 
said to have availed himself of the skill of Ag- 
atharchus, who painted for him the first scenes 
which had ever been drawn according to the 
principles of linear perspective. He also fur- 
nished bis actors with more suitable and mag- 
nificent dresses, with significant and various 
masks, and with the thick-soled cothurnus, to 
raise their stature to the height of heroes. He 
moreover bestowed so much attention on the 
choral dances, that he is said to have invented 
various figures himself, and to have instructed 
the choristers in them without the aid of the 
regular ballet-masters. With him, also arose 
the usage of representing at the same time a 
trilogy of plays connected in subject, so that 
each formed one act, as it were, of a great whole, 
which might be compared with some of Shaks- 
peare's historical plays. Even before the time 
of iEschylus, it had been customary to contend 
for the prize of tragedy with three plays exhibit- 
ed at the same time, but it was reserved for him 
to show how each of three tragedies might be 
complete in itself, and independent of the rest, 
and nevertheless form a part of an harmonious 
and connected whole. The only example still 
extant of such a trilogy is the Oresteia, as it 
was called. A satyrieal play commonly follow- 
ed each tragic trilogy. iEschylus is said to 
have written seventy tragedies. Of these onlv 
seven are extant, namely, the Persians, the 
Seven against Thebes, the Suppliants, the Pro- 
metheus, the Agamemnon, the Ghoephori, and Eu- 
menides; the last three forming, as already re- 
marked, the trilogy of the Oresteia. The Per- 
sians was acted in 472, and the Seven against 
Thebes a year afterward. The Oresteia was rep- 
resented in 458 ; the Suppliants and the Pro- 
metheus were brought out some time between 
the Seven against Thebes and the Oresteia. It 
has been supposed from some allusions in the 
Suppliants, that this play was acted in 461, 
when Athens was allied with Argos. — Editions: 
By Schutz, third edition, Hal. Sax., 1808-21 ; by 
Wellauer, Lips., 1823: by W. Dindorf, Lips.. 
1827, and Oxon., 1832; and by Scholefieldj 
Camb., 1830. [The best edition, so far as it 
goes, is that by Blomfield, which unfortunately 
was never completed, containing only five of 
the seven remaining tragedies. — 2. of Cnidus, 
a contemporary of Cicero, and one of the most 
celebrated rhetoricians of Asia Minor. — 3. Of 
Rhodes, was appointed by Alexander the Great 
one of the inspectors of the governors of that 
country after its conquest, in B.C. 332.] 

.dSscuLAPius ('AanXnTviog), the god of the med- 
ical art. In the Homeric poems jEsculapius is 
not a divinity, but simply the " blameless physi- 
cian" (InTr/p dfivfiuv), whose sons, Maehaon and 
Podalirius, were the physicians in the Greek 
army, and ruled over Tricca, Ithome, and CEcha- 
lia. Homer says nothing of the descent of Ms- 
culapius. The common story relates that he 
was a son of Apollo and Coronis, and that when 
Coronis was with child by Apollo, she became 
enamored with Ischys, an Arcadian. Apollo, 
informed of this by a raven, which he had set 
to watch her, or, according to others, by his own 
prophetic powers, sent his sister Artemis to kill 
Coronis. Artemis accordingly destroyed Co- 
ronis in her own house at Laceria in Thessaly, 
23 



^ESEPUS. 



jESOPUS. 



on the shore of Lake Baebia. According to Ovid 
(Met., ii., 605), it -was Apollo himself -who killed 
Coronis and Ischys. When the body of Coronis 
was to be burned, either Apollo or Mercury 
(Hermes) saved the child JSsculapius from the 
flames, and carried it to Chiron, who instructed 
the boy in the art of healing and in hunting. 
There are various other narratives respecting 
his birth, according to some of which he was 
a native of Epidaurus, and this was a common 
opinion in later times. After he had grown 
up, reports spread over all countries, that he 
not only cured all the siek, but called the dead 
to life again. But while he was restoring 
Glaucus to life, Jupiter (Zeus) killed him with 
a flash of lightning, as he feared lest men might 
contrive to escape death altogether, or because 
Pluto had complained of iEsculapius diminish- 
ing the number of the dead. But on the 
request of Apollo, Jupiter (Zeus) placed ^Escu- 
lapius among the stars. ./Esculapius is also 
said to have taken part in the expedition of the 
Argonauts and in the Calydonian hunt. He 
was married to Epione, and besides the two 
sons spoken of by Homer, we also find mention 
of the following children of his : Ianiscus, Alex- 
enor, Aratus, fiygieia, ^gle, Iaso, and Pana- 
ceia, most of whom are only personifications of 
the powers ascribed to their father. ^Escula- 
pius was worshipped all over Greece. His 
temples were usually built in healthy places, on 
hills outside the town, and near wells which 
were believed to have healing powers. These 
temples were not only places of worship, but 
were frequented by great numbers of sick per- 
sons, and may therefore be compared to modern 
hospitals. The principal seat of his worship in 
Greece was Epidaurus, where he had a temple 
surrounded with an extensive grove. Serpents 
were everywhere connected with his worship, 
probably because they were a symbol of pru- 
dence and renovation, and were believed to 
have the power of discovering herbs of won- 
drous powers. Por these reasons, a peculiar 
kind of tame serpents, in which Epidaurus 
abounded, was not only kept in his temple, but 
the god himself frequently appeared in the form 
of a serpent. At Rome the worship of iEscu- 
lapius was introduced from Epidaurus at the 
command of the Delphic oracle or of the Sybil- 
line books, in B.C. 293, for the purpose of avert- 
ing a pestilence. The supposed descendants of 
iEsculapius were called by the patronymic name 
Asclepiadce (' A.OK?i7j—iadai), and their principal 
seats were Cos and Cnidus. They were an order 
or caste of priests, and for a long period the 
practice of medicine was intimately connected 
with religion. The knowledge of medicine was 
regarded as a sacred secret, which was trans- 
mitted from father to son in the families of the 
Asclepiadse. Respecting the festivals of iEscu- 
apius, vid. Diet, of Antiq. 

[iEs£pus (klariizoc), son of Bueolion and the 
nymph Abarbarea, slain by Euryalus before 
Troy-] 

JEsepus (KIctittoc ■!) [now Boklu according to 
Leake, but usually considered the modern Satal- 
&ere\ a river which rises in the mountains of 
Ida, and flows by a northerly course into the 
Propontis, which it enters west of Cyzicus and 
3asl of the Granicus. 
24 



^Esernia (^Eserninus : now hernia), a town 
in Samnium, made a Roman colony in the first 
Punic war. 

iEsis (now Esino or Fiumesino), a river which 
formed the boundary between Picenum and 
TJmbria, was anciently the southern boundary 
of the Seuones, and the northeastern boundary 
of Italy proper. 

JEsis or JEsium (^Esinas: now Jesi), a town 
and a Roman colony in Unibria, on the Rivei 
iEsis, celebrated for its cheese, ^Eslnas caseus. 

-iEsoN (Alow), son of Cretheus, the founder 
of Iolcus, and of Tyro, the daughter of Salmo- 
neus, and father of Jason and Promachus. He 
was excluded from the throne by his half-brother 
Pelias, who endeavored to keep the kingdom to 
himself by sending Jason away with the Argo- 
nauts. Pelias subsequently attempted to get 
rid of -<Eson by force, but the latter put an end 
to his own life. According to Ovid (Met., vii., 
162, seg.), _<Eson survived the return of the Argo- 
nauts, and was made young again by Medea. 

[jEsonides (Afcovidnc), a patronymic given 
to the sons of jEson, especially Jason.] 

^Esopus (MauiTor). 1. A writer of fables, 
lived about B.C. 570, and was a contemporary 
of Solon. He was originally a slave, and re- 
ceived his freedom from his master Iadmon the 
Samian. Upon this he visited Croesus, who 
sent him to Delphi, to distribute among the citi- 
zens four minse apiece ; but in consequence of 
some dispute on the subject, he refused to give 
any money at all, upon which the enraged Del- 
phians threw him from a precipice. Plagues 
were sent upon them from the gods for the of- 
fence, and they proclaimed their willingness to 
give a compensation for his death to any one who 
could claim it. At length Iadmon, the grandson 
of jEsop's old master, received the compensa- 
tion, since no nearer connection could be found. 
A life of .lEsop prefixed to a book of fables pur- 
porting to be his, and collected by Maximus 
Planudes, a monk of the fourteenth century, 
represents jEsop as a perfect monster of ugli- 
ness and deformity ; a notion for which there is 
no authority whatever in the classical authors. 
Whether iEsop left any written works at all, 
is a question which affords considerable room 
for doubt ; though it is certain that fables, bear- 
ing ^Esop's name, were popular at Athens in its 
most intellectual age. We find them frequently 
noticed by Aristophanes. They were in prose, 
and were turned into poetry by several writers. 
Socrates turned some of them into verse during 
his imprisonment, and Demetrius Phalereus 
(B.C. 320) imitated his example. The only 
Greek versifier of JSsop, of whose writings any 
whole fables are preserved, is Babrius. Vid 
Babrics. Of the Latin writers of ^Esopean 
fables, Phsedrus is the most celebrated. Vid. 
Ph^eoeus. The Fables now extant in prose, 
bearing the name of ^Esop, are unquestionably 
spurious, as is proved by Bentley in his disser- 
tation on the fables of -<Esop appended to his 
celebrated letters on Phalaris. — Editions: By 
Ernesti, Lips, 1781 ; by De Furia, Lips., 1810 
reprinted by Coray at Paris, 1810 ; and by 
Schaefer, Lips., 1820. — 2. A Greek historian, 
who wrote a life of Alexander the Great. The 
original is lost, but there is a Latin translation 
of it by Julius Valerius. 



^ESOPUS. 



ETHIOPIA. 



iEsopus, Claudius, or Clodius, was the great- 
est tragic actor at Rome, and a contemporary 
of Roscius, the greatest comic actor ; and both 
of them lived on intimate terms •with Cicero. 
iEsopus appeared for the last time on the stage, 
at an advanced age, at the dedication of the 
theatre of Pompey (B.C. 55), when his voice 
failed him, and he could not go through with the 
speech. iEsopus realized an immense fortune 
by his profession, which was squandered by his 
son, a foolish spendthrift, It is said, for instance, 
that this son dissolved in vinegar and drank a 
pearl worth about £8000, which he took from 
the ear-ring of Caecilia Metella. 

iEsTii, JEstyi, or ^Estui, a people dwelling 
on the sea-coast, in the northeast of Germany, 
probably in the modern Kurland, who collected 
amber, which they called glessum. Their cus- 
toms, says Tacitus, resembled the Suevic, and 
their language the British. They were proba- 
bly a Sarmatian or Slavonic race, and not a 
Germanic. 

-zEsuLA (^Esulanus), a town of the ^Equi, on a 
mountain between Prasneste and Tibur. (^Esulffi 
declive arvum, Hor., Carm., iii., 29.) 

[^Esyetks (AicvrjrTic), a Trojan hero, whose 
son Aleathous married a daughter of Anchises. 
His tomb is alluded to by Homer, according to 
whom it served as a post of observation, and is 
said by Strabo to have been five stadia distant 
from Troy, on the road leading to Alexandrea 
Troas. A conical mound is still pointed out in 
that vicinity as the tomb of ^Esyetes, and bears 
the appellation Udjek-Tepe] 

[vEsymnbtes (Alav/iv7/T7jc), an appellation of 
Bacchus (Dionysus), which means " Lord," 
" King," and under which he was honored espe- 
cially at Aroe in Achaia.] 

[JEtHvEa (AWaia), a city of Laconia.] 

jEthalia (AWalla, AWaKn), called Ilva (now 
Elba) by the Romans, a small island in the Tus- 
«an Sea, opposite the town of Populonia, cele- 
brated for its iron mines. It had on the north- 
east a good harbor, " Argous Portus" (now Porto 
Ferraio), in which the Argonaut Jason is said to 
have lauded. 

jEthalides (A20<rA«S?7c), son of Mercury (Her- 
mes) and Eupolemla, the herald of the Argonauts. 
He had received from his father the faculty of 
remembering every thing, even in Hades, and 
was allowed to reside alternately in the upper 
and in the lower world. His soul, after many 
migrations, at length took possession of the body 
of Pythagoras, in which it still recollected its 
former migrations. 

^Ethee (AWijp), a personified idea of the 
mythical cosmogonies, in which jEther was con- 
sidered as one of the elementary substances out 
of which the Universe was formed. JJther was 
regarded by the poets as the pure upper air, 
the residence of the gods, and Jupiter (Zeus) 
as the Lord of the JEther, or iEther itself, per- 
sonified. 

jEthices (AWiKez), a Thessalian or Epirot 
people, near Mount Pindus. 

^Ethicus, Histee or Istee, a Roman writer 
of the fourth century after Christ, a native of 
Istria, the author of a geographical work called 
JEthici Oosmographia, which appears to have 
been chiefly drawn up from the measurement 
of the whole Roman world ordered by Julius 



Caesar, B.C. 44, and from other official documents 
Edited by Gronovius, in his edition of Pompo 
nius Mela, Leyden, 1*722. 

jEthilla {AidiWa or AWvWd), daughter of 
Laomedon and sister of Priam, became after the 
fall of Troy the captive of Protesilaus, [according 
to a late legend, for the Homeric account makes 
Protesilaus to have been the first Greek slain 
before Troy. Vid. Peotesilacs.] 

[JEthion, a seer and friend of Phineus, slain 
at the nuptials of Perseus and Andromeda. — 
2. Son of a Heliconian nymph, fell in the expe- 
dition of the Seven against Thebes.] 

^Ethiopes (Aldionec;, said to be from aWu and 
uip, but perhaps really a foreign name corrupt- 
ed), was a name applied, (1.) most generally to 
all black or dark races of men ; (2.) to the inhab- 
itants of all the regions south of those with 
which the early Greeks were well acquainted, 
extending even as far north as Cyprus and Phce- 
nieia ; (3.) to all the inhabitants of Inner Africa, 
south of Mauretania, the Great' Desert, and 
Egypt, from the Atlantic to the Red Sea and 
Indian Ocean, and to some of the dark races of 
Asia; and (4.)- most specifically to the inhabi- 
tants of the land south of Egypt, which was 
called ^Ethiopia. 

^Ethiopia (Aidionla, AW, inrep AiyvTvrov : AU 
dioip, AWiOTTEvt;, Horn., fem. Aldioiric; : ^Ethiops : 
now Nubia, Kordofan, Sennaar, Abyssinia), a 
country of Afiica, south of Egypt, the boundary 
of the countries being at Syene (now Assouan) 
and the Smaller Cataract of the Nile, and extend- 
ing on the east to the Red Sea, and to the south 
and southwest indefinitely, as far apparently as 
the knowledge of the ancients extended. In 
its most exact political sense the word ^Ethio- 
pia seems to have denoted the kingdom of 
Meroe ; but in its wider sense it included alsc 
the kingdom of the Axomit^e, besides several 
other peoples, such as the Troglodytes and the 
Ichthyophagi on the Red Sea, the Blemmyes 
and Megabari and Nubae in the interior. The 
country was watered by the Me and its tribu- 
taries, the Astapus (Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue Nile) 
and the Astaboras (Atbara or Tacazze). The 
people of .(Ethiopia seem to have been of the 
Caucasian race, and to have spoken a language 
allied to the Arabic. Monuments are found in 
the country closely resembling those of Egypt, 
but of an inferior style. The religion of the 
^Ethiopians appears to have been similar to that 
of the Egyptians, but free from the grosser su- 
perstitions of the latter, such as the worship of 
animals. Some traditions made Meroe the 
parent of Egyptian civilization, while others 
ascribed the civilization of ^Ethiopia to Egyptian 
colonization. So great was the power of the 
^Ethiopians, that more than once in its history 
Egypt was governed by ^Ethiopian kings ; and 
even the most powerful kings of Egypt, though 
they made successful incursions into ^Ethiopia, 
do not appear to have had any extensive or 
permanent hold upon the country. Under the 
Ptolemies Grasco-Egyptian colonies established 
themselves in ./Ethiopia, and Greek manners 
and philosophy had a considerable influence on 
the upper classes ; but the country was never 
subdued. The Romans failed to extend their 
empire over ^Ethiopia, though they made expe 
ditions into the country, in one of which C. Pe 
25 



AETHL1US. 



J3T0LIA. 



ironius, prefect of Egypt under Augustus, ad- 
vanced as far as Napata, and defeated the ■war- 
rior queen Candace (B.C. 22). Christianity very 
early extended to Ethiopia, probably iu conse- 
quence ol the conversion of the treasurer of 
Queen Candace (Acts, viii., 27). The history of 
the downfall of the great jEthiopian kingdom 
of Meroe is very obscure. 

Aethlius ('Aefl/Uo.r), first king of Elis, father 
of Endymion, was son of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Protogenla, daughter of Deucalion ; according to 
others, a son of JEolus. 

[Mtkon (Alduv from aldu), father of Tantalus. 
— 2. Appellation assumed by Ulysses to escape 
detection on his return to Ithaca. — 3. Name of a 
horse of the Sun ; also of one of Pluto's ; and 
of Aurora (Eos), of Hector, and of several other 
heroes.] 

jEthea (kWpa). 1. Daughter of Pittheus of 
Troezen, -was mother of Theseus by jEgeus. 
She afterward lived in Attiea, from whence she 
was carried off to Lacedaemon by Castor and 
Pollux, and became a slave of Helen, with whom 
she was taken to Troy. At the capture of Troy 
she was restored to liberty by her grandson 
Acamas or Demophon. — 2. Daughter of Oceanus, 
by whom Atlas begot the twelve Hyades and a 
son, Hyas. 

[JSthvusa (Mdovca), daughter of Neptune and 
Alcyone, and mother by Apollo of Eleuther.] 

[^Ethyia (AWvia), an appellation of Minerva 
(Athena), as the inventress of ship-building or 
navigation.] 

Abiion ('Actiuv). 1. A sculptor of Amphipo- 
lis, flourished about the middle of the third cen- 
tury B.C. — 2. A celebrated painter, whose best 
picture represented the marriage of Alexander 
and Roxaua. It is commonly supposed that he 
lived in the time of Alexander the Great; but 
the words of Lucian {Herod., 4) show that he 
must have lived about the time of Hadrian and 
the Antonines. 

Aetius. 1. [Son of Anthas, kiug of Troezen, 
whose descendants founded Haliearnassus and 
Myndus.] — 2. A celebrated Roman general, de- 
fended the "Western empire against the barba- 
rians during the reign of Valeutinian III. In 
A.D. 451 he gained a great victory over Attila, 
near Chalons, in Gaul ; but he was treacherously 
murdered by Valentinian in 454. — 3. A Greek 
medical writer, born at Amida in Mesopotamia, 
lived at the end of the fifth or the beginning of 
the sixth century after Christ. His work BifiAta 
'larpLKa 'E/c/cai'tSeKa, " Sixteen Books on Medicine," 
is one of the most valuable medical remains of 
antiquity, as being a judicious compilation from 
many authors whose works are lost. The whole 
of it has never appeared in the original Greek, 
but a corrupt translation of it into Latin was 
published by Cornarius, Basil, 1542, often re- 
printed, and in H. Stephens's Medicoz Artis Prin- 
cipes, Paris, 1567. 

_<Etna (Alrvv). 1. (How Monte Gibello), a 
volcanic mountain in the nortlfeast of Sicily, 
between Tauromenium and Catana. It is said 
to have derived its name from iEtna, a Sicilian 
nymph, a daughter of Uranus and Gaea, or of 
Briareus. Jupiter (Zeus) buried under it Ty- 
phon or Enceladus ; and in its interior Vulcan 
(Hephaestus) and the Cyclopes forged the thun- 
derbolts for Jupiter (Zeus). There were seve- 
26 



ral eruptions [if Mount ./Etna in antiquity. Ows 
occurred in B.C. 475, to which jEsebylus and 
Pindar probably allude, and another in B.C, 425, 
which Thucydides says (hi., 116) was the third 
on record since the Greeks had settled in Sicily. 
The form of the mountain seems to have been 
much the same in antiquity as it is at present. 
Its base covers an area of nearly ninety miles 
iu circumference, and its highest point is 10,874 
feet above the level of the sea. The circum- 
ference of the crater is variously estimated 
from two and a half to four miles, aud the depth 
from six hundred to eight hundred feet. — 2. 
(^Etnenses : now S. Maria di Licodia or S. Nic- 
olas di Arenis), a town at the foot of Mount 
./Etna, on the road to Catana, formerly called 
Inessa or Innesa. It was founded in B.C. 461, 
by the inhabitants of Catana, who had been ex- 
pelled from their own town by the Sieuli. They 
gave the name of _53tna to Inessa, because their 
own town Catana had been called jEtna by 
Hiero I. 

./Et>leus (Airvaloc), an epithet of several gods 
and mythical beings connected with Mount ./Etna : 
of Jupiter (Zeus), of whom there was a statue 
on Mount ./Etna, aud to whom a festival was 
celebrated there, called ./Etnea ; of Vulcan (He- 
phaestus) ; and of the Cyclopes. 

^Etolia (AiruVia : AlruXoc), a division of 
Greece, was bounded on the west by Acarna- 
nia, from which it was separated by the River 
Achelous, on the north by PJpirus and Thessaly. 
on the east by the Ozolian Locrians, and on the 
south by the entrance to the Corinthian Gulf. 
It was divided into two parts, Old jEtolia, from 
the Achelous to the Evenus and Calydon, and 
New jEtolia, or the Acquired (ettiktt/toc), from 
the Evenus and Calydon to the Ozolian Locri- 
ans. On the coast the country is level and 
fruitful, but in the interior mountainous and 
unproductive. The mountains contained many 
wild beasts, and were celebrated in mythology 
for the hunt of the Calydonian boar. The coun- 
try was originally inhabited by Curetes and 
Leleges, but was at an early period colonized 
by Greeks from Elis, led by the mythical ^Eto- 
lds. The JEtolians took part in the Trojan 
war, under their king, Thoas. They continued 
for a long time a rude and uncivilized people, 
living to a great extent by robbery ; and even 
in the time of Thucydides (B.C. 410) many of 
their tribes spoke a language which was not 
Greek, and were in the habit of eating raw flesh. 
Like the other Greeks, they abolished, at an 
early time, the monarchical form of govern- 
ment, and lived under a democracy. They ap- 
pear to have been early united by a kind of 
league, but this league first acquired political 
importance about the middle of the third cen- 
tury B.C., and became a formidable rival to the 
Macedonian monarehs and the Achtean League. 
The ^Etolian League at one time included not 
only jEtolia Proper, but Acarnania, part of Thes- 
saly, Locris, and the Island of Cephallenia ; and 
it also had close alliances with Elis aud several 
towns in the Peloponnesus, and likewise with 
Cius on the Propontis. Its aunual meetings, 
called Pancetolica, were held in the autumn at 
Thermus, and at them were chosen a general 
(orpaTTjyoc), who was at the head of the league, 
an hipparchus or master of the horse, a secre- 



^ETOLUS. 



AFRICA. 



tary, and a select committee called apocleti 
{aiYonXriroi,). For further particulars respecting 
the constitution of the league, vid. Diet, of Ant., 
art. jEtolicum Fosdus. The iEtolians took the 
side of Antioehus III. against the Romans, and 
on the defeat of that monarch B.C. 189, they 
became virtually the subjects of Rome. On 
the conquest of the Achseans, B.C. 146, jEtolia 
was included in the Roman province of Achaia. 
After the battle of Actium, B.C. 31, a consider- 
able part of the population of iEtolia was trans- 
planted to the city of Nicopolis, which Augus- 
tus built in commemoration of his victory. 

-^Etolus (A'ctoMc), son of Endymion and 
Ne'is, or Iphianassa, married Pronoe, by whom 
he had two sons, Pleuron and Calydon. He 
was king of Elis, but was obliged to leave Pel- 
oponnesus, because he had slain Apis, the son 
of Jason or Salmoneus. He went to the coun- 
try near the Achelous, which was called iEtolia 
after him. 

jExone (AifcwT? and Aitjovrjic : Al&veve : now 
Asani ?), an Attic demus of the tribe Cecropis 
or Pandionis. Its inhabitants had the reputa- 
tion of being mockers and slanderers. 

Afer, Domitius, of Nemausus (Nismes) in 
GauL was the teacher of Quintilian, and one of 
the most distinguished orators in the reigns of 
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, but he 
sacrificed his character by conducting accusa- 
tions for the government. He was consul suf- 
fectus in A.D. 39, and died in 60. Quintilian 
mentions several works of his on oratory, which 
are all lost. 

[Afrania Gaia or Caia, the wife of the sen- 
ator Licinius Buccio, a very litigious woman, 
who always pleaded her own causes before the 
praetor. Hence her name became proverbial 
for a litigious woman. She died 48 B.C.] 

Afranius. 1. L., A Roman comic poet, flour- 
isl.ed about B.C. 100. His comedies described 
Roman scenes and manners (Comosdice togatm), 
and the subjects were mostly taken from the 
life of the lower classes (Comcedice tdbemarice). 
They were frequently polluted with disgraceful 
amours ; but he depicted Roman life with such 
iiccuracy that he is classed with Menander 
(Hor., Ep., ii., 1, 5*7). His comedies continued 
to be acted under the empire. The names and 
fragments of between twenty and thirty are still 
preserved : [these fragments have been pub- 
lished by Bothe, in the 5th vol. of his Poelce Sce- 
nici Lat, and by Neukirch, Be Fabula togata 
Romana.] 2. L., a person of obscure origin, 
and a faithful adherent of Pompey. He served 
under Pompey against Sertorius and Mithra- 
dates, and was, through Pompey's influence, 
made consul, B.C. 60. When Pompey obtained 
the provinces of the two Spains in his second 
consulship (B.C. 55), he sent Afranius and Pe- 
treius to govern them, while he himself remain- 
ed in Rome. In B.C. 49, Afranius and Petreius 
were defeated by Caesar in Spain. Afranius 
thereupon passed over to Pompey in Greece ; 
was present at the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48 ; 
and subsequently at the battle of Thapsus in 
Africa, B.C. 46. He then attempted to fly into 
Mauretania. but was taken prisoner by P. Sit- 
tius, and killed. 

Africa ('AfpUi] : Afrieanus), was used by 
tiie ancients in two senses, (1.) for the whole 



continent of A frica, and (2.) for the portion of 
Northern Africa which constituted the territory 
of Carthage, and which the Romans erected 
into a province, under the name of Africa Pro- 
pria.—-!. In the more general sense the name 
was not used by the Greek writers ; and its 
use by the Romans arose from the extension 
to the whole continent of the name of a part of 
it. The proper Greek name for the continent 
is Libya (Ai6vrj). Considerably before the his- 
torical period of Greece begins, the Phoeni- 
cians extended their commerce over the Medi- 
terranean, and founded several colonies on the 
northern coast of Africa, of which Carthage was 
the chief. Vid. Carthago. The Greeks knew 
very little of the country until the foundation 
of the Dorian colony of Cyrene (B.C. 620), and 
the intercourse of Greek travellers with Egypt 
in the sixth and fifth centuries ; and even then 
their knowledge of all but the part near Cyrene 
was derived from the Egyptians and Phoeni- 
cians, who sent out some remarkable expedi- 
tions to explore the country. A Phoenician 
fleet, sent by the Egyptian king Pharaoh Necho 
(about B.C. 600), was said to have sailed from 
the Red. Sea, round Africa, and so into the 
Mediterranean : the authenticity of this story 
is still a matter of dispute. We still possess 
an authentic account of another expedition, 
which the Carthaginians dispatched under Han- 
no (about B.C. 510), and which reached a point 
on the western coast nearly, if not quite, as far 
as latitude ten degrees north. On the opposite 
side of the continent, the coast appears to have 
been very little known beyond the southern 
boundary of Egypt, till the time of the Ptole- 
mies. In the interior, the Great Desert (Sahara) 
interposed a formidable obstacle to discovery ; 
but even before the time of Herodotus, the 
people on the northern coast told of individuals 
who had crossed the Desert and had reached a 
great river flowing toward the east, with croc- 
odiles in it, and black men Living on its banks, 
which, if the story be true, was probably the 
Niger in its upper course, near Timbuctoo. That 
the Carthaginians had considerable intercourse 
with the regions south of the Sahara, has been 
inferred from the abundance of elephants they 
kept. Later expeditions and inquiries extend- 
ed the knowledge which the ancients possessed 
of the eastern coast to about ten degrees south 
latitude, and gave them, as it seems, some 
further acquaintance with the interior, about 
Lake Tchad, but the southern part of the conti 
nent was so totally unknown, that Ptolemy, 
who finally fixed the limits of ancient geograph- 
ical science, recurred to the old notion, which 
seems to have prevailed before the time of He- 
rodotus, that the southern parts of Africa met 
the southeastern part of Asia, and that the In- 
dian Ocean was a vast lake. The greatest ge- 
ographers who lived before Ptolemy, namely, 
Eratosthenes and Strabo, had accepted the tra- 
dition that Africa was circumnavigable. The 
shape of the continent they conceived to be that 
of a right-angled triangle, having for its hypot- 
enuse a line drawn from the Pillars of Hercules 
to the south of the Red Sea : and, as to its ex- 
tent, they did not suppose it to reach nearly so 
far as the equator. Ptolemy supposed the west- 
ern coast to stretch north and south from the 
27 



AFRICA. 

Pillars of Hercules, and he gave the continent 
an indefinite extent toward the south. There 
were also great differences of opinion as to the 
boundaries of the continent. Some divided the 
whole world into only two parts, Europe and 
Asia, and they were not agreed to which of 
these two Lybia (i. e., Africa) belonged; and 
those who recognized three divisions differed 
again in placing the boundary between Libya 
and Asia either on the west of Egypt, or along 
the Nile, or at the Isthmus of Suez and the Red 
Sea : the last opinion gradually prevailed. As 
to the subdivision of the country itself, Herodo- 
tus distributes it into iEgyptus, -(Ethiopia (i. e., 
all the regions south of Egypt and the Sahara), 
and Libya, properly so called ; and he subdi- 
vides Libya into three parts, according to their 
physical . distinctions, namely, (1.) the Inhabit- 
ed Country along the Mediterranean, in which 
dwelt the Nomad Libyans (ol napadaTidootoi rdv 
vo/idduv A.i&vov : the Barbary States); (2.) the 
Country of "Wild Beasts (rj -&ripi6Srjc), south of 
the former, that is, the region between the Little 
and Great Atlas, which still abounds in wild 
beasts, but takes its name from its prevailing 
vegetation {Beled-el-Jerid, i. e., the Country of 
Palms), and, (3.) the Sandy Desert {rj \f)d/ip:oc ; 
the Sahara), that is, the table-land bounded by 
the Atlas on the north and the margin of the 
Nile valley on the east, which is a vast tract of 
sand broken only by a few habitable islands, 
called Oases. As to the people, Herodotus dis- 
tinguishes four races, two native, namely, the 
Libyans and Ethiopians, and two foreign, name- 
ly, the Phoenicians and the Greeks. The Lib- 
yans, however, were a Caucasian race : the 
^Ethiopians of Herodotus correspond to our Ne- 
gro races. The Phoenician colonies were plant- 
ed chiefly along, and to the west of, the great 
recess in the middle of the north coast, which 
formed the two Syetes, by far the most im- 
portant of them being Carthage ; and the Greek 
colonies were fixed on the coast along and be- 
yond the east side of the Syrtes ; the chief of 
them was Cyeene, and the region was called 
Cyrenaica. Between this and Egypt were Lib- 
yan tribes, and the whole region between the 
Carthaginian dominions and Egypt, including 
Cyrenaica, was called by the same name as the 
whole continent, Lybia. The chief native tribes 
of this region were the ADYRMACHiDiE, Mar- 
MAEiDjs, Psylli, and Nasamones. The last ex- 
tended into the Carthaginian territory. To the 
west of the Carthaginian possessions, the coun- 
try was called by the general names of Numidla 
and Mauretania, and was possessed partly by 
Carthaginian colonies on the coast, and partly 
by Libyan tribes under various names, the chief 
of which were the Numid-e, Massylii, Mas- 
s-esylii, and Mauri, and to the south of them 
the GjEtuli. The whole of this northern re- 
gion fell successively under the power of Rome, 
and was finally divided into provinces as fol- 
lows : (1.) Egypt; (2.) Libya, including, (a) 
Libyse Nomos or Libya Exterior ; (6) Marma- 
rica; (c) Cyrenaica; (3.) Africa Propria, the 
former empire of Carthage (see below, No. 2) ; 
(4.) Numidia; (5.) Mauretania, divided into, 
(a) Sitifensis; (b) Caasariensis ; (c) Tingitana: 
these, with (6.) ^Ethiopia, make up the whole 
of Airica, according to the divisions recognized i 
28 



AGALLIS. 

by the latest of the ancient geographers. The 
northern district was better known to the Ro- 
mans than it is to us, and was extremely pop- 
ulous and flourishing ; and, if we may judge by 
the list of tribes in Ptolemy, the interior of the 
country, especially between the Little and Great 
Altars, must have supported many more inhab- 
itants than it does at present. Further infor- 
mation respecting the several portions of the 
country will be found in the separate articles. — 
2. Africa Propria or Provtncia, or simply Af- 
rica, was the name under which the Romans, 
after the Third Punic War (B.C. 146), erected 
into a province the whole of the former territory 
of Carthage. It extended from the River Tus- 
ca, on the west, which divided it from Numidia, 
to the bottom of the Syrtis Minor, on the south- 
east. It was divided into two districts (regio- 
nes), namely, (1.) Zeugis or Zeugitana, the dis- 
trict round Carthage, (2.) Byzacium or Byza- 
cena, south of Zeugitana, as far as the bottom 
of the Syrtis Minor. It corresponds to the mod- 
ern regency of Tunis. The province was full 
of flourishing towns, and was extremely fertile, 
especially Byzacena : it furnished Rome with 
its chief supplies of corn. The above limits are 
assigned to the province by Pliny : Ptolemy 
makes it extend from the River Ampsaga, on 
the west, to the borders of Cyrenaica, at the 
bottom of the Great Syrtis, on the east, so as 
to include Numidia and Tripolitana. 

Africanus, a surname given to the Scipios 
on account of their victories in Africa. Vid. 
Scipio. 

Afeioanus. 1. Sex. CjEcilius, a Roman ju- 
risconsult, lived under Antoninus Pius (A.D. 
138-161), and wrote Libri IX. Qua>stionum,ii'oxa 
which many extracts are made in the Digest 
— 2. Julius, a celebrated orator in the reign of 
Nero, is much praised by Quintilian, who speaks 
of him and Domitius Afer as the best orators 
of their time. — 3. Sex. Julius, a learned Chris- 
tian writer at the beginning of the third cen- 
tury, passed the greater part of his life at Em- 
maus in Palestine, and afterward lived at Alex- 
andrea. His principal work was a Chronicon 
in five books, from the creation of the world, 
which he placed in 5499 B.C., to A.D. 221. This 
work is lost, but part of it is extracted by Euse- 
bius in his Chronicon, and many fragments of 
it are preserved by Georgius Syncellus, Cedre- 
nus, and in the Paschale Chronicon. There 
was another work written by Africanus, enti- 
tled Ccsti (Kecro'i), that is, embroidered girdles, 
so called from the celebrated Cesius of Venus 
(Aphrodite). It treated of a vast variety of sub- 
jects — medicine, agriculture, natural history, 
the military art, &c. The work itself is lost, 
but some extracts from it are published by The- 
venot in the Mathematici Veteres, Paris, 1693, 
and also in the Geoponica. 

Africus {Ibp by the Greeks), the southwest 
wind, so called because >it blew from Africa, 
frequently brought storms with it (creberque pro- 
cellis Africus, Virg., JEn., i., 85.) 

[Agacles ( 'AyaK?u>jg) a Myrmidon hero, father 
of Epigeus.] 

[Agallis ('AyahXic), of Corcyra, a female 
grammarian, who wrote upon Homer : but from 
two passages in Suidas some have supposed 
that the true name is Anagallis. | 



AGAMEDE. 



AGAPENOR. 



Agamede ('Aya/xi)dr/), daughter of Augias and 
wife of Mulius, who, according to Homer (7/., xi., 
739), was acquainted with the healing powers 
of all the plants that grow upon the earth. 

Agamedes ('Ay<z/iJ7&7f), commonly called son 
of Erginus, king of Orchomenus, and brother of 
Trophonius. though his family connections are 
related differently by different writers. Agame- 
des and Trophonius distinguished themselves 
as architects : they built a temple of Apollo at 
Delphi, and a treasury of Hyrieus, king of Hyria 
in Boeotia. The story about this treasury re- 
sembles the one which Herodotus (ii., 121) 
relates of the treasury of the Egyptian king 
Rhampsinitus. In the construction of the treas- 
ury of Hyrieus, Agamedes and Trophonius con- 
trived to place one stone in such a manner 
that it could be taken away outside, and thus 
formed an entrance to the treasury, without 
any body perceiving it. Agamedes and Tro- 
phonius now constantly robbed the treasury; 
and the king, seeing that locks and seals were 
uninjured, while his treasures were constantly 
decreasing, set traps to catch the thief. Aga- 
medes was thus ensnared, and Trophonius cut 
off his head to avert the discovery. After this 
Trophonius was immediately swallowed up by 
the earth. On this spot there was afterward, 
in the grove of Lebadea, the cave of Agamedes. 
with a column by the side of it. Here was also 
the oracle of Trophonius, and those who con- 
sulted it first offered a ram to Agamedes and 
invoked him. A tradition mentioned by Cicero 
(Tusc. Qiuest, i., 47) states that Agamedes 
and Trophonius, after building the temple of 
Apollo at Delphi, prayed to the god to grant 
them in reward for their labor what was best 
for men. The god promised to do so on a cer- 
tain day, and when the day came the two broth- 
ers died. 

Agamemnon ('Ayafis/j-vov), son of Plisthenes 
and Aerope or Eriphyle, and grandson of Atreus, 
king of Mycenae ; but Homer and others call him 
a son of Atreus and grandson of Pelops. Aga- 
memnon and his brother Menelaus were brought 
up together with JEgisthus, the son of Thyes- 
tes, in the house of Atreus. After the murder 
of Atreus by JEgisthus and Thyestes, who suc- 
ceeded Atreus in the kingdom of Mycenas {vid. 
JEgisthhs), Agamemnon and Menelaus went to 
Sparta, where Agamemnon married Clytemnes- 
tra, the daughter of Tyndareus, by whom he be- 
came the father of Iphianassa (Iphigenia), Chry- 
sothemis, Laodice (Electra), and Orestes. ' The 
manner in which Agamemnon obtained the 
kingdom of Mycenas is differently related. 
From Homer, it appears as if he had peaceably 
succeeded Thyestes, while, according to others, 
he expelled Thyespes, and usurped his throne. 
He now became the most powerful prince in 
Greece. A catalogue of his dominions is given 
in the Iliad (ii., 569, <fec.) When Homer attri- 
butes to Agamemnon the sovereignty over all 
Argos, the name Argos signifies Peloponnesus, 
or the greater part of it, for the city of Argos 
was governed by Diomedes. When Helen, the 
wife of Menelaus, was carried off by Paris, and 
the Greek chiefs resolved to recover her by 
force of arms, Agamemnon was chosen their 
commander-in-chief. After two years of prepa- 
ration, the Greek army and fleet assembled in 



the port of Aulis in Boeotia. At this place Aga 
memnon killed a stag which was sacred to Diana 
(Artemis), who in return visited the Greek army 
with a pestilence, and produced a calm which 
prevented the Greeks from leaving the port. In 
order to appease her wrath, Agamemnon con- 
sented to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia ; but 
at the moment she was to be sacrificed, she was 
carried off by Diana (Artemis) herself to Tauris, 
and another victim was substituted in her place. 
The calm now ceased, and the army sailed to 
the coast of Troy. Agamemnon alone had one 
hundred ships, independent of sixty which he 
had lent to the Arcadians. In the tenth year 
of the siege of Troy we find Agamemnon in- 
volved in a quarrel with Achilles respecting 
the possession of Briseis, whom Achilles was 
obliged to give up to Agamemnon. Achilles 
withdrew from the field of battle, and the 
Greeks were visited by successive disasters. 
The danger of the Greeks at last induced Pa- 
troclus, the friend of Achilles, to take part in 
the battle, and his fall led to the reconciliation 
of Achilles and Agamemnon. Vid. Achilles. 
Agamemnon, although the chief commander of 
the Greeks, is not the hero of the Iliad, and in 
chivalrous spirit, bravery, and character alto- 
gether inferior to Achilles. But he neverthe- 
less rises above all the Greeks by his dignity, 
power, and majesty: his eyes and head are 
likened to those of Jupiter (Zeus), his girdle to 
that of Mars (Ares), and his breast to that of 
Neptune (Poseidon). The emblem of his power 
is a sceptre, the work of Vulcan (Hephaestus), 
which Jupiter (Zeus) had once given to Mer- 
cury (Hermes), and Mercury (Hermes) to Pe- 
lops, from whom it descended to Agamemnon. 
At the capture of Troy he received Cassandra, 
the daughter of Priam, as his prize. On his 
return home he was murdered by ^Egisthus, who 
had seduced Clytemnestra during the absence 
of her husband. The tragic poets make Cly- 
temnestra alone murder Agamemnon : her motive 
is in iEscbylus her jealousy of Cassandra, in 
Sophocles and Euripides her wrath at the death 
of Iphigenia. 

Agamemnokides ('Ayafi£/j.vov'id7jg), the son of 
Agamemnon, i. e., Orestes. 

[Aganice ^Ayaviurf) or Aglaonice ('Ayhao- 
vlkti), daughter of the Thessalian Hegetor : 6he 
was acquainted with the eclipses of the moon, 
and gave 'out that she could draw down the 
moon itself from the sky.] 

Aganippe ('Ayavmwr;), a nymph of the well 
of the same name at the foot of Mount Helicon, 
in Boeotia, which was considered sacred to the 
Muses (who were hence called Aganippidcs), and 
which was believed to have the power of inspir- 
ing those who drank of it. [The nymph is called 
a daughter of the river-god Permessus.] The 
fountain of Hippocrene has the epithet Aganippis 
(Ov., Fast, v., 7), from its being sacred to the 
Muses, like that of Aganippe. 

Agapenor ('Ayanijvop), a son of Ancaeus, 
king of the Arcadians, received sixty ships from 
Agamemnon, in which he led his Arcadians to 
Troy. On his return from Troy he was cast by 
a storm on the coast of Cyprus, where, accord- 
ing to some accounts, he founded the town of 
Paphus, and in it the famous temple of Venus 
(Aphrodite). 



AGAPTOLEMUS. 



AGATHOCLEB. 



[Agaptolejius (' Ayanrolenog), a son of 
-(Egyptus, slain by the Danaid Pirene.] 

[Agar, a city of Byzaeium in Africa Propria. 
Shaw regards it as the modern Boohadjar, where 
ruins of a destroyed city are found.] 

[Agara (now Agra), . a city of India intra 
Gangem, on the southern bank of the lomanes 
(now Dsehumna).] 

[Agariocs Sinus (now Gulf of Artingeri), a 
gulf of India intra Gangem.] 

Agarista ('Ayapcarn). 1. Daughter of Clis- 
thenes, tyrant of Sicyon, wife of Megacles, and 
mother of Clisthenes, who divided the Athenians 
into ten tribes, and of Hippocrates. — 2. Daugh- 
ter of the above-mentioned Hippocrates, and 
grand-daughter of No. 1, wife of Xanthippus, 
and mother of Pericles. 

Agasias ('Ayaoiac), a son of Dositheus, a 
sculptor of Ephesus, probably a contemporary 
of Alexander the Great (B.C. 330), sculptured 
the statue known by the name of the Borghese 
gladiator, which is still preserved in the gallery 
of the Louvre. This statue, as well as the 
Apollo Belvidere, was discovered among the 
ruins of a palace of the Roman emperors on the 
site of the ancient Antium (now Capo d'Anzo). 
From the attitude of the figure, it is clear that 
the statue represents not a gladiator, but a war- 
rior contending with a mounted combatant. Per- 
haps it was intended to represent Achilles fight- 
ing with Penthesilea. — [2. Another Ephesian 
sculptor, son of Menophilus, who exercised his 
art in Delos, while it was under the Roman 
sway. — 3. Of Stymphalus in Arcadia, an officer 
in the army of the ten thousand, often mentioned 
by Xenophon in his Anabasis.] 

Agasicles, Agesicxes, or Hegesicles f^Ayaa- 
ifc/U/c, 'kyriaiKKrjg, 'Hy7j(jtKlt/c), king of Sparta, 
succeeded his father Archidamas I., about B.C. 
600 or 590. 

[Agasthenes (' Ayaa6evr;c), son of Augias, and 
king in Elis : his son Polyxenus is mentioned 
among the suitors of Helen.] 

[Agastrophus ('Aydorpo^oc), son of Paeon, was 
slain by Diomedes before Troy.] 

[Agasus Portus (now Porto Greco), a harbor 
of Apulia on the Adriatic] 

Agatharchides ('AyadapxiSijc) or Agathar- 
chus (' Ayddapxoc), a Greek grammarian, born 
at Cnidos, lived at Alexandrea, probably about 
B.C. 130. He wrote a considerable number of 
geographical and historical works ; but we have 
only an epitome of a portion of his work on the 
Erythraean Sea, which was made by Photius : 
it is printed in Hudson's Geogr. Script. Gr. Mi- 
norca ; [of his works on Europe and Asia some 
fragments are preserved in Athenaeus and other 
writers, which have been published by Miiller in 
Didot's Fraqrncnta Historicorum Grmcorum, vol. 
iii, p. 190-i97.] 

Agatharchtjs ('Ayddapxoc), an Athenian art- 
ist, said to have invented scene-painting, and 
to have painted a scene for a tragedy which 
iEschylus exhibited. It was probably not till 
toward the end of iEschylus's career that scene- 
painting was introduced, and not till the time of 
Sophocles that it was generally made use of; 
which may account for Aristotle's assertion 
(Poet, iv., 16) that scene-painting was intro- 
duced by Sophocles. — 2. A Greek painter, a na- 
tive of Samos, and sou of Eudemus. He was 
30 



a contemporary of Aleibiades and Zeuxis, and 
must not be confounded with the contemporary 
of JEschylus. — [3. A Syracusan, who was placed 
by the Syracusans over a fleet of twelve ships in 

B. C. 413, to visit their allies and harass the 
Athenians. He was one of the commanders, in 
the same year, in the decisive battle fought in 
the harbor of Syracuse.] 

[Agatha ('Ayddr] : 'Ayadaloc : now Agdc), a 
city of Gallia Narbonensis on the Arauris.] 

Agathemerds ('Ayadij^cpoc), the author of 
" A Sketch of Geography in Epitome" (t% yea 
ypa<piae vnorvKdicELc iv linTO/ifj), probably lived 
about the beginning of the third century after 
Christ. The work consists chiefly of extracts 
from Ptolemy and other early writers. It is 

E rioted in Hudson's Geogr. Script. Gr. Minores, 
and by Hoffman with Arrian's Periplus, &c. 
Lips., 1842.] 

Agathias ('Ayadtac), a Byzantine writer, born 
about A.D. 536 at Myrina in jEolis, practiced 
as an advocate at Constantinople, whence he ob- 
tained the name Scliolasticus (which word signi- 
fied an advocate in his time), and died about 
A.D. 582. He wrote many poems, of which 
several have come down to us ; but his prin- 
cipal work was his History in five books, which 
is also extant, and is of considerable value. It 
contains the history from A.D. 553 to 558, a 
period remarkable for important events, such 
as the conquest of Italy by Narses and the ex- 
ploits of Belisarius over the Huns and other 
barbarians. The best edition is by Niebuhr, 
Bonn, 1828. 

[Agathinus ('Ayadlvoc), an eminent Greek 
physician, born at Sparta, and flourished in the 
first century after Christ : he was a pupil of 
Athenaeus of Attalia in Cilicia, the founder of 
the Pneumatic sect: he did not follow strictly 
the tenets of his master, but united with them 
those of others, and thus became himself found- 
er of a new medical sect called Hectici or Epi- 
synthetici. — 2. Of Elis, son of Thrasybulus, ac- 
cording to Bceckh, an Iamid, whose father was a 
seer among the Mantineans in the time of Ara- 
tus : he was a celebrated athlete, and gained the 
prize at the Olympic games. — 3. A Corinthian 
naval commander, who had charge of a fleet in 
the Corinthian Gulf.] 

Agathoolea ('AyadoK/ieLa), mistress of Ptole- 
my IV. Philopator, king of Egypt, and sister of 
his minister Agathocles. She and her brother 
were put to death on the death of Ptolemy (B. 

C. 205). ^ 

Agathocles ('AyadoK^T/c). 1. A Sicilian raised 
himself from the station of a potter to that of 
tyrant of Syracuse and king of Sicily. Born at 
Thermae, a town of Sicily subject to Carthage, 
he is said to have been exposed when an infant, 
by his father, Carcinus of Rhegium, in conse- 
quence of a succession of troublesome dreams, 
portending that he would be a source of much 
evil to Sicily. His mother, however, secretly 
preserved his life, and at seven years old he 
was restored to his father, who had long re- 
pented of his conduct to the child. By him ho 
was taken to Syracuse, and brought up as a pot- 
ter. His strength and personal beauty recom- 
mended him to Damas, a noble Syracusan, who 
drew him from obscurity, and on whose death he 
married his rich widow, and so became one 



AGATHOD.EMON. 



AGENOR. 



of the wealthiest citizens in Syracuse. His 
ambitious schemes then developed themselves, 
and he was driven into exile. After several 
changes of fortune, he collected an army which 
overawed both the Syracusans and Carthaginians, 
and was restored under an oath that he would 
not interfere with the democracy, which oath he 
Kept by murdering four thousand and banishing 
six thousand citizens. He was immediately 
declared sovereign of Syracuse, under the title 
of Autocrator, B.C. Sl^. In the course of a few 
years the whole of Sicily which was under the 
dominion of Carthage, submitted to him. In 
B.C. 810 he was defeated at Himera by the 
Carthaginians, under Hamilcar, who straightway 
laid siege to Syracuse ; whereupon he formed 
the bold design of averting the ruin which threat- 
ened him, by carrying the war into Africa. His 
successes were most brilliant and rapid. He 
constantly defeated the troops of Carthage, but 
was at length summoned from Africa by the 
affairs of Sicily, where many cities had revolted 
from him, B.C. 307. These he reduced, after 
making a treaty with the Carthaginians. He 
had previously assumed the title of King of 
Sicily. He afterward plundered the Lipari 
Isles, and also carried his arms into Italy, in 
order to attack the Bruttii. But his last days 
were embittered by family misfortunes. His 
grandson Archagathus murdered his son Aga- 
thocles, for the sake of succeeding to the crown, 
and the old king feared that the rest of his family 
would share his fate. He accordingly sent his 
wife Texena aud her two children to Egypt, her 
native country ; and his own death followed 
almost immediately, B.C. 289, after a reign of 
twenty-eight years, and in the seventy-second 
year of his age. Other authors relate an incre- 
dible story of his being poisoned by Mseno, an 
associate of Archagathus. The poison, we are 
told, was concealed in the quill with which he 
«leaned his teeth, and reduced him to so fright- 
ful a condition, that he was placed on the funeral 
pile and burned while yet living, being unable 
to give any signs that he was not dead. — 2. Of 
Pella, father of Lysimachus. — 3. Son of Lysima- 
chus, was defeated and taken prisoner by Dro- 
raichsetis, king of the Getas, about B.C. 292, but 
was sent back to his father with presents. In 
287 he defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes. At the 
instigation of his step-mother, Arsinoe, Lysima- 
chus cast him into prison, where he was mur- 
dered (284) by Ptolemaeus Ceraunus. — 4. Brother 
of Agathoclea. — 5. A Greek historian, of uncer- 
tain date, wrote the history of Cyzicus, which 
w»s extensively read in antiquity, and is referred 
to by Cicero (De Div. i., 24). 

Agathod^emon ('Ayadodai/uuv or 'Ayadbg tfeoc). 
1. The " Good Deity," in honor of whom the 
Greeks drank a cup of unmixed wine at the end 
of every repast. — [2. A name applied by the 
Greeks to the Egyptian Kneph, and also to a 
species of snake as his symbol. — 3. A name given 
by the Greek residents to the Canopic arm of 
the Nile.] — 4. Of Alexandrea, the designer of 
some maps to accompany Ptolemy's Geography. 
Copies of these maps are found appended to 
several MSS. of Ptolemy. 

Agathon {'Aydduv), an Athenian tragic poet, 
born about B.C. 447, of a rich and respectable 
family, was a friend of Euripides and Plato. 



He gained his first victory in 416 : in honor of 
which Plato represents the Symposium to have 
been given, which he has made the occasion of 
his dialogue so called. In 407 he visited the 
court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where 
his friend Euripides was also a guest at the 
same time. He died about 400, at the age of 
forty-seven. The poetic merits of Agathon 
were considerable, but his compositions were 
more remarkable for elegance and flowery orna- 
ments than force, vigor, or sublimity. In the 
Thesmophoriazasce of Aristophanes he is ridi- 
culed for his effeminacy, being brought on the 
stage in female dress. [The fragments of Aga- 
thon have been published by Wagner in Didot's 
Fragmenta Tragicorwn Groec,, p. 52-61. — 2. A 
son of Priam. — 3. Son of Tyrimmas, commander 
of the Odrysian cavalry under Alexander the 
Great.] 

Agathyrna, Agathyrnum ('Ayddvpva, -ov : 
' ' AyaQvpvalog : now Agatha), a town on the 
northern coast of Sicily, between Tyndaris and 
Calacta. 

[Agathyrnus ('Ayddvpvoc), son of JEolus, and 
founder of the city Agathyrna, q. v.] 

Agathtrsi ('Ayddvpcot), a people in European 
Sarmatia, on the River Maris (now Marosch) in 
Transylvania. From their practice of painting 
or tattooing their skin, they are called by Virgil 
LdSn., iv., 146) picti Agathyrsi. 

Agave ('Ayavr/), daughter of Cadmus, wife of 
Echion, and mother of Pentheus. When Pentheus 
attempted to prevent the women from celebrat- 
ing the Dionysiae festivals on Mount Cithasron, 
he was torn to pieces there by his own mother 
Agave, who in her phrensy believed him to be 
a wild beast. Via 1 . Pentheus. — One of the Ne- 
reids, one of the Danaids, and one of the Ama- 
zons were also called Agava3. 

Agbatana. Vid. Ecbatana. 

Agdistis {"AydiGTic), an androgynous deity, 
the offspring of Jupiter (Zeus) and Earth, con 
nected with the Phrygian worship of Attes or 

Ageladas ('AyeTiddat;), an eminent statuary 
of Argos, the instructor of the three great mas- 
ters, Phidias, Myron, and Polycletus. Many 
modern writers suppose that there were two 
artists of this name: one an Argive, the in- 
structor of Phidias, born about B.C. 540, the 
other a native of Sicyon, who flourished about 
B.C. 432. 

Agelaus ('Ayehaog). 1. Son of Hercules and 
Omphale, and founder of the house of Croesus. — 
2. Son of Damastor and one of the suitors of 
Penelope, slain by Ulysses. — 3. A slave of Priam, 
who exposed the infant Paris on Mount Ida, in 
consequence of a dream of his mother. — [4. Sou 
of the Heraelid Temenus. — 5. A Trojan, son of 
Phradmon, slain by Diomedes.] 

Agendicum or Agedicum (now Sens), the chief 
town of the Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Agenor ('Ayijvup). 1. Son of Neptune (Po- 
seidon) and Libya, king of Phoenicia, twin-bro- 
ther of Belus, and father of Cadmus, Phcenix, 
Cilix, Thasus, Phineus, and, according to some, of 
Europa also. Virgil (JEn., i., 338) calls Carthage 
the city of Agenor, since Dido was descended 
from Agenor. — 2. Son of Iasus, and father of 
! Argus Panoptes, king of Argos. — 3. Son and 
successor of Triopas, in the kingdom of Argos. 

31 



AGENORIDES. 



AGLAOPHON 



— 4. Son of Pleuron and Xanthippe, and grand- 
son of jEtolus. — 5. Son of Phegeus, king of 
Psophis, in Arcadia. He and his brother Pron- 
ous slew Alcmaeon, when he wanted to give the 
celebrated necklace and peplus of Harmonia to 
Lis second wife Oallirrhoe. Vid. Phegeus. The 
two brothers were afterward killed by Ampho- 
teric and Acarnan, the sons of Alcmason and 
Callirrboe. — 6. Son of the Trojan Antenor and 
Theano, one of the bravest among the Trojans, 
engaged in single combat with Achilles, but was 
rescued by Apollo. 

Agenorides ('Ayqvoptdrit;), a patronymic de- 
aoting a descendant of an Agenor, such as Cad- 
mus, Phineus, and Perseus. 

Agesander, a sculptor of Rhodes, who, in 
jonjunction with Polydorus and Athenodorus, 
«:ulptured the group of LaocooD, one of the most 
perfect specimens of art. This celebrated group 
was discovered in the year 1506, near the baths 
of Titus on the Esquiline Hill : it is now preserv- 
ed in the museum of the Vatican. The artists 
probably lived in the reign of Titus, and sculp- 
tured the group expressly for that emperor. 

Agesilaus ('AyijaiAaoc;), kings of Sparta. 1. 
Son of Doryssus, reigned forty-four years, and 
died about B.C. 886. He was contemporary 
with the legislation of Lycurgus. — 2. Son of 
Archidamus II., succeeded his half-brother Agis 
II., B.C. 398, excluding, on the ground of spu- 
rious birth, and by the interest of Lysander, his 
nephew Leotychides. From 396 to 394 he 
carried on the war in Asia Minor with great 
success, and was preparing to advance into the 
heart of the Persian empire, when he was 
summoned home to defend his country against 
Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, which had been 
induced by Artaxerxes to take up arms against 
Sparta. Though full of disappointment, he 
promptly obeyed ; and in the course of the 
same year (394), he met and defeated at Coro- 
nea, in Boeotia, the allied forces. During the 
next four years he regained for his country 
much of its former supremacy, till at length the 
fatal battle of Leuctra, 371, overthrew forever 
the power of Sparta, and gave the supremacy 
for a time to Thebes. For the next few years 
Sparta had almost to struggle for its existence 
amid dangers without and within, and it was 
chiefly owing to the skill, courage, and presence 
of mind of Agesilaus that she weathered the 
storm. In 361 he crossed with a body of Lace- 
daemonian mercenaries into Egypt. Here, after 
displaying much of his ancient skill, he died, 
while preparing for his voyage home, in the win- 
ter of 361-360, after a life of above eighty years 
and a reign of thirty-eight. His body was em- 
balmed in wax, and splendidly buried at Sparta. 
In person Agesilaus was small, mean-looking, 
and lame, on which last ground objection had 
been made to his accession, an oracle, curiously 
fulfilled, having warned Sparta of evils awaiting 
her under a "lame sovereignty." In his reign, 
indeed, her fall took place, but not through him, 
for he was one of the best citizens and generals 
that Sparta ever had. 

[Agesimbrotus, admiral of the Rhodian fleet, 
which aid#l the consul P. Sulpicius in the war 
against Philip, king of Macedonia, B.C. 200.] 

Agesipolis ('AyTjGLTToXit;), kings of Sparta. 1. 
Succeeded his father Pausanias, while yet a 
32 



minor, in B.C. 394, and reigned fourteen years. 
As soon as his minority ceased, he took an active 
part in the wars in which Sparta was then en- 
gaged with the other states of Greece. In 390 
he invaded Argolis with success ; in 385 he took 
the city of Mantinea; in 381 he went to the 
assistance of Acanthus and Apollonia against the 
Olynthians, and died in 380 during this war in 
the peninsula of Pallene. — 2. Son of Cleombrotus, 
reigned one year B.C. 371. — 3. Succeeded Cieo 
menes in B.C. 220, but was soon deposed by his 
colleague Lycurgus : he afterward took refuge 
with the Roman's. 

Agetor ('A-yjjTup), " the leader," a surname 
of Jupiter (Zeus) at Lacedaemon, of Apollo, and 
of Mercury (Hermes), who conducts the souls of 
men to the lower world. 

Aggenus Urbicus, a writer on the science of 
the Agrimensores, may perhaps have lived at 
the latter part of the fourth century of our era. 
His works are printed in Goesius, Rei Agrarice 
Auctores. 

Aggrammes or Xandrames (tZavdpa/iTic), the 
ruler of the Gangaridae and Prasii in India, when 
Alexander invaded India, B.C. 327. 

Agias ('Ay/ac), a Greek epic poet, erroneously 
called Augias, a native of Treezeo, flourished 
about B.C. ^40, and was the author of a poem 
called Nosti (Noorot), i. e., the history of the re- 
turn of the Achaean heroes from Troy. 

Aginnum (now Ageii), the chief town of the 
Nitiobriges in Gallia Aquitanica. 

Agis ( T Ay(c), kings of Sparta. 1. Son of 
Eurysthenes, the founder of the family of the 
Agidae. — 2. Son of Archidamus II., reigned B.C. 
427-398. He took an active part in the Pel- 
oponnesian war, and invaded Attica several 
times. While Alcibiades was at Sparta he was 
the guest of Agis, and is said to have seduced 
his wife Timasa ; in consequence of which Leo- 
tychides, the son of Agis, was excluded from the 
throne as illegitimate. — 3. Son of Archidamus 
III, reigned B.C. 338-330, attempted to over- 
throw the Macedonian power in Europe, while 
Alexander the Great was in Asia, but was de- 
feated and killed in battle by Antipater in 330 
— 4. Sou of Eudamidas II., reigned B.C. 244- 
240. He attempted to re-establish the institu- 
tions of Lycurgus, and to effect a thorough re- 
form in the Spartan state ; but he was resisted 
by his colleague Leonidas II. and the wealthy, 
was thrown into prison, and was there put to 
death by command of the ephors, along with 
his mother Agesistrata, and his grandmother 
Arehidamia. 

Agis, a Greek poet of Argos, a notorious flat- 
terer of Alexander the Great. 

[Agizymba, the name applied by Ptolemy to 
the part of Africa lying under the equator, the 
southernmost portion of that country with which 
the Greeks were acquainted.] 

Aglaia ('AyXata), "the bright one." 1. One 
of the Charites or Graces. — 2. Wife of Charopus 
and mother of Nireus, who came from the Island 
of Syme against Troy. 

[AglaonIoe. Vid, Aganice.] 

A.GLAOPHEME. Vid. S IRENES. 

Aglaophon ('AyXaoipuv). 1. Painter of Tha- 
sos, father and instructor of Polygnotus and 
Aristophon, lived about B.C. 500. — 2. Painter, 
lived about B.C. 420, probably grandson of No. 1. 



AG-LA CJROS. 



AGRIGENTUM. 



[Aglauros. Vid. Agraulos.] 

Aglaus ('AyXaog), a poor citizen of Psophis in 
Arcadia, whom the Delphic oracle declared hap- 
pier than Gyges, kiug of Lydia, on accouut of 
his contented disposition. Pausauias places him 
in the time of Croesus. 

[Agnius ('Aywoc), father of the Argonaut Ty- 
phys, the pilot of the Argo.] 

Agnodice ('AyvoducTj), an Athenian maiden, 
was the first of her sex to learn midwifery, 
which a law at Athens forbade an}' woman to 
learn. Dressed as a man, she obtained instruc- 
tion from a physician named Hierophilus, and 
afterward practiced her art with success. Sum- 
moned before the Areopagus by the envy of the 
other practitioners, she was obliged to disclose 
her sex, and was not only acquitted, but obtain- 
ed the repeal of the obnoxious law. This tale, 
though often repeated, does not deserve much 
credit, as it rests on the authority of Hyginus 
alone. 

Agnonides Ayvcnldrjc), an Athenian dema- 
gogue, induced the Athenians to sentence Pho- 
cion to death (B.C. 318), but was shortly after- 
ward put to death himself by the Athenians. 

Agoracritus ('AyopaKpiroc), a statuary of Pa- 
ros, flourished B.C. 440-428, and was the favorite 
pupil of Phidias. His greatest work was a 
statue of Venus (Aphrodite), which he changed 
into a statue of Nemesis, and sold it- to the 
people of Rhamnus, because he was indignant 
that the Athenians had given the preference to a 
statue by Alcamenes, who was another distin- 
guished pupil of Phidias. 

Agorae a and Agor^eus ('Ayopaia and 'Ayo- 
paloc), epithets of several divinities who were 
considered as the protectors of the assemblies of 
the people in the agora, such as Jupiter (Zeus), 
Minerva (Athena), Diana (Artemis), and Mer- 
cury (Hermes). 

[Agra ("Aypa) or Agra ("Aypai), an Attic de- 
mus south of Athens on the Ilissus : it contained 
a temple of Diana (Artemis) Agrotera, and a 
temple of Ceres (Demeter).] 

Age^ei ('Aypaioi), a people of ^Etolia, on the 
Achelous. 

Agraule ('AypavXij aud 'AypvXr] : ' AypvXevq), 
an Attic demus of the tribe Erechthe'is, named 
after Agraulos, No. 2. 

Agraulos ("AypavXoc, also "AyXavpoc). 1. 
Daughter of Actseus, first king of Athens, and 
wife of Cecrops. — 2. Daughter of Cecrops and 
Agraulos, is an important personage in the le- 
gends of Attica, and there were three different 
stories about her. 1. According to some writ- 
ers, Minerva (Athena) gave Erichthonius in a 
chest to Agraulos and her sister Herse, with the 
command not to open it; but, unable to control 
their curiosity, they opened it, and thereupon 
were seized with madness at the sight of Erich- 
thonius, and threw themselves down from the 
Acropolis. 2. According to Ovid {Met., ii., "710), 
Agraulos and her sister survived opening the 
chest, but Agraulos was subsequently punished 
by being changed into a stone by Mercury (Her- 
mes), because she attempted to prevent the god 
from entering the house of Herse, when he had 
fallen in love with the latter. 3. The third le- 
gend relates that Athens was once involved iu 
a long-protracted war, and that Agraulos threw 
"herself down from the Acropolis because an 
3 



oracle had declared that the Athenians would 
conquer if some one would sacrifice himself for 
his country. The Athenians, in gratitude, built 
her a temple on the Acropolis, in which it De- 
came customary for the young Athenians, on re- 
ceiving their first suit of armor, to take an oath 
that they would always defend their country to 
the last. One of the Attic demi (Agraule) de- 
rived its name from this heroine, aud a festival 
and mysteries (Agraulia) were celebrated at 
Athens in honor of her. 

Agreus ('Aypevc), a hunter, a surname of Pan 
and Aristaeus. 

Agei Decumates, tithe lands, the name given 
by the Romans to a part of Germany, east of the 
Rhine aud north of the Danube, which they took 
possession of when the Germans retired east- 
ward, and which they gave to Gauls and subse- 
quently to their own veterans on the payment of 
a tenth of the produce (decuma). Toward the 
end of the first or beginning of the second cen- 
tury after Christ, these lands were incorporated 
in the Roman empire. 

[Agrianes ('Aypidvrjc, now Ergene), a river of 
Thrace, joining the Hebrus.] 

[Agrianes ('Aypiuvec), a Thraeian race dwell- 
ing around Mount Hsemus, in the vicinity of the 
River Agrianes, a rude and warlike people, and 
excellent archers.] 

Ageicola, Cn. Julius, born June 13th, A.D. 
37, at Forum Julii {Frejus in Provence), was the 
son of Julius Groscinus, who was executed by 
Caligula, and of Julia Proeilla. He received a 
careful education ; he first served in Britain, 
A.D. 60, under Suetonius Paulinus; was quaastor 
in Asia in 63 ; was governor of Aquitania from 
74 to 76 ; and was consul in 77, when he be- 
trothed his daughter to the historian Tacitus, and 
in the following year gave her to him in mar- 
riage. In 78 he received the government of 
Britain, which he held for seven years, during 
which time he subdued the whole of the country 
with the exception of the highlands of Caledo- 
nia, and by his wise administration introduced 
among the inhabitants the language aud civiliza- 
tion of Rome. He was recalled in 85 through 
the jealousy of Domitian, aud on his return lived 
in retirement till his death in 93, which, accord- 
ing to some, was occasioned by poison, adminis- 
tered by order- of Domitian. His character is 
drawn in the brightest colors by his son-in-law 
Tacitus, whose Life of Agricola has come dow 
to us. 

Ageigentum ('AKpdyag: 'Aicpayavrtvoc, Agri- 
gentlnus : now Girgenli), a town on the southern 
coast of Sicily, about two and a half miles from 
the sea, between the rivers Acragas (now Fiume 
di S. Biagio) and Hypsas (now Fiume Drago). 
It was celebrated for its wealth and populous- 
ness, and, till its destruction by the Carthagini- 
ans (B.C. 405), was one of the most splendid cit- 
ies of the ancient world. It was the birth-place 
of Empedoeles. It was founded by a Doric col- 
ony from Gela about B.C. 579, was under the 
government of the cruel tyrant Phalaris (about 
560), and subsequently under that of Theron 
(488-472), whose praises are celebrated by Pin- 
dar. After its destruction by the Carthaginians, 
it was rebuilt by Timoleon, but it never regained 
its former greatness. After undergoing many 
vicissitudes, it at length came into the power 

33 



AGRINIUM. 



AGRCEOTUS. 



nf the Romans (210), in whose hands it remain- 
ed. There are still gigantic remains of the an- 
cient city, especially of the Olympieum, or tem- 
ple of the Olympian Jupiter (Zeus). 

AgrinIum ('Aypiviov), a town in iEtolia, per- 
haps near the sources of the Thermissus. 

Agrippa, first a pranomen, and afterward a 
cognomen among the Romans, signifies a child 
presented at its birth with its feet foremost. 

Agrippa, Herodes. I. Called "Agrippa the 
Great," son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and 
grandson of Herod the Great. He was edu- 
cated at Rome with the future Emperor Clau- 
dius, and Drusus, the son of Tiberius. Having 
given offence to Tiberius, he was thrown into 
prison ; but Caligula, on his accession (A.D .37), 
set him at liberty, and gave him the tetrar- 
chies of Abilene, Batanasa, Trachonitis, and 
Auranitis. On the death of Caligula (41), Agrip- 
pa, who was at the time in Rome, assisted Clau- 
dius in gaining possession of the empire. As a 
reward for his services, Judasa and Samaria 
were annexed to his dominions. His govern- 
ment was mild and gentle, and he was exceed- 
,ngly popular among the J ews. It was probably 
to increase his popularity with the Jews that 
lie caused the Apostle James to be beheaded, 
and Peter to be cast into prison (44). The 
manner of his death, which took place at Caasa- 
rea in the same year, is related in Acts, xii. By 
his wife Cypros he had a son, Agrippa, and three 
daughters, Berenice, Mariamne, and Drusilla. — 
2. Son of Agrippa I, was educated at the court 
of Cladius, and at the time of his father's death 
was seventeen years old. Claudius kept him 
at Rome, and sent Ouspius Fadus as procurator 
of the kingdom, which thus again became a Ro- 
man province. On the death of Herodes, king 
of Chalchis (48), his little principality was given 
to Agrippa, who subsequently received an ac- 
cession of territory. Before the outbreak of 
the war with the Romans, Agrippa attempted 
in vain to dissuade the Jews from rebelling. 
He sided with the Romans in the war ; and af- 
ter the capture of J erusalem, he went with his 
sister Berenice to Rome, and died in the sev- 
enty-third year of his age, A.D. 100. It was 
before this Agrippa that the Apostle Paul made 
his defence, A.D. 60 (Acts, xxv., xxvi.). 

Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, born in B.C. 63, of 
an obscure family, studied with young Octavius 
(afterward the Emperor Augustus) at Apollonia 
in Illyria ; and upon the murder of Caesar in 
44, was one of the friends of Octavius, who ad- 
vised him to proceed immediately to Rome. In 
(he civil wars which followed, and which ter- 
minated in giving Augustus the sovereignity of 
the Roman world, Agrippa took an active part ; 
and his military abilities, combined with his 
promptitude and energy, contributed greatly to 
that result. In 41, Agrippa, who was then prae- 
tor, commanded part of the forces of Augustus 
in the Perusinian war. In 88 he obtained great 
successes in Gaul and Germany ; in 37 he was 
consul ; and in 36 he defeated Sex. Pompey by 
sea. In 33 he was aedile, and in this office ex- 
pended immense sums of money upon great 
public works. He restored old aqueducts, con- 
structed a new one, to which he gave the name 
of the Julian, in honor of Augustus, and also 
erected several public buildings. In 31 he com- 
34 



manded the fleet of Augustus, at tbe battle ot 
Actium; was consul a second time in 28, and 
a third time in 27, when he built the Pantheon. 
In 21 he married Julia, daughter of Augustus. 
He had been married twice before, first to Pom- 
ponia, daughter of T. Pomponius Attieus, and 
next to Marcella, niece of Augustus. He con- 
tinued to be employed in various military com- 
mands in Gaul, Spain, Syria, and Pannouia, till 
his death in B.C. 12. By his first wife Pompo- 
nia, Agrippa had Vipsania, married to Tiberius 
the successor of Augustus ; and by his third 
wife, Julia, he had two daughters, Julia, married 
to L. iEmilius Paulus, and Agrippina, married 
to Germanicus, and three sons, Caius Cassar, 
Lucius Caesar (yid Gesar), and Agrippa Pos- 
tumus, who was banished by Augustus to the 
Island of Planasia, and was put to death by Ti- 
berius at his accession, A.D. 14. 

Agrippina. 1. Daughter of M. Vipsanius 
Agrippa and of Julia, the daughter of Augustus, 
married Germanicus, by whom she had nine 
children, among whom was the Emperor Calig- 
ula, and Agrippina, the mother of Nero. She 
was distinguished for her virtues and heroism, 
and shared all the dangers of her husband's 
campaigns. On his death in A.D. 17, she re- 
turned to Italy ; but the favor with which she 
was received by the people, increased the hatred 
and jealousy which Tiberius and his mother 
Livia had long entertained toward her. For 
some years Tiberius disguised his hatred, but at 
length, under the pretext that she was forming 
ambitious plans, he banished her to the Island 
of Pandataria (A.D. 30), where she died three 
years afterward, (A.D. 33), probably by volun- 
tary starvation. — 2. Daughter of Germanicus and 
Agrippina [No. 1.], and mother of the Emperor 
Nero, was born at Oppidum Ubiorum, afterward 
called in honor of her Colonia Agrippina, now 
Cologne. She was beautiful and intelligent, but 
licentious, cruel, and ambitious. She was first 
married to Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus (A.D. 28), 
by whom she had a son, afterward the Emperor 
Nero ; next to Crispus Passienus ; and thirdly 
to the Emperor Cladius (49), although she was 
his niece. In 50, she prevailed upon Claudius 
to adopt her son, to the prejudice of his own 
son Britannicus ; and in order to secure the 
succession for her son, she poisoned the em- 
peror in 54. Upon the accession of her son 
Nero, who was then only seventeen years of 
age, she governed the Roman empire for a few 
years in his name. The young emperor soon 
became tired of the ascendency of his mother, 
and after making several attempts to shake off 
her authority, he caused her to be assassinated 
in 59. 

Agrippinenses. Vid. Colonia Agrippina. 

Agrius ("Aypioc), son of Porthaon and Euryte, 
and brother of ffineus, king of Calydon in ^Eto 
lia: his six sons deprived QSneus of his king 
dom, and gave it to their father ; but Agrius aui 
his sons were afterward slain by Diomedes, the 
grandson of ffineus. 

Agrcecius or Agrcetius, a Roman gramma- 
rian, probably lived in the fifth century after 
Christ, and wrote an extant work, Be Ortho- 
graplda et Proprietate el Differentia Sermonis, 
j which is printed in Putsehius, Grammaticoz La 
I tince Auctores Antiqui, p. 2266-2275. 



AGROLAS. 



AJAX. 



[Agrolas ('Aypolac;), of Sicily, an architect, 
who, with Hyperbius,- surrounded the citadel of 
Athens with walls, except that part which was 
afterward built by Cimon.] 

Agron (JAypuv). I. Son of Ninus, the first 
of the Lydian dynasty of the Heraelidae. — 2. 
Son of Pleuratus, king of lllyria, died B.C. 231, 
and was succeeded by his wife Teuta, though 
he left a son, Pinnes or Pinneus, by his first 
wife, Triteuta, whom he had divorced. 

Agbotera (' Ayporepd), the huntress, a sur- 
name of Diana (Artemis). Vid. Agra. There 
was a festival celebrated to her honor at Athens 
under this name. Vid. Diet, of Antiq. 

Agryle. Vid. Agraui.e. 

[Agusius. T., a faithful friend of Cicero, who 
adhered to him in his banishment, and was the 
sharer of all his labors and sufferings during 
that period.] 

Agyieus ('AyvLevc), a surname of Apollo, as 
the protector of the streets and public places. 

Agylla ("AyvTiXa), the ancient Greek name 
of the Etruscan town of C.«re. 

Agyrium ('Ayvpwv : 'Ayvpivaloc, Agyrinen- 
sis : now S. Filipo d'Argiro), a town in Sicily on 
the Cyamosorus, northwest of Centuripae and 
northeast of Enna, the birth-place of the histo- 
rian Diodorus. 

Agyrrhius ('Ayvp'p' 10c), an Athenian, after be- 
ing in prison many years for embezzlement of 
public money, obtained, about B.C. 395, the res- 
toration of the Theoricon, and also tripled the pay 
for attending the assembly; hence he became 
so popular, that he was appointed general in 389. 

Ahala, Servilius, the name of several dis- 
tinguished Romans, who held various high of- 
fices in the state from B.C. 4*78 to 342. Of 
these the best known is C. Servilius Ahala, 
magister equitum in 439 to the dictator L. Cin- 
cinnatus, when he slew Sp. Melius in the 
forum, because he refused to appear before the 
dictator. Ahala was afterward brought to trial, 
and only escaped condemnation by a voluntary 
exile. Vid. Savilii. 

Aharna [now Bargiano ?\ a town in Etruria, 
northeast of Volsinii. 

Ahenobarbus, Domitius, the name of a dis- 
tinguished Roman family. They are said to 
have obtained the surname of Ahenobarbus, i. 
e., " Brazen-Beard" or " Red-Beard," because 
the Dioscuri announced to one of their ances- 
tors the victory of the Romans over the Latins 
at Lake Regillus (B.C. 496), and, to confirm the 
truth of what they said, stroked his black hair 
and beard, which immediately became red. — 
1. Cn., plebeian asdile B.C. 196, praetor 194, and 
consul 192, when he fought against the Boii. 
— 2. Cn., son of No. 1, consul suffectus in 162. 
— 3. Cn., son of No. 2, consul 122, conquered 
the Allobroges in Gaul, in 121, at the confluence 
of the Sulga and Rhodanus. He was censor in 
115 with Caecilius Metellus. The Via Domitia 
in Gaul was made by him. — 4. Cn., son of No. 
3, tribune of the plebs 104, brought forward the 
law (Lex Domitia), by which the election of the 
priests was transferred from the collegia to the 
people. The people afterward elected him Pon- 
tifieus Maximus out of gratitude. He was con- 
sul in 96, an4 censor in 92, with Licinius Cras- 
8U9 the orator. In his censorship he and his 
colleague shut up the schools of the Latin rhet- 



oricians ; but otherwise their censorship wa9 
marked by their violent disputes. — 5. L., broth- 
er of No. 4, praetor in Sicily, probably in 96, and 
consul in 94, belonged to the party of Sulla, and 
was murdered at Rome in 82, by order of the 
younger Marius. — 6, Cn., son of No. 4, married 
Cornelia, daughter of L. Ciuna, consul in 87, 
and joined the Marian party. He was pro- 
scribed by Sulla in 82, and fled to Africa, where 
he was defeated and killed by Cn. Pompey in 
81. — 7. L, son of No. 4, married Porcia, the 
sister of M. Cato, and was a stanch and a cour- 
aseous supporter of the aristocratical party. 
He was aedile in 61, praetor in 58, and consul in 
54. On the breaking out of the civil war in 49 
he threw himself into Corfinium, but was com- 
pelled by his own troops to surrender to Caesar. 
He next went to Massilia, and, after the sur- 
render of that town, repaired to Pompey in 
Greece : he fell in the battle of Pharsalia (48), 
where he commanded the left wing, and, accord- 
ing to Cicero's assertion in the second Philippic, 
by the hand of Antony. — 8. Cn., son of No. 1, 
was taken with his father at Corfinium (49), 
was present at the battle of Pharsalia (48), and 
returned to Italy iu 46, when he was pardoned 
by Cassar. After Caesar's death in 44, he com 
manded the republican fleet in the Ionian Sea 
He afterward became reconciled to Antony, 
whom he accompanied in his campaign against 
the Parthians in 36. He was consul in 32, and 
deserted to Augustus shortly before the battle 
of Actium. — 9. L., son of No. 8, married An- 
tonia, the daughter of Antony by Octavia; was 
aedile in 22, and consul iu 16 ; aud after his 
consulship, commanded the Romau army in 
Germany and crossed the Elbe. He died A. D, 
25.^10. Cn., son of No. 9, consul A.D. 32, mar- 
ried Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, and 
was father of the Emperor Nero. Vid. Agrip- 
pina. 

Ajax (Awf). 1. Son of Telamon, king of Sal- 
amis, by Periboea or Eriboaa, and grandson of 
iEacus. Homer calls him Ajax the Telamo- 
niau, Ajax the Great, or simply Ajax, whereas 
the other Ajax, son of Oileus, is always distin- 
guished from the former by some epithet. He 
sailed against Troy in twelve ships, and is rep- 
resented in the Iliad as second only to Achilles 
in bravery, and as the hero most worthy, in the 
absence of Achilles, to contend with Hector. 
In the contest for the armor of Achilles, he was 
conquered by Ulysses, aud this, says Homer, 
was the cause of his death. (Od. xi., 541, seg.) 
Homer gives no further particulars respecting 
his death ; but later poets relate that his defeat 
by Ulysses threw him into an awful state of 
madness ; that he rushed from his tent and 
slaughtered the sheep of the Greek army, fan- 
cying they were his enemies ; and that at length 
he put an end to his own life. From his blood 
there sprang up a purple flower bearing the let- 
ters al on its leaves, which were at once the 
initials of his name and expressive of a sigh. 
Homer does not mention his mistress Tecmessa. 
Ajax was worshipped at Salamis, and was hon- 
ored with a festival (Aldvreia). He was also 
worshipped at Athens, and one of the Attic 
tribes (!/Eantis) was called after him. — 2. Son 
of Oileus, king of the Locrians, also called the 
lesser Ajax, sailed against Troy in forty ships, 
35 



AIDES. 



ALBANIA 



He is described as small of stature, and wears 
a linen cuirass (Xtvodupn^), but is brave and in- 
trepid, skilled in throwing the spear, and, next 
to Achilles, the most swift-footed among the 
Greeks. On his return from Troy his vessel 
was wrecked on the Whirling Rocks (Tvpal ire- 
rpai) ; he himself got safe upon a rock through 
the assistance of Neptune (Poseidon) ; but as 
he boasted that he Wbuld escape in defiance of 
the immortals, Neptune (Poseidon) split the 
rock with his trident, and Ajax was swallowed 
up by the sea. This is the account of Homer, 
but his death is related somewhat differently by 
Virgil and other writers, who also tell us that 
the anger of Minerva (Athena) was excited 
against him, because on the night of the cap- 
ture of Troy, he violated Cassandra in the tem- 
ple of the goddess, where she had taken refuge. 
The Opuntian Locrians worshipped Ajax as their 
national hero. 

Aides ('Aidnc). Vid. Hades. 

Aidoneus ('AidovEvc). 1. A lengthened form 
of Aides. Vid. Hades. — 2. A mythical king of 
the Molossians in Epirus, husband of Proserpina 
(Persephone), and father of Core. When The- 
seus and Pirithous attempted to carry off Core, 
AidoneuS had Pirithous killed by Cerberus, and 
kept Theseus in captivity till he was released by 
Hercules. 

Arus Locutius or Loquens, a Roman divinity. 
A short time before the Gauls took Rome (B.C. 
390), a voice was heard at Rome in the Via 
Nova, during the silence of night, announcing that 
the Gauls were approaching. No attention was 
at the time paid to the warning, but the Romans 
afterwards erected on the spot where the voice 
had been heard, an altar with a sacred inclos- 
ure around it, to Aius Locutius, or the " Announc- 
ing Speaker." 

Alabanda (?) 'AXd&avSa or rh 'AXd6av6a : 
ATiabavSevc or ' Ald6av6oc : now Arabissar), an 
inland town of Caria, near the Marsyas, to the 
wuth of the Mseander, was situated between two 
hills : it was a prosperous place, but one of the 
most corrupt and luxurious towns in Asia Minor. 
Under the Romans it was the seat of a conven- 
tus juridicus. 

[Alabastron (' AXadatJTpCiv ttoXlc), a city in 
Upper or Middle Egypt, in the Arabian mountain 
chain, and famed for its artists, who, from the ala- 
baster dug in Mons Alabastrinus, carved all 
kinds of vases and ornaments.] 

Alabon ('AXa66v), a river and town in Sicily, 
north of Syracuse. 

Alagonia ('AXayovia), a town of the Eleuthe- 
ro-Laconians on the frontiers of Messenia. 

Alaloomen^; ('AXalnofievai : 'AAaXno/jevalog, 
Alalnofievuvc). 1. (Now Sulinari), an ancient 
town of Bceotia, east of Coronea, with a temple 
of Minerva (Athena), who is said to have been 
oorn in the town, and who was hence called 
Alalcomeneis ('AAalKOftevrjic, Idoc). The name 
of the town was derived either from Alalcome- 
nia, a daughter of Ogyges, or from the Boeotian 
hero Alalcomenes. — 2. A town in Ithaca, or in 
the Island Asteria, between Ithaca and Cephal- 
lenia. 

Alalia. Vid. Aleria. 

Alani ('AXavoc, 'AAavvol, i. e., mountaineers, 
from the Sarmatian word ala), a great Asiatic 
people, included under the general name of 
36 



Scythians, but probably a branch of the Mas 
sagetffi. They were a nation of warlike horse 
men. They are first found about the eastern 
part of the Caucasus, in the country called Al- 
bania, which appears to be only another form 
of the same name. In the reign of Vespasian 
they made incursions into Media and Armenia ; 
and at a later time they pressed into Europe, as 
far as the banks of the Lower Danube, where 
toward the end of the fifth century, they were 
routed by the Huns, who then compelled them 
to become their allies. In A.D. 406, some of the 
Alani took part with the Vandals in their irrup- 
tion into Gaul and Spain, where they gradually 
disappear from history. 

Alaricus, in German Al-rie, i. e., " All-rich," 
elected king of the Visigoths in AD. 398, had 
previously commanded the Gothic auxiliaries of 
Theodosius. He twice invaded Italy, first in A.D. 
402-403, when he was defeated by Stilieho at 
the battle of Pollentia, and a second time in 408- 
410 ; in his second invasion he took and plundered 
Rome, 24th of August, 410. He died shortly 
afterward, at Consentia in Bruttium, while pre- 
paring to invade Sicily. 

Alastor ('ATiuorup). 1. A surname of Jupi- 
ter (Zeus) as the avenger of evil, and also, in 
general, any deity who avenges wicked deeds. — 
[2. Son of Neleus and Chloris, was slain, toge- 
ther with his brothers, except Nestor, by Hercu- 
les, when that hero took Pylos.] — 3. A Lycian, 
and companion of Sarpedon, slain by Ulysses. — ■ 
[4. A Greek who rescued Teucer, the brother of 
Ajax, when wounded, and also Hypsenor when 
struck down by De'iphobus.] 

Alba SilvIus, one of the mythical kings of 
Alba, son of Latinus, reigned thirty-nine years. 

Alba. 1. (Now Abla), a town of the Bastitani 
in Spain. — 2. (Now Alvanna), a town of the Bar- 
duli in Spam. — 3. Augusta (now Aulps, near Du- 
rance), a town of the Elicoci in Gallia Narbon- 
ensis. — 4. Fuoentia or Fucentis (Albehses : now 
Alba or Albi), a town of the Marsi, and subse- 
quently a Roman colony, was situated on a lofty 
roek near the Lake Fuciuus. It was a strong 
fortress, and was used by the Romans as -a state 
prison— 5. Longa (Albani), the most ancient 
town in Latium, is said to have been built by 
Ascanius, and to have founded Rome. It was 
called Longa, from its stretching in a long line 
down the Alban Mount towards the Alban 
Lake, perhaps near the modern convent of Pal- 
azzolo. It was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, 
and was never rebuilt: its inhabitants were 
removed to Rome. At a later time the surround 
ing country, which was highly cultivated and 
covered with vineyards, was studded with the 
splendid villas of the Roman aristocracy and 
emperors (Pompey's, Domitian's, <fec), each of 
which was called Albanian, and out of which a 
new town at length grew, also called Albauum 
(now Albano), on the Appian Road, ruins of 
which are extant. — 6. Pompeia (Albenscs Pom- 
peiani : now Alba), a town in Liguria, founded 
by Scipio Afrieanus I., and colonized by Poni- 
peius Magnus, the birth-place of the Emperor 
Pertinax. 

Albania ('AlCavla : 'Albavol, Albani : now 
Schirwan and part of Dac/hestan, in the south- 
eastern part of Georgia), a country of Asia on 
the western side of the Caspian, extending from 



ALBANUM. 



ALBITJM INGAUNUM. 



the Rivers Cyrus and Araxes on the south to 
Mount Ccraunius (the eastern part of the Cau- 
casus) on the north, and bounded on the west 
by Iberia. It was a fertile plain, abounding in 
pasture and vineyards ; but the inhabitants were 
lierce and warlike. They were a Scythian tribe, 
probably a branch of the Massagetas, and identi- 
cal with the Alani. The Romans first became 
acquainted with them at the time of the Mithra- 
datie war, when they encountered Pompey with 
a large army. 

Albanum. Vid. Alba, No. 5. 

Albanus Lacus (now Lago di Albano), a small 
lake about five miles in circumference, west of 
the Mons Albanus, between Bovillse and Alba 
Longa. is the crater of an extinct volcano, and is 
many hundred feet deep. The emissarium which 
the Romans bored through the solid rock during 
the siege of Veii, in order to carry off the super- 
fluous water of the lake, is extant at the present 
day. 

Albanus Mons (now Monte Cavo or Albano), 
was, in its narrower signification, the mountain 
in Latium on whose declivity the town of Alba 
Longa was situated. It was the sacred mountain 
of the Latins, on which the religious festivals of 
the Latin League were celebrated (Ferice Latince), 
and on its highest summit was the temple of 
Jupiter Latiaris, to which the Roman generals 
ascended in triumph, when this honor was denied 
them in Rome. The Mons Albanus in its wider 
signification included the Mons Algidus and the 
mountains about Tusculum. 

Albi Montes, a lofty range of mountains in 
the west of Crete, three hundred stadia in length, 
covered with snow the greater part of the year. 

Albici ('AXtj'ioiicoi, 'AXGiuc), a warlike Gallic 
people, inhabiting the mountains north of Mas- 
silia. 

Albingaunum. Vid. Albium Ingaunum. 

Albinovanus, C. Pedo, a friend of Ovid, who 
addresses to him one of his epistles from Pontus 
(iv., 10). Three Latio elegies are attributed to 
Albinovanus, printed by Wernsdorf, in his Poetce 
Latini Minores, vol. iii., iv., and by Meinecke, 
Quedlinburg, 1819. — [2. Alb. Celsus, a Latin 
poet, friend of Horace.] 

Albinovanus, P. Tullius, belonged to the 
Marian party, was proscribed in B.C. 87, but 
was pardoned by Sulla in 81, in consequence of 
his putting to death many of the officers of Nor- 
banus, whom he had invited to a banquet at 
Ariminum. 

Albinus or Albus, Postumius, the name of a 
patrician family at Rome, many of the members 
of which held the highest offices of the state 
from the commencement of the republic to its 
downfall. — 1. A., surnamed Regillejisis, dictator 
B.C. 498, when h%conquered the Latins in the 
great battle near Lake Regillus, and consul 496, 
in which year some of the annals placed the 
battle. — 2. Sp., consul 466, and a member of the 
first decemvirate 451. — 3. Sp., consul 344, and 
again 321. In the latter year he inarched 
against the Samnites, but was defeated near 
Caudium, and obliged to surrender with his 
whole army, who were sent under the yoke. 
The Senate, on the advice of Albinus, refused 
to ratify the peace which he had made with the 
Sainnites, and resolved that all persons who 
had sworn to the peace should be given up to 



the Samnites, but they refused to accept them. 
— 4. L, consul 234, and again 229. In 216 he 
was prffitor, and was killed in battle by the Boii, 
— 5. Sp., consul in 186, when the seuatus consul- 
turn was passed, which is extant, for suppress- 
ing the worship of Bacchus in Rome. He died 
in 179. — 6. A., consul 180, when he fought against 
the Ligurians, and censor 174. He was subse- 
quently engaged in many public missions. Livy 
calls him Luscus, from which it would seem 
that he was blind of one eye. — 7. L, prastor 
180, in Further Spain, where he remained two 
years, and conquered the Vaccaji and Lusitani. 
He was consul in 173, and afterward served 
under ./Emilius Paulus in Macedonia in 168. — 
8. A., consul 151, accompanied L. Mummius 
into Greece in 146. He was well acquainted 
with Greek literature, and wrote in that lan- 
guage a poem and a Roman history, which is 
censured by Polybius. — 9. Sp., consul 110, car- 
ried on war against Jugurtha in Numidia, but 
effected nothing. When Albinus departed from 
Africa, he left his brother Aulus in command, 
who was defeated by Jugurtha. Spurius was 
condemned by the Mamilia Lex, as guilty of 
treasonable practices with Jugurtha. — 10. A., 
consul B.C. 99, with M. Antonius, is said by 
Cicero to have been a good speaker. 

Albinus l^kl6lvoc), a Platonic philosopher, 
lived at Smyrna in the second century after 
Christ, and wrote an Introduction to the Dia- 
logues of Plato, which contains hardly any thing 
of importance. — Editions. In the first edition 
of Fabricius's JBibl. Grcec., vol. ii., and prefixed 
to Etwall's edition of three dialogues of Plato, 
Oxon., 1771 ; and to Fischer's four dialogues of 
Plato, Lips., 1783. 

Albinus, Clodius, whose full name was De- 
cimus Clodius Oeionius Septimius Albinus, was 
born at Adrumetum in Africa. The Emperor 
Commodus made him governor of Gaul and 
afterward of Britain, where he was at the death 
of Commodus in A.D. 192. In order to secure 
the neutrality of Albinus, Septimius Severus 
made him Csesar; but after Severus had de- 
feated his rivals, he turned his arms against 
Albinus. A great battle was fought between 
them at Lugdunum (Lyons), in Gaul, the 19th 
of February, 197, in which Albinus was defeated 
and killed. 

Albion or Alebion ('ATiSiwv, 'A^edcuv), son 
of Neptune (Poseidon) and brother of Dercynus 
or Bergion, with whom he attacked Hercules, 
when he passed through their country (Liguria) 
with the oxen of Geryon. They were slain by 
Hercules. 

Albion, another name of Britannia, the white 
land, from its white cliffs opposite the coast of 
Gaul: [more correctly, perhaps, the high land, 
from the Celtic root Alb or Alp, high, in refer- 
ence to its lofty coasts, as it lies facing Gaul.] 

Albis (now Elbe), one of the great rivers in 
Germany, the most easterly which the Romans 
became acquainted with, rises, according to 
Tacitus, in the country of the Hermunduri. The 
Romans reached the Elbe for the first time in 
B.C. 9, under Drusus, and crossed it for the first 
time in B.C. 3, under - Domitius Ahenobarbus. 
The last Roman general who saw the Elbe was 
Tiberius, in A.D. 5. 

Albium Ingaunum or Albingaunum (now Al- 
ii 



ALBIUM INTEMELIUM. 



ALCEST1S. 



bengo), a town of the Ingauni on the coast of 
Liguria, and a municipium. 

Albium Intemelium or Albintemelium (now 
Vintimiglia), a town of the Intemelii on the 
coast of ' Liguria, and a municipium. 

[Albucella or Arbocala ('ApSovntiXn, Polyb. : 
now Villa Fasila), a city of Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, southwest of Pallantia : according to Poly- 
bius, it was the largest city of the Vaccaei, and 
was taken by Hannibal after a brave and long 
resistance.] 

Albucius or Albutius, T., studied at Athens, 
and belonged to the Epicurean sect ; he was well 
acquainted with Greek literature, but was satir- 
ized by Lucilius on account of his affecting on 
every occasion the Greek language and philoso- 
phy. He was praator in Sardinia in B.C. 105 ; 
and in 103 was accused of repetundae by 0. 
Julius Caesar, and condemned. He retired to 
Athens, and pursued the study of philosophy. 
[2. C. Albucius Silus. Vid, Silus.] 

Albula, an ancient name of the River Tiber. 

Albulje Aqiwe. Vid. Albunea. 

Albunea or Albuna, a prophetic nymph or 
Sibyl, to whom a grove was consecrated in the 
neighborhood of Tibur (now Tivoli), with a foun- 
tain and a temple. This fountain was the 
largest of the Albuke aquae, still called Argue 
Albule, sulphureous springs at Tibur, which 
flow into the Anio. Near it was the oracle of 
■^aunus Fatidieus. The temple is still extant at 
Tivoli. 

Axburnus Mons, [now Monte di Posliglione~\, 
a mountain in Lucania, covered with wood, be- 
hind Paastum. — [2. Portus, a harbor near Paes- 
tum, at the mouth of the Silarus (now SeleJ]. 

[Albus Portus ("the White Haven," now 
Algesiras), a town on the coast of Baatica in 
Spain.] 

[Albus Vicus (Ji Aevkt) Ku/in : now Iambo ?), a 
harbor in Arabia, from which Gallus set out on 
his expedition into the interior.] 

[Albutius. Vid. Albucius.] 

Alcaeus ('AXitaZoc), son of Perseus and An- 
dromeda, and father of Amphitryon and Anaxo. 
— [2. Son of Hercules and a female slave of 
Jardanus, from whom the Heraclid dynasty in 
Lydia, e. </., Candaules (Myrsilus), <fcc, were de- 
scended. Diodorus gives to this son of Hercules 
the name of Cleolaus. — 3. Son of Androgeus, 
grandson of Minos.] 

Alcaeus. 1. Of Mytilene in Lesbos, the earli- 
est of the JSolian lyric poets, began to flourish 
about B.C. 611. In the war between the Athen- 
ians and Mytilenaeans for the possession of Sigeum 
(B.C. 606), he incurred the disgrace of leaving 
his arms on the field of battle : these arms were 
hung up as a trophy by the Athenians in the 
temple of Pallas at Sigeum. Alcaeus took an 
active part in the struggles between the nobles 
and people of Mytilene : he belonged by birth to 
the nobles, and was driven into exile with his 
brother Antimenidas, when the popular party 
got the upper hand. He attempted, by force of 
arms, to regain bis country ; but all his attempts 
were frustrated by Pittacus, who had been 
chosen by the people jEsymnetes, or dictator, 
for the purpose of resisting him and the other 
exiles. Alcaeus and his brother afterward tra- 
velled into various countries : the time of his 
death is uncertain. Some fragments of his poems 
38 



which remain, and the excellent imitations of 
Horace, enable us to understand something of 
their character. Those which have received the 
highest praise are his warlike odes, in which he 
tried to rouse the spirits of the nobles, the Alccei 
minaces Camence of Horace (Co.rm., iv. 9, 7). 
In others he described the hardships of exile, 
and his perils by sea {dura navis, dura fugce, 
mala dura belli, Hor., Carm., ii. 13, 2*7). Alcaeus 
is said to have invented the well-known Alcaic 
metre. — Editions : By Matthias, Alccei Mytilenmi 
reliquiae, Lips., 1827 ; and by Bergk, in Poetce 
Lyrici Gra>ci, Lips., 1843. — 2. A comic poet at 
Athens, flourished about B.C. 388, and exhibited 
plays of that mixed comedy, which formed the 
transition between the old and the middle. 
[Some fragments remain, which have been pub- 
lished by Meineke, Fragmenta Comicorum Grm- 
coritm, voL i., p. 457-461, edit, minor.] — 3. Of 
Messene, the author of twenty-two epigrams in 
the Greek Anthology, written between B.C. 219 
and 196. 

Aloamenes ('ATinafievrjc). 1. Son of Teleelus, 
king of Sparta, from B.C. 779 to 742.-2. A 
statuary of Athens, flourished from B.C. 444 to 
400, and was the most famous of the pupils of 
Phidias. His greatest work was a statue of 
Venus (Aphrodite). 

Alcander ("AXnavdpoc), a young Spartan, who 
thrust out one of the eyes of Lyeurgus, when his 
fellow-citizens were discontented with the laws 
he proposed. Lyeurgus pardoned the outrage, 
and thus converted Alcander into one of bis 
warmest friends. — [2. A Lycian, slain by Ulysses 
before Troy. — 3. A companion of iEneas, slain by 
Turnus in Italy.] 

[Aloandra ('AlKuvdpa), wife of Polybus, a 
wealthy Egyptian of Egyptian Thebes, by whom 
Helen was kindly received and entertained on 
her arrival in Egypt] 

[Aloanor, a Trojan, whose sons Pandarus and 
Bitias accompanied ./Eneas to Italy. — 5. A war- 
rior in the army of the Rutulians, wounded by 
iEneas.] 

Alcathoe or Alcithoe ( 'AXuadoi; or AlKidmf), 
daughter of Minyas, refused, with her sisters 
Leueippe and Arsippe, to join in the worship of 
Bacchus (Dionysus) when it was introduced into 
Bosotia, and were accordingly changed by the 
god into bats, and their work into vines. Vid. 
Diet, of Ant, art. Agrionia. 

Alcathous ('ATiKadooc). 1. Son of Pelops 
and Hippodamia, brother of Atreus and Thyes- 
tes, obtained as his wife Euaachme, the daugh- 
ter of Megareus, by slaying the Cithaeronian lion, 
and succeeded his father-in-law as king of Me- 
gara. He restored the walls of Megara, in 
which work he was assisted by Apollo. The 
stone upon which the god usqd to place his lyre 
while he was at work, was believed, even in 
late times, to give forth a sound, when struck, 
similar to that of a lyre (Ov., Met., viii., 15). — 
2. Son of iEsyetes and husband of Hippodamia, 
the daughter of Anchises and sister of ^Eneas, 
was one of the bravest of the Trojan leaders 
in the war of Troy, and was slain by Idome- 
neus. — [3. Son of Porthaon and Euryte, killed by 
Tydeus. — 4. A companion of ^Eneas, slain by 
Caedicus.] 

Alcestis or Alceste ("AXkvotic or 'AluieoTT)), 
daughter of Pelias and Anaxibia, wife of Ad- 



ALCETAS. 



ALCIMEDON. 



metus, died in place of her husband. Vid. Ad- 
metus. 

Alcetas ('A/Ueraf), two kings of Epirus. 1. 
Son of Tharypus, was expelled from his king- 
dom, and was restored by the elder Dionysius 
of Syracuse. He was the ally of the Atheni- 
ans in B.C. 373. — 2. Son of Arymbas, and grand- 
eon of Alcetas I, reigned B.C. 313-303, and 
was put to death by his subjects. 

Alcetas. 1. King of Macedonia, reigned 
twenty-nine years, and was father of Anryntas 
I. — 2. Brother of Perdiecas and son of Orontes, 
was one of Alexander's generals. On the death 
of Alexander, he espoused his brother's party ; 
and upon the murder of the latter in Egypt in 
321, he joined Eumenes. He killed himself at 
Tei'messus in Pisidia in 320, to avoid falling 
into the hands of Antigonus. 

Alcibiades ('A?tia6tu.(iric). — [1. Of Athens, 
father of Clinias, and grandfather of the cele- 
brated Alcibiades, deduced his descent from 
Eurysaces, the son of Telamonian Ajax. He 
joined Clisthenes in an attempt to procure the 
banishment of the Pisistratidse ; but was ban- 
ished with him B.C. 512.]— 2. Son of Clinias 
and Dinomache, was born at Athens about B.C. 
450, and on the death of his father in 447, was 
brought up by his relation Pericles. He pos- 
sessed a beautiful person, transcendent abilities, 
and great wealth, which received a large ac- 
cession through his marriage with Hipparete, 
the daughter of Hipponicus. His youth was 
disgraced by his amours and debaucheries, and 
Socrates, who saw his vast capabilities, at- 
tempted to win him to the paths of virtue, but 
in vain. Their intimacy was strengthened by 
mutual services. At the battle of Potidsea 
(B.C. 432) his life was saved by Socrates, and 
at that of Delium (424) he saved the life of Soc- 
rates. He did not take much part in public af- 
fairs till after the death of Cleon (422), but he 
then became one of the leading politicians, and 
the head of the war party in opposition to Nic- 
ias. Enraged at the affront put upon him by 
the Lacedaemonians, who had not chosen to 
employ his intervention in the negotiations 
which ended in the peace of 421, and had pre- 
ferred Nicias to him, he induced the Athenians 
to form an alliance with Argos, Mantinea, and 
Elis, and to attack the allies of Sparta. In 415 
he was foremost amongst the advocates of the 
Sicilian expedition, which he believed would be 
a step toward the conquest of Italy, Carthage, 
and Peloponnesus. While the preparations for 
the expedition were going on, there occurred 
the mysterious mutilation of the Hermes-busts, 
which the popular fears connected in some un- 
accountable manner with an attemjot to over- 
throw the Athenian constitution. Alcibiades 
was charged with being the ringleader in this 
attempt. He had been already appointed along 
with Nicias and Lamachus as commander of the 
expedition to Sicily, and he now demanded an 
investigation before he set sail. This, however, 
his enemies would not grant, as they hoped to 
increase the popular odium against him in his 
absence. He was, therefore, obliged to depart 
for Sicily ; but he had not been there long, be- 
fore he was recalled to stand his trial. On his 
return homeward, he managed to escape at 
Thurii, and thence proceeded to Sparta, wh?re 



he acted as the avowed enemy of his country. 
At Athens sentence of death was passed upon 
him, and his property was confiscated. At 
Sparta he rendered himself popular by the fa- 
cility with which he adopted the Spartan man- 
ners ; but the machinations of his enemy, Ada 
II, induced him to abandon the Spartans and 
take refuge with Tissapherues (412), whose fa- 
vor he soon gained. Through his influence Tis- 
saphernes deserted the Spartans and professed 
his willingness to assist the Athenians, who ac 
cordingly recalled Alcibiades from banishment 
in 411. He did not immediately return to Ath- 
ens, but remained abroad for the next four years, 
during which the Athenians under his com- 
mand gained the victories of Cynossema, Aby- 
dos, and Cyzieus, and get possession of Chal- 
cedou and Byzantium. In 407 he returned to 
Athens, where he was received with great en- 
thusiasm, and was appointed commander-in- 
chief of all the land and sea forces. But the 
defeat at Notium, occasioned during his absence 
by the imprudence of his lieutenant, Antiochus, 
furnished his enemies with a handle against 
him, and he was superseded in his command 
(B.C. 406). He now went into voluntary ex- 
ile to his. fortified domain at Bisanthe in the 
Thracian Chersonesus, where he made war on 
the neighboring Thracians. Before the fatal 
battle of jEgos-Potami (405), he gave an inef- 
fectual warning to the Athenian generals. After 
the fall of Athens (404), he was condemned to 
banishment, and took refuge with Pharnaba- 
zus ; he was about to proceed to the court of 
Artaxerxes, when one night his house was sur- 
rounded by a band of armed men, and set on 
fire. He rushed out sword in hand, but fell, 
pierced with arrows (404). The assassins were 
pi-obatily either employed by the Spartans, or 
by the brothers of a lady whom Alcibiades had 
seduced. He left a sou by his wife Hipparete, 
named Alcibiades, who never distinguished him- 
self. It was for him that Isocrates wrote the 
speech Tlepl tov Zevyovc. 

Alcidamas ( ' AlKLdd/m^), a Greek rhetorician 
of Elasa in iEolis, in Asia Minor, was a pupil of 
Gorgias, and resided at Athens between B.C. 
432 and 411. His works were characterized by 
pompous diction, and the- extravagant use of 
poetical epithets and phrases. There are two 
declamations extant which bear his name, en- 
titled Llysses, and On the Sophists, but they 
were probably not written by him. — Editions: 
In Reiske's Oratores Grceci, vol. viii., and in 
Bekker's Oratores Attici, vol. viL 

Alcidas ('AA/cMac Dor = 'AXudSr^), a Spar- 
tan commander of the fleet in the Peloponnesian 
war, B.C. 428-427. In the former year he was 
sent to Mytilene, and in the latter to Corcyra. 

Alcides ('AA/ce«Sj7c), a name of Amphitryon, 
the son of Alcasus, and more especially of Her- 
cules, the grandson of Alcaeus. 

Alcimede ('A/lKtfiedTj), daughter of Phylacus 
and Clymene, wife of iEson, and mother of 
Jason. 

[Alcimedon ('ATuKified'uv), an Arcadian hero, 
father of Phillo. From him the Arcadian plain 
Alcimedon derived its name. — 2. Son of Laerces, 
one of the commanders of the Myrmidons un- 
der Achilles. — 3. One of the Tyrrhenian sailors, 
who wished to carry off from Naxos the god 
39 



ALCIMEDON. 



ALCMENE. 



Bacchus, who had taken the form of an infant, 
and for this was metamorphosed into a dolphin.] 

[Alcimeuon, an embosser or chaser, spoken of 
by Virgil (Eclog., iii., 37, 44), who mentions some 
goblets of his workmanship.] 

Alcimus (Avitus) Alethtus, the writer of 
seven short poems, a rhetorician in Aquitania, in 
Gaul, is spoken of in terms of praise by Sidonius 
Apollinaris and Ausonius. — Editions : In Meier's 
Anthologia Latina, p. 254-260, and in Wemsdo- 
ri's Poetce Latini Minores, vol. vL 

Alcinous (^AIu'lvooc). 1. Son of Nausithous, 
and grandson of Neptune (Poseidon), is celebra- 
ted in the story of the Argonauts, and still more 
in the Odyssey. Homer represents Mm as the 
happy ruler of the Phssacians in the Island of 
Seheria, who has by Arete five sons and one daugh- 
ter, Nausicaa. The way in which he received 
Ulysses, and the stories which the latter related 
to the king about his wanderings, occupy a con- 
siderable portion of the Odyssey (books vi. to 
xiii.). — 2. A Platonic philosopher, who probably 
lived under the Caesars, wrote a work entitled 
Epitome of the Doctrines of Plato. — Editions : 
By Pell, Oxon, 1667, and by J. F. Fischer, Lips., 
1782, 8vo. 

Alciphron ('Ahtcfypov), the most distinguished 
of the Greek epistolary writers, was perhaps a 
contemporary of Lucian about A.D. 170. The 
letters (one hundred and thirteen in number, in 
three books) are written by fictitious person- 
ages, and the language is distinguished by its 
purity and elegance. The new Attic comedy 
was the principal source from which the author 
derived his information respecting the characters 
and manners which he describes, and for this 
reason they contain much valuable information 
about the private life of the Athenians of that 
time. — Editions : By Bergler, Lips., 1715, and by 
Wagner, Lips., 1798. 

[Alcippe {' AXu'mnj]), a daughter of Mars and 
Agraulos. Vid. Halirrhothius.] 

Alcithoe. Vid. Alcathoe. 

Alcmseon ('A2.KftaLuv). 1. Son of Amphiaraus 
and Eriphyle, and brother of Amphilochus. ' His 
mother was induced by the necklace of Harmo- 
nia, which she received from Polynlces, to per- 
suade her husband Amphiaraus to take part in 
the expedition against Thebes ; and as he knew 
he should perish there, he enjoined his sons to kill 
their mother as soon as they should be grown up. 
Alcmseon took part in the expedition of the Epi- 
goni against Thebes, and on his return home 
after the capture of the city, he slew his mother, 
according to the injunction of his father. For 
this deed he became mad, and was haunted by 
the Erinnyes. He went to Phegeus in Psophis, 
and being purified by the latter, he married 
Ms daughter Arsinoe or Alphesibcea, to whom 
he gave the necklace and peplus of Harmonia. 
But as the land of tMs country ceased to 
bear, on account of its harboring a matricide, 
he left PsopMs and repaired to the country 
at the mouth of the River Aehelous. The 
god Aehelous gave him Ms daughter Callirrhoe' 
in marriage ; and as the latter wished to possess 
the necklace and peplus of Harmonia, Alcmseon 
went to PsopMs and obtained them from Phe- 
geus, under the pretext of dedicating them at 
DelpM ; but when Phegeus heard that the trea- 
sures were fetched for Callirrhoe, he caused Ms 
40 



sons to murder Alcmseon. Alcmason was wor- 
sMpped as a hero at Thebes, and at Psophis Ms 
tomb was shown, surrounded with cypresses. — 
[2. Son of Sillus, and great grandson of Nestor, 
founder of the celebrated family of the Alcmseon- 
idm (q. v.) in Athens.] — 3. Son of Megacles, was 
greatly enriched by Crcesus. — 4. Of Crotona in 
Italy, said to have been a pupil of Pythagoras, 
though tMs is very doubtful. He is said to 
have been the first person who dissected ani- 
mals, and he made some important discoveries 
in anatomy and natural philosophy. He wrote 
several medical and philosopMeal works, wMch 
are lost. 

AlcmjEonidjE C ATiKfiaiuvidai), a noble family 
at Athens, members of which fill a space in 
Grecian history from B.C. 750 to 400. They 
were a branch of the family of the Nelidse, who 
were driven out of Pylus in Messenia by the Do- 
rians, and settled at Athens. In consequence of 
the way in which Megacles, one of the family, 
treated the insurgents under Ctlon (B.C. 612), 
they brought upon themselves the guilt of sacri- 
lege, and were in consequence banished from 
Athens, about 595. About 560 they returned 
from exile, but were again expelled by Pisistra- 
tus. In 548 they contracted with the Amphic 
tyonic council to rebmld the temple of DelpM. 
and obtained great popularity throughout Greece 
by executing the work in a style of magnificence 
wMch much exceeded their engagement. On the 
expulsion of Hippias in 510, they were again re- 
stored to Athens. They now joined the popular 
party, and Clisthenes, who was at that time the 
head of the family, gave a new constitution tc- 
Athens. Vid. Clisthenes. 

Alcman ('AlKfiuv, [Doric form of the name. 
wMch was properly] ' ATiKjialuv), the chief lyric 
poet of Sparta, by birth a Lydian of Sardis, was 
brought to Laconia as a slave, when very young, 
and was emancipated by Ms master, who dis- 
covered his genius. He probably flourished 
about B.C. 631, and most of Ms poems were com- 
posed after the conclusion of the second Messenian 
war. He is said to have died, like Sulla, of the 
morbus pedicularis. Alcman's poems were com- 
prised in six books : many of them were erotic, 
and he is said by some ancient writers to have 
been the inventor of erotic poetry. His metres 
were very various. The Cretic hexameter was 
named Alcmanic from his being its inventor. His 
dialect was the Spartan Doric, with an inter- 
mixture of the JEolic. The Alexandrean gram- 
marians placed Alcman at the head of their 
canon of the nine lyric poets. The fragments 
of Ms poems are edited by Welcker, Gies- 
sen, 1815 ; and by Bergk, in Poetie Lyrici Greeci, 
1843. 

Alcmene ('AXk/i7/vji), daughter of Electryon. 
king of Mycenae, by Anaxo or Lysidice. The 
brothers of Alcmene were slain by the sons of 
Pterelaus ; and their father set out to avenge 
their death, leavmg to AmpMtryon Ms Mngdom 
and his daughter Alcmene, whom AmpMtryon 
was to marry. But AmpMtryon having unin- 
tentionally killed Electryon before the marriage, 
Sthenelus expelled both AmpMtryon and Alc- 
mene, who went to Thebes. But here, instead 
of marrying AmpMtryon, Alcmene declared that 
she would only marry the man who should 
avenge the death of her brothers. AnrpMtryou 



ALCON. 



ALETTES. 



nndertook the task, and invited Creon of Thebes 
to assist him. During his absence, Jupiter (Zeus), 
>n the disguise of Amphitryon, visited Alcmene, 
md, having related in what way he had avenged 
the death of her brothers, [finally persuaded her 
to a union]. Amphitryon himself returned the 
next day ; Alcmene became the mother of Her- 
cules by Jupiter (Zeus), and of Iphicles by Am- 
phitryon. Vid. Hercules. After the death of 
Amphitryon, Alcmene married Rhadamanthys, 
at Ocalla in Bceotia. When Hercules was 
raised to the rank of a god, Alcmene, fearing 
Eurystheus, fled with the sons of Hercules to 
Athens. 

[Alcon ("AIkuv), son of Hippoeoon, a Calydo- 
nian hunter, slain by Hercules. — 2. Son of the 
Athenian King Erechtheus, so skillful an archer, 
that he shot a serpent which had entwined itself 
around his son, without wounding his child. 
In Virgil (Ed., 5, 11) an Alcon is mentioned, 
whom Servius calls a Cretan, and a companion 
of Hercules, and relates of him nearly the 
story just given. — 3. A statuary, who made a 
statue of Hercules at Thebes, of iron, to 
symbolize thereby the hero's powers of endur- 
ance.] 

Alcyone or Halcyone ('AIkvovjj). 1. A 
Pleiad, daughter of Atlas and Pleione, and be- 
loved by Neptune (Poseidon). — 2. Daughter of 
JEolus and Enarete or JEgiale, and wife of Ceyx. 
They lived so happily that they were presump- 
tuous enough to call each other Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Juno (Hera), for which Jupiter (Zeus) me- 
tamorphosed them into birds, alcyon and ceyx, 
Others relate that Ceyx perished in a shipwreck, 
that Alcyone for grief threw herself into the 
sea, and that the gods, out of compassion, 
changed the two into birds. It was fabled that 
during the seven days before, and as many after, 
the shortest day of the year, while the bird 
alcyon was breeding, there always prevailed 
calms at sea. — [2. Daughter of Idas and Marpessa, 
wife of Meleager, called by her parents Alcyone, 
from the plaintive cries uttered by her mother 
Marpessa when carried off by Apollo.] 

Alcyoneus ('A?iKvovevc), a giant, killed by 
Hercules at the Isthmus of Corinth. 

[Alcyonia Palus ('Ahcvuvla lifivq), a lake 
in Argolis, of small size, but unfathomable depth, 
by which Bacchus descended to the lower world, 
when he sought to bring back Semele. It is re- 
garded by Leake as a part of Lerna.] 

Alcyonium Mare (r/ 'Aluvovlc ■&dlanad), the 
eastern part of the Corinthian Gulf. 

Alea ('Alea), a surname of Minerva (Athena), 
under which she was worshipped at Alea, Man- 
tinea, and Tegea. Her temple at the latter place 
was one of the most celebrated in Greece. It is 
eaid to have been built by Aleus, son of Aphidas, 
king of Tegea, from whom the goddess is sup- 
posed to have derived this surname. 

Alea ('A/lea : 'Aleve), a town in Arcadia, east 
of the Stymphalian Lake, with a celebrated tem- 
ple of Minerva (Athena), the ruins of which are 
near Piali. 

Alebion. Vid. Albion. 

Alecto. Vid. FurijE. 

[Alector ('AheKTup), son of Pelops, and fa- 
ther of Iphiloehe, who married Megapenthea, son 
of Menelaus. — 2. Son of Anaxagoras, father of 
Iphis, King of Argos.] 



[Alectryon ('AleKTpvav), a youth stationed 
by Mars, during his interview with Venus, at the 
door to guard against surprise. Having fallen 
asleep, he was changed by Mars into a cock 
(ulenrpvuv) for his neglect of duty.— 2. The 
father of the Argonaut Leitus, called by Apollo- 
dorus Alector.] 

Aleics Campus or Aleii Campi (to 'Alrjiov 
treS'iov), an extensive and fruitful plain of Cilicia, 
not far from Mallus, between the Rivers Pyra- 
mus and Sarus (in Homer's Lycia, II., 6, 201). 
It derives its name from the circumstance that 
Bellerophon in his old age fell into melancholy 
and madness, and wandered about here (from 
air], wandering). Another legend makes Bel- 
lerophon to have been thrown from Pegasus when 
attempting to mount to heaven, and to have wan- 
dered about here lame and blind.] 

Alemanni, or Alamanni, or Alamani (from the 
German alle Manner, all men), a confederacy of 
German tribes, chiefly of Suevic extraction, be- 
tween the Danube, the Rhine, and the Main, 
though we subsequently find them extending 
their territories as far as the Alps and the Jura. 
The different tribes of the confederacy were gov- 
erned by their own kings, but in time of war 
they obeyed a common leader. They were brp-ve 
and warlike, and proved formidable enemies to 
the Romans. They first came into contact with the 
Romans in the reign of Caracalla, who assumed 
the surname of Alemannicus on account of a pre- 
tended victory over them (A.D. 214). They 
were attacked by Alexander Severus (234), and 
by Maximin (237). They invaded Italy in 270, 
but were driven back by Aurelian, and were 
again defeated by Probus in 282. After this 
time they continually invaded the Roman domi- 
nions in Germany, and, though defeated by 
Constantius I., Julian (357), Valentinian, and 
Gratian, they gradually became more and 
more powerful, and in the fifth century were 
in possession of Alsace and of German 
Switzerland. 

Aleria ('Alepia : 'Alalia in Herod.), one of 
the chief cities of Corsica, on the east of the 
island, on the southern bank of the RivT Rhota- 
nus (now Tavignano), near its mouth. It was 
founded by the Phocseans B.C. 564, was plun- 
dered by L. Scipio in the first Puni<» war, and 
was made a Roman colony by Sulla. 

Alesa. Vid. Halesa. 

Alesia ('Aleata), an ancient town of the Man 
dubii in Gallia Lugdunensis, said to have been 
founded by Hercules, and situated on a high hill 
(now Auxois, [at the foot of which is a village 
called AliseJ), which was washed by the two 
rivers Lutosa (now Oze) and Osera (now Ozer- 
ain). It was taken and destroyed by Cassar, in 
B.C. 52, after a memorable siege, but was after- 
ward rebuilt. 

AlesLe ('Aleatai), a town in Laconia, west of 
Sparta, on the road to Pherce. 

Alesium ('Alelcuov), a town in Elis, not far 
from Olympia, afterward called Alesiceum. 

Alesius Mons (to 'AIt/giov opoc), a mountain 
in Arcadia with a temple of Neptune (Poseidon) 
Hippius and a grove of Ceres (Demeter). 

Aletes ('AlrjTne), son of Hippotes, and a de- 
scendant of Hercules, is said to have taken pos- 
session of Corinth, and to have expelled the 
Sisyphids, thirty years after the first invasion 



ALETIUM. 



ALEXANDER. 



of Peloponnesus by the Heraclids. His family, 
called the Aletidse, maintained themselves at 
Corinth down to the time of Bacchis. — [2. A 
companion of ./Eneas, who was held in venera- 
tion on account of his age and wisdom.] 

ALETiUM'(Aletmus), a town of Calabria. 

Aletrium or Alatrium (Aletrinas, atis : now 
Alairi), an ancient town of the Hernici, subse- 
quently a munieipium and a Roman colony, 
west of Sora and east of Anagnia. 

Aleuad^e. Vid. Aleuas. 

Aleuas, ('AXevac) a descendant of Hercules, 
was the ruler of Larissa in Thessaly, and the 
reputed founder of the celebrated family of the 
Aleuadas. Before the time of Pisistratus (B.C. 
560), the family of the Aleuadae appears to have 
become divided into two branches, the Aleuadae 
and the Scopadae. The Scopadae inhabited Cran- 
non and perhaps Pharsalus also, while the main 
branqh, the Aleuadae, remained at Larissa. The 
influence of the families, however, was not con- 
fined to these towns, but extended more or less 
over the greater part of Thessaly. They form- 
ed, in reality, a powerful aristocratic party in op- 
position to the great body of the Thessalians. 
In the invasion of Greece by Xerxes (480), the 
Aleuadae espoused the cause of the Persians, 
and the family continued to be the predominant 
one in Thessaly for a long time afterward. But 
after the end of the Poloponnesian war (404), 
another Thessalian family, the dynasts of Pherae, 
gradually rose to power and influence, and gave 
a gi eat shock to the power of the Aleuadae. 
The most formidable of these princes was Jason 
of Pherae, who succeeded, after various strug- 
gles, in raising himself to the dignity of Tagus, 
or supreme ruler of Thessaly. Vid. Jason. 

Aleus. Vid. Alea. 

Alex or Halex (now Alece), a small river in 
Southern Italy, was the boundary between the 
territory of Rhegium and of the Locri Epi- 
zephyrii. 

[Alexamenus ('AXe^a/ievoc), an iEtolian lead- 
er, sent by his countrymen with one thousand 
men to Sparta, who slew Nabis the Spartan 
tyrant. 

Alexander ('AAtfavopof), the usual name of 
Paris in the Biad. 

Alexander Severus. Vid. Severus. 

Alexander. 1. Minor Historical Persons. 

1. Son of ^Eropus, a native of the Macedoni- 
an district called Lyncestis, whence he is usually 
called Alexander Lyncestis. He was an accom- 
plice in the murder of Philip, B.C. 336, but 
was pardoned by Alexander the Great. He ac- 
companied Alexander to Asia; but in 334 he 
was detected in carrying on a treasonable cor- 
respondence with Darius, was kept in confine- 
ment, and put to death in 330. 2. Son of An- 
tonius the triumvir, and Cleopatra, born, with 
his twin-sister Cleopatra, B.C. 40. After the 
battle of Actium they were taken to Rome by 
Augustus, and were generously educated by 
Octavia, the wife of Antonius, with her own 
children. — 3. Eldest son of Aristobulus II., 
king of Judea, rose in arms in B.C. 57, against 
Hyrcanus, who was supported by the Romans. 
Alexander was defeated by the Romans in 56 
and 55, and was put to death by Pompey at An- 
tioch in 49. — 4. Third son of Cassander, king 
of Macedonia, by Thessalonica, "sister of Alex- 
42 



ander the Great. In his quarrel with his elder 
brother Antipater for the government (vid. An- 
tipater), he called in the aid of Pyrrhus of 
Epirus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by the latter 
of whom he was murdered B.C. 294. — 5. Jan- 
k^eus, the son of Joannes Hyrcanus, and broth- 
er of Aristobulus I., king of the Jews B.C. 104- 
77. At the commencement of his reign he was 
engaged in war with Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of 
Cyprus ; and subsequently he had to carry on for 
six years a dangerous struggle with his own 
subjects, to whom he had rendered himself ob 
noxious by his cruelties and by opposing the 
Pharisees. He signalized his victory by the 
most frightful butchery of his subjects. — 6. Sur- 
named Isros, the chief commander of the jEto- 
lians, took an active part in opposing Philip of 
Macedonia (B.C. 198, 197), and in the various 
negotiations with the Romans. — 7. Tyrant of 
Pher^e, was a relation of Jason, and succeeded 
either Polydorus or Polyphron, as Tagus of 
Thessaly, about B.C. 369. In consequence of 
his tyrannical government, the Thessalians ap- 
plied for aid first to Alexander II, king of Mace- 
donia, and next to Thebes. The Thebans sent i 
Pelopidas into Thessaly to succor the malcon- 
tents ; but having ventured incautiously within 
the power of the tyrant, he was seized by Alex- 
ander, and thrown into prison B.C. 368. The 
Thebans sent a large army into Thessaly to 
rescue Pelopidas, but they were defeated in the 
first campaign, and did not obtain their object 
till the next year, 367. In 364 Pelopidas again ) 
entered Thessaly with a small force, but was ! 
slain in battle by Alexander. The Thebans 
now sent a large army against the tyrant, and ' 
compelled him to become a dependent ally of 
Thebes. We afterwards hear of Alexander 
making piratical descents on many of the Athe- j 
nian dependencies, and even on Attica itself. 
He was murdered in 367, by his wife Thebe, < 
with the assistance of her three brothers. — 8. 
Son of Poltsperchon, the Macedonian, was j 
chiefly employed by his father in the command , 
of the armies which he sent against Cassander. ■ 
Thus he was sent against Athens in B.C. 318, 
and was engaged in military operations during 
the next year in various parts of Greece. But I 
in 315 he became reconciled to Cassander, and 
we find him iu 314 commanding on behalf of 
the latter. He was murdered at Sicyon in 314. 1 
— 9. Ptolehleus. Vid. Ptolemjjus. — 10. Ti- 
berius, born at Alexandrea, of Jewish parents, 
and nephew of the writer Philo. He deserted 
the faith of his ancestors, and was rewarded 
for his apostacy by various public appointments. 
In the reign of Claudius he succeeded Fadus as 
procurator of Judaea (A.D. 46), and was ap- 
pointed by Nero procurator of Egypt. He was 
the first Roman governor who declared in favor j 
of Vespasian ; and he accompanied Titus in the 
war against Judaea, and was present at ti -' tak- 
ing of Jerusalem. 

IL Kings of Epirus. 

1. Son of Neoptolemus, and brother of Olym- 
pias, the mother of Alexander the Great. Phil- ; 
ip made him king of Epirus in place of his cousin 
iEacides, and gave hini his daughter Cleopatra 
in marriage (B.C. 336). In 832, Alexander, at 
the request of the Tarentines, crossed over into j 



ALEXANDER. 

I Italy, to aid them against the Lucaniaus and 
Bruttii. After meeting with considerable suc- 
cess, he was defeated and slain in battle in 326, 
near Pandosia, on the banks of the Acheron in 
Southern Italy. — 2. Son of Phyrrus and Lanas- 
sa, daughter of the Sicilian tyrant Agathoeles, 
succeeded his father in B.C. 272, and drove An- 
tigonus Gonatus out of Macedonia. He was 
shortly afterward deprived of both Macedonia 
md Epirus by Demetrius, the son of Antigonus ; 
but he recovered Epirus by the aid of the Acar- 
lanians. 

III. Kings of Macedonia. 

1. Son of Amyntas I, distinguished himself 
>n the lifetime of his father by killing the Per- 
sian ambassadors who had come to demand the 
submission of Amyntas, because they attempted 
to offer indignities to the ladies of the court, about 
B.C. 507. He succeeded his father shortly 
afterward, was obliged to submit to the Per- 
sians, and accompanied Xerxes in his invasion 
of Greece (B.C. 480). He gained the confidence 
of Mardonius, who sent him to Athens to propose 
peace to the Athenians, which was rejected, 
fie was secretly inclined to the cause of the 
Greeks, and informed them the night before the 
battle of Plataeae of the intention of Mardonius to 
fight on the following day. He died about B.C. 
455, and was succeeded by Perdiccas n. — 2. 
Son of Amyntas II., whom he succeeded, 
reigned B.C. £69-367. A usurper of the name 
of Ptolomey Alorites having risen against him, 
Pelopidas, who was called in to mediate between 
them, left Alexander in possession of the king- 
dom, but took with him to Thebes several hos- 
tages ; among whom was Philip, the youngest 
brother of Alexander, afterward King of Mace- 
donia. Alexander was shortly afterward mur- 
dered by Ptolomey Alorites. — 3. Suruamed the 
Great, son of Philip II. and Olympias, was born 
at Pella, B.C. 356. His early education was 
committed to Leonidas and Lysimachus ; and 
he was also placed under the care of Aris- 
totle, who acquired an influence over his mind 
and character which was manifest to the latest 
period of hislife. At the age of sixteen, Alex- 
ander was intrusted with the government of 
Macedonia by his father, while he was obliged 
to leave his kingdom to march against Byzan- 
tium. He first distinguished himself, however, 
at the battle of Chseron6a (338), where the vic- 
tory was mainly owing to his impetuosity and 
courage. On the murder of Philip (336), Alex- 
ander ascended the throne, at the age of twenty, 
and found himself surrounded by enemies on 
every side. He first put down rebellion in his 
own kingdom, and then rapidly marched into 
Greece. His unexpected activity overawed all 
opposition ; Thebes, which had been most active 
against him, submitted when he appeared at its 
gates ; and the assembled Greeks at the Isth- 
mus of Corinth, with the sole exception of the 
Lacedaemonians, elected him to the command 
against Persia, which had previously been 
bestowed upon his father. He now directed his 
arms against the barbarians of the north, marched 
(early in 335) across Mount Haemus, defeated the 
Triballi, and advanced as far as the Danube, 
which he crossed ; and, on his return, subdued 
Ae Ulyrians and Taulantii. A report of his I 



ALEXANDER. 

death having reached Greece, the Thebans once 
more took up arms. But a terrible punish 
ment awaited them. He advanced into Boeotia 
by rapid marches, took Thebes by assault, des- 
troyed all the buildings, with the exception of 
the house of Pindar, killed most of the inhabi- 
tants, and sold the rest as slaves. Alexander 
now prepared for his great expedition against 
Persia. In the spring of 334, he crossed the 
Hellespont with about thirty-five thousand men. 
Of these thirty thousand were foot and five 
thousand horse, and of the former only twelve 
thousand were Macedonians. Alexander's first 
engagement with the Persians was on the River 
Granicus in Mysia (May 334), where they were 
entirely defeated by him. This battle was fol- 
lowed by the capture or submission of the chief 
towns on the west coast of Asia Minor. Hali 
earnassus was not taken tiil late in the autumn, 
after a vigorous defence by Memnon, the ablest 
general of Darius, and whose death in the fol- 
lowing year (333) relieved Alexander from a 
formidable opponent. He now marched along 
the coast of Lycia and Pamphylia, and then 
north into Phrygia and to Gordium, where he cut 
or untied the celebrated Gordian knot, which, it 
was said, was to be loosened only by the con- 
queror of Asia. In 333, he marched from Gor- 
dium through the centre of Asia Minor iuto 
Cilicia, where he nearly lost his life at Tarsus by 
a fevei", brought on by his great exertions or 
through throwing himself, when heated, into the 
cold waters of the Cydnus. Darius, meantime, 
had collected an army of five hundred thousand 
or six hundred thousand men, with thirty thou- 
sand Greek mercenaries, whom Alexander 
defeated in the narrow plain of Issus. Darius 
escaped across the Euphrates by the ford of 
Thapsacus ; but his mother, wife, and children 
fell into the hands of Alexander, who treated 
them with the utmost delicacy and respect. Alex- 
ander now directed his arms against the cities 
of Phoenicia, most of which submitted ; but Tyre 
was not taken till the middle of 332, after an 
obstinate defence of seven months. Next fol- 
lowed the siege of Gaza, which again delayed 
Alexander two months. Afterward, according 
to Josephus, he marched to Jerusalem, intending ta 
punish the people for refusing to assist him, 
but he was diverted from his purpose by 
the appearance of the high-priest, and par 
doned the people. This story is not mentioned 
by Arrian, and rests on questionable evi- 
dence. Alexander next marched into Egypt, 
which willingly submitted to him, for the Egyp- 
tians had ever hated the Persians. At the begin- 
ning of 331, Alexander founded at the moutt 
of the western branch of the Nile the city 
of Alexandrea, and about the same time 
visited the temple of Jupiter Ammon, in the 
desert of Libya, and was saluted by the priests 
as the son of Jupiter Amnion. In the spring 
of the same year (331), Alexander set out 
to meet Darius, who had collected anothei 
army. He marched through Phoenicia and 
Syria to the Euphrates, which he crossed 
at the ford of Thapsacus ; thence he pro- 
ceeded through Mesopotamia, crossed the Tigis, 
and at length met with the immense hosts 
of Darius, said to have amounted to more than 
a million of men, in the plains of Gauga 
43 



ALEXANDER. 

mela. The battle was fought in the month of 
Octobei, 331, and ended in the complete defeat 
of the Persians. Alexander pursued the fugi- 
tives to Arbela (now Erbil), which place has 
given its name to the battle, though distant about 
fifty miles from the spot where it was fought. 
Darius, who had left the field of battle early in 
the day, fled to Ecbatana (now Hamadari), in 
Media. Alexander was now the conqueror of 
Asia, and began to adopt Persian habits and cus- 
toms, by which he conciliated the affections of 
his new subjects. Prom Arbela he marched to 
Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, all of which sur- 
rendered to him. He is said to have set fire to 
the palace of Persepolis, and, according to some 
accounts, in the revelry of a banquet, at the in- 
stigation of Thais, an Athenian courtesan. At 
the beginning of 330 Alexander marched from 
Persepolis into Media, in pursuit of Darius, 
whom he followed through Rhagas and the passes 
of the Elburz Mountains, called by the ancients 
the Caspian Gates, into the deserts of Parthia, 
where the unfortunate king was murdered by 
Bessus, satrap of Bactria, and his associates. 
Alexander sent his body to Persepolis, to be 
buried in the tombs of the Persian kings. Bes- 
sus escaped to Bactria, and assumed the title of 
King of Persia. Alexander was engaged during 
the remainder of the year in subduing the 
northern provinces of Asia between the Caspian 
and the Indus, namely, Hyrcania, Parthia, Aria, 
the Drangae, and Sarangae. It was during 
this campaign that Philotas, his father Parme- 
nion, and other Macedonians were executed on 
a charge of treason. In 329 Alexander crossed 
the mountains of the Paropamisus (now the 
Hindoo Koosh), and marched into Bactria 
against Bessus, whom he pursued across the 
Oxus into Sogdiana. In this country Bessus 
was betrayed to him, and was put to death. 
From the Oxus he advanced as far as the Jax- 
artes (now the Sir), which he crossed, and de- 
feated several Scythian tribes north of that 
river. After founding a city, Alexandrea, on the 
Jaxartes, he retraced his steps, and returned to 
Zariaspa or Bactra, where he spent the winter- 
of 329. It was here that he killed his friend 
Clitus in a drunken revel. In 328, Alexander 
again crossed the Oxus to complete the subjuga- 
tion of Sogdiana, but was not able to effect it in 
the year, and accordingly went into winter- 
quarters at Nautaca, a place in the middle of 
the province. At the beginning of 327, he took 
a mountain fortress, in which Oxyartes, a Bac- 
trian prince, had deposited his wife and daugh- 
ters. The beauty of Roxana, one of the latter, 
captivated the conqueror, and he accordingly 
made her his wife. This marriage with one of 
his Eastern subjects was in accordance with 
the whole of his policy. Having completed the 
conquest of Sogdiana, he marched south into 
Bactria, and made preparations for the invasion 
of India. While in Bactria another conspiracy 
was discovered for the murder of the king. 
The plot was formed by Hermolaus with a 
number of the royal pages, and Calhsthenes, 
a pupil of Aristotle, was involved in it. All 
the conspirators were put to death. Alex- 
ander did not leave Bactria till late in 
the spring of 32*7, and crossed the Indus, pro- 
bably near the modern Attock! He met with 
44 



ALEXANDER. 

no resistance till he reached the Hydf.apes, 
where he was opposed by Porus, an Indian king, 
whom he defeated after a gallant resistance, 
and took prisoner. Alexander restored to him 
his kingdom, and treated him with distinguished 
honor. He founded two towns, one on each 
bank of the Hydaspes : one called Bucephala, in 
honor of his horse Bucephalus, who died here, 
after carrying him through so many victories ; 
and the other Nicaaa, to commemorate his vic- 
tory. From thence he marched across the 
Acesines (now the Chinab) and the Hydraotes 
(now the Ravee), and penetrated as far as the 
Hyphasis (now Garra). This was the furthest 
point which he reached, for the Macedonians, 
worn out by long service, and tired of the war, 
refused to advance further ; and Alexander, not- 
withstanding his. entreaties and prayers, was 
obliged to lead them back. He returned to the 
Hydaspes, where he had previously given orders 
for the building of a fleet, and then sailed down 
the river with about eight thousand men, while 
the remainder marched along the banks in two 
divisions. This was late in the autumn of 327. 
The people on each side of the river submitted 
without resistance, except the Malli, in the con- t 
quest of one of whose places Alexander was 
severely wounded. At the confluence of the 
Acesines and the Indus, Alexander founded a 
city, and left Philip as satrap, with a considera- 
ble body of Greeks. Here he built some fresh 
ships, and continued his voyage down the Indus, 
founded a city at Pattala, the apex of the delta 
of the Indus, and sailed into the Indian Ocean, 
which he reached about the middle of 326. 
ISTearchus was sent with the fleet to sail along 
the coast to the Persian Gulf (vid. Nearchus) ; 
and Alexander marched with the rest of his 
forces through Gedrosia, in which country his ar- 
my suffered greatly from want of water and provi- 
sions. He reached Susa at the beginning of 325. 
Here he allowed himself and his troops some 
rest from their labors ; and anxious to form his 
European and Asiatic subjects into one people, 
he assigned to about eighty of bis generals Asia- 
tic wives, and gave with them rich dowries. 
He himself took a second wife, Barsine, the 
eldest daughter of Darius, and, according to 
some accounts, a third, Parysatis, the daughter 
of Ochus. About ten thousand Macedonians 
followed the example of their king and generals, 
and married Asiatic women. Alexander also 
enrolled large numbers of Asiatics among his 
troops, and taught them the Macedonian tactics. 
He, moreover, directed his attention to the in- 
crease of commerce, and for this purpose had 
the Euphrates and Tigris made navigable, by 
removing the artificial obstructions which had 
been made in the river for the purpose of irriga- 
tion. The Macedonians, who were discontented 
with several of the new arrangements of 
the king, rose in mutiny against him, which 
he quelled with some difficulty. Toward the 
close of the same year (325), he went to 
Ecbatana, where he lost his great favorite, 
HephjEstion. From Ecbatana he marched to 
Babylon, subduing in his way the Cossaei, 
a mountain tribe ; and before he reached 
Babylon he was met by ambassadors from al- 
most every part of the known world. Al- 
exander entered Babylon in the spring of 



ALEXANDER. 

I 324, about a year before his death, notwithstand- 
i| ing the warnings of the Chaldeeans, who pre- 
dicted evil to him if he entered the city at that 
I time. He intended to make Babylon the capital 
of his empire, as the best point of communication 
between his eastern and western dominions. His 
schemes were numerous and gigantic. His first 
object was the conquest of Arabia, which was to 
be followed, it was said, by the subjugation of 
Italy, Oarthage, and the West. But his views 
were not confined merely to conquest. He or- 
j dered a fleet to be built on the Caspian, in order 
to explore that sea. He also intended to im- 
prove the distribution of waters in the Babylon- 
| ian plain, and for that purpose sailed down the 
Euphrates to inspect the canal called Palla- 
copas. On his return to Babylon he was at- 
tacked by a fever, probably brought on by his 
recent exertions in the marshy districts around 
Babylon, and aggravated by the quantity of 
wine he had drunk at a banquet given to bis 
principal officers. He died after an illness of 
eleven days, in the month of May or June, B.C. 
323, at the age of thirty-two, after a reign of 
twelve years and eight months. He appointed 
no one as his successor, but just before his death 
he gave his ring to Perdiccas. Roxana was 
with child at the time of his death, and after- 
ward bore a son who is known by the name 
of Alexander ^Egus. The history of Alexander 
forms an important epoch in the history of man- 
kind. Unlike other Asiatic conquerors, his pro- 
gress was marked by something more than 
devastation and ruin ; at every step of his course 
the Greek language and civilization took root 
and flourished ; and after his death Greek king- 
doms were formed in all parts of Asia, which 
continued to exist for centuries. By his con- 
quests the knowledge of mankind was increased ; 
the sciences of geography, natural history, and 
others, received vast additions ; and it was 
through him that a road was opened to India, 
and that Europeans became acquainted with the 
products of the remote East. — 4. ^Egus, son of 
Alexander the Great and Roxana, was born 
shortly after the death of his father, in B.C. 323, 
and was acknowledged as the partner of Philip 
Arrhidasus in the empire, under the guardian- 
ship of Perdiccas, Antipater, and Polysperchon 
in succession. Alexander and his mother Roxana 
were imprisoned by Cassander, when he ob- 
tained possession of Macedonia in 316, and re- 
mained in prison till 311, when they were put to 
death by Cassander. 

IV". Kings of Syria. 
1. Surnamed Balas, a person of low origin, 
pretended to be the son of Antiochus IV. Epiph- 
anes, and reigned in Syria B.C. 150-146. He 
defeated and slew in battle Demetrius I. Soter, 
Dut was afterward defeated and dethroned by 
Demetrius II. Nieator. — 2. Surnamed Zebina or 
Zabinas, son of a merchant, was set up by 
Ptolemy Physcon as a pretender to the throne of 
Syria, shortly after the return of Demetrius II. 
Nieator from his captivity among the Parthians, 
B.C. 128. He defeated Demetrius in 125, but 
was afterward defeated by Antiochus Grypus, 
by whom he was put to death, 122. 

V. Literary. 
1. Of Max., a peripatetic philosopher at Rome 



ALEXANDER. 

in the first century after Christ, was tutoi to thfi 
Emperor Nero. — 2. The ^Etoi.ian, of PleuroD 
in jEtolia, a Greek poet, lived in the reign of 
Ptolemccus Philadelphus (B.C. 285-24'7), at 
Alexandrea, where he was reckoned one of the 
seven tragic poets who constituted the tragic 
pleiad. He also wrote other poems, besides 
tragedies. His fragments are collected by Ca- 
pellmann, Alexandra uEtoli Fragmonia, Jicnn, 
1829. — 3. Of Aphrodisias, in Caria, the most 
celebrated of the commentators op Aristotle, 
lived about A.D. 200. About half Ki volumin- 
ous works were edited and translated into Latin 
at the revival of literature ; there «re a few 
more extant in the original Greek, -which have 
never been printed, and an Arabic version is 
preserved of several others. His most impor- 
tant treatise is entitled De Fato, an inquiry into 
the opinions of Aristotle on the subject of Fate 
and Free-will : edited by Orelli, Zurich, 1824. — 
4. Coenelius, surnamed Polyhistoe, a Greek 
writer, was made prisoner during the war of 
Sulla in Greece (B.C. 87-S4), and sold as a slave 
to Cornelius Lentulus, who took him to Rome, 
made him the teacher of his children, and sub- 
sequently restored him to freedom. The sur- 
name of Polyhistor was given to him on account 
of his prodigious learning. He is said to have 
written a vast number of works, all of which 
have perished, [with the exception of a few 
fragments] : the most important of them was 
one in forty-two books, containing historical and 
geographical accounts of nearly all countries of 
the ancient world. [A list of his works is given 
by Miiller, who has collected and published the 
fragments of his writings in the third volume of 
Fragmenta Hintoricomm Grwcorum, p. 206-244s§ 
— 5. Surnamed Lychnus, of Ephesus, a Greek 
rhetorician and poet, lived about B.C. 30. A 
few fragments of Ins geographical and astro 
nomical poems are extant. — 6. Of Myndus, in 
Caria, a Greek writer on zoology of uncertain 
date. — '7. Numenius, a Greek rhetorician, who 
lived in the second century of the Christian era. 
Two works are ascribed to him, one De Figuris 
Senlentiarum et Elocutionist, from which Aquila 
Romanus took his materials for his work on the 
same subject; and the other On Show-speeches, 
which was written by a later grammarian of the 
name of Alexander. Edited in Walz's Rhelores 
Grceci, vol. viii. — 8. The Paphlagonian, a cele- 
brated impostor, who flourished about the be- 
ginning of the second century after Christ, of 
whom Lucian has given an amusing account, 
chiefly of the various contrivances by which he 
established and maintained the credit of an ora- 
cle. The influence he attained over the popu- 
lace seems incredible ; indeed, the narrative of 
Lucian would appear to be a mere romance, 
were it not confirmed by some medals of An 
toninus and M. Aurelius. — 9. Surnamed Pelo 
platon, a Greek rhetorician of Seleucia in 
Cilicia, was appointed Greek secretary to M. 
Antoninus, about A.D. 174. At Athens, he 
conquered the celebrated rhetorician Herodes 
Atticus, in a rhetorical contest. All persons, how- 
ever, did not admit his abilities ; for a Corinthian 
of the name of Sceptes said that he had found 
in Alexander " the clay (Il^Aoc), but not Plato," 
alluding to his surname of " Peloplaton." — 10. 
Philalethes, an ancient Greek physician, lived 
45 



ALEX A NDBEA. 



ALGID UM. 



probably toward the end of the first cestsry 
B.C., and succeeded Zeuxis as head of a cele- 
brated Herophilean school of medicine, estab- 
lished in Phrygia between Laodicea and Carura. 
— 11. Of Tralles in Lydia, an eminent physi- 
cian, lived in the sixth century after Christ, and 
is the author of two extant Creek works : 1. 
Libri Duodecim de Re Medica ; 2. Be Lnmbricis. 

Alexandrea, [sometimes -dria, though, as 
Madvig says (Cic, De Fin., v., 19, 54), the Latin 
writers always preferred the e, and this was al- 
ways the form on coins and inscriptions; cf. 
Fea, ad Hor., Od., iv., 14, 35} ("AXe^dvdpeia : 
' kXcljavdpevc, Alexandrinus), the name of sev- 
eral cities founded by, or in memory of Alex- 
ander the Great. — 1. (Alexandrea, Arab. Iskan- 
deria), the capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, 
ordered by Alexander to be founded in B.C. 332. 
It was built on the narrow neck of land between 
the Lake Mareotis and the Mediterranean, op- 
posite to the Island of Pharos, which was joined 
to the city by an artificial dike, called Hepta- 
stadium, which formed, with the island, the two 
harbors of the city, that on the northeast of the 
dike being named the Great Harbor (now the 
New Port), that on the southwest Eunostos 
(evvoo-Toc, the Old Port). These harbors com- 
municated with each other by two channels cut 
through the Heptastadium, one at each end of 
it ; and there was a canal from the Eunostos to 
the Lake Mareotis. The city was built on a 
regular plan, and was intersected by two prin- 
cipal streets, above one hundred feet wide, the 
one extending thirty stadia from east to west, 
the other across this, from the sea toward the 
lake, to the length of ten stadia. At the east- 
ern extremity of the city was the royal quarter, 
called Bruchium, and at the other end of the 
chief street, outside of the city, the Necropolis 
or cemetery. A great light-house was built on 
the Island of Pharos in the reign of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus (B.C. 283). Under the care of the 
Ptolemies, as the capital of a great kingdom 
and of the most fertile country on the earth, 
and commanding by its position all the com- 
merce of Europe with the East, Alexandrea 
soon became the most wealthy and splendid 
city of the known world. Greeks, Jews, and 
other foreigners flocked to it, and its population 
probably amounted to three quarters of a mil- 
lion. But a still greater distinction was con- 
ferred upon it through the foundation, by the 
first two Ptolemies, of the Museum, an establish- 
ment in which men devoted to literature were 
maintained at the public cost, and of the Library, 
which contained ninety thousand distinct works, 
and four hundred thousand volumes, and the in- 
crease of which made it necessary to establish 
another library in the Serapeum (Temple of 
Serapis), which reached to forty-two thousand 
eight hundred volumes, but which was destroyed 
by the Bishop Theophilus, at the time of the 
general overthrow of the heathen temples under 
Theodosius (A.D. 389). The Great Library suf- 
fered severely by fire, when Julius Csesar was 
besieged in Alexandrea, and was finally destroy- 
ed by Amrou, the lieutenant of the Calif Omar, 
in A.D. 651. These institutions made Alex- 
andrea the chief centre of literary activity. 
When Egypt became a Roman province (vid. 
^Egyptus), Alexandrea was made the residence 
46 



of the Praefectus Egypti. It retained its com- 
mercial and literary importance, and became 
also a chief seat of Christianity and theological 
learning. Its site is now covered by a mass of 
ruins, among which are the remains of the cis- 
terns by which the whole city was supplied with 
water, house by house ; the two obelisks (vulg. 
Cleopatra's Needlex), which adorned the gate- 
way of the royal palace, and, outside the walls., 
to the south, the column of Diocletian (vulg. i 
Pompey's Pillar). The modern city stands on 
the dike uniting the Island of Pharos to the 
main land. — 2. A. Troas, also Troas simply, 
('A. ij Tpauc : now Exhistamboul, i. e., the Old 
City), on the sea-coast, southwest of Troy, was 
enlarged by Antigonus, hence called Antigonia, ] 
but afterward it resumed its first name. It 
flourished greatly, both under the Greeks and 
the Romans ; it was made a colonia ; and both j 
Julius Caesar and Constantine thought of estab 
lishing the seat of empire in it. — 3. A. ad Issum 
('A. Kara 'laaov : now Ixkenderoon, Scanderoun, 
Alexandrette), a sea-port at the entrance of Syr- 
ia, a little south of Issus.— 4. In Susiana, after- 1 
ward Antiochia, afterward Charax Spasini (Xa- 
paj Hacrlvov or Sttckx.), at the mouth of the Ti- 
gris, built by Alexander ; destroyed by a flood ; . 
restored by Antiochus Epiphanes : birth-place 
of Dionysius Periegetes and Isidores Chara- 
cenus. — 5. A. Arm; ('A. i] iv 'Aptocc : now He- 
rat), founded by Alexander on the River Arius, 
in the Persian province of Aria, a very flourish- 
ing city, on the great caravan road to India. — 
6. A. Arachosm or Alexandropolis (now Kan- 
dahar ?), on the River Arachbtus, was probably , 
not founded till after the time of Alexander. 
— 7. A. Bactriana ('A. Kara. Ban-pa : probably 
Khooloom, ruins), east of Bactra (BalJch). — 8. A. 
ad Caucasum, or apud Paropamisidas ('A. iv I 
napo-afuoddatc), at the foot of Mount Paropam- 
isus (now Hindoo Koosh), probably near Ca- 
bool. — 9. A. Ultima or Alexandreschata ('A. 
it kcxdrn : now Kokand?), in Sogdiana, on tho 
Jaxartes, a little east of Cyropolis or Cyrescha- 
ta, marked the furthest point reached by Alex- 
ander in his Scythian expedition. These are not 
all the cities of the name. 

Alexicacus ('AAcft/ca/cof), the averter of evil, 
a surname of several deities, but particularly of 
Jupiter (Zeus), Apollo, and Hercules. 

Alexinus ('Aae^lvoc), of Elis, a philosopher 
of the Dialectic or Megarian school, and a dis- 
ciple of Eubulides, lived about the beginning of the , 
third century B.C. 

Alexis ("Aae^c). 1. A comic poet, born at 
Thurii in Italy, and an Athenian citizen. He i 
was the uncle and instructor of Menander, was 
born about B.C. 394, and lived to the age of 
one hundred and six. Some of his plays, of ; 
which he is said to have written two hundred 
and forty-five, belonged to the Middle, and others 
to the New Comedy. [The fragments of hL 
plays have been published by Meineke, Fray- 
menta Comicorum Gracorum, vol. ii., p. 6S8-768, 
edit, minor.] — 2. A sculptor and statuary, one of 
the pupils of Polycletus. 

Alfenus Varus. Vid. Varus. 

Algidum or Algidus (ruins near Cava ?), a 
small but strongly fortified town of the ^Equi on 
one of the hills of Mount Algidus, of which all I 
trace has now disappeared. 



j 



ALGIDUS MONS. 



ALPES. 



Algidus Mons, a range of mountains in La- 
Sum, extending south from Praeneste to Mount 
Albanus, cold, but covered with wood, and con- 
taining good pasturage (gelido Algido ; Hoi'., 
Carm., i., 21, 6 : nigrce feraci frondis in Algido; 
id., iv., 4, 58). It was an ancient seat of the 
worship of Diana. Prom it the JEqui usually 
made their incursions into the Roman territory. 

Alienus CjECIna. Vid. C^ecina. 

Alimentus, L. Cinctus, a celebrated Roman 
annalist, antiquary, and jurist, was praetor in 
Sicily, B.C. 209, and wrote several works, of 
which the best known was his Annates, which 
contained an account of the second Punic war 
[His fragments have been published in the 
Scriptores HiUorici Romani of Popma, 1620, and 
more recently by Krause, in his Vitm ct Frag- 
menta veterum Hist. Lot., Berlin, 1833.] 

Alinda (ra "k'AivSa : 'kXivdevg), a fortress 
and small town, southeast of Stratonlce, where 
Ada, queen of Caria, fixed her residence, when 
she was driven out of Halicarnassus (B.C. 340). 

Aliphera (' kX'iipei.pa, 'kVityripa : k%L<peipaloc, 
'kAi<j>rjpevc : ruins near Nerovitza), a fortified 
town in Arcadia, situated on a mountain on the 
borders of Elis, south of the Alpheus, said to 
have been founded by the hero Alipherus, son 
of Lycaon. 

Alipherus. Vid. Aliphera. 

[Alisium ('kAe LGiov), a town of Elis, the same, 
probably, with that called Alesmsum by Strabo, 
and placed by him between Elis and Olympia.] 

Aliso (now Elsen), a strong fortress built by 
Drusus B.C. 11, at the confluence of the Luppia 
(now Lippe) and the Eliso (now Alme). 

Alisontia (now Alsitz), a' river flowing into 
the Mosella (now Mosel). 

Allectus, the chief officer of Carausius in 
Britain, whom he murdered in A.D. 293. He 
then assumed the imperial title himself, but was 
defeated and slain in 296 by the general of Con- 
stantins. 

Allia, or, more correctly, Alia, a small river, 
which rises about eleven miles from Rome, in 
the neighborhood of Crustumerium, and flows 
into the Tiber about six miles from Rome. It 
is memorable by the defeat of the Romans by 
the Gauls on its banks, July 16th, B.C. 390 ; 
which day, dies Alliensis, was hence marked as 
an unlucky day in the Roman calendar. 

Allienus, A. 1. A friend of Cicero, was the 
legate of Q. Cicero in Asia, B.C. 60, prater in 
49, and governor of Sicily on behalf of Caesar in 
48 and 47. — 2. A legate of Dolabella, by whom 
he was sent into Egypt in 43. 

Allie-jE or Alifjs (Allifanus : now Allife), a 
town of Samnium, on the Vulturnus, in a fertile 
country. It was celebrated for the manufacture 
of its large drinking-cups (Allifana sc. pocula, 
Hor., Sat, ii., 8, 39). 

Allobroges (nom. sing., Allobrox : 'kWo- 
fjpoyeg, 'kXkb&pvyeg, 'kAAo6piyec : perhaps from 
the Celtic aill, "rock" or "mountain," and brog, 
" dwelling," consequently " dwellers in the 
mountains"), a powerful people of Gaul dwell- 
ing between the Rhodauus (now Shone) and 
the Isara (now Isire), as far as the Lake Leman- 
nus (now Lake of Geneva), consequently in thfi 
modern Dauphine and Savoy. Their chief town 
was Vienna (now Vienne) on the Rhone. They 
»re first mentioned in Hannibal's invasion, B.C. 



218. They were conquered, in B.C. 121, by Q. 
Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus, and made sub- 
jects of Rome, but they bore the yoke unwill- 
ingly, and were always disposed to rebellion. 
In the time of Ammianus the eastern part of 
their country was called Sapaudia, i. e., Savoy. 

Almo (now Almone), a small river, rises near 
Bovillae, and flows into the Tiber south of Rome, 
in which the statue and sacred things of Cybele 
were washed annually. 

Almopes ('Afyi(j7rec), a people in Macedonia, 
inhabiting the district Almopia between Eordsea 
and Pelagonia. 

Aloeus ('kAoevc), son of Neptune (Poseidon) 
and Canace, married Iphimedia, the daughter 
of Triops. His wife was beloved by Neptune 
(Poseidon), by whom she had two sons, Otus 
and Ephialtes, who are usually called the Alol- 
dce, from their reputed father Aloeus. They 
were renowned for their extraordinary strength 
and daring spirit. When they were nine years 
old, the body of each measured nine cubits in 
breadth and twenty-seven in height. At this 
early age, they threatened the Olympian gods 
with war, and attempted to pile Ossa upon 
Olympus, and Pelion upon Ossa. They would 
have accomplished their object, says Homer, 
had they been allowed to grow up to the age of 
manhood ; but Apollo destroyed them before 
their beards began to appear (Od., xi., 305, seq). 
They also put the god Mars (Ares) in chains, 
and kept him imprisoned for thirteen months 
Other stories are related of them by later 
writers. 

Aloid^e. Vid. Aloeus. 

[Alone ('kAuvat : now Benidorme or Torre di 
Salinas), a town of Hispania Tarraconensis, a 
colony of the Massilians.— 2. A town of Britain, 
somewhat south of Keswick ; by some supposed 
to correspond to Ambleside.'] 

Alonta ('kXbvra : now Terek), a river 'of Al- 
bania, in Sarmatia Asiatica, flowing into the 
Caspian. 

Alope ('kAOTrrj), daughter of Cercyon, be- 
came by Neptune (Poseidon) the mother of 
Hippothous. She was put to death by her fa- 
ther, but her body was changed by Neptune 
(Poseidon) into a well, which bore the same 
name. 

Alope ('A^otd? : 'kAoirevg, 'kAonhric). 1. A 
town in the Opuntian Locris, opposite Eubcea. 
— 2. A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly (II., ii., 
682). 

Alopece ('kXuireKij and 'kAone/cai : 'kAune 
/eric), a demus of Attica, of the tribe Antiochis, 
eleven stadia east of Athens, on the Hill An 
chesmus. [Here the parents of Socrates dwelt, 
who therefore belonged to this demus, as did 
also Aristides.] 

Alopecia ('kAoweiaa) or Alopece (Plin.), an 
island in the Palus Maeotis, near the mouth of 
the Tanai's.] 

Alopeconnesus ('kAuneKovvnaog : 'kXuneKOV- 
vriaioi : now Alexi ?), a town in the Thracian 
Chersonesus, founded by the JSolians. 

Alpenus ('khirnvoc, 'khnnvot), a town of the 
Epicnemidii Locri at the entrance of the pass of 
Thermopylae. » 

Alpes (al "kXneic, ij "kXiuc, ra 'khneiva bpy, 
to. 'kXneia opn ; probably from the Celtic Alb or 
Alp, "a height"), the mountains forming the 

47 



ALPES. 

boundary of Northern Italy, are a part of the 
great mountain chain which extends from the 
Gulf of Genoa across Europe to the Black Sea, 
of which the Apennines and the mountains of 
the Grecian peninsula may be regarded as off- 
shoots. Of the Alps proper, the Greeks had 
very little knowledge, and included them under 
the general name of the Rhipaean Mountains. 
The Romans first obtained some knowledge of 
them by Hannibal's passage across them: this 
knowledge was gradually extended by their va- 
rious wars with the inhabitants of the mount- 
ains, who were not finally subdued till the reign 
of Augustus. In the time of the emperors the 
different parts of the Alps were distinguished 
by the following names, most of which are still 
retained. We enumerate them in order from 
west to east. 1. Alpes Maritime, the Mari- 
time or Ligurian Alps, from Genua (now Genoa), 
where the Apennines begin, run west as far 
as the River Varus (now Var) and Mount Cema 
(now La Caillole), and then north to Mount Ve- 
sulus (now Monte Viso), one of the highest 
points of the Alps. — 2. Alpes Cotti^e or Cot- 
tianjE, the Cottian Alps (so called from a King 
Cottius in the time of Augustus), from Monte 
Viso to Mont Cenis, contained Mount Matrona, 
afterward called Mount Janus or Janua (now 
Mont Genevre), acrossV-which Cottius construct- 
ed a road, which became the chief means of 
communication between Italy and Gaul : this 
road leads from the Valley of the Durance in 
France to Segusio (now Susa) and the Valley 
of the Dora in Piedmont. The pass over Mont 
Cenis, now one of the most frequented of the 
Alpine passes, appears to have been unknown 
in antiquity. — 3. Alpes Grai^e, also Saltus 
Grains (the name is probably Celtic, and has 
nothing to do with Greece), the Graian Alps, 
from Mont Cenis to the Little St. Bernard in- 
clusive, contained the Jugum Cremonis (now Le 
Cramont) and the Centronicas Alpes, apparent- 
ly the Little St. Bernard and the surrounding 
mountains. The Little St. Bernard, which is 
sometimes called Alpis Graia, is probably the 
pass by which Hannibal crossed the Alps ; the 
road over it, which was improved by Augustus, 
led to Augusta (now Aosta) in the territory of 
the Salassi. — 4. Alpes Pennine, the Pennine 
Alps, from the Great St. Bernard to the Simplon 
inclusive, the highest portion of the chain, in- 
cluding Mont- Blanc, Monte Rosa, and Mont 
Cervin. The Great St. Bernard was called 
Mount Penninus, and on its summit the inhab- 
itants worshipped a deity, whom the Romans 
called Jupiter Penninus. The name is proba- 
bly derived from the Celtic pen, " a height." — 
5. Alpes Lepontiorum or Leponti^e, the Lepon- 
tian or Helvetian Alps, from the Simplon to the 
St. Gothard. — 6. Alpes R^eticjE, the Rcetian 
Alps, from the St. Gothard to the Orteler by the 
pass of the Stelvio. Mount AdQla is usually 
supposed to be the St. Gothard, but it must be 
another name for the whole range, if Strabo is 
right in stating that both the Rhine and the 
Adda rise in Mount Adula. The Romans were 
acquainted with two passes across the Rtetian 
Alps, connecting Curia (now Coire) and Milan, 
one across the Spliigen and the other across 
Mont Septimer, and both meeting at Clavenna 
(now Chiavenna). — 7 Alpes Tridentine, the 
48 



ALTHAEA. 

mountains of Southern Tyrol, in which the 
Athesis (now Adige) rises, with the pass of the 
Brenner. — 8. Alpes Noricjs, the Noric Alps, 
northeast of the Tridentine Alps, comprising the 
mountains in the neighborhood of Salzburg. — 
9. Alpes CarniCjE, the Carnic Alps, east of the 
Tridentine, and south of the Noric, to Mount 
Terglu. — 10. Alpes Julle, the Julian Alps, 
from Mount Terglu to the commencement of 
the Ulyrian or Dalmatian Mountains, which are 
known by the name of the Alpes Dalmaticae, 
further north by the name of the Alpes Pan- 
nonicae. The Alpes Juliae were so called be- 
cause Julius Caesar or Augustus constructed 
roads across them : they are also called Alpes 
Venetae. 

[Alphe^ea ('Altyeata). Vid. Alpheus, near 
the end.] 

[Alphenor (' AXtyrjvwp), a son of Amphion and 
Niobe, slain by Apollo.] 

Alphenus Varus. Vid. Varus. 

Alphesibcea ('AZfeo-tOoia). 1. Mother of Ado- 
nis. Vid. Adonis. — 2. Daughter of Phegeus, 
married Alomaeon. Vid. Alcsleon. 

Alpheus Mytilen^eus ('AA^e/dc MvTLlvvaloc), 
the author of about twelve epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology, was probably a contemporary 
of the Emperor Augustus. 

Alpheus ('A?^ew^ : Doric, 'AXfeoc : now Al- 
feo, Rofeo, Ryfo, Rufea), the chief river of Pel- 
oponnesus, rises at Phylace in Arcadia, short- 
ly afterward sinks under ground, appears again 
near Asea, and then mingles its waters with 
those of the Eurotas. After flowing twenty 
stadia, the two rivers disappear under ground : 
the Alpheus again rises at Pegae in Arcadia, 
and, increased by many affluents, flows north- 
west through Arcadia and Elis, not far from 
Olympia, and falls into the Ionian Sea. The 
subterranean descent of the river, which is con- 
firmed by modern travellers, gave rise to the 
story about the river-god Alpheus and the 
nymph Arethusa. The latter, pursued by Al- 
pheus, was changed by Diana (Artemis) into 
the fountain of Arethusa, in the Island of Orty- 
gia at Syracuse, but the god continued to pur- 
sue her under the sea, and attempted to mingle 
his stream with the fountain in Ortygia. Hence 
it was said that a cup thrown into the Alpheus 
would appear again in the fountain of Arethusa 
in Ortygia. Other accounts related that Diana 
(Artemis) herself was beloved by Alpheus : the 
goddess was worshipped, under the name of 
Alphexa, both in Elis and Ortygia. 

Alphius AvItus. Vid. Avitus. 

AlpInus, a name which Horace gives, in ridi- 
cule, to a bombastic poet. He probably means 
Bibaculus. 

[Alsa (now Ausq), a river of Italy, in the 
territory of the Veneti, just west of Aquileia. 
Here the younger Constantine lost his fife in a 
battle against his brother Constantius.] 

Alsium (Alsiensis : now Palo), one of the 
most ancient Etruscan towns on the coast near 
Caere, and a Roman colony after the first Punic 
war. In its neighborhood Pompey had a coun- 
try seat ( Villa Alsiensis). 

[Altes ('AXtijc), a king of the Leleges, at 
Pedasus, father of Laothoe.] 

Alth/EA ('AXdala), daughter of the jEtolian 
King Thestius and Eurythemis, married (Eneus, 



ALTHAEA. 



AMARDUS. 



king of Calydon, by whom she became the 
mother of several children, and among others 
of Meleager, upon whose death she killed her- 
self. 

Althaea (now Orgaz ?), the chief town of the 
Olcades in the country of the Oretani, in His- 
pania Tarraconensis. 

Althemenes (^AX6r]fievrjc or 'AXdaifievqc), son 
of Catreus, king of Crete. In consequence of 
an oracle, that Catreus would lose liis life by 
one of his children, Althemenes quitted Crete 
and went to Rhodes. There he unwittingly 
killed his father, who had come in search of his 
son. 

Altinum (Altlnas : now Altino), a wealthy 
municipium in the land of the Veneti in the 
north of Italy, at the mouth of the River Silis 
and on the road from Patavium to Aquileia, 
was a wealthy manufacturing town, and the 
chief emporium of all the goods which were 
sent from Southern Italy to the countries of the 
north. Goods could be brought from Ravenna 
to Altinum through the Lagoons and the nu- 
merous canals of the Po, safe from storms and 
pirates. There were many beautiful villas 
around the town. (Mart., iv., 25.) 

Altis {"AXtlc), the sacred grove of Jupiter 
(Zeus) at Olympia. 

Aluntium or Halunthjm ('AXovvtcov), a town 
on the north coast of Sicily, not far from Calac- 
ta, on a steep hill, celebrated for its wine. 

Alus or Halus ("A/loc, "Aloe : 'Aleve : ruins 
near Kefalosi), a town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, 
at the extremity of Mount Othrys, built by the 
hero Athamas. 

Alyattes ('AAuarr^c), king of Lydia, B.C. 
617-560, succeeded his father Sadyattes, and 
was himself succeeded by his son Crcesus. He 
carried on war with Miletus from 617 to 612, 
and with Cyaxares, king of Media, from 590 to 
585 ; an eclipse of the sun, which happened in 
585, during a battle between Alyattes and Cy- 
axares, led to a peace between them. Alyattes 
drove the Cimmerians out of Asia and took 
Smyrna. The tomb of Alyattes, north of Sar- 
dis, near the Lake Gyga?a, which consisted of 
a large mound of earth, raised upon a founda- 
tion of great stones, still exists. Mr. Hamilton 
says that it took him about ten minutes to ride 
round its base, which would give it a circum- 
ference of nearly a mile. 

Alyba ('AMfi?), a town on the south coast of 
the Euxine. (Horn., II., ii., 857.) 

Alyfius ('Alvmoc), of Alexandrea, probably 
lived in the fourth century of the Christian era, 
and is the author of a Greek musical ft'eatise, 
called "Introduction to Music" (elaayuyrl /xov- 
cixr/), printed by Meibomius in Antiques Musicce 
Auctores Septern, Amstel., 1652. 

Alyzia or Alyzea, ('AAv&a, 'Alv(eia : 'Alv- 
(aloc : ruins in the Valley of Kandili), a town in 
Acarnania, near the sea, opposite Leucas, with 
a harbor and a temple both sacred to Hercules. 
The temple contained one of the works of Ly- 
sippus, representing the labors of Hercules, 
wliich the Romans carried off. 

Amadocjs ('AfidSoicoc) or Medocus (MrjifoKoc). 
1. King of the Odrysas in Thrace, when Xeno- 
phon visited the country in B.C. 400. He and 
Seuthes, who were the most powerful Thracian 
kings, were frequently at variance, but were 
4 



reconciled to one another by Thrasybulus, the 
Athenian commander, in 390, and induced by 
him to become the allies of Athens. — 2. A ruler 
iu Thrace, who, in conjunction with Berisades 
and Cersobleptes, succeeded Cotys in 358. 

Amagetobria. Vid. Magetobria. 

[Amalchius Ooeanus, a part of the Northern 
Ocean, extending, according to Hecatseus, along 
the coast of Scythia.] 

[Amallobriga (now probably Medino del Rio 
Seed), a city of the Vaccasi, in Hispauia Tarra- 
conensis.] 

Amalthea ('AfiaXOeLa). 1. The nurse of the 
infant Jupiter (Zeus) in Crete. According to 
some traditions, Amalthea is the goat which 
suckled Jupiter (Zeus), and which was reward- 
ed by being placed among the stars. Vid. JEgA. 
According to others, Amalthea was a nymph, 
daughter of Oceanus, Helios, Hsemonius, or of 
the Cretan king, Melisseus, who fed Jupiter 
(Zeus) with the milk of a goat. When this goat 
broke off one of her horns, Amalthea filled it 
with fresh herbs and gave it to Jupiter (Zeus), 
who placed it among the stars. According to 
other accounts, Jupiter (Zeus) himself broke off 
one of the horns of the goat Amalthea, and gave 
it to the daughters of Melisseus, and endowed 
it with the wonderful raSSp-of becoming rilled 
with whatever the poslSsor' might wish. This 
is the story about the origin of the celebrated 
horn of Amalthea, commonly called the Horn of 
Plenty or Cornucopia, which was used in later 
times as the symbol of plenty in general. — 2. 
One of the Sibyls, identified with the Cumasan 
Sibyl, who sold to King Tarquinius the cele- 
brated Sibylline books. 

Amaltheum or Amalthea, a villa of Atticus 
on the Ri>er Thyamis in Epirus, was perhaps 
originally a shrine of the nymph Amalthea, 
which Atticus adorned with statues and bass- 
reliefs, and converted into a beautiful summer 
retreat. Cicero, in imitation, constructed a 
similar retreat on his estate at Arpinum. 

Amantia ('A/navTca : Amantinus, Amantianus, 
or Amantes, pi. : now Nivitza), a Greek town 
and district in Illyricum : the town, said to have 
been founded by the Abantes of Eubcea, lay at 
some distance from the coast, east of Oricum. 

Amanus (6 'Afiavog, to 'Afxavbv : 'Afiavirnc, 
Amaniensis : now Almadagli), a branch of Mount 
Taurus, which runs from the head of the Gulf 
of Issus northeast to the principal chain divid- 
ing Syria from Cilicia and Cappadocia. There 
were two passes in it ; the one, called the Syr- 
ian Gates (at "Zvpiai nvlai, Syria} Porta? : now 
Bylan), near the sea; the other, called the 
Amanian Gates ('AfiaviSsc or 'A/iavindl nvlai : 
Amanica? Pyke, Porta? Amani Montis : now 
Demir Kapu, i. e., the Iron Gate), further to the 
north. The former pass was on the road from 
Cilicia to Antioch, the latter on that to the dis- 
trict Commagene ; but, on account of its great 
difficulty, the latter pass was rarely used, until 
the Romans made a road through it. The in- 
habitants of Amanus were wild banditti. 

Amardi or Mardi ("A/xapdot, Mup<5oi), a power 
ful, warlike, and predatory tribe, who dwelt on 
the south shore of the Caspian Sea. 

Amardus or Mardus ("A/xapdoc, Mupdoc : now 
Kizil Ozien or Sefidliud), a river flowing through 
the country of the March" into the Caspian Sea. 

49 



AMAR1 LACUS. 



AMBIANI. 



[Amari Lacus (al TTLKpal %'ijivai : now Scheib), 
in Lower Egypt, derived their name from their 
bitter, brackish taste, -which was subsequently 
changed and rendered sweet by the Canal of 
Ptolemy, letting into them the water of the 
Nile.] 

Amarynceus ('Afiapvyicevc), a chief of the 
Eleans, is said by some writers to have fought 
against Troy : but Homer only mentions bis son 
Diores (Amarvnf.ides) as taking part in the Tro- 
jan war. 

Amarynthus ('A/j.upvv6oc : 'Afiapvvdtoc), a 
town in Eubcea, seven stadia from Eretria, to 
which it belonged, with a celebrated temple of 
Diana (Artemis), who was hence called Aina- 
rynthia or Amarysia, and in whose honor there 
was a festival of the name both in Euboea and 
Attica. Vid. Diet, of Antiq., art. Amarynthia. 

Amasenus (now Amaseno), a river in Latium, 
rises in the Volscian Mountains, flows by Pri- 
vernum, and after being joined by the Ufens (now 
Ufente), which flows from Setia, falls into the 
sea between Circeii and Terracina, though the 
greater part of its waters are lost in the Pontine 
marshes. 

Ahasia or -ea ('Afiuaeid : 'A/zaaevc : now 
Amasiah), the cai^k^f the kings of Pontus, 
was a strongly f< >jH B^" on both banks of the 
River Iris. It wS^HBbirth-plaee of Mithra- 
dates the Great and of the geographer Strabo. 

Amasis ("AjUtztfif). 1. King of Egypt, B.C. 
570-526, succeeded Apries, whom he dethroned. 
During his long reign Egypt was in a very pros- 
perous condition, and the Greeks were brought, 
iuto much closer intercourse with the Egyptians 
than had existed previously. Amasis married 
Ladiee, a Cyrenaic lady, contracted an alliance 
with Cyrene and Polycrates of Samos, and also 
sent presents to several of the Greek cities. — 
2. A Persian, sent in the reign of Cambyses 
(B.C. 525) against Cyrene, took Barca, but did 
not succeed in taking Cyrene. 

Amastris ("A/iaorpic, Ion. "AfiTjarpig). 1. 
Wife of Xerxes, and mother of Artaxerxes I., 
was of a cruel and vindictive character. — 2. 
Also called Amastrine, niece of Darius, the last 
king of Persia. She married, 1. Craterus; 2. 
Dionysius, tyrant of Heraclea in Bithynia, B.C. 
322 ; and, 3. Lysimachus, B.C. 302. Having 
been abandoned by Lysimachus upon his mar- 
riage with Arsinoe, she retired to Heraclea, 
where she reigned, and was drowned by her 
two sons about 288. 

Amastris ("A/uaorpic : 'AfiaorpLavoc : now 
Amasera), a large and beautiful city, with two 
harbors, on the coast of Paphlagonia, built by 
Amastris after her separation from Lysimachus 
(about B.C. 300), on the site of the old town of 
Sesamus, which name the citadel retained. The 
new city was built and peopled by the inhabit- 
ants of Cytorus and Cromna. 

Amata, wife of king Latiuus and mother of 
Lavinia, opposed Lavinia being given in mar- 
riage to ^Eneas, because she had already prom- 
ised her to Turnus, When she heard that Tur- 
nus had fallen in battle, she hung herself. 

[Amathia ('Afiddeia), one of the Nereids 
(Horn.}]. 

Amathus, -untis, CA/tadovc, -ovvroc : 'A/iaffov- 
aioc : now Zimasol ), an ancient town on the 
south coast of Cyprus, with a celebrated tern 
50 



pie of Venus (Aphrodite), who was hence called 
Amathusia. There were copper mines in the 
neighborhood of the town (feeandam Amathunta 
metalli, Ov., Met, x., 220). — [2. (Now Amatah), 
a fortified town of Persea or Palestine, beyond 
the Jordan.] 

Amatius, surnamed Pseudomarius, pretended 
to be either the son or grandson of the great 
Marius, and was put to death by Antony in B.C. 
44. Some call him Herophilus. 

Amazones ('Afia&vec ), a mythical race of war- 
like females, are said to have come from the 
Caucasus, and to have settled in the country 
about the River Thermodon, where they found- 
ed the city Themiscyra, w,est of the modern 
Trcbizond. Their countrj*-was inhabited only 
by the Amazons, who were governed by a queen ; 
but, in order to propagate their race, they met 
once a year the Gargareans in Mount Caucasus. 
The children of the.£ejnale sex were brought up 
by the Amazons, and each had her right breast 
cut off; the male children were sent to the 
Gargareaus or put to death. The' foundation 
of several towns in Asia Minor and in the isl- 
ands of the _<Egean is ascribed to them, a. g., of 
Ephesus, Smyrna, Cyme, Myrina, and Paphos. 
The Greeks believed in their existence as a real 
historical race down to a late period ; and hence 
it is said that Thalestris, the queen of the Ama- 
zons, hastened to Alexander, in order to be- 
come a mother by the conqueror of Asia. This 
belief of the Greeks may have arisen from the 
peculiar way in which the women of some of 
the Caucasian districts lived, and performed 
the duties which in other countries devolve 
upon men, as well as from their bravery and 
courage, which are noticed as remarkable even 
by modern travellers. Vague and obscure re- 
ports about them probably reached the inhabit- 
ants of Western Asia and the Greeks, and these 
reports were subsequently worked out and em- 
bellished by popular tradition and poetry. The 
following are the chief mythical adventures with 
which the Amazons are connected : they are said 
to have invaded Lyeia in the reign of Iobates, but 
were destroyed by Bellerophontes, who happen- 
ed to be staying at the king's court. Vid. Bel- 
lerophontes, Laomedon. They also invaded 
Phrygia, and fought with the Phrygians and 
Trojans when Priam was a young man. The 
ninth among the labors imposed upon Hercules 
by Eurystheus was to take from Hippolyte, the 
queen of the Amazons, her girdle, the ensign 
of her kingly power, which she had received as 
a present from Mars (Ares). Vid. Hercules. 
In the«reign of Theseus they invaded Attica. 
Vid. Theseus. Toward the end of the Trojan 
war, the Amazons, under their Queen Penthe- 
silea, came to the assistance of Priam ; but she 
was killed by Achilles. The Amazons and their 
battles are frequently represented in the re- 
mains of ancient Greek art. 

Amazonioi or -ids Mons, a mountain range 
parallel and near to the coast of Pontus, con 
taining the sources of the Thermodon and othei 
streams which water the supposed country of 
the Amazons. 

Ambarri, a people of Gaul, on the Arar (now 
Saone) east of the jEdui, and of the same stock 
as the latter. 

Ambiani, a Belgic people, between the Bello- 



AMBIATINUS. 



AMBUSTUS. 



vaci and Atrebates, conquered by Caasar in B. 
C. 57. Their chief town was Samarobrlva, aft- 
erward called Ambiani : now Amiens. 

Ambiatinus Vicus, a place in the country of 
the Treviri near Coblentz, where the Emperor 
Caligula was born. 

Ambibari, an Armoric people in Gaul, near 
the modern Ambieres in Normandy. 

[Ambigatus, a king of the Celts in Gaul in the 
veign of Tarquinius Priseus.] 

Ambiliati, a Gallic people, perhaps in Brit- 
tany. 

Ambiorix, a chief of the Eburones in Gaul, 
cut to pieces, in conjunction with Cativolcus, 
the Roman troops under Sabinus and Cotta, who 
were stationed for the winter in the territories 
of the Eburones, B.C. 54. He failed in taking 
the camp of Q. Cicero, and was defeated on the 
arrival of Cassar, who was unable to obtain pos- 
session of the person of Ambiorix, notwithstand- 
ing his active pursuit of the latter. 

Ambivareti, the clieutcs or vassals of the 
.iEdui, probably dwelt north of the latter. 

Ambivariti, a Gallic people west of the Maas, 
in the neighborhood of Namur. 

AsiBivius Turpio. Vid. Turpio. 

Amblada (ru "A/i6XaSa : 'AfiGXadevc), a town 
in Pisidia, on the borders of Caria ; famous for 
its wine. 

Ambracia Ap.TtpaK.la, afterward ApOpaaia : 
A/j.6paKiuri]c, Afj.6pa>uevc, Ambraeiensis : now 
Arta), a town on the left bank of the Arachthus, 
eighty stadia from the coast, north of the Am- 
bracian Gulf, was originally included in Acar- 
nania, but afterward in Epirus. It was colo- 
nized by the Corinthians about B.C. 660, and at 
an early period acquired wealth and importance. 
It became subject to the kings of Epirus about 
the time of Alexander the Great] Pyrrhus 
made it the capital of his kingdom, and adorned 
it with public buildings and statues. At a later 
time it joined the ./Etolian League, was taken 
by the Romans in B.C. 189, and stripped of its 
works of art. Its inhabitants were transplanted 
to the new city of Nicopolis, founded by Au- 
gustus after the battle of Actium, B.C. 31. 
South of Ambracia, on the east of the Arach- 
thus, and close to the sea, was the fort Ambracus. 

Ambraoius Sinus Ap.npaK.ivbe or 'Afi6paKiK.be 
koXtcoc : now Gulf of Arta), a gulf of the Ionian 
Sea between Epirus and Acarnania, said by 
Polybius to be three hundred stadia long and 
one hundred wide, and with an entrance only 
five stadia in width. Its real length is twenty- 
five miles and its width ten : the narrowest part 
of the entrance is only seven hundred yllrds, but 
its general width is about half a mile. 

Ambroses {"Afi&puvee), a Celtic people, who 
joined the Cimbri and Teutoni in their invasion 
of the Roman dominions, and were defeated by 
Marius near Aquae Sextiae (now Aix) in B.C. 102. 

Ambrosius, usually called St. Ambrose, one 
of the most celebrated Christian fathers, was 
born in A.D. 340, probably at Augusta Treviro- 
rum (now Treves.) After a careful education 
at Rome, he practiced with great success as an 
advocate at Milan; and about A.D. 370 was 
appointed prefect of the provinces of Liguria 
and ^Emilia, whose seat of government was 
Milan. On the death of Auxentius, bishop of 
Milan, in 374, the appointment of his successor 



led to an open conflict between the Arians anil 
Catholics. Ambrose exerted his influence to 
restore peace, and addressed the people in a 
conciliatory speech, at the conclusion of which 
a child in the further part of the crowd cried 
out "Ambrosius episcopus." The words were 
received as an oracle from heaven, and Ambrose 
was elected bishop by the acclamation of the 
whole multitude, the bishops of both parties 
uniting in his election. It was in vain that he 
adopted the strangest devices to alter the de- 
termination of the people ; nothing could make 
them change their mind ; and at length lie 
yielded to the express command of the emper 
or (Valentinian I.), and was consecrated on the 
eighth day after his baptism, for at the time of 
his election he was only a catechumen. Am 
brose was a man of eloquence, firmness, and 
ability, and distinguished himself by maintain- 
ing and enlarging the authority of the church 
He was a zealous opponent of the Arians, and 
thus came into open conflict with Justiua, the 
mother of Valentinian II., who demanded the 
use of one of the churches of Milan for the Ari 
ans. Ambrose refused to give it; he was sup 
ported by the people ; and the contest was al 
length decided by the miracles which are re 
ported to have attende;^<»he discovery of the 
reliques of two martyrs, Gervasius and Prota- 
sius. Although these miracles were denied by 
the Arians, the impression made by them upon 
the people in general was so strong, that Justina 
thought it prudent to give way. The state of 
the parties was quite altered by the death of 
Justina in 387, when Valentinian became a Cath- 
olic, and still more completely by the victory of 
Theodosius over Maximus (388). This event 
put the whole power of the empire into the 
hands of a prince who was a firm Catholic, and 
over whom Ambrose ' acquired such influence, 
that, after the massacre at Thessaloniea in 390, 
he refused Theodosius admission to the Church 
of Milan for a period of eight months, and only 
restored him after he had performed a public 
penance. The best edition of the works of 
Ambrose is that of the Benedictines, Paris, 16S6 
and 1690. 

Ambrysus or Amphrysus ("Afi6pvaoe : 'Afi- 
6pvoeve: near Dhistomo), a town in Phocis, 
strongly fortified, south of Mount Parnassus : 
in the neighborhood were numerous vineyards. 

Ambustus, Fabius. 1. M., pontifex maxi- 
mus in the year that Rome was taken by the 
Gauls, B.C. 390. His three sons, Kaeso. Nu- 
merius, and Quintus, were sent as ambassadors 
to the Gauls, when the latter were besieging 
Clusium, and took part in a sally of the besieged 
against the Gauls (B.C 391). The Gauls de- 
manded that the Fabii should be surrendered 
to them for violating the law of nations ; and 
upon the Senate refusing to give up the guilty 
parties, they marched against Rome. The 
three sons were in the same year elected con- 
sular tribunes. — 2. M., consular tribune in B.C. 
381 and 369, and censor in 363, had two daugh- 
ters, of whom the elder was married to Ser 
Sulpicius, and the younger to C. Licinius Stolo, 
the author of the Liciuian Rogations. Accord- 
ing to the story recorded by Livy, the younger 
Fabia induced her father to assist her husband 
in obtainiug the consulship for the plebeian or 
51 



AMEN ANUS. 



AMMONIUS. 



der, into which she had married. — 3. M., thrice 
consul, in B.C. 360, when he conquered the 
Hernica; a second time in 356, when he con- 
quered the Falisci aud Tarquinienses ; and a 
third time in 354, when he conquered the Ti- 
burtes. He was dictator in 351. He was the 
father of the celebrated Q. Fabius Maximus 
Rullianus. Vid. Maximus.- 

Amenanus ('Auevavo?, Dor. 'Afievac : [now Ju- 
dicello]), a river in Sicily near Cataua, only- 
flowed occasionally {nunc Jtuit, interdum sup- 
pressis fontibus aret, Ov., Met, xv., 280.) 

Ameria (Amerinus : now Amelia), an ancient 
town in fimbria, and a municipium, the birth- 
place of Sex. Roseius defended by Cicero, was 
situate in a district rich in vines (Virg., Georg., 
i, 265). 

Ameeiola, a town in the land of the Sabines, 
destroyed by the Romans at a very early period. 

Amestratus ('A/Lty'/arpaToc : Amestratinus : 
now AJistretta), a town in the north of Sicily, 
'lot far from the coast, the same as the Myttis- 
'ratum of Polybius, and the Amastra of Silius 
Italicus, taken by the Romans from the Cartha- 
"iuiaus in the first Punic war. 

Amestris. Vid. Amastris. 

Amida (?/ "Auida : now Diarbekr), a town in 
Sopheoe (Armenia Major), on the Upper Tigris. 

Amii.car. Vid. Hamilcar. 

Aminias ('Afieivlac), brother of iEschylus, dis- 
tinguished himself at the battle of Salamis (B.C. 
ISO) : he and Eumenes were judged to have 
been the bravest on this occasion among all the 
Athenians. 

Amipsias ('A/ieti/iiac), a comic poet of Athens, 
contemporary with Aristophanes, whom he 
twice conquered in the dramatic contests, gain- 
ing the second prize with his Connus when 
Aristophanes was third with the Clouds (B.C. 
423), and the first with his Comasta. when Aris- 
tophanes gained the second with the Birds (B.C. 
414). [Some fragments of his plays remain, 
whicli are collected in Meineke's Fragmenta 
Comicorum Gratcorum, vol. i., p. 402 — 407, edit, 
minor.] 

Amisia or Amisius ('Afidoioc, Strab. : now 
Ems), a river in northern Germany well known 
to the Romans, on which Drusus had a naval 
engagement with the Bructeri, B.C. 12. 

Amisia ('Alicia and 'Afidaeia : now Emden ?), 
a fortress on the left bank of the river of the 
same name. 

Amisodarus ('AftiauSapoc), a king of Lycia, 
said to have brought up the monster Chimsera : 
tiis sons Atymnius and Maris were slain at 
Troy by the sons of Nestor. 

Amisus ('Afiiaoc : A'fiiarjvoc, Amisenus : now 
Samsun), a large city on the coast of Pontus, 
on a bay of the Euxine Sea, called after it 
(Amisenus Sinus). Mithradates enlarged it, 
and made it one of his residences. 

Amiternum (Amiterninus : now Amatrica or 
Torre dAmiterno), one of the most ancient towns 
of the Sabines, on the Aternus, the birth-place 
of the historian Sallust. 

Ammianus ('Aftfiuivoc), a Greek epigramma- 
tist, but probably a Roman by birth, the author 
of nearly thirty epigrams in the Greek Anthol- 
ogy, lived under Trajan and Hadrian. 

Ammianus Marcellinus, by birth a Greek, 
,».nd a native of Syrian Autioch, was admitted 
52 



at an early age among the imperial body guards 
He served many years under Ursicinus, one of 
the generals of Constantius, both in the West 
and East, aud he subsequently attended the Em- 
peror Julian in his campaign against the Per- 
sians (A.D. 363). Eventually he established 
himself at Rome, where he composed his his- 
tory, and was alive at Jeast as late as 390. His 
history, written in Latin, extended from the 
accession of Nerva, A.D. 96, the poiut at whicli 
the histories of Tacittis terminated, to the death 
of Valens, A.D. 378, comprising a period of two 
hundred and eighty-two years. It was divided 
into thirty-one books of which the first thirteen 
are lost. The remaining eighteen embrace the 
acts of Constantius from A.D. 353, the seven- 
teenth year of his reign, together with the whole 
career of Gallus, Julianus, Jovianus, Valentin- 
ianus, and Valens. The portion preserved was 
the more important part of the work, as he was 
a contemporary of the events described in these 
books. The style of Ammianus is harsh and 
inflated, but his accuracy, fidelity, and imparti- 
ality deserve praise. — Editions: By Gronovius, 
Lugd. Bat., 1693; by Ernesti, Lips., 1773; by 
Wagner and Erfurdt, Lips., 1808, 3 vols. 8vo. 

[Ammochostus ('AfiftoxucToc : now C. Grego), 
a sandy promontory near Salamis in Cyprus, 
which gives name by corruption to the modern 
Famagusta.] 

Ammon ("Afifioiv), originally an ./Etbiopiau or 
Libyan, afterward an Egyptian divinity. The 
real Egyptian name was Amun or Ammun; the 
Greeks called him Zeus Ammon, the Romans 
Jupiter Ammon, and the Hebrews Amon. The 
most ancient seat of his worship was Meroe, 
where he had an oracle : thence it was intro- 
duced into Egypt, where the worship took the 
firmest root at Thebes in Upper Egypt, which 
was therefore frequently called by the Greeks 
Diospolis, or the eity of Zeus. Another famous 
seat of the god, with a celebrated oracle, was 
in the oasis of Ammonium (now Shcah) in the 
Libyan desert ; the worship was also established 
in Cyrenaica. The god was represented either 
in the form of a ram, or aS a human being with 
the head of a ram ; but there are some repre- 
sentations in which he appears altogether as a 
human being, with only the horns of a ram. It 
seems clear that the original idea of Ammon 
was that of a protector and leader of the llocks. 
The ^Ethiopians were a nomad people, flocks 
of sheep constituted their principal wealth, and 
it is perfectly in accordance with the notions 
of the -^Ethiopians as well as Egyptians to wor- 
ship the animal which is the leader and pro- 
tector of the flock. This view is supported by 
the various stories related about Ammon. 

Ammonium. Vid. Oasis. 

Ammonius ('Aft/i6vioc). 1. Grammaticus, of 
Alexandrea, left this eity on the overthrow of 
the heathen temples in A.D. 389, and settled 
at Constantinople. He wrote, in Greek, a valu- 
able wcrk On the Differences of Words of like Sig- 
nification (irepl ofioiav nal diatybpuv Xi^euv). Edi- 
tions: By Valckenaer, Lugd. Bat., 1739; by 
Sehafer, Lips. 1822. — 2. Son of Hermeas, stud- 
ied at Athens under Proclus (who died A.D. 
484), and was the master of Sitnplieius, Damas- 
cius, and others. He wrote numerous com- 
mentaries in Greek on the works of the earlier 



AMNISUS 



AMPH1DAMAS. 



philosophers. His extant works are Comment- 
aries on tlie Isagoge of Porphyry, or the Five 
Predicables, first published at Venice in 1500 ; 
and On the Categories of Aristotle and Be Inter- 
pretatione, published by Brandis in his edition of 
the Scholia on Aristotle. — 3. Of Lampr^e, in At- 
tica, a Peripatetic philosopher, lived in the first 
eentury of the Christian era, and was the in- 
structor of Plutarch. — 4. Suruamed Saccas, or 
tack-carrier, because his employment "was car- 
rying the corn, landed at Alexandrea, as a pub- 
lic porter, was born of Christian parents. Some 
.vriters assert, and others deny, that he aposta- 
dzed from the faith. At any rate, he combined 
the study of philosophy with Christianity, and 
is regarded by those who maintain his apostasy 
as the founder of the later Platonic School. 
Among his disciples were Longiuus, Herennius, 
Plotinus, and Origen. He died A.D. 243, at the 
age of more than eighty years. — [5. Of Alex- 
axdeea, a pupil of Aristarchus, a celebrated 
grammarian, who composed commentaries on 
Homer, Pindar, and others, none of which are 
extant. — 6. Styled Lithotomus, an eminent sur- 
geon of Alexandrea, celebrated for his skill in 
cutting for the stone.] 

Amnisus ('Afiviouc), a town in the north of 
Crete and the harbor of Cnosus, situated on a 
river of the same name, the nymphs of which, 
called Ammslades, were in the service of Diana 
(Artemis). 

Amok, the god of love, had no place in the re- 
ligion of the Romans, who only translate the 
Greek name Eros into Amor. Vid. Eros. 

Amop^gus ("A/xopyoc : 'Afiopyivor : now Amor- 
c/o), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of 
the Sporades, the birth-place of Simonides, and, 
under the Roman emperors, a place of banish- 
ment. 

Amoeium ('Afiopwv), a city of Phrygia Major 
or Galatia, on the River Sangarius ; the reputed 
birth-place of ^Esop. 

Ampe ("Aiinr?, Herod.) or Ampelone (Plin.), 
a town at the mouth of the Tigris, where Darius 
L planted the Milesians whom he removed from 
their own city after the Ionian revolt (B.C. 494). 

Ampelius, L., the author of a small work, en- 
titled IAber Memorialis, probably lived in the 
second or third eentury of the Christian era. 
His work is a sort of common-place book, con- 
taining a meagre summary of the most striking 
natural objects and of the most remarkable 
events, divided into fifty chapters. It is gener- 
ally printed with Florus, and has been published 
separately by Beck, Lips., 1826. 

Ampelus ("Afj.7TE2.oc), a promontory at the ex- 
tremity of the peninsula Sithonia in Chalcidice, 
in Macedonia, near Torone. — 2. [A promontory 
of Crete, on the eastern coast south of Sam- 
monium, with a city of same name, now prob- 
ably Cape Sacro. — 3. A mountain ending in a 
promontory in the Island of Samos, opposite 
Icaria, now Cape Dominieoi\ 

Ampelusia ('AtmeXovma: now C. Espartel), 
the promontory at the west end of the south or 
African coast of the Fretum Gaditanum (now 
Straits of Gibraltar). The natives of the coun- 
try called it Cotes (al Ku-eic). 

Amphaxitis ('Afzfa^lrtc), a district of Myg- 
donia in Macedonia, at the mouths of the Axius 
and Echedorus. 



Amphea ("A/itpeia : 'A/upevc), a small town ol 
Messenia on the borders of Laconia and Mes- 
senia, conquered by the Spartans in the first 
Messenian war. 

[Amphialus ('A/x(j)ia?.oc), a Phasacian, who 
gained the prize iu the games, in which Ulysses 
took part (Od., viii., 114).] 

[Amphianax ('A/xcfiLdva^), king of Lycia, who 
received Proetus when driven out of Argolis, 
gave him his daughter Antea in marriage, and 
restored him to Argos.] 

Amphiaraus ('A/j.<jiLupaog), son of Oicles and 
Hypermnestra, daughter of Thestius, was de- 
scended on his fathers side from the famous 
seer Melampus, and was himself a great prophet 
aud a great hero at Argos. By his wife Eri- 
phyle, the sister of Adrastus, he was the father 
of Alcniaeon, Amphiaraus, Eurydiee, and De- 
monassa. He took part in the hunt of the Caly- 
donian boar and in the Argonautic voyage. He 
also joined Adrastus in the expedition against 
Thebes, although he foresaw its fatal termina- 
tion, through the persuasions of his wife Eri- 
phyle, who had been induced to persuade her 
husband by the necklace of Harmonia which 
Polynices had given her. On leaving Argos, 
however, he enjoined on his sons to punish 
their mother for his death. During the war 
against Thebes, Amphiaraus fought bravely, 
but could not escape his fate. Pursued by Peri- 
clymenus, he fled toward the River Ismenius, 
and the earth swallowed him up, together with 
his chariot, before he was overtaken by his ene- 
my. Jupiter (Zeus) made him immortal, and 
henceforth he was worshipped as a hero, first' 
at Oropus and afterward in all Greece. His 
oracle between Potniae and Thebes, where he 
was said to have been swallowed up, enjoyed 
great celebrity. Vid. Diet, of Ant., art. Oracu- 
lum. His son, Alcmajon, is called Amphiara- 
ides. 

Amphic^ea or Amphiclea (A/ifucata,' 'AiiQc- 
K/\eia: 'Afitpinaievc : now Dhadhi or Oglunitza?), 
a town in the north of Phoeis, with an adytum 
of Bacchus (Dionysus), was called for a long 
time Ophitea ('Otpireia), by command of the Am- 
phictyons. 

[Amphiclus ("Afi(j>iKXoc), a Trojan, slain by 
Meges.] 

[Amphiorates ('AfKpiKpurng), an early king of 
Samos, in whose reign the Samians made war 
on the jEginetans. — 2. A sophist and rhetorician' 
of Athens, who flourished about 7 B.C.] 

Amphiotyon ('AfifiKrvuv), a son of Deucalion 
and Pyrrha. Others represent him as a king of 
Attica, who expelled from the kingdom his fa- 
ther-in-law Cranaus, ruled for twelve years, 
and was then in turn expelled by Erichthonius. 
Many winters represent him as the founder of 
the amphictyony of Thermopylae ; in conse- 
quence of this belief a sanctuary of Amphiotyon 
was built in the village of Anthela on the Aso- 
pus, winch was the most ancient place of meet- 
ing of this amphictyony. 

Amphidamas ('A/j.fpid'ufj.ac), son, or, according 
to others, brother of Lycurgus, one of the Ar- 
gonauts. — [2. Son of Busiris, king of Egypt, 
slain by Hercules along with his father. Vid. 
Busiris. — 3. A hero of Scandia in Cythera, to 
whom Autolycus sent a helmet set round with 
boar's tusks, afterward borne by Meriones be 
53 



AMPHIDOLI. 



AMPHISSA. 



fore Troy. — 4. A king of Chalcis in Euboea: 
he fell in battle against the Erythrasans, and 
his sons celebrated in his honor funereal games, 
at which Hesiod gained the first prize of poetry, 
viz., a golden tripod, which he dedicated to the 
Muses.] 

[Amphidoli (' ' k[L<pi6o\oi), a city of Triphylian 
Elis.] 

Amphiloohia ('Afi(j)iXoxia), the country of the 
Amphilochi (^kfupikoxoi), an Epirot race, at the 
eastern end of the Ambracian Gulf, usually in- 
cluded in Acarnania. Their chief town was 
Argos Amphilochicum. 

Amphilochus ('AfifaAoxog), son of Amphiaraus 
and Eriphyle, and brother of Alcmason. He 
took an active part in the expedition of the Epi- 
goni against Thebes, assisted his brother in the 
murder of their mother (vid. Alcm^eon), and 
afterward fought against Troy. On his return 
from Troy, together with Mopsus, who was, like 
himself, a seer, he founded the town of Mallos 
in Cilicia. Hence he proceeded to his native 
place, Argos, but returned to Mallos, where he 
was killed in single combat by Mopsus. Others 
relate (Thuc, ii., 68) that, after leaving Argos, 
Amphilochus founded Argos Amphilochicum on 
the Ambracian Gulf. He was worshipped at 
Mallos in Cilicia, at Orojjus, and at Athens. 

Amphilytus ('kfi<j>'iXvToc), a celebrated seer 
in the time of Pisistratus (B.C. 559), is called 
both an Acarnanian and an Athenian : he may 
have been an Acarnanian who received the 
franchise at Athens. 

Amphimachus {' kjiipifiaxoc). 1. Son of Ctea- 
tus, grandson of Neptune (Poseidon), one of the 
four leaders of the Epeaus against Troy, was 
slain by Hector. — 2. Son of Nomion, with his 
brother Nastes, led the Carians to the assist- 
ance of the Trojans, and was slain by Achilles. 

Amphimalla (t& ' k[i$'nuiKka), a town on the 
northern coast of Crete, on a bay called after 
it (now Gulf of Armiro). 

[Amphimarus ('k/Mj)ifiapoc), son of Neptune, 
father of the minstrel Linus by Urania.] 

Amfhimedon ('k/n(j>i/j.edo)i>), of Ithaca, a guest- 
friend of Agamemnon, and a suitor of Penelope, 
was slain by Telemaehus. — [2. A Libyan slain 
at the nuptials of Perseus.] 

[Amphinome ('kfj.<piv6/j.7i), one of the Nereids. 
— 2. Wife of iEson and mother of Jason, slew 
herself when Pelias had slain her husband. — 3. 
Daughter of Pelias, married by Jason to An- 
dramion.] 

[Amphinomus ('A/tQtvo/ioc), son of Nisus of 
Dulichium, one of the suitors of Penelope, slain 
by Telemaehus.] 

Amphion ('kfitytav). I. Son of Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Antiope, the daughter of Nycteus of Thebes, 
and twin-brother of Zethus. (Ov., Met, vi., 
110, scq.) Amphion and Zethus were born 
either at Eleuthera? in Bceotia or on Mount Ci- 
thceron, whither their mother had fled, and grew 
up among the shepherds, not knowing their de- 
scent. Mercury (Hermes) (according to others, 
Apollo, or the Muses) gave Amphion a lyre, 
who henceforth practiced song and music, while 
his brother spent his time in hunting and tend- 
ing the flocks. (Hor., Hp., i., 18, 41.) Hav- 
ing become acquainted with their origin, they 
marched against Thebes, where Lycus reigned, 
the husband of their mother Antiope, whom he 
54 



had repudiated, and had then married Dirce ji> 
her stead. They took the city, and as Lycus 
and Dirce had treated their mother with great 
: cruelty, the two brothers killed them both. 
I They put Dirce to death by tying her to a bull, 
i who dragged her about till she perished ; and 
they then threw her body into a well, which 
was from this time called the Well of Dirce. 
After they had obtained possession of Thebes, 
they fortified it by a wall. It is said that when 
Amphion played his lyre, the stones moved of 
their own accord and formed the wall (movit 
Amphion lapides canendo, Hor., Carni., iii., 11). 
Amphion afterward married Niobe, who bore 
him many sons and daughters, all of whom were 
killed by Apollo. His death is differently re- 
lated: some say, that he killed himself from 
grief at the loss of his children (Ov., Met, vi., 
270), and others tell us that he was killed by 
Apollo because he made an assault on the Pyth- 
ian temple of the god. Amphion and his broth- 
er were buried at Thebes. The punishment in- 
flicted upon Dirce is represented in the cele- 
brated Farnese bull, the work of Apollonius and 
Tauriscus, which was discovered in 1546, and 
placed in the palace Parnese at Rome. — 2. Son 
of Jasus and father of Chloris. In Homer, this 
Amphion, king of Orchomenos, is distinct from 
Amphion, the husband of Niobe ; but in earlier 
traditions they seem to have been regarded as 
the same person. — [3. A leader of the Epeans 
before Troy. — 4. Son of Hyperesius of Pallene, 
an Argonaut. — 5. A king of Corinth, father of 
Labda.] 

Amphipolis ('A^ittoalc : 'kfifi-noXiTTjc : now 
Neokhorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keui), a town it 
Macedonia on the left or eastern bank of tfie 
Strymon, just below its egress from the Lake 
Cercinitis, and about three miles from the sea. 
The Strymon flowed almost round the town, 
nearly forming a circle, whence its name Am- 
phi-polis. It was originally called "~Evvea bHui, 
"the Nine Ways," and belonged to the Edoni- 
ans, a Thracian people. Aristagoras of Miletus 
first attempted to colonize it, but was cut off 
with his followers by the Edonians in B.C. 497. 
The Athenians made a next attempt with ten 
thousand colonists, but they were all destroyed 
by the Edonians in 465. In 437 the Athenians 
were more successful, and drove the Edonians 
out of the " Nine Ways," which was henceforth 
called Arnphipolis. It was one of the most im- 
portant of the Athenian possessions, being ad- 
vantageously situated for trade on a navigable 
river in the midst of a fertile country, and near 
the gold mines of Mount Pangseus. Hence the 
indignation of the Athenians when it fell into 
the hands of Brasidas (B.C. 424) and of Philip 
(358). Under the Romans it was a free city, 
and the capital of Macedonia prima : the Yia 
Egnatia ran through it. The port of Amphip- 
olis was Eion. 

Amphis ("kufie), an Athenian comic poet, of 
the middle comedy, contemporary with the phi- 
losopher Plato. We have the titles of twenty- 
six of his plays, and a few fragments of them. 
[These fragments have been published by Mei- 
neke, Fragmcnta Comicorum Grcccorum, vol. i, 
p. 645-656, edit, minor.] 

Amphissa ('kfujiiGoa : 'kfi^iacevc, 'k/idiooalot : 
now Salona), one of the chief towns of the Lo 



AMPHISTRATTJS. 



AMYCLM 



cri Ozoke on the borders of Phocis, seven miles 
from. Delphi, said to have been named after 
Amphissa, daughter of Maeareus, and beloved 
by Apollo. In consequence of the Sacred War 
declared against Amphissa by the Amphictyons, 
the town was destroyed by Philip, B.C. 338, 
but it was soon afterward rebuilt, and under 4he 
Romans was a free state. 

Amphistratus ('Afapcorparoc) and his brother 
Rhecas, the charioteers of the Dioscuri, were 
6aid to have taken part in the expedition of Ja- 
son to Colchis, and to have occupied a part of 
that country which was called after them Heni- 
ochia, as heniochus (rjvioxoc) signifies a chari- 
oteer. 

[Amphithea (' A/xfidea), wife of Autolycus, 
grandmother of Ulysses. — 2. Wife of Adrastus.J 

[Amphithemis ('Afi<j>We/uic), son of Apollo and 
Acacallis, and father of Nasamon and Caphau- 
rus by Tritonis. — 2. A Theban general, who re- 
ceived money sent by the Persians into Greece 
to excite disturbances there, for the purpose of 
causing the recall of Agesilaus from Asia.] 

[Amphithoe (' ' Afujudorf), one of the Nereids.] 

Amphitrite ('A/j.(jiiTpiT7j), a Nereid or an 
Oceanid, wife of Neptune (Poseidon) and god- 
dess of the sea, especially of the Mediterranean. 
In Homer Amphitrite is merely the name of the 
sea, and she first occurs as a goddess in Hesiod. 
Later poets again use the word as equivalent to 
the sea in general. She became by Neptune 
(Poseidon) the mother of Triton, Rhode or Rhodos, 
and Benthesicyme. 

Amphitrope (' ' Aji<pLTp6nri 'Afi^iTponaievg), an 
Attic demus belonging to the tribe Antiochis, in 
the neighborhood of the silver-mines of Laurium. 

Amphitryon or Amphitruo ('AfupLrpvav), son 
of Alcaeus, king of Tiryns, and Hipponome. Al- 
caeus had a brother Electryon, who reigned at 
Mycenae. Between Electryon and Pterelaus, 
king of the Tarphians, a furious war raged, in 
which Electryon lost all his sons except Lieym- 
nius, and was robbed of his oxen. Amphitryon 
recovered the oxen, but on his return to Myce- 
nae accidentally killed his uncle Electryon. He 
was now expelled from Mycenae, together with 
Alcmene the daughter of Electryon, by Sthen- 
elus the brother of Electryon, and went to 
Thebes, where he was purified by Creon. In 
order to win the hand of Alcmene, Amphitryon 
prepared to avenge the death of Alcmene's 
brothers on the Taphians, and conquered them, 
after Comaetho, the daughter of Pterelaus, 
through her love for Amphitryon, cut off the 
one golden hair on her father's head, which 
rendered him immortal. During the absence 
of Amphitryon from Thebes, Jupiter visited 
Alcmene, who became by the god the mother 
of Hercules ; the latter is called Amphitryoniades 
in allusion to his reputed father. Amphitryon 
fell in a war against Erginus, king of the Miny- 
ans. The comedy of Plautus, called Amphitruo, 
is a ludicrous representation of the visit of Ju- 
piter (Zeus) to Alcmene in the disguise of her 
lover Amphitryon. 

[Amphius ("Affptoc), son of Lelagus, an ally 
of the Trojans, slain by the Telamonian Ajax. 
— 2. Son of Merops, the celebrated seer, against 
whose wish his two sons Amphius and Adrastus 
went to the Trojan war : they were both slain by 
Diomedes.] 



Amphoterus ('A/nporepoc). Vid. Acarnan. — 
[2. A Trojan slain by Patroclus.] 

Amphrysus ('A/icjipvaoc). 1. A small river in 
Thessaly which flowed into the Pagasaean Gulf 
on the banks of which Apollo fed the herds of 
Admetus (pastor ab Amphryso, Virg., Georg., iii., 
2). — 2. Vid. Ambrysus. 

[Ampius Balbus, T. Vid. Balbus.] 

Ampsaga (now Wad-el-Kabir, or tiufjimar), a 
river of Northern Africa, which divided Numidia 
from Mauretania Sitifensis. It flows past the 
town of Cirta (now Constantino). 

Ampsanctus or Amsanctus Lacus (now Lago 
d' Ansanti or Mufiti), a small lake in Samnium 
near jEculauum, from which mephitic vapors 
arose. Near it was a chapel sacred to Mephi- 
tis, with a cavern from which mephitic vapors 
also came, and which was therefore regarded as 
an entrance to the lower world. (Virg., ^En., 
vii., 563, seq.) 

Ampsivarii. Vid. Ansibarii. 

Ampycus ('Afj.nvK.og). 1. Son of Pelias, hus- 
band of Chloris, and father of the famous seer 
Mopsus, who is hence called Ampycides. Pau- 
sanias calls him Ampyx. — 2. Son of Iapetus, a 
bard and priest of Ceres, killed by Pettalus at 
the marriage of Perseus. 

Ampyx. Vid. Ampycus. — [2. A friend of 
Phineus, changed to stone by Perseus by the 
head of Medusa. — 3. One of the Lapithae, who 
slew the Centaur (Eclus at the nuptials of Pir- 
ithous.] 

Amulius. Vid. Romulus. 

Amy&uE. 1. ('AfivK?iai : 'Afivulaievg, 'A/iv- 
ulalot; : now Sklavokhori or Aia Kyriaki ?), an 
ancient town of Laconia on the Eurotas, in a 
beautiful country, twenty miles southeast of 
Sparta. It is mentioned in the Iliad (ii., 584), 
and is said to have been founded by the ancient 
Lacedaemonian King Amyclas, father of Hyacin- 
thus, and to have been the abode of Tyndarus, 
and of Castor and Pollux, who are hence called 
Amyclcei Fratres. After the conquest of Pelo- 
ponnesus by the Dorians, the Achaeans main- 
tained themselves in Amyclas for a long time ; 
and it was only shortly before the first Messe- 
nian war that the town was taken and destroy- 
ed by the Lacedaemonians under Teleelus. The 
tale ran that the inhabitants had been so often 
alarmed by false reports of the approach of the 
enemy, that they passed a law that no one 
should speak of the enemy ; and accordingly, 
when the Lacedaemonians at last came, and no 
one dared to announce then- approach, " Amy- 
clae perished through silence :" hence arose the 
proverb Amyclis ipsis taciturnior. After its de- 
struction by the Lacedaemonians Amyclae be- 
came a village, and was only memorable by the 
festival of the Hyacinthia (vid. Met. of Antiq.. 
s. v.) celebrated at the place annually, and by the 
temple and colossal statue of Apollo, who was 
hence called Amyclams. — 2. (Amyclanus), an 
ancient town of Latium, east of Terracina, on 
the Sinus Amyclanus, was, according to tradi- 
tion, an Achaean colony from Laconia. In the 
time of Augustus the town had disappeared ; 
the inhabitants were said to have deserted it 
on account of its being infested by serpents ; 
whence Virgil (jEn., x., 564) speaks of taeita 
Amycloz, though some commentators suppose 
that he transfers to this town the epithet be- 
55 



AMYCLAS. 



ANACREON. 



longing to the Amyclaa in Laconia (No. 1). Near 
Amyclae was the Spelunca (Sperlonga), or nat- 
ural grotto, a favorite retreat of the Emperor 
Tiberius. 

Amyclas. Vid. Amycl^e. 

Amyclides, a name of Hyacinthus, as the son 
of Amyelas. 

Amyous ('A/zvKog), son of Neptune (Poseidon) 
and Bithynis, king of the Bebryces, "was cele- 
brated for his skill in boxing, and used to chal- 
lenge strangers to box with him. When the 
Argonauts came to his dominions, Pollux accepted 
the challenge and killed him. 

[Amydon ('AftvSuv), an ancient city of Pseonia 
in Macedonia, on the Axius, spoken of by Homer 
(R, ii, 849).] 

Amymone ('A/iv/iuvrj), one of the daughters of 
Danaus and Elephantis. When Danaus ar- 
rived in Argos, the country was suffering from 
a drought, and Danaus sent out Amymone to 
fetch water. She was attacked by a satyr, but 
was rescued from his violence by Neptune (Po- 
seidon), who appropriated her to himself, and 
then showed her the wells at Lerna. According 
to another account, he bade her draw his trident 
from the rock, from which a three-fold spring 
gushed forth, which was called after her the 
Well and River of Amymone. Her son by Nep- 
tune (Poseidon) was called Nauplius. 

Amynander ('A/ivvavSpog), king of the Atha- 
manes in Epirus, an ally of the Romans in their 
war with Philip of Macedonia, about B.C. 198, 
but au ally of Antiochus, B.C. 189. 

Amyntas ('Afivvrag). 1. I. King of Macedo- 
nia, reigned from about B.C. 540 to 500, and 
was succeeded by bis son Alexander I. — 2. II. 
King of Macedonia, son of Philip, the brother 
of Perdiccas II, reigned B.C. 393-369, and ob- 
tained the crown by the murder of the usurper 
Pausanias. Soon after his accession he was 
driven from Macedonia by the Illyrians, but was 
restored to his kingdom by the Thessalians. 
On his return he was engaged in war with the 
Olynthians, in which he was assisted by the 
Spartans, and by then' aid Olynthus was reduced 
in 379. Amyntas united himself also with Ja- 
son of Pherse, and carefully cultivated the friend- 
ship of Athens. Amyntas left by his wife Eu- 
ridice three sons, Alexander, Perdiccas, and 
the famous Philip. — 3. Grandson of Amyntas 
II., was excluded by Philip from the succession 
on the death of his father, Perdiccas III., in B.C. 
360. He was put to death in the first year of 
the reign of Alexander the Great, 336, for a plot 
against the king's life. — 4! A Macedonian officer 
in Alexander's army, son of Andromenes. He 
and his brothers were accused of being privy to 
the conspiracy of Philotas in 330, but were ac- 
quitted. Some little time after he was killed 
at the siege of a village. — 5. A Macedonian 
traitor, son of Antiochus, took refuge at the 
court of Darius, and became one of the com- 
manders of the Greek mercenaries. He was 
present at the battle of Issus (B.C. 333), and 
afterward fled to Egypt, where he was put to 
death by Mazaces, the Persian governor. — 6. A 
king of Galatia, supported Antony, and fought 
on his side against Augustus at the battle of 
Actium (B.C. 31). He fell in an expedition 
against the town of Homouada or Homona. — 
1. A Greek writer of a work entitled Stathmi 
56 



(Iradfioi) probably on account of the' different 
halting-places of Alexander the Great in his 
Asiatic expedition. 

Amyntor ('Afivvrup), son of Ormenus of Ele- 
on in Thessaly, where Autolycus broke into his 
house, and father of Phoenix, whom he cursed on 
account of unlawful intercourse with his mis- 
tress. According to Apollodorus he was a king 
of Ormenium, and was slain by Hercules, to 
whom he refused a passage through his domin- 
ions, and the hand of his daughter Astydamia. 
According to Ovid (Met, xii, 364), he was king 
of the Dolopes. 

Amyrt^eus ('AfivpTaiog), an Egyptian, as- 
sumed the title of king, and joined lnarus the 
Libyan in the revolt against the Persians in 
B.C. 460. They at first defeated the Persians 
(vid. Ach^emenes), but were subsequently totally 
defeated, 455. Amyrteeus escaped, and main- 
tained himself as king in the marshy districts 
of Lower Egypt till about 414, when the Egyp- 
tians expelled the Persians, and Amyrteeus reign- 
ed six years. 

Amyrus ('Afivpog), a river in Thessaly, with 
a town of the same name upon it, flowing into 
the Lake Bcebeis : the country around was called 
the 'A/xvpiKov nsdiov. 

Amythaon ('Afivduuv), son of Cretheus and 
Tyro, father of Bias an4 of the seer Melampus, 
who is hence called Ami/thaonius ("Virg., Georg., 
iii., 550). He dwelt at Pylus in Messenia, and 
is mentioned among those to whom the restora- 
tion of the Olympian games was ascribed. 

Anabon ('AvuSuv), a district of the Persian 
province of Alia, south of Aria Proper, contain- 
ing four towns, which still exist, Phra (now 
Ferrah), Bis (now Beest or Bost), Gari (now 
Ghore), Nii (now Neh). 

[AnabOra (-<i 'AvuCovpa), a city of Pisidia.] 

Anaces ("Avaneg). Vid. Anax, No. 2. 

Anacharsis ('Avdxapcig), a Scythian of 
princely rank, left his native country to travel 
in pursuit of knowledge, and came to Athens 
about B.C. 594. He became acquainted with So- 
lon, and by his talents and acute observations, ha 
excited general admiration. The fame of hi? 
wisdom was such, that he was even reckoned 
by some among the seven sages. He was killed 
by his brother Saulius on his return to his native 
country. Cicero (Tusc. Disp., v., 32) quotes 
from one of his letters, of which several, but 
spurious, are still extant. 

Anacreon ('AvaKpecov), a celebrated lyric 
poet, born at Teos, an Ionian city in Asia Mi- 
nor. He removed from his native city, with 
the great body of its inhabitants, to Abdera, in 
Thrace, when Teos was taken by the Persians 
(about B.C. 540), but lived chiefly at Samos, 
under the patronage of Polycrates, in whose 
praise he wrote many songs. After the death 
of Polycrates (522), he went to Athens at the 
invitation of the tyrant Hipparchus, where he 
became acquainted with Simonides and other 
poets. He died at the age of eighty-five, proba 
bly about 4"78, but the place of his death is un 
certain. The universal tradition of antiquity rep- 
resents Anacreon as a consummate voluptuary, 
and bis poems prove the truth of the tradition. 
He sings of love and wine with hearty good will ; 
and we see in him the luxury of the louian in- 
flamed by the fervor of the poet. The tale that 



ANACTORIUM. 



ANAXAGORS. 



te loved Sappho is very improbable. Of bis 
poems only a few genuine fragments have come 
down to us : for the " Odes" attributed to him 
are now admitted to be spurious. — Editions : By 
Fischer, Lips., 1*793 ; Bergk, Lips., 1834. 

Anactokjum ('AvaKTopiov : 'Avanropwc), a 
town in Acarnania, built by the Corinthians, 
upon a promontory of the same name (near La 
Madonna) at the entrance of the Ambracian 
Gulf. Its inhabitants were removed by Augus- 
tus after the battle of Actium (B.C. 31) to M- 
copolis. 

Anadyomene ('AvaSvo/ievn), the goddess rising 
out of the sea, a surname given to Venus (Aph- 
rodite), in allusion to the story of her being 
born from the foam of the sea. This surname 
had not much celebrity before the time of Apel- 
les, but his famous painting of Aphrodite Ana- 
dyomene excited the emulation of other art- 
ists, painters as well as sculptors. Vid. Apel- 
les. 

[Anyea or Ann^ea ('Avata or 'Avva'ia), a Ca- 
rian city on the Ionian coast of Asia Minor, op- 
posite the Island of Samos, deriving its name 
from an Amazon, Anma : it was the place of 
refuge in the Peloponnesiau war for the Samian 
exiles.] 

Anagnia (Anagninus : now Anagni), an an- 
cient town of Latium, the chief town of the 
Hernici, and subsequently both a municipium 
and a Roman colony. It lay in a very beauti- 
ful and fertile country on a hill, at the foot of 
which the Via Lavicana and Via Prxnestina 
united (now Oompitum Anagninum). In the 
neighborhood Cicero had a beautiful estate, 
Ancegninum (sc. prcedium). 

Anagyeus ('Avayvpovc, -ovvroc : ' Avayvpdawq, 
'Avayvpovvrodev : ruins near Vari), a demus of 
Attica, belonging to the tribe Erechtheis, not, 
as some say, ^Eantis, south of Athens, near the 
Promontory Zoster. 

Anaitioa ('AvaiTiKTj), a district of Armenia, in 
which the goddess Anaitis was worshipped ; 
also called Acilisene. 

Anaitis ('Avalnc) an Asiatic divinity, whose 
name is also written Ancea, Aneitis, Tana'is, or 
Nanma. Her worship prevailed in Armenia, 
Cappadocia, Assyria, Persis, <fec, and seems to 
have been a part of the worship so common 
among the Asiatics, of the creative powers of na- 
ture, both male and female. The Greek writers 
sometimes identify Anaitis with Diana (Ar- 
temis), and sometimes with Venus (Aphro- 
dite). 

Anamari or -ees, a Gallic people in the plain 
of the Po, in whose land the Romans founded 
Placentia. 

Ananes, a Gallic people west of the Trebia, 
between the Po and the Apennines. 

Ananius ('Avuvioc), a Greek iambic poet, 
contemporary with Hipponax, about B.C. 540. 
[His remains have been collected by Welcker, 
and published at the end of his edition of Hip- 
ponax, q. v.] 

Anaphe ('Avd<j>n : 'AvaQaloc : now Anaphi, 
Nanfio), a small island in the south of the Jjge- 
an Sea, east of Thera, with a temple of Apollo 
iEgletes, who was hence called Anapheus. 

Anaphlystus ( 'Avd(p\vcTOC : ' Ava^kvarloc : 
now Anavyso), an Attic demus of the tribe An- 
tiochis on the southwest coast of Attica, oppo- 



site the Island Eleussa, called after Anaphly? 
tus, son of Neptune (Poseidon). 

Anapus ("AvcOTOf). 1. A river in Acarnania 
flowing into the Achelous. — 2. (Now Anapo), a 
river in Sicily, flowing into the sea south of Syr- 
acuse through the marshes of Lysimelia. 

Anartes or -ti, a people of Dacia, north of the 
Theiss. 

Anas ("Avag : now Ouadiana), one of the chief 
rivers of Spain, rising in Celtiberia in the mount- 
ains near Laminium, formed the boundary be- 
tween Lusitania and Bsetica, and flowed into 
the ocean by two mouths (now only one). 

[Anassus (now Stella), a small river in the 
territory of the VenetL] 

Anatolius. 1, Bishop of Laodicea, A.D. 270, 
an Alexandrean by birth, was the author of sev- 
eral mathematical and arithmetical works, of 
which some fragments have been preserved. — ■ 
2. An eminent jurist, was a native of Berytus, 
and afterward P. P. ( prcefectus prmtorio) of Illyr- 
icurn. He died in A.D. 361. A work on agri- 
culture, often cited in the Geoponica, and a 
treatise concerning Sympathies and Antipathies, 
are assigned by many to this Anatolius. The 
latter work, however, was probably written by 
Anatolius the philosopher, who was the master 
of Iamblichus, and to whom Porphyry addressed 
Homeric Questions. — 3. Professor of law at Be- 
rytus, is mentioned by Justinian among those 
who were employed in compiling the Digest. 
He wrote notes on the Digest, and a very concise 
commentary on Justinian's Code. Both of 
these works are cited in the Basilica. He per- 
ished A.D. 557, in an earthquake at Byzantium, 
whither he had removed from Berytus. 

Anaueus ('Avavpoc), a river of Thessaly flow- 
ing into the Pagas£ean Gulf. [It was in this 
stream that Jason lost his sandal, and thus ful- 
filled the words of the oracle. Vid. Jason.] 

Anava ("Avava), an ancient, but early decayed 
city of Great Phrygia, on the salt lake of the 
same name, between Cekense and Colosste (now 
Hagee Ghioul). 

Anax ("Aval;). 1. A giant, son of Uranus and 
Ga?a, and father of Asterius. — 2. An epithet of 
the gods in general, characterizing them as the 
rulers of the world; but the plural forms, 
"Avattec, or "AvaicTec, or "Avanec Tzaldse, were 
used to designate the Dioscuri. 

Anaxagoeas ( 'Ava^ayopac ), a celebrated 
Greek philosopher of the Ionian school, was 
born at Clazomenae in Ionia, B.C. 500. He gave 
up his property to his relations, as he in- 
tended to devote his life to higher ends, and 
went to Athens at the age of twenty ; here he 
remained thirty years, and became the intimate 
friend and teacher of the most eminent men of 
the time, such as Euripides and Pericles. His 
doctrines gave offence to the religious feelings 
of the Athenians ; and the enemies of Pericles 
availed themselves of this circumstance to ac- 
cuse him of impiety, B.C. 450. It was only 
through the eloquence of Pericles that he was 
not put to death ; but he was sentenced to pay 
a fine of five talents, and to quit Athens. He 
retired to Lampsacus, where he died in 428, at 
the age of seventy-two. Anaxagoras was dis- 
satisfied with the systems of his predecessors, 
the Ionic philosophers, and struck into a new 
path. The Ionic philosophers had endeavored 
57 



ANAXANDER 



ANC^EUS. 



I 



to explain nature and its various phenomena 
by regarding matter in its different forms and 
modifications as the cause of all things. An ix- 
agoras, on the other hand, conceived the neces- 
sity of seeking a higher cause, independent of 
matter, and this cause he considered to be nous 
(vovc), that is, mind, thought, or intelligence. 
[Editions of the fragments by Schaubdch, Lips., 
1827, and by Schorn, Bonn, 1829— 2. Son of 
Argeus, grandson of Megapenthes, monarch of 
4rgos. He shared the sovereign power -with 
Bias and Melampus, who had cured the Argive 
women of madness. — 3. An Athenian orator, 
pupil of Isocrates.] 

Anaxander ('Avu^avSpoc), king of Sparta, son 
of Eurycrates, fought in the second Messenian 
war, about B.C. 668. 

Anaxandrides ( 'Ava!; avSpidric). 1. Son of 
Theopompus, king of Sparta. — 2. King of Spar- 
ta, son of Leon, reigned from about B.C. 560 to 
520. Having a barren wife whom he would not 
divorce, the ephors made him take with her a 
second. By her he had Cleomenes ; and after 
this by his first wife, Dorieus, Leonidas, and 
Cleombrotus. — 3. An Athenian comic poet of 
the middle comedy, a native of Camirus in 
Rhodes, began to exhibit comedies in B.C. 376. 
Aristotle held him in high esteem. [The frag- 
ments of his plays are collected in Meineke's 
Fragnxenta Comicormn Grose, vol. i., p. 574-594, 
edit, minor.] 

Anaxarchus ('Avuijapxoc), a philosopher of 
Abdera, of the school of Democritus, accom- 
panied Alexander into Asia (B.C. 384), and 
gained his favor by flattery and wit. After the 
death of Alexander (323), Anaxarchus was 
thrown by shipwreck into the power of Mco- 
creon, king of Cyprus, to whom he had given 
mortal offence, and who had him pounded to 
death in a stone mortar. 

Anaxarete (' Ava^aperrj), a maiden of Cyprus, 
remained unmoved by the love of Iphis, who 
at last, in despair, hung himself at her door. She 
looked with indifference at the funeral of the 
youth, but Venus changed her into a stone 
statue. 

Anaxibia ('Ava^i6ca), daughter of Plisthenes, 
sister of Agamemnon, wife of Strophius, and 
mother of Pylades. — [2. Daughter of Bias, wife 
of Pelias of Iolcos, and mother of Acastus, Pi- 
sidice, Hippothoe, and Alcestis.] 

Anaxibius ('Ava&Ctog), the Spartan admiral 
stationed at Byzantium on the return of the 
Cyrean Greeks from Asia, B.C. 400. In 389 he 
succeeded Dercyllidas in the command in the 
iEgean, but fell in battle against Iphierates, 
near Antandrus, in 388. 

Anaxidamus ('AvafrtSa/ioc), king of Sparta, 
son of Zeuxidamus, lived to the conclusion of the 
second Messenian war, B.C 668. 

Anaxilaus ('Ava&Xaog), or Anaxilas ('Ava£i- 
?.ac. i. Tyrant of Rhegium, of Messenian ori- 
gin, took possession of Zancle in Sicily about 
B.C. 494, peopled it with fresh inhabitants, and 
changed its name into Messene. He died in 
476. — 2. Of Byzantium, surrendered Byzantium 
to the Athenians in B.C. 408. — 3. An Athenian 
comic poet of the middle comedy, contemporary 
with Plato and Demosthenes. We have a few 
fragments, and the titles of nineteen of his com- 
edies. [His fragments are collected bv Meineke 
58 



1 in his Fragmcnta Comicorum Grcec, vol. iL, p. 

I 667-675, edit, minor.] — 4. A physician and 
Pythagorean philosopher, born at Larissa, was 
banished by Augustus from Italy, B.C. 28, on the 
charge of magic. 

Anaxhiander ('Ava^i/iavdpoc), of Miletus, was 
born B.C. 610 and died 547, in his sixty-fourth 
year. He was one of the earliest philosophers i 
of the Ionian school, and the immediate success- t 
or of Thales, its first founder. He first used the 
word apxq to denote the origin of things, or 
rather the material out of which they were 
formed : he held that this apxj was the infinite 
(to uircipov), everlasting, and divine, though not 
attributing to it a spiritual or intelligent na- 
ture ; and that it was the substance into which 
all things were resolved on their dissolution. 
He was a careful observer of nature, and was 
distinguished by his astronomical, mathemat- 
ical, and geographical knowledge: he is said 
to have introduced the use of the gnomon into 
Greece. 

Anaximenes ('Ava^tfievrjc). 1. Of Miletus, 
the third in the series of Ionian philosophers, i 
flourished about B.C. 544 ; but as he was the 
teacher of Anaxagoras B.C. 480, he must have 
lived to a great age. He considered air to he 
the first cause of all things, the primary form, 
as it were, of matter, into which the other ele- 
ments of the universe were resolvable. — 2. Of 
Lampsacus, accompanied Alexander the Great 
to Asia (B.C. 334), and wrote a history of Philip 
of Macedonia ; a history of Alexander the 
Great ; and a history of Greece, in twelve books, 
from the earliest mythical age down to the 
death of Epaminondas. He also enjoyed great 
reputation as a rhetorician, and is the author of a 
scientific treatise on rhetoric, the 'PijTopiKf/ irpbc 
'Ali^avSpov, usually printed among the works of 
Aristotle. He was an enemy of Theophrastus, 
and published under the name of the latter a 
work calumniating Sparta, Athens, and Thebes, 
which produced great exasperation against 
Theophrastus. [The Ars Bhelorica, edited by 
L. Spengel, Turici, 1844 ; the fragments of 
the history of Alexander, by Geier, in his " Scrip- 
tores Historiarwn Alcxandri M. (state suppares," 
Lips., 1844.] 

[Anaxippus ('AvuSjnnroc). 1. A general of 
Alexander the Great. — 2. A comic poet of the 
new comedy, who flourished about B.C. 303. The 
titles of four of his plays have come down to 
us : his fragments are collected by Meineke, 
Fragm. Comic Grcec, voL ii., p. 1112-1116, edit, 
minor., who adds a fragment from Athenaeus, 
attributed to Anthippus in the ordinary text, 
but supposed to be an error for Anaxippus.] 

Anazarbus or -a ('Ava^ap66c or -d : 'Ava&p- 
6evc, Anazarbenus : ruins at Anasarba or Na- 
versa), a considerable city of Cilicia Campestris. 
on the left bank of the River Pyramus, at the 
foot of a mountain of the same name. Augus- 
tus conferred upon it the naine of Ctesarea (ad 
Anazarbum) ; and, on the division of Cilicia 
into the two provinces of Prima and Secunda, it 
was made the capital of the latter. It was al- 
most destroyed by earthquakes in the reigns of 
Justinian and Justin. [It was the birth-place of 
Dioscorides and Oppian.] 

Anoeus (' Aynaioc). 1. Son of the Arcadian 
Lycurgus and Cleophile or Euryuome, and fa- 



ANCALITES. 



ANCYRA. 



ILer of Agapenor. He was one of the Argo- 
nauts, and took part in the Calydonian hunt, in 
which he was killed by the boar. — 2. Son of 
Neptune (Poseidon) and Astypalaea or Alta, king 
of the Leleges in Samos, husband of Samia, 
and father of Perilaus, Enodos, Samos, Alither- 
ees, and Parthenope. He seems to have been 
confounded by some mythographers with An- 
eaeus, the son of Lyeurgus. The son of Nep- 
tune (Poseidon) is also represented as one of the 
Argonauts, and is said to have become the 
helmsman of the ship Argo after the death of 
Tiphys. A well-known proverb is said to have 
originated with this Ancaeus. He had been told 
by a seer that he would not live to taste the wine 
of his vineyard ; and when he was afterward on 
the point of drinking a cup of wine, the growth 
of his own vineyard, he laughed at the seer, 
who, however, answered, no%XiL fiera^v , ireXei 
icv?uicoc nal ^et/leoc uiipov, "There is many a 
slip between the cup and the hp." At the same 
instant Ancffius was informed that a wild boar 
was near. He put down his cup, went out 
against the animal, and was killed by it. 

Ancalites, a people of Britain, probably a 
part of the Atrebates. 

Ancharius, Q., tribune of the plebs, B.C. 59, 
took an active part in opposing the agrarian law 
of Ccesar. Pie was praetor in 56, and succeeded 
L. Piso in the province of Macedonia. 

[Anchemalus, son of Rhcetus, king of the 
Marrubii in Italy, was expelled by his father for 
criminal conduct toward his step-mother, fled 
to Turnus, and was slain by Pallas, son of 
Evander, in the war with JEneas.] 

Anchesmus (Ayxeajuoc), a hill not far from 
Athens, with a temple of J upiter (Zeus), who was 
hence called Anchesmius. 

Anchiale and -lus (' Ayxid^n)- 1. (Now 
AJciali), a town in Thrace on the Black Sea, on 
the borders of Moesia. — 2. Also Anchialos, an 
ancient city of Cilicia, west of the Cydnus near 
the coast, said to have been built by Sardana- 
palus. 

[Anchialus (' Ayx'taloc). 1. King of the Taphi- 
ans, father of Mentes, united in guest-friendship 
with Ulysses. — 2. A Greek, slain by Hector be- 
fore Troy. — 3. A Phasacian. All these are men- 
tioned in Homer.] 

Anchises ('Ayx'io-ric), son of Capys and The- 
mis, the daughter of Bus, king of Dardanus on 
Mount Ida. In beauty he equalled the immor- 
tal gods, and was beloved by Venus (Aphrodite), 
by whom he became the father of iEneas, who 
is hence called Anchisiades. The goddess warn- 
ed him never to betray the real mother of the 
child ; but as on one occasion he boasted of his 
intercourse with the goddess, he was struck by 
a flash of lightning, which, according to some 
traditions, killed, but according to others, only 
blinded or lamed him. Virgil, in his iEneid, 
makes Anchises survive the capture of Troy, 
and jEneas carries his father on his shoulders 
from the burning city. He further relates that 
Anchises died soon after the first arrival of 
.iEneas in Sicily, and was buried on Mount Eryx. 
This tradition seems to have been believed in 
Sicily, for Anchises had a sanctuary at Egesta, 
and the funeral games celebrated in Sicily in his 
honor continued down to a late period. 

Anchisia ('Ayx'-cia), a mountain in Arcadia, 



northwest of Mantinea, where Anchises is said to 
have been buried, according to one tradition. 

[Anchueus ("Ayxovpoc), son of Midas, king of 
Phrygia. A large chasm having opened near 
Celaense, Anchurus threw himself into it, as 
an oracle had said that it would not close un- 
til he had thrcwn what he regarded as most 
precious into it. On this the chasm closed im- 
mediately.] 

AffCON (AevicoGvpuv 'Ayn6v), a harbor and 
town at the mouth of the River Iris (now Ycshil 
ermak) in Pontus. 

Ancona or Ancon ('Ayicuv : Anconitanus : 
now Ancona), a town in Picenum on the Adri- 
atic Sea, lying in a bend of the coast between 
two promontories, and hence called Ancon or an 
" elbow." It was built by the Syracusans, who 
settled there about B.C. .392, discontented with 
the rule of the elder Dionysius ; and under the 
Romans, who made it a colony, it became one 
of the most important sea-ports of the Adri- 
atic. It possessed an excellent harbor, com- 
pleted by Trajan, and it carried on an active 
trade with the opposite coast of Illyrieum. The 
town was celebrated for its temple of Venus and 
its purple dye : the surrounding country pro 
duced good wine and wheat. 

Ancoearius Mons, a mountain in Mauretania 
Cffisariensis, south of Cassarea, abounding in cit- 
ron trees, the wood of which was used by the 
Romans for furniture. 

Ancoke. Vid. Nioea. 

Ancus Marcius, fourth king of Rome, reign- 
ed twenty-four years, B.C. 640-616, and is said 
to have been the son of Numa's daughter. He 
conquered the Latins, took many Latin towns, 
transported the inhabitants to Rome, and gave 
them the Aventine to dwell on : these conquer- 
ed Latins formed the original Plebs. He also 
founded a colony at Ostia, at the mouth of the 
Tiber ; built a fortress on the Janiculum as a 
protection against Etruria, and united it with 
the city by a bridge across the Tiber ; dug the 
ditch of the Quirites, which was a defence for 
the open ground between the Caelian and the 
Palatine ; and built a prison. He was succeeded 
by Tarquinius Priscus. 

Ancyea ("Ayicvpa : ' Aynvpavoc, Ancyranus). 
1. (Now Angora), a city of Galatia in Asia Minor, 
in 39° 56' north latitude. In the time of Au- 
gustus, when Galatia became a Roman province, 
Ancyra was the capital : it was originally the 
chief city of a Gallic tribe named the Tectosa- 
ges, who came from the south of Erance. Un- 
der the Roman empire it had the name of Se- 
baste, which in Greek is equivalent to Augusta 
in Latin. When Augustus recorded the chief 
events of his life on bronze tablets at Rome, 
the citizens of Ancyra had a copy made, which 
was cut on marble blocks and placed at Ancyra 
in a temple dedicated to Augustus and Rome. 
This inscription is called the Monumcntum An- 
cyranum. The Latin inscription was first copied 
by Tournefort in 1701, and it has been copied 
several times since. One of the latest copies 
has been made by Mr. Hamilton, who also copied 
as much of the Greek inscription as is legible. 
[Near this place Bajazet was defeated and made 
prisoner by Timur, or, as he is commonly called, 
Tamerlane.] — 2. A town in Phrygia Epictetus. 
on the borders of Mysia. 

59 



ANDANIA. 



ANDROGEOS. 



Andania ('Avdavia : 'AvSavievc, 'AvStlvioc : 
[now Andorossa, and the ruins near CranoJ), a 
town in Messenia, between Megalopolis and 
Messene, the capital of the kings of the race of 
the Leleges, abandoned by its inhabitants in the 
second Messenian war, and from that time only a 
village. 

Andeoavi, Andegavi, or Andes, a Gallic peo- 
ple north of the Loire, with a town of the same 
name, also called Juliomagus, now Angers. 

Andematunnttm. Vid. Lingones. 

Andeea (ra "AvSsipa : 'Avdsipr/voc), a city of 
Mysia, celebrated for its temple of Cybele, sur- 
named ' Av&eiprjVT). 

Andeeitum (now Anterieux), a town of the 
Gabali in Aquitania. 

Andes. 1. Vid. Andeoavi. — 2. Now Pie- 
tola), a village near Mantua, the birth-place of 
Virgil. 

Andoctdes {^AvSoKidrjc), one of the ten Attic 
orators; son of Leogoras, was born at Athens 
in B.C. 46V. He belonged to a noble family, 
and was a supporter of the oligarchical party at 
Athens. In 436 he was one of the commanders 
of the fleet sent by the Athenians to the assist- 
ance of the Corcyrean's against the Corinthians. 
In 415 he became involved in the charge brought 
against Alcibiades for having profaned the mys- 
teries and mutilated the Hermse, and was thrown 
into prison; but he recovered his liberty by 
promising to reveal the names of the real per- 
petrators of the crime. He is said to have de- 
nounced his own father among others, but to 
have rescued him again in the hour of danger. 
But as Andocides was unable to clear himself 
entirely, he was deprived of his rights as a citi- 
zen, and left Athens. He returned to Athens 
on the establishment of the government of the 
Four Hundred in 411, but was soon obliged to 
fly again. In the following year he ventured 
once more to return to Athens, and it was at 
this time that he delivered the speech, still ex- 
tant, On his Return, in which he petitioned for 
permission to reside at Athens, but in vain. ' He 
was thus driven into exile a third time, and 
went to reside at Elis. In 403 he again return- 
ed to Athens upon the overthrow of the tyran- 
ny of the Thirty by Thrasybulus, and the proc- 
lamation of the general amnesty. He was now 
allowed to remain quietly at Athens for the 
next three years, but in 400 his enemies ac- 
cused him of having profaned the mysteries : 
he defended himself in the oration still extant, 
On the Mysteries, and was acquitted. In 394 
he was sent as ambassador to Sparta to con- 
clude a peace, and on his return in 393 he was 
accused of illegal conduct during his embassy 
(■Kapa-KpeoCiriac) ■ he defended himself in the ex- 
tant speech On the Peace with Lacedcemon, but 
was found guilty, and sent into exile for the 
fourth time. He seems to have died soon aft- 
erward in exile. Besides the three orations al- 
ready mentioned, there is a fourth against Alci- 
biades, said to have been delivered in 415, but 
which is in all probability spurious — Editions : 
In the collections of the Greek orators ; also, 
separately by Baiter and Sauppe, Zurich, 1838. 

Andr^emon ('Avdpai/J.uv). 1. Husband of 
Gorge, daughter of CEueus, king of Calydon, in 
^Etolia, whom he succeeded, and father of Thoas, 
who is hence called Andramwnides'. — 2. Sou of 
60 



Oxylus, and husband of Dryope, who was moth- 
er of Amphissus by Apollo 

[Andeiaca ('Avdpia/tjj : now Andraki), port of 
Myra in Lyeia.] 

Andriscus ('AvdptGKoc), a man of low origin, 
who pretended to be a natural son of Perseus, 
king of Macedonia, was seized by Demetrius, 
king of Syria, and sent to Rome. He escaped 
from Rome, assumed the name of Philip, and 
obtained possession of Macedonia, B.C. 149. He 
defeated the praetor Juventius, but was conquer- 
ed by Caecilius Metellus, and taken to Rome to 
adorn the triumph of the latter, 148. 

Andeocles ('AvSpoK^Tjc), an Athenian dema- 
gogue and orator. He was an enemy of Alci- 
biades ; and it was chiefly owing to his exertions 
that Alcibiades was banished. After this event, 
Androcles was for a time at the head of the 
democratical party ; but in B.C. 41 1 he was put 
to death by the oligarchical government of the 
Four Hundred. 

[Andeoclides ^Av5poK.7iei5ric), a Theban offi- 
cer, one of those who received money from the 
Persians to induce the Thebans to make war on 
Sparta, so as to bring about the recall of Agesi- 
laus from Asia.] 

Andeoolds [(" 'AvdponXoc). 1. Son of Codrus. 
leader of a colony of Ionians to Asia Minor, and 
founder of Ephesus.] — 2. The slave of a Roman 
consular, was sentenced to be exposed to the 
wild beasts in the circus ; but a lion which was 
let loose upon him, instead of springing upon 
his victim, exhibited signs of recognition, and 
began licking him. Upon inquiry, it appeared 
that Androclus had been compelled by the se- 
verity of his master, while in Africa, to run 
away from him. Having one day taken refuge 
in a cave from the heat of the sun, a lion enter- 
ed, apparently in great pain, and, seeing him, 
went up to him and held out his paw. Andro- 
clus found that a large thorn had pierced it, 
which he drew out, and the lion was soon able 
to use his paw again. They lived together for 
some time in the cave, the lion catering for his 
benefactor. But at last, tired of this savage 
life, Androclus left the cave, was apprehended 
by some soldiers, brought to Rome, and con- 
demned to the wild beasts. He was pardoned, 
and presented with the lion, which he used to 
lead about the city, 

[Andeoceates ('Av6p0K.pa.-7ic), an ancient hero 
of the Platseans, who had a temple consecrated 
to him at Platseas.] 

Androgens ('Avdpoyeojc), son of Minos and 
Pasiphae, or Crete, conquered all his opponents 
in the games of the Panathenam at Athens. 
This extraordinary good luck, however, became 
the cause of his destruction, though the mode 
of his death is related differently. According 
to some accounts, ^Egeus sent the man he dread- 
ed to fight against the Marathoniau bull, who 
killed hun ; according to others, he was assas- 
sinated by his defeated rivals on his road to 
Thebes, whither he was going to take part in a 
solemn contest. A third account related that 
he was assassinated by iEgeus himself. Minos 
made war on the Athenians in consequence of 
the death of his son, and imposed upon them 
the shameful tribute, from which they were de- 
livered by Theseus. He was worshipped in 
Attica as a hero, and games were celebrated in 



ANDROMACHE. 



ANDROSTHENES. 



tiis honor every year in the Ceramicus. Vid. 
Diet, of Ant., art. Androgeonia. 

Andromache ('Av6po/j.dxv), daughter of Eetion, 
king of the Oilician Thebe, and one of the no- 
blest and most amiable female characters in the 
Iliad. Her father and her seven brothel's were 
slain by Achilles at the taking of Thebe, and 
her mother, -who had purchased her freedom by 
a large ransom, was killed by Diana (Artemis). 
She was married to Hector, by whom she had 
a son, Scamandrius (Astyanax), and for whom 
she entertained the most tender love. On the 
taking of Troy her son was hurled from the 
wall of the city, and she herself fell to the share 
of Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus), the son of Achilles, 
who took her to Epirus, and to whom she bore 
three sons, Molossus, Pielus, and Pergamus. 
She afterward married Helenus, a brother of 
Hector, who ruled over Chaonia, a part of Epi- 
rus, and to whom she bore Cestrinus. After the 
leath of Helenus, she followed her son Perga- 
mus to Asia, where a heroum was erected to her. 

Andromachus ('Avtipofiaxoc). 1. Ruler of 
Tauromenium in Sicily about B.C. 344, and fa- 
ther of the historian Timajus. — 2. Of Crete, 
physician to the Emperor Nero, A.D. 54-68 ; 
was the first person on whom the title of Arehi- 
ater was conferred, and was celebrated as the 
inventor of a famous compound medicine and 
antidote called Thcriaca Andromachi, which re- 
tains its place in some foreign Pharmacopoeias 
to the present day. Andromachus has left the 
directions for making this mixture in a Greek 
elegiac poem, consisting of one hundred and 
seventy-four lines, edited by Tidicseus, Tiguri, 
1607, and Leinker, Norimb., 1754. — [3. Son of 
the former, commonly called the Younger, held 
the same office, that of physician to Nero, after 
his father's death. He is generally supposed to 
have been the author of a work on pharmacy in 
three books, of which only a few fragments re- 
main.] 

Andromeda ('AvSpo/j-sSn), daughter of the 
^Ethiopian king Cepheus and Cassiopea. Her 
mother boasted that the beauty of her daughter 
surpassed that of the Nereids, who prevailed 
ou Neptune (Poseidon) to visit the country by 
an inundation and a sea-monster. The oracle 
of Ammon promised deliverance if Andromeda 
was given up to the monster; and Cepheus, 
obliged to yield to the wishes of his people, 
chained Andromeda to a rock. Here she was 
found and saved by Perseus, who slew the mon- 
ster and obtained her as his wife. Andromeda 
had previously been promised to Phiueus, and 
this gave rise to the famous fight of Phineus 
and Perseus at the weddiug, in which the for- 
mer and all his associates were slain. (Ov., 
Met., v., 1, seq.) After her death, she was 
placed among the stars. 

[Andron ("Avdpuv), of Halicarnassus, a Greek 
historian, who wrote a work entitled Syyyevcuai, 
of which he himself made an epitome. Miiller 
assigns to this Andron a work, irepl d-vmuv, 
which some ascribe to the following. His frag- 
ments are collected by Miiller, Fragm. Hist. 
Grwc, vol. ii., p. 349-352. — 2. Of Teos, author 
of a Periplus, perhaps the same with the Teian 
Andron, son of Cebaleus, whom Arrian men- 
tions as a companion of Alexander the Great, 
and one of the leaders of the Indian exploration. 



His fragments are given by Miiller, 1. c., p. 
348-9. — Two other historians of this name are 
mentioned, one of Alexandrea, author of a 
Chronica, a fragment of which is given by 
Miiller, p. 352 ; the other of Ephesus, author 
of a work entitled Tripus : fragments of it are 
given in Miiller, p. 347-8. — 3. An Athenian, son 
of Androtion, and father of the orator Androtion.] 

Andronicus ('AvSpoviKoc). 1. Cyrrhestes, 
so called from his native place, Cyrrha, proba- 
bly lived about B.C. 100, and built the octagonal 
tower at Athens, vulgarly called " the Tower 
of the Winds." Vid. Diet, of Ant, p. 616, 2d 
ed., where a drawing of the building is given. 
— 2. Lrvius Andronious, the earliest Roman 
poet, was a Greek, probably a native of Taren- 
tum, and the slave of M. Livius Salinator, by 
whom he was manumitted, and from whom he 
received the Roman name Livius. He obtain- 
ed at Rome a perfect knowledge of the Latin 
language. He wrote both tragedies and come- 
dies in Latin, and we still possess the titles and 
fragments of at least fourteen of his dramas, all 
of which were borrowed from the Greek : his 
first drama was acted in B.C. 240. He also 
wrote an Odyssey in the Saturniau verse and 
Hymns. ( Vid. Duntzer, Livii Andronici Frag- 
menta Collecta, &c., Berl., 1835). — 3. Of Rhodes. 
a Perirjatetic philosopher at Rome, about B.C. 
58. He published a new edition of the works 
of Aristotle and Theophrastus, which formerly 
belonged to the library of Apellicon, and which 
were brought to Rome by Sulla with (he rest 
of Apellicon's library in B.C. 84. Tyranuio 
commenced this task, but apparently did not do 
much toward it. The arrangement which An- 
dronicus made of Aristotle's writings seems to 
be the one which forms the basis of our present 
editions. He wrote many commentaries upon 
the works of Aristotle ; but none of these is ex- 
tant, for the paraphrase of the Nicomachean 
Ethics, which is ascribed to Andronicus of 
Rhodes, was written by some one else, and 
may have been the work of Andronicus Callistus 
of Thessalonica, who was professor in Italy in 
the latter half of the fifteenth century. 

Andropolis ('AvSptiv ttoXic: now Chabur), a 
city of Lower Egypt, on the western bank of 
the Canopic branch of the Nile, was the capital 
of the Nomos Andropolites, and, under the Ro- 
mans, the station of a legion. 

Andros ("Avdpoc : "Avfipwc : now Andro), the 
most northerly and one of the largest islands of 
the Cyclades, southeast of Eubcea, twenty-one 
miles long and eight broad, early attained import- 
ance, and colonized Acanthus and Staglra about 
B.C. 654. It was taken by the Persians in their 
invasion of Greece, was afterward subject to the 
Athenians, at a later time to the Macedonians, 
and at length to Attalus III, king of Pergamus, 
on whose death (B.C. 133) it passed, with the 
rest of his dominions, to the Romans. It was 
celebrated for its wine, whence the whole isl 
and was regarded as sacred to Bacchus (Diony- 
sus). Its chief town, also called Andros, con- 
tained a celebrated temple of Bacchus (Diony- 
sus), and a harbor of the name of Gaureleon, 
and a Fort Gaurion. 

[Androsthenes ('AvSpoofievnc). of Thasus, 
one of Alexander's admirals, sailed with Near- 
chus, and was also sent by Alexander to ex 
61 



ANDROTION. 



ANNALIS. 



plore the coast of the Persian Gulf. He wrote ! 
au account of his voyage, and also a T^f 'lvdi- \ 
ki/c naoaTrAouf.] 

Androtion ('AvSporiuv). 1. Au Athenian 
orator, and a contemporary of Demosthenes, 
against -whom the latter delivered an oration, 
which is still extant. — 2. The author of an At- 
this, or a work on the history of Attica. [Frag- 
ments published by Siebelis with Philochorus, 
Lips., 1811, and by Miiller in his Fragm. Hist. 
Grcec, vol. i., p. 371-377.] 

Anemorea, afterward Anemolea ('Avefiupsia, 
'kvcfiulua; 'Aveficopuvg), a town on a hill on 
the borders of Phoeis and Delphi. 

Anemurium ('Avefj.ovpi.ov : now Anamur, with 
ruins), a town and promontory at the southern 
point of Cilicia, opposite to Cyprus. 

[Angelion ('A-yye/tiuv), an artist always men- 
tioned in connection with Tectseus : they were 
pupils of Dipoenus and Scyllis, and flourished 
about 548 B.C.] 

Angerona or Angeronia, a Roman goddess, 
respecting whom we have different statements, 
some representing her as the goddess of silence, 
others as the goddess of anguish and fear ; that 
is, the goddess who not only produces this state 
of mind, but also relieves men from it. Her 
statue stood in the temple of Volupia, with her 
mouth bound and sealed up. Her festival, An- 
geronalia, was celebrated yearly on the twelfth 
of December. 

Angiies ('A-yyirric : now Anghista), a river 
in Macedonia, flowing into the Strymon. 

AngMa or AnguMa, a goddess worshipped 
by the Marsians and Marrubiaus, who lived 
about the shores of the Lake Fucinus. 

Angli or Angi.ii, a German people of the 
race of the Suevi, on the left bank of the Elbe, 
afterward passed over with the Saxons into 
Britain, which was called after them England. 
Vid. Saxones. A portion of them appear to 
have settled in Angeln in Schleswig. 

Axgrivarii, a German people dwelling on 
both sides of the Visurgis (now Weser), separa- 
ted from the Cherusei by au agger or mound of 
earth. The name is usually derived from An- 
c/cm, that is, meadows. They were generally 
on friendly terms with the Romans, but rebelled 
in A.D. 16, and were subdued. Toward the end 
of the first century they extended then' tei-ri- 
tories southward, and, in conjunction with the 
Chamavi, took possession of part of the terri- 
tory of the Bructeri, south and east of the Lippe, 
the Angaria or Engern of the Middle Ages. 

Anicetus [CAvLKriTog). 1. Son of Hercules, 
by Hebe, after his admission to the abode of the 
gods.] — 2. A freedman of Nero, and formerly 
his tutor, was employed by the emperor in the 
execution of many of his crimes : he was after- 
ward banished to Sardinia, where he died. 

Anicius Gallus. Vid. Gallus. 

[Anictus, C, a senator and Mend of Cicero, 
whose villa was near the latter's ; mentioned 
in the letters of Cicero.] 

Anigrus ("Aviypog : now Mavro-Potamo), a 
small river in the Triphylian Elis, the Minyeius 
(MtW!?i'Of) of Homer (II., xi., 721), rises in Mount 
Lapithas, and flows into the loniau Sea near 
Samicum : its waters have a disagreeable smell, 
and its fish are not eatable. Near Samieum 
was a cave sacred to the Nymp^ <i Anigrides < 
62 



! (' AvLypiSeg or 'Aviypiddeg), where persons with 
i cutaneous diseases were cured by the waters 
of the river. 

Anio, anciently Anien (hence, gen., Anienis : ' 
now Teverone or LAniene), a river, the most 
celebrated of the tributaries of the Tiber, rises 
in the mountains of the Hernici, near Treba 
(now Trevi), flows first northwest and then I 
southwest through narrow mountain-valleys, re- I 
eeives the brook Digentia (now Licenza), above 
Tibur, forms at Tibur beautiful waterfalls (hence 
prceceps Anio, Hor., Oarm, i., 7, 13), and flows, 
forming the boundary between Latium and the 
land of the Sabines, into the Tiber, three miles 
above Rome, where the town of AntemnK stood. 
The water of the Anio was conveyed to Rome 
by two aqueducts, the Anio vetus and Anio no- 
vus. Vid. Diet, of Ant, p. 110, 111, 2d ed. 

[Anitorgis or Anistorgis, a city of Hispania 
Bsetiea, near which a battle was fought between 
Hasdrubal and the Scipios.] 

Anius ("Avtoc), son of Apollo by Creiisa, or i 
Rhceo, and priest of Apollo at Delos. By Do- 1 
rippe he had three daughters, Giuo, Spermo, | 
and Elais, to whom Bacchus (Dionysus) gave 
the power of producing at will any quantity of 
wine, corn, and oil, whence they were called 
(Enotrdjoce. When the Greeks, on their expedi- 
tion to Troy, landed in Delos, Anius endeavored 
to persuade them to stay with him for nine 
years, as it was decreed by fate that they should 
not take Troy until the tenth year; and he 
promised, with the help of his three daughters, I 
to supply them with all they wanted during that 
period. After the fall of Troy, ./Eneas was 
kindly received by Anius. 

Anna, daugter of Belus and sister of Dido. 
After the death of the latter, she fled from 
Carthage to Italy, where she was kindly re- j 
ceived by ./Eneas. Here she excited the jeal- 
ousy of Lavinia, and being warned in a dream 
by Dido, she fled and threw herself into the 
River Numicius. Henceforth she was wor- 
shipped as the nymph of that river, under the 
name of Anna Perenna. There are various j 
other stories respecting the origin of her wor- 
ship. Ovid relates that she was considered by 
some as Luna, by others as Themis, by others 
as Io, daughter of Inachus, by others as the 
Anna of Bovillre, who supplied the plebs with 
food, when they seceded to the Mons Sacer. 
(Ov., Fast, hi., 523.) Her festival was cele- 
brated on the 15th of March. She was, in reali- 
ty, an old Italian divinity, who was regarded as 
the giver of life, health, and plenty, as the god- 
dess whose powers were most manifest at the 
return of spring, when her festival was cele- 
brated. The identification of this goddess with 
Anna, the sister of Dido, is undoubtedly of late 
origin. 

Anna Cqmnena, daughter of Alexis I. Com- 
nenus (reigued A.D. 1081-1118), wrote the life 
of her father Alexis in fifteen books, which is 
one of the most interesting and valuable his- 
tories of the Byzantine literature. Editions : 
By Possinus, Paris, 1651 ; by Schopen, Bonn, 
1839, Svo. 

Annalis, a cognomen of the Villia Gens, first 
acquired by L. Villius, tribune of the plebs, in 
B.C. 179, because he introduced a law fixing 
i the year (annus) at which it was lawful for a 



I 



ANNEIUS. 



ANTEVORTA. 



person to be a candidate for each of the public 
offices. 

Anneius, M., legate of M. Cicero during his 
government of Cilicia, B.C. 51. 

[Annia, "wife of L. Ciuna, and, after his 
death, of M. Piso Calpurnianus.] 

Annianus, T., a Roman poet, lived in the time 
of Trajan and Hadrian, and wrote Fescenuine 
verses. 

Anniceris ('AvvUeptg), a Cyrenaic philoso- 
pher, of whom the ancients have left us contra- 
dictory accounts. Many modern -writers have 
supposed that there were two philosophers of 
this name, the one contemporary with Plato, 
whom he is said to have ransomed for twenty 
minffl from Dionysius of Syracuse, and the other 
with Alexander the Great. 

Annius Cimber. Vid. Cimber. 

Annius Milo. Vid. Milo. 

Anser, a poet of the Augustan age, a friend 
of the triumvir Marcus Antonius, and one of the 
detractors of Virgil. Hence Virgil plays upon 
his name (Ml, be., 36). Ovid (Trist, ii., 435) 
calls him procax. 

Ansibarii or Ampsivarii, a German people, 
originally dwelt south of the Bructeri, between 
the sources of the Ems and the Weser : driven 
out of their country by the Chauci in the reign 
of Nero (A.D. 59), they asked the Romans for 
permission to settle in the Roman territory be- 
tween the Rhine and the Yssel, but when their 
request was refused they wandered into the in- 
terior of the country to the Cherusci, and were 
at length extirpated, according to Tacitus. We 
find their name, however, among the Franks in 
the time of Julian. 

Ant^eopolis (' AvraioTToTiig : near Ganrd-Ke- 
bir), an ancient city of Upper Egypt (the The- 
bais), on the east side of the Nile, but at some 
distance from the river, was the capital of the 
Nomos Antaeopolites, and one of the chief seats 
of the worship of Osiris. 

Antaeus ('Avralog). 1. Son of Neptune (Po- 
seidon) and Ge, a mighty giant and wrestler in 
Libya, whose strength was invincible so long 
as he remained in contact with his mother 
earth. The strangers who came to his country 
were compelled to wrestle with him ; the con- 
quered were slain, and out of their skulls he 
built a house to Neptune (Poseidon). Hercules 
discovered the source of his strength, lifted him 
from the earth, and crushed him in the air. 
The tomb of Antseus (Anted collis), which form- 
ed a moderate hill in the shape of a man stretch- 
ed out at full length, was shown near the town 
of Tingis in Mauretania down to a late period. 
— 2. [A companion of Turnus, slain by JSneas.] 

Antagoras ('Avrayopac), of Rhodes, flourish- 
ed about B.C. 2*7 0, a friend of Antigonus Gona- 
tas and a contemporary of Aratus. He wrote 
an epic poem entitled Thebais, and also epi- 
grams, of which specimens are still extant [in 
the Greek Anthology.] 

Antalcidas (AvraAiddac;), a Spartan, son of 
Leon, is chiefly known by the celebrated treaty 
concluded with Persia in B.C. 38*7 , usually called 
the peace of Antalcidas, since it was the fruit 
of his diplomacy. According to this treaty, all 
the Greek cities in Asia Minor, together with 
Clazomenae and Cyprus, were to belong to the 
Pursian king- the Athenians were allowed to 



retain only Lemnos, Imbros, and Seyros ; and 
all the other Greek cities were to be inde- 
pendent. 

Antander (Avravdpog). 1. Brother of Agath- 
ocles, king of Syracuse, wrote the life of his 
brother. [A fragment, preserved by Diodorus, is 
given by Muller, Frag. Hist. Grcec, vol. ii., p. 
383. — 2. General of the Messenians, and com- 
mander of cavalry in the first Messenian war 
against the Lacedaemonians.] 

Antandrus ("Avravdpog : ' Avrav6piog : now 
Antandro), a city of Great Mysia, on the Adra- 
myttian Gulf, at the foot of Mount Ida ; an 
vEolian colony. Virgil represents ^Eneas as 
touching here after leaving Troy (^En., iii., 106). 

Antaradus (' AvT&pa&oc; : now Tortosa), a 
town on the northern border of Phoenicia, op- 
posite the island of Aradus. 

Antea or Antia ("Avreca), daughter of the 
Lycian king Iobates, wife of Proetus of Argos. 
She is also called Sthenobcea. Respecting her 
love for Bellerophontes, see Bellerophontes. 

[Anteius, P., appointed governor of Syria 55 
A.D. On account of the favor in which he stood 
with Agrippina, he was an object of hatred to 
Nero: being accused of a conspiracy, he took 
poison, but, finding this too slow, he opened his 
veins.] 

Antem>le (Antemnas, -atis), an ancient Sa- 
bine town at the junction of the Anio and the 
Tiber, destroyed by the Romans in the earliest 
times. 

Antenor ('AvTrjvup). 1. A Trojan, son of 
iEsyetes and Cleomestra, and husband of The- 
ano. According to Homer, he was one of the 
wisest among the elders at Troy : he received 
Menelaus and Ulysses into his house when they 
came to Troy as ambassadors, and advised his 
fellow-citizens to restore Helen to Menelaus. 
Thus he is represented as a traitor to his coun- 
try, and when sent to Agamemnon, just before 
the taking of Troy, to negotiate peace, he con- 
certed a plan of delivering the city, and even 
the palladium, into the - hands of the Greeks. 
On the capture of Troy, Antenor was spared by 
the Greeks. His history after this event is re- 
lated differently. Some writers relate that he 
founded a new kingdom at Troy ; according to 
others, he embarked with Menelaus and Helen, 
was carried to Libya, and settled at Cyrene ; 
while a third account states that he went with 
the Heneti to Thrace, and thence to the west- 
ern coast of the Adriatic, where the foundation 
of Patavium and several other towns is ascribed 
to him. The sons and descendants of Antenor 
were called Antenortdce. — 2. Son of Euphranor, 
an Athenian sculptor, made the first bronze 
statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton, which 
the Athenians set up in the Ceramicus, B.C. 
509. These statues were carried off to Susa by 
Xerxes, and their place was supplied by others 
made either by Callias or by Praxiteles. After 
the conquest of Persia, Alexander the Great 
sent the statues back to Athens, where they 
were again set up in the Ceramicus. 

Anteros. Vid. Eros. 

Antevorta, also called Porrima or Prorsa, 
together with Postvorta, are described either 
as the two sisters or companions of the Roman 
goddess Carmenta; but originally they were 
only two attributes of the one goddess Car- 
63 



ANTHEA, 



ANTIGONUS. 



menta. the former describing her knowledge of 
the future, and the latter that of the past, anal- 
ogous to the two-headed Janus. 

[Anthea ("Avdeia), a city of Messenia, men- 
tioned by Homer (II., 9, 151) ; the later Thuria, 
5r, according to others, identical with Asine.~] 

Anthedon {^Avdyduv : 'Avdrjdoviog : now Lu- 
tein ?). 1. A town of Boeotia with a harbor, on the 
coast of the Euboean Sea, at the foot of Mount 
Messapius, said to have derived its name from 
a nymph Anthedon, or from Anthedon, son of 
Glaueus, who was here changed into a god. 
(Ov., Met, vii., 232 ; xiii., 905.) The inhabit- 
ants lived chiefly by fishing. — [2. A sea-port of 
Argolis on the Saronic Gulf, near the borders 
of Corinthia, called by Ptolemy 'Adjjvmav /iifiijv. 
— 3. A harbor in the southern part of Palestine, 
afterward called 'Aypimndc:.'] 

[Anthela (^AvdrjXjf), a village of Thessaly, be- 
tween the entrance of the Asopus into the Ma- 
liac Gulf and Thermopylae, containing a temple 
of Ceres : it was one of the places of meeting 
of the Amphictyonic council.] 

Anthemius, emperor of the West, A.D. 467— 
472, was killed on the capture of Eome by Ri- 
cimer, who made Olybrius emperor. 

Anthemus ('Avde/iovc -ovvtoq : 'Avde/iovoioif), 
a Macedonian town in Chalcidice. 

Anthemusia or Anthemus ('Avde/novc'ia), a 
city of Mesopotamia, southwest of Edessa, and 
a little east of the Euphrates. The surround- 
ing district was called by the same name, but 
was generally included under the name of Os- 
rhoene. 

Anthene ('AvdjjvTj), a place in Cynuria, in the 
Peloponnesus. 

[Antheemus, a statuary of Chios, father of 
Bupalus and Athenis : as the name is differently 
given in different MSS., Sillig has proposed Ar- 
chennus instead of Anthermus. 

[Antheus ('Avdeve), a Trojan, a companion 
of ^Eneas.] 

Anthylla ("AvdvX2,a), a considerable city of 
Lower Egypt, near the mouth of the Canopic 
branch of the Nile, below Naueratis, the reve- 
nues of which, under the Persians, were as- 
signed to the wife of the satrap of Egypt, to 
provide her with shoes. 

Antias, Q. Valerius, a Roman historian, 
flourished about B.C. 80, and wrote the history 
of Rome from the earliest times down to those 
of Sulla. He is frequently referred to by Livy, 
who speaks of him as the most lying of all the 
annalists, and seldom mentions his name with- 
out terms of reproach : there can be little doubt 
that Livy's judgment is correct. [The frag- 
ments of his work are collected by Krause in 
his Vitce et Fragm. veterum Hist. Rcmi., Berlin, 
1833, p. 271-88.] 

Anticlea ('AvTOcAem), daughter of Autolycus, 
wife of Laertes, and mother of Ulysses, died of 
grief at the long absence of her son. It is said 
that, before marrying Laertes, she lived on in- 
timate terms with Sisyphus ; whence Euripides 
oalls Ulysses a son of Sisyphus. 

Anticlides ('AvTiKXeidrft), of Athens, lived 
after the time of Alexander the Great, and was 
the author of several works, the most import- 
ant of which was entitled Mosti (Nogtoi), con- 
taining an account of the return of the Greeks 
from their mythical expeditions. 
64 



[Anticragus ('AvTUpayos : now Soumboiiriu), 
a lofty and steep mountain range ip Lycia, run- 
ning in a northeast direction along the coast 
of the Sinus Glaueus.] 

[Anticrates ('AvTuipdT7is), a Spartan, who 
claimed the merit of having dealt the blow that 
proved fatal to Epaminondas at Mantinea.] 

Anticyra, more aneiently Akticirrha, ('Av- 
TiKip'p'a or 'AvriKvpa : 'AvriKvpevc;, 'AvTinvpalog) 
1. (Now Aspra Spitia), a town in Phocis, with 
a harbor on a peninsula on the western side of 
the Sinus Anticyranus, a bay of the Crissseau 
Gulf, called in ancient times Cyparissus, and 
celebrated for its hellebore. It continued to be 
a place of importance under the Romans. — 2. 
A town in Thessaly, on the Spercheus, not far 
from its mouth. Both towns were celebrated 
for their he-llebore, the chief remedy in antiquity 
for madness ; hence the proverb, 'Avruufipag ae 
del, when a person acted senselessly, and iVa- 
viget Anticyram. (Hor., Sat, ii., 3, 166.) 

Antigenes ('AvTcyevys), a general of Alexan- 
der the Great, on whose death he obtained tha 
satrapy of Susiana, and espoused the side of 
Eumenes. On the defeat of the latter in B.C. 
316, Antigenes fell into the hands of his enemy 
Antigonus, and was burned alive by him. 

Antigenidas ('Avriyevidag), a Theban, a cele- 
brated flute-player, and a poet, lived in the time 
of Alexander the Great. 

Antigone ('AvTiyov?)). 1. Daughter of (Edipus 
by his mother Jocaste, and sister of Ismene, and 
of Eteocles and Polynices. In the tragic story 
of CEdipus, Antigone appears as a noble maiden, 
with a truly heroic attachment to her father 
and brothers. When CEdipus had blinded him- 
self, and was obliged to quit Thebes, he was 
accompanied by Antigone, who remained with 
him till he died in Colonus, and then returned 
to Thebes. After her two brothers had killed 
each other in battle, and Creon, the king of 
Thebes, would not allow Polynices to be buried, 
Antigone alone defied the tyrant, and buried the 
body of her brother. Creon thereupon ordered 
her to be shut up in a subterranean cave, where 
she killed herself. Hamon, the son of Creon, 
who was in love with her, killed himself by her 
side. — [2. Daughter of the Trojan king Laome- 
don, changed by Juno (Hera) into a stork, be- 
cause she presumed to vie with her in the beau- 
ty of her hair. — 3. (Historical.) Daughter of 
Cassander, second wife of Ptolemy Lagus, and 
mother of Berenice.] 

Antigonea or -ia and -ia ('Avriyoveia, 'Av-i- 
yovia). 1. (Now Tcpeleni), a town in Epirus 
(Blyricum), at the junction of a tributary with 
the Aous, and near a narrow pass of the Acro- 
ceraunian Mountains. — 2. A Macedonian town 
in Chalcidice. — 3. Vid. Mantinea. — 4. A town 
on the Orontes in Syria, founded by Antigonus as 
the capital of his empire (B.C. 306), but most 
of its inhabitants were transferred by Seleucus 
to Antiochia, which was built in its neighbor- 
hood. — 5. A town in Bithynia, afterward Nicam. 
— 6. A town in the Troas. Vid. Alexandrea. 
No. 2. 

[Antigonis ('AvTiyovig), an Athenian tribe, 'so 
called in honor of Antigonus, father of Demc 
trius.] 

Antigonus (' Avriyovos). 1. King of Asia, 
surnamed the One-eyed son of PKlip of Elv 



ANTiLIBANITS. 

miotis, and father of Demetrius Poliorcetes by 
Stratomee. He was one of the generals of 
Alexander the Great, and iu the division of the 
empire after the death of the latter (B.O. 323), 
he received the provinces of the Greater Phryg- 
ia, Lycia, and Pamphylia. On the death of 
the regent Antipater in 319, he aspired to the 
sovereignty of Asia. In 316 he defeated and 
put Eumenes to death, after a struggle of near- 
ly three years. From 315 to 311 he carried on 
war, with varying success, against Seleucus, 
Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus. By the 
peace made in 311, Antigonus was allowed to 
have the government of all Asia ; but peace did 
not last more than a year. After the defeat of 
Ptolemy's fleet in 306, Antigonus assumed the 
title of king, and his example was followed by 
Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Seleucus. In the 
same year, Antigonus invaded Egypt, but was 
compelled to retreat. His son Demetrius car- 
ried on the war with success against Cassander 
in Greece ; but he was compelled to return to 
Asia to the assistance of his father, against 
whom Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Ly- 
simachus had formed a fresh confederacy. An- 
tigonus and Demetrius were defeated by Lysim- 
achus at the decisive battle of Ipsus in Phryg- 
ia, in 301. Antigonus fell in the battle in the 
eighty -first year of his age. — 2. Gonatas, son 
of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and grandson of the 
preceding. He assumed the title of King of 
Macedonia, after his father's death in Asia in 
B.C. 283, but he did not obtain possession of 
the throne till 3*?7. He was driven out of his 
kingdom by Pyrrhus of Epirus in 273, but re- 
covered it in the following year : he was again 
expelled by Alexander, the son of Pyrrhus, and 
again recovered his dominions. He attempted 
to prevent the formation of the Achaean League, 
and died in 239. He was succeeded by Deme- 
trius II. His surname Gonatas is usually de- 
rived from Gonnos or Gonni in Thessaly ; but 
some think that Gonatas is a Macedonian word, 
signifying an iron plate protecting the knee. 
— 3. Doson (so called because he was always 
about to give, but never did,) son of Demetrius 
of Cyrene,\and grandson of Demetrius Polior- 
cetes. On the death of Demetrius II. in B.C. 
229, he was left guardian of his son Philip, but 
he married the widow of Demetrius, and became 
King of Macedonia himself. He supported Ara- 
tus and the Achsean League against Cleomenes, 
king of Sparta, whom he defeated at Sellasia in 
221, and took Sparta. On his return to Mace- 
donia, he defeated the Ulyrians, and died a few 
days afterward, 220. — 4. King of Judaea, son 
of Aristobulus II, was placed on the throne by 
the Parthians in B.C. 40, but was taken prison- 
er by Sosius, the lieutenant of Antony, and was 
put to death by the latter in 37. — 5. Of Carts- 
tus, lived at Alexandrea about B.C. 250, and 
wrote a work, still extant, entitled Histories Mi- 
rabiles, which is only of value from its preserv- 
ing extracts from other and better works. — 
Editions: By J. Beckinann, Lips., 1791, and by 
Westermann in his Paradoxographi, Bruns., 
1839. 

Antilibanus ('Avri'AiCavoc. : now Jcbel-es- 
Sheikh or Anti-Lebanon), a mountain on the 
confines of Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria, 
parallel to Libanus (how Lebanon), which it ex- 
5 



ANTIOCHIA. 

ceeds m height. Its highest summit is Mount 
Hermon (also Jebel-es-Sheikh). 

Antiloohds ('AvtiXoxoc), son of Nestor and 
Anaxibia or Eurydice, accompanied his father 
to Troy, and distinguished himself by his brav- 
ery. He was slain before Troy by Memnon the 
./Ethiopian, and was buried by tho side of his 
friends Achilles and Patroelus. 

Antimachus ('AvTi/iaxoc). 1 A Trojan, per- 
suaded his countrymen not to surrender Helen 
to the Greeks. He had three sons, two of whom 
were put to death by Menelaus. — 2. Of Claroa 
or Colophon, a Greek epic and elegiac poet, was 
probably a native of Claros, but was called a Col- 
ophonian, because Claros belonged to Colophon. 
(Clarius poeta, Ov., Trist., i., 6, 1.) He flourish- 
ed toward the end of the Peloponnesian war : 
his chief work was an epic poem of great lengtli 
called Thebais Qrjdai<; a . Antimachus was one 
of the forerunners of the poets of the Alexan- 
drine school, who wrote more for the learned 
than for the public at large. The Alexandrine 
grammarians assigned to him the second place 
among the epic poets, and the Emperor Hadrian 
preferred his works even to those of Homer. 
He also wrote a celebrated elegiac poem called 
Lyde, which was the name of his wife or mis- 
tress, as well as other works. There was like- 
wise a tradition that he made a recension of the 
text of the Homeric poems. [His fragments 
have been collected and published by Schellen- 
berg, Halle, 1786 ; some additional fragments 
in Stoll's Animadversiones in Antimachi Fragm.. 
Gotting., 1840 ; the epic fragments in Diintzers 
Fragm. der Episch. Poes. der Griech. bis auf Alex- 
ander, p. 99.] 

[Antimceiius ('Avrt/xoipoc;), a sophist of Mende 
in Thrace, a pupil of Protagoras, mentioned by 
Plato (Protag., 315, A.)] 

Antinoopolis ('Avtlvoov izoTiig or 'Avrivoeia : 
ruins at Enseneh), a splendid city, built by Ha- 
drian, in memory of has favorite Antinous, on 
the eastern bank of the Nile, upon the site of the 
ancient Besa, in Middle Egypt (Heptanomis). 
It was the capital of the Nomos Antino'ites,' and 
had an oracle of the goddess Besa. 

Antinous (^Avt'lvooc). 1. Son of Euplthes 
of Ithaca, and one of the suitors of Penelope, 
was slain by Ulysses. — 2. A youth of extraor- 
dinary beauty, born at Claudiopolis in Bithynia. 
was the favorite of the Emperor Hadrian, and 
his companion in all his journeys. He was 
drowned in the Nile, A.D. 122, whether acci- 
dentally or on purpose, is uncertain. The grief 
of the emperor knew no bounds. He enrolled 
Antinous among the gods, caused a temple to 
be erected to him at Mantinea, and founded the 
city of Antinoopolis in honor of him. A large 
number of works of art of all kinds were exe- 
cuted in his honor, and many of them are still 
extant. 

Antioohia and -Sa ('Avrwxeia : 'Avtioxcvc, 
and -oxetoQ, fern. 'AvrwxiC and -oxiooa, Antio- 
chenus), the name of several cities of Asia, six- 
teen of which are said to have been built by 
Seleucus I. Nicator, and named in honor of his 
father Antioehus. 1. A. Epidaphnes, or ad 
Daphnem, or ad Orontem ('A. em Adtyvn : so 
called from a neighboring grove : 'A. eirl Opov 
tv : ruins at Antakia), the capital of the Greek 
kingdom of Syria, and long the chief city of 
65 



ANTIOCHIA. 



ANTIOCHUS. 



Asia, and perhaps of the world, stood on the left 
bank of the Orontes, about twenty miles (geog.) 
from the sea, in a beautiful valley, about ten miles 
long and five or six broad, inclosed by the ranges 
of Am anus on the northwest, and Casius on the \ 
southeast. It was built by Seleucus Nicator, j 
about B.C. 300, and peopled chiefly from the 
neighboring city of Antigokia. It flourished so 
rapidly as soon to need enlargement ; and other 
*dditions were again made to it by Seleucus II. 
Callinicus (about B.C. 240), and Antiochus IV. 
Epiphanes (about B.C. 1*70). Hence it obtained 
the name of Tetrapolis (Te~pdTzo7as, i. e. four I 
'.ities). Besides being the capital of the greatest 
kingdom of the world, it had a considerable com- 
merce, the Orontes being navigable up to the 
city, and the high road between Asia and Europe 
passing through it. Under the Romans it was ] 
fie residence of the proconsuls of Syria ; it was | 
favored and visited by emperors ; and was made ' 
a colonia with the Jus Italicum by Antoninus 
Pius. It was one of the earliest strongholds of 
the Christian faith ; the first place where the 
Christian name was used (Acts, xi., 26) ; the | 
centre of missionary efforts in the Apostolic 
age ; and the see of one of the four chief bishops, 
who were called Patriarchs. Though far inferior 
to Alexandrea as a seat of learning, yet it 
derived some distinction in this respect from the 
teaching of Libanius and other Sophists ; and 
its eminence in art is attested by the beautiful 
gems and medals still found among its ruins. 
It was destroyed by the Persian Bang Chosroes 
(A J). 540), but rebuilt by Justinian, who gave it 
the new name Theupolis (OeovrroXig). The 
ancient walls which still surround the insignifi- 
cant modern town are probably those built 
by Justinian. The name of Antiochia was 
also given to the surrounding district, i. e., the 
northwestern part of Syria, which bordered 
upon Cilicia. — 2. A. ad JLeandrum ('A. Tipbg 
yiaiuvdpu : ruins near Yenishehr), a city of 
Caria, on the Maeander, built by Antiochus I. 
Soter, on the site of the old city of Pythopolis. 
— 3; A. Pisldls: or ad Pisidiam ('A. TliGidias or 
-poc TLiGidia), a considerable city on the borders 
of Phrygia Paroreios and Pisidia; built by 
colonists from Magnesia ; declared a free city by 
the Romans after their victory over Antiochus 
the Great (B.C. 189); made a colony under 
Augustus, and called Caesarea. It was celebra- 
ted for the worship and the great temple of 
Men Arcaeus (M?)j; 'ApKalos, the Phrygian Moon- 
god), which the Romans suppressed. — 4. A. Mar- 
giana ('A. Mapjiav7j : now Meru Shah-Jehan ?), a 
city in the Persian province of Margiana, on the 
River Margus, founded by Alexander, and at 
first called Alexandrea ; destroyed by the bar- 
barians, rebuilt by Antiochus L Soter, and 
called Antiochia. It was beautifully situated, 
and was surrounded by a wall seventy stadia 
(about eight miles) in circuit. Among the less 
important cities of the name were : (5.) A. ad 
Tauruh in Commagene ; (6.) A. ad Cragum ; and 
(1.) A. ad Ptbamom, in Cilicia. The following 
Antiochs are better known by other names : A. 
ad Sarum (vid. Adana) ; A. Chakacenes (vid. 
Charax) ; A. Cailirrhoe (vid. Edessa) ; A. ad 
Hippum (vid. Gadara) ; A. Migdonle (vid. Nisi- 
bis) ; in Cilicia (vid. Tarsus) ; in Caria or Lydia 
(vid. Traixes). 

66 



Anti'oohus ('Avtloxoc). l. Kings of Syria, 
1. Soter (reigned B.C. 280-261), was the son 
of Seleucus L, the founder of the Syrian king- 
dom of the Seleucidae. He married his step- 
mother Stratonice, with whom he fell violently 
in love, and whom his father surrendered to 
him. He fell in battle against the Gauls in 261. 
— 2. Teeos (B.C. 261-246), son and successor 
of No. 1. The Milesians gave him Ms surname 
of Theos, because he delivered them from their 
tyrant, Timarchus. He carried on war with 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt, which 
was brought to a close by his putting away 
his wife Laodlee, and marrying Berenice, the 
daughter of Ptolemy. After the death of Ptole- 
my, he recalled Laodice ; but, in revenge for the 
insult she had received, she caused Antiochus 
and Berenice te be murdered. During the reign 
of Antiochus, Arsaees founded the Parthian 
empire (25C), and Theodotus established an 
independent kingdom in Bactria. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Seleucus Callinicus. His 
younger son Antiochus Hierax also assumed 
the crown, and carried on war some years with 
his brother. Vid. Seleucus II. — 3. The Great 
(B.C. 223-18*7), second son of Seleucus Callini- 
cus, succeeded to the throne on the death of 
his brother Seleucus Ceraunus, when he was 
only in his fifteenth year. After defeating (220) 
Molon, satrap of Media, and his brother Alex- 
ander, satrap of Persis, who had attempted to 
make themselves independent, he carried on 
war against Ptolemy Philopator, king of Egypt, 
in order to obtain Ccele-SyriS, Phoenicia, and 
Palestine, but was obliged to cede these prov- 
inces to Ptolemy, in consequence of his defeat 
at the battle of Raphia near Gaza, in 217. He 
next marched against Achaeus, who had revolted 
in Asia Minor, and whom he put to death, 
when he fell into his hands in 214. Vid. Aceleus 
Shortly after this he was engaged for seven 
years (212-205) in an attempt to regain the 
eastern provinces of Asia, which had revolted 
during the reign of Antiochus III. ; but though 
he met with great success, he found it hopeless 
to effect the subjugation of the Parthian and 
Baetrian kingdoms, and accordingly concluded 
a peace with them. In 205 he renewed his wai 
against Egypt with more success, and in 198 
conquered Palestine and Ccele-Syria, which he 
afterward gave as a dowry with his daughter 
Cleopatra upon her marriage with Ptolemy 
Epiphanes. In 196 he crossed over into Europe, 
and took possession of the Thracian Chersonese. 
This brought him into contact with the 
Romans, who commanded him to restore the 
Chersonese to the Macedonian king; but he 
refused to comply with their demand, in 
which resolution he was strengthened by Han- 
nibal, who arrived at his court in 195. Hanni- 
bal urged him to invade Italy without loss of 
time ; but Antiochus did not follow his advice, 
and it was not till 192 that he crossed over into 
Greece. In 191 he was defeated by the Romans 
at Thermopylae, and compelled to return to 
Asia ; his fleet was also vanquished in two 
engagements. In 190 he was again defeated by 
the Romans under L. Scipio at Mount Sipylus, 
near Magnesia, and compelled to sue for peace, 
which was granted in 1SS, on condition of his 
ceding all his dominions east of Mount Taurus 



ANTIOCHUS. 



ANTIOPE. 



paying fifteen thousand Euboie talents within 
twelve years, giving up his elephants and ships 
of war, and surrendering the Roman enemies ; 
but he allowed Hannibal to escape. In order 
to raise the money to pay the Romans, he at- 
tacked a wealthy temple in Elymais, but was 
killed by the people of the place (187). He was 
succeeded by his son Seleucus Philopator. — 4. 
Epiphanes (B.C. 1*75-164), son of Antiochus 
HL, was given in hostage to the Romans in 
188, and was released from captivity in 175 
through his brother Seleucus Philopator, whom 
he succeeded in the same year. He carried on 
war against Egypt from 1*7 1—168 with great suc- 
cess in order to obtain Ccele-Syria and Pales- 
tine, which had been given as a dowry with his 
sister, and he was preparing to lay siege to 
Alexandrea in 168, when the Romans compelled 
him to retire. He endeavored to root out the 
Jewish religion and to introduce the worship 
of the Greek divinities ; but this attempt led to 
a rising of the Jewish people, under Mattathias 
.and his heroic sons the Maccabees, which An- 
tiochus was unable to put down. He attempt- 
ed to plunder a temple in Elymais in 164, but 
he was repulsed, and died shortly afterward in 
a state of raving madness, which the Jews and 
Greeks equally attributed to his sacrilegious 
crimes. His subjects gave him the name of 
Epimanes (" the madman") in parody of Epiph- 
anes. — 5. Eupator (B.C. 164-162), son and suc- 
cessor of Epiphanes, was nine years old at his 
father's death, and reigned under the guardian- 
ship of Lysias. He was dethroned and put to 
ieath by Demetrius Soter, the son of Seleucus 
Philopator, who had hitherto lived at Rome as 
i hostage. — 6. Theos, son of Alexander Balas. 
He was brought forward as a claimant to the 
^rown in 144, against Demetrius Mcator by 
Tryphon, but he was murdered by the latter, 
who ascended the throne himself in 142. — 7. 
Sidetes (B.C. 131-128), so called from Side in 
Parnphylia, where he was brought up, younger 
son of Demetrius Soter, succeeded Tryphon. 
He married Cleopatra, wife of his elder brother 
Demetrius Nicator, who was a prisoner with 
the Parthians. He carried on war against the 
Parthians, at first with success, but was after- 
ward defeated and slain in battle in 128. — 8. 
Grypus, or Hook-nosed (B.C. 125-96), second 
son of Demetrius Nicator and Cleopatra, He 
was placed upon the throne in 125 by his moth- 
er Cleopatra, who put to death his elder broth- 
er Seleucus, because she wished to have the 
power in her own hands. He poisoned his 
mother in 120, and subsequently carried on war 
for some time with his half-brother A. IX. 
Cyzicenus. At length, in 112, the two broth- 
ers agreed to share the kingdom between them, 
A. Cyzicenus having Ccele-Syria and Phoenicia, 
and A. Grypus the remainder of the provinces. 
Grypus was assassinated in 96. — 9. Cyzicenus, 
from Cyzicus, where he was brought up, son of 
A. VII. Sidetes and Cleopatra, reigned over 
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia from 112 to 96, but 
fell in battle in 95 against Seleucus Epiphanes, 
son of A. VIII. Grypus. — 10. Edsebes, son of 
A. IX. Cyzicenus, defeated Seleucus Epiph- 
anes, who had slain his father in battle, and 
maintained the throne against the brothers of 
Seleucus. He succeeded his father Antiochus 



IX. in 95.— 11. Epiphanes, son of A. VIII. Gry- 
pus and brother of Seleucus Epiphanes, carried 
on war against A. X. Eusebes, but was defeat- 
ed by the latter, and drowned in the River 
Orontes.— 12. Dionysus, brother of Wo. 11, held 
the crown for a short time, but fell in battle 
against Aretas, king of the Arabians. The Syr- 
ians, worn out with the civil broils of the Se- 
leucidse, offered the kingdom to Tigranes, king 
of Armenia, who united Syria to his own domin- 
ions in 83, and held it till his defeat by the Ro- 
mans in 69. — 13. Asiaticus, son of A. X. Eu- 
sebes, became King of Syria on the defeat of 
Tigranes by Lucullus in 69 ; but he was de- 
prived of it in 65 by Pompey, who reduced Syria 
to a Roman province. In this year the Seleu- 
cidae ceased to reign. 

II. Kings of Conimagene. 

1. Made an alliance with the Romans about 
B.C. 64. He assisted Pompey with troops in 
49, and was attacked by Antony in 38. He was 
succeeded by Mithradates I, about 31. — 2. Suc- 
ceeded Mithradates I, and was put to death at 
Rome by Augustus in 29. — 3. Succeeded Mith- 
radates II, and died in A.D. 1*7. Upon his 
death, Commagene became a Roman province, 
and remained so till A.D. 38. — 4. Surnamed 
Epiphanes, apparently a son of Antiochus III., 
received his paternal dominion from Caligula in 
A.D. 38. He was subsequently deposed by 
Caligula, but regained his kingdom on the ac- 
cession of Claudius in 41. He was a faithful 
ally of the Romans, and assisted them in their 
wars against the Parthians under Nero, and 
against the Jews under Vespasian. At length, 
in 72, he was accused of conspiring with the 
Parthians against the Romans, was deprived of 
his kingdom, and retired to Rome, where he 
passed the remainder of his life. 

III. Literary. 

1. Of Mgje in Cilicia, a Sophist, or, as he 
himself pretended to be, a Cynic philosopher. 
He flourished about A.D. 200, during the reign 
of Severus and Caracalla. During the war of 
Caracalla against the Parthians, he deserted to 
the Parthians together with Tiridates. He was 
one of the most distinguished rhetoricians of 
his time, and also acquired some reputation as 
a writer. — 2. Of Asoalon, the founder of the 
fifth Academy, was a fi'iend of Lucullus and the 
teacher of Cicero during his studies at Athens 
(B.C. 19); but he had a school at Alexandria 
also, as well as in Syria, where he seems to 
have ended his life. His principal teacher was 
Philo, who succeeded Plato, Arcesilas, and Car- 
neades, as the founder of the fourth Academy. 
He is, however, better known as the adversary 
than the disciple of Philo ; and Cicero mentions 
a treatise called Sosus, written by him against 
his master, in which he refutes the skepticism 
of the Academics. — 3. Of Syracuse, a Greek 
historian, lived about B.C. 423, and wrote his- 
tories of Sicily and Italy. [The fragments of 
his writings are collected in Muller's Fragmenta 
Hist. Grcec, vol. i., p. 181-184. — 4. Of Alex 
andrea, author of a history of the comic poets 
of Greece.] 

Antiope CAvriomj). 1. Daughter of Nycteus 
and Polyxo, or of the river-god Asopus in Boeo- 
67 



ANTIPATER. 



ANTIPHON. 



tia, became by Jupiter (Zeus) the mother of [ 
Amphion and Zethus. Vid. Amphton. Bac- 
chus (Dionysus) threw her into a state of mad- 
ness on account of the vengeance which her 
sons had taken on Diree. In this condition she 
wandered through Greece, until Phocus, the 
grandson of Sisyphus, cured and married her. 
— 2. An Amazon, sister of Hippolyte, wife of 
Theseus, and mother of Hippolytus. 

Antipater ('AvTLTvarpog). 1. The Macedoni- 
an, an officer greatly trusted by Philip and Alex- 
ander the Great, was left by the latter regent in 
Macedonia, when he crossed over into Asia in 
B.C. 334. In consequence of dissensions be- 
tween Olympias and Antipater, the latter was 
summoned to Asia in 324, and Craterus appoint- 
ed to the regency of Macedonia, but the death 
of Alexander in the following year prevented 
these arrangements from taking effect. An- 
tipater now obtained Macedonia again, and in 
conjunction with Craterus, who was associated 
with him in the government, carried on war 
against the Greeks, who endeavored to establish 
their independence. This war, usually called 
the Lamian war, from Lamia, where Antipater 
was besieged in 323, was terminated by Antip- 
ater's victory over the confederates at Cran- 
non in 322. This was followed by the submis- 
sion of Athens and the death of Demosthenes. 
In 321 Antipater passed over into Asia in or- 
der to oppose Perdiccas ; but the murder of 
Perdiccas in Egypt put an end to this war, and 
left Antipater supreme regent. Antipater died 
in 319, after appointing Polysperchon regent, 
and his own son Cassandee to a subordinate 
position. — 2. Grandson of the preceding, and 
second son of Cassander and Thessalomea. 
After the death of his elder brother Philip IV. 
(B.C. 295), great dissensions ensued between 
Antipater and his younger brother Alexander 
for the kingdom of Macedonia. Antipater, be- 
lieving that Alexander was favored by his moth- 
er, put her to death. The younger brother upon 
this applied for aid at once to Pyrrhus of Epirus 
and Demetrius Poliorcetes. The remaining 
history is related differently ; but so much is 
certain, that both Antipater and Alexander were 
subsequently put to death, either by Demetri- 
us or at his instigation, and that Demetrius be- 
came King of Macedonia. — 3. Father of Herod 
the Great, son of a noble Idumaean of the same 
name, espoused the cause of Hyrcanus against 
his brother Aristobulus. He ingratiated himself 
with the Romans, and in B.C. 47 was appointed by 
Caesar procurator of Judaea, which appointment 
he held till his death in 43, when he was carried 
off by poison, which Malichus, whose life he had 
twice saved, bribed the cup-bearer of Hyrcanus 
to administer to him. — 4. Eldest son of Herod 
the Great by his first wife, Doris, brought about 
the death of his two half-brothers, Alexander 
and Aristobulus, in B. C. 6, but was himself con- 
demned as guilty of a conspiracy against his fa- 
ther's life, and was executed five days before 
Herod's death. — 5. Of Tarsus, a Stoic philoso- 
pher, the successor of Diogenes and the teach- 
er of Panaetius, about B.C. 144—6. Of Tyre, a 
Stoic philosopher, died shortly before B.C. 45, 
and wrote a work on Duties (Be Officiis) — 7. 
Of Sidon, the author of several epigrams in the 
Gr»"k Anthology, flourished about B.C. 108- 
68 



100, and lived to a great age. — 8. Of Thessa- 
loniea, the author of several epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology, lived in the latter part of the , 
reign of Augustus. 

Antipater, L. Celius, a Boman jurist and 
historian, and a contemporary of C. Gracchus I 
(B.C. 123) and L. Crassus, the orator, wrote Av.- 
nales, which were epitomized by Brutus, av.d I 
which contained a valuable account of the sec- 
ond Punic war. [The fragments of this work 
have been published by Krause in his Vitce el 
Fragmenta veteran Hist. Roman. Berlin, 1833, 
p. 182-201.] 

Antipatria ('A I'TiTiuTpia : now Bcrai ?), a 
town in IUyricum on the borders of Macedonia, 
on the left bank of the Apsus. 

[Antipatris ('Av'-aTpic), a city of Judaea be 
tween Jerusalem and Caesarea, in a beautiful 
and fruitful plain : it was built on the site of an 
older town called Capharsaba, enlarged by Her- 
od the Great, and narued Antipatris in honor of 
his father Antipatei 1 

Antiphanes ('Av (fiuvnc). 1. A comic poet 
of the middle Attic comedy, born about B.C. 404, i 
and died 330. He wrote 365, or at the least 
260 plays, which were distinguished by ele- 
gance of language. [The fragments of his 
plays are collected bv Meineke in his Frag- 
menta Comic. Graic., vol. i., p. 491-574, edit, 
minor.] — 2. Of Berga in Thrace, a Greek writ- 
er on marvelous and incredible things.— 3 An 
epigrammatic poet, several of whose epigrams 
are still extant in the Greek Anthology, lived ■ 
about the reign of Augustus. — [4. Of Argos, a ' 
sculptor, disciple of Polycletus, and teacher of 
Cleon. — 5. A physician of Delos, who lived 
about the beginning of the second century A.D.] 

Antiphates ('AvTi<j>u.T7}c). 1. King of the 
mythical Lasstrygones in Sicily, who are repre- 
sented as giants and cannibals. They destroy 
ed eleven of the ships of Ulysses, who escaped ! 
with only one vessel. — [2. Son of the diviner 
Melampus, and father' of (Eeles, mentioned hi 
the Odyssey. — 3. A companion of iEneas, son 
of Sarpedon, slain by Turnus.] 

Antiphellus ('AvTifsUoc : now Antiphilo), 
a town on the coast of Lycia, between Patara 
and Aperlae, originally the port of Phellus. 

Antiphemus ('Avrfyrifioc), the Rhodiau, found- 
er of Gela in Sicily, B.C. 690. 

Antiphilus ('AvrifiXoc). 1. Of Byzantium, 
an epigrammatic poet, author of several excel- 
lent epigrams in the Greek Anthology, was a 
contemporary of the Emperor Nero. — 2. Of 
Egypt, a distinguished painter, the rival of 
Apelles, painted for Philip and Alexander the 
Great. — [3. An Athenian general in the Lami- 
an war, appointed iu the place of Leosthenes.] 

Antiphon ('AvTuptiv). 1. The most ancient 
of the ten orators in the Alexandrine canou, 
was a son of Sophilus the Sophist, and born at 
Rhamnus in Attica, in B.C. 430. He belonged 
to the oligarchical party at Athens, and took an 
active part in the establishment of the govern- 
ment of the Four Hundred (B.C. 411), after the 
overthrow of which he was brought to trial, 
condemned, and put to death. The oratorical 
powers of Antiphon are highly praised by the 
ancienjts. He introduced great improvements 
in public speaking, and was the first who laid 
I down theoretical laws for practical eloquence; 



ANTIPHONUS. 



ANTIUM. 



j he opened a school in which he taught rhetoric, 
and the historian Thucydides is said to have 
been one of his pupils. The orations which he 
composed were 'written for others; and the 
only time that he spoke in public himself was 
when he was accused and condemned to death. 
This speech, which was considered in antiqui- 
ty a master-piece of eloquence, is now lost. 
(Thuc., viii., 68 ; Cic, Brut, 12.) We still pos- 
sess fifteen orations of Antiphon, three of which 
were written by him for others, and the remain- 
ing twelve as specimens for his school, or ex- 
ercises on fictitious cases. They are printed 
h the collections of the Attic orators, and sep- 
arately, edited by Baiter and Sauppe, Zurich, 
1838, and Miitzner, Berlin, 1838. — 2. A tragic 
poet, whom many writers confound with the 
Attic orator, lived at Syracuse, at the court of 
the elder Dionysius, by whom he was put to 
death. — 3. Of Athens, a Sophist and an epic 
poet, wrote a work on the interpretation of 
dreams, which is referred to by Cicero and 
others. He is the same person as the Anti- 
phon who was an opponent of Socrates. .(Xen., 
Mem., i., 6.) — [4. The youngest brother of Pla- 
to, mentioned in the Parmenides. — 5. An Athe- 
nian, who was arrested for favoring the cause 
of Macedonia, at the instigation of Demosthe- 
nes, and put to death. 

[Antiphonus ('AvTtipovoe), one of the sons of 
Priam, accompanied his father when he went 
to solicit the body of Hector from Achilles.] 

[AntiphrvE ('AvTujtpa and 'Avrtypai), a city of 
Africa, in the Libyan nome, at some distance 
from the sea : it was here that the common 
Libyan wine was made, which formed the drink 
of the lower orders at Alexandrea.] 

Antiphus ("AvtiQoc). 1. Son of Priam and 
Hecuba, slain by Agamemnon. — 2. Son of Thes- 
salus, and one of the Greek heroes at Troy. — 
[3. Son of Pylasmenes and the nymph Gygaaa, 
ally of the Trojans, joint leader with his brother 
Mesthles of the Masonians from Mount Tmolus. 
— 4. San of ^Egyptius of Ithaca, a companion of 
Ulysses in his wanderings ; devoured by Poly- 
phemus. — 5. Another Ithaean, a friend of Te- 
lemachus.] 

Antipolis ^kvTLiToXig : now Antibes, pro- 
nounced by the inhabitants Antiboul), a town in 
Gallia Narbonensis on the coast, in the territory 
of the Deciates, a few miles west of JTicsea, was 
founded by Massilia : the muria, or salt piekle 
made of fish, prepared at this town, was very 
celebrated. 

Antirehium ('Avripp'wv : now Castello di Ro- 
melia), a promontory on the borders of ^Etolia 
and Locris, opposite Rhium (now Castello di Mo- 
ved) in Achaia, with which it formed the nar- 
row entrance of the Corinthian Gulf: the straits 
are sometimes called the Little Dardanelles. 

Antissa ("Avnacja : 'Avricaaioc : now Kalas 
Limneonas), a town in Lesbos with a harbor, 
on the western coast between Methymna and 
the promontory Sigrium, was originally on a 
small island opposite Lesbos, which was after- 
ward united with Lesbos. [It was the birth- 
place of the poet Terpander.] It was destroy- 
ed by the Romans, B.C. 168, and its inhabitants 
removed to Methymna, because they had as- 
sisted Antioehus. 

Antisthexes ('Av-iodhnc). 1. An Athenian, 



founder of the sect of the Cynic philosophers 
His mother was a Thraeian. In his youth h<i 
fought at Tanagra (B.C. 426), and was a disci- 
ple first of Gorgias, and then of Socrates, whom 
he never quitted, and at whose death he was 
present. He died at Athens, at the age of sev- 
enty. He taught in the Cynosarges, a gymna- 
sium for the use of Athenians born of foreign 
mothers ; whence probably his followers were 
called Cynics (kvvikoT), though others derive 
their name from the dog-like neglect of all 
forms and usages of society. His writings 
were very numerous, and chiefly dialogues ; his 
style was pure and elegant; and he possessed 
considerable powers of wit and sarcasm. Two 
declamations of his are preserved, named Ajax 
and Ulysses, which are purely rhetorical. He 
was an enemy to all speculation, and thus was 
opposed to Plato, whom he attacked furiously 
in one of his dialogues. His philosopical sys- 
tem was confined almost entirely to ethics, and 
he taught that virtue is the sole thing necessa- 
ry. He showed his contempt of all the luxuries 
and outward comforts of life by his mean cloth- 
ing and hard fare. From his school the Stoics 
subsequently spruDg. In one of his works en- 
titled Physicus, he contended for the unity of 
the Deity. (Cic, Be Nat Deor., i, 13.) [The 
fragments of his writings have been collect- 
ed and published by Wiuckelmann, Antisthenis 
Fragmenta, Turici, 1842. — 2. Of Rhodes, a 
Greek historian, who flourished about 200 B.C. 
He wrote a history of his own times, which 
has perished.] 

Antistius, P., tribune of the plebs, B.C. 88, 
a distinguished orator, supported the party of 
Sulla, and was put to death by order of young 
Marius in 82. His daughter Antistia was mar 
ried to Pompeius Magnus. 

Antistius Labeo. Vid. Labeo. 

Antistius Vetus. Vid. Vetus. 

Antitaurus ('AvTLTavpog : now Ali-Bagh), a 
chain of mountains, which strikes off northeast 
from the main chain of the Taurus on the south- 
ern border of Cappadocia, in the centre of which 
district it turns to the east and runs parallel to 
the Taurus as far as the Euphrates, Its aver- 
age height exceeds that of the Taurus ; and 
one of its summits, Mount Argreus, near Ma- 
zaca, is the loftiest mountain of Asia Minor. 

Antium (Antias : now Torre or Porto d'Anzo), 
a very ancient town of Latium, on a rocky prom- 
ontory running out some distance into the Tyr- 
rhenian Sea. It was founded by Tyrrhenians 
and Pelasgians, and in earlier and even later 
times was noted for its piracy. Although unit- 
ed by Tarquinius Superbus to the Latin League, 
it generally sided with the Volscians against 
Rome. It was taken by the Romans in B.C. 
468, and a colony was sent thither, but it revolt- 
ed, was taken a second time by the Romans in 
B.C. 338, was deprived of all its ships, the beaks 
of which (Rostra) served to ornament the plat- 
form of the speakers in the Roman forum, was 
forbidden to have any ships in future, and re- 
ceived another Roman colony. But it gradu- 
ally recovered its former importance, was allow- 
ed in course of time again to be used as a sea- 
port, and in the latter times of the republic and 
under the empire, became a favorite residence 
of many of the Roman nobles and emperors. 

69 



ANTHTS RESTIO. 

The Emperor Nero was born here, and in the 
remains of his palace the celebrated Apollo Bel- 
vedere was found. Antium possessed a cele- 
brated temple of Fortune ( Diva, gratum quce 
regis Antium, Hor., Cam., i., 35), of ^Escula- 
pius, and at the port of Ceno, a little to the east 
of Antium, a temple of Neptune, on which ac- 
count the place is now called Nettuno. 

Antius Restio. Vid. Restio. 

Antonia. 1. Major, elder daughter of M. 
Antonius and Octavia, wife of L. Domitius 
Ahenobarbus, and mother of Cn. Domitius, the 
father of the Emperor Nero. Tacitus calls 
this Antonia the younger daughter. — 2. Minor, 
younger sister of the preceding, wife of Drusus, 
the brother of the Emperor Tiberius, and mother 
of Gerrnanicus, the father of the Emperor Calig- 
ula, of Livia or Livilla, and of the Emperor Clau- 
dius. She died A.D. 38, soon after the acces- 
sion of her grandson Caligula. She was cele- 
brated for her beauty, virtue, and chastity. — 
3. Daughter of the Emperor Claudius, married 
first to Pompeius Magnus, and afterward to 
Faustus Sulla. Nero wished to marry her after 
the death of his wife Poppaea, A.D. 66 ; and on 
her refusal he caused her to be put to death on 
a charge of treason. 

Antonia Tueeis, a castle on a rock at the 
northwest corner of the temple at Jerusalem, 
which commanded both the temple and the city. 
It was at first called Baris : Herod the Great 
changed its name in honor of Marcus Antonius. 
It contained the residence of the Procurator 
Judaeae. 

Anto-nini Itineraeium, the title of an extant 
work, which is a very valuable itinerary of the 
whole Roman empire, in which both the prin- 
cipal and the cross-roads are described by a list 
of all the places and stations upon them, the 
distances from place to place being given in 
Roman miles. It is usually attributed to the 
Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antonius, but it ap- 
pears to have been commenced by order of 
Julius Caesar, and to have been completed in the 
reign of Augustus, though it is probable that 
it received important additions and revision 
under one or both of the Autouines. — Editions : 
By Wesseling, Amst., 1735 ; by Parthey and 
P'inder, Berlin, 1848. 

Antoninopolis ('AvrovivoTToTiic : -irrjc, -anus), 
a city of Mesopotamia, between Edessa and 
Dara, afterward Maximianajiolis, and afterward 
Constantia. 

Antoninus, M. Aurelius. Vid. Aurelius, M. 

Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor, A.D. 138- 
161. His name in the early part of his life, at 
full length, was Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius 
Arrius Antoninus. His paternal ancestors came 
from Neniausus (now jVismes) in Gaul; but An- 
toninus himself was born near Lanuvium, Sep- 
tember 19th, A.D. 86. From an early age he 
gave promise of his future worth. In 120 he 
was consul, and subsequently proconsul of the 
province of Asia : on his return to Rome, he 
lived on terms of the greatest intimacy with 
Hadrian, who adopted him on February 25th, 
138. Henceforward he bore the name of T. 
^Elius Hadrianus Antoninus Ccesar, and on the 
death of Hadrian, July 2d, 138, he ascended the 
throne. The Senate conferred upon him ihe 
title of Pius, or the dutifully affectionate, because 
70 



ANTONIUS. 

I ' 

he persuaded them to grant to his father Ha»' 
drian the apotheosis and the other honors usual- 
ly paid to deceased emperors, which they had 
at first refused to bestow upon Hadrian. The i 
reign of Antoninus is almost a blank in history 
— a blank caused by the suspension for a time | 
of war, violence, and crime. He was one of 
the best princes that ever mounted a throne, ( 
and all his thoughts and energies were dedi 
eated to the happiness of his people. No at- 
tempt was made to achieve new conquests, and 
various insurrections among the Germans, Da- 
cians, Jews, Moors, Egyptians, and Britons, 
were easily quelled by his legates. In all the 
relations of private life the character of Anto- 
ninus was without reproach. He was faithful ; 
to his wife Faustina, notwithstanding her profli- ! 
gate life, and after her death loaded her memory 
with honors. He died at Lorium, March 7 th, 
161, in his seventy-fifth year. He was suc- 
ceeded by Marcus Aurelius, whom he had adopt- 
ed, when he himself was adopted by Hadrian, t 
and to whom he gave his daughter Faustina 
in marriage. 

Antoninus Libeealis, a Greek grammariau, 
probably lived in the reign of the Antonines, 
about A.D. 147, and wrote a work on Meta- 
morphoses (MeTauopfuoeuv ovvayuyij) in forty- 
one chapters, which is extant. — Editions : By 
Verheyk, Lugd. Bat, 1774; by Koch, Lips.. 
1832 ; by Westermann, in his Mythographi, 
Brunsv., 1843. 

Antonius. 1. M., the orator, born B.C. 143; | 
quaestor in 113; praetor in 104, when he fought i 
against the pirates in Cilieia ; consul in 99 ; and 
censor in 97. He belonged to Sulla'3 party, and i 
was put to death by Marius and Cinna when 
they entered Rome in 87 : his head was cut off 
and placed on the Rostra. Cicero mentions ! 
him and L. Crassus as the most distinguished 
orators of their age ; and he is introduced as 
one of the speakers in Cicero's Be Oratore. — 2. 
M., surnamed Creticus, elder son of the orator, 
and father of the triumvir, was praetoa in 75, 
and received the command of the fleet and all 
the coasts of the Mediterranean, in order to clear 
the sea of pirates ; but he did not succeed in 
his object, and used his power to plunder the | 
provinces. He died shortly afterward in Crete, | 
and was called Creticus in derision. — 3. C, 1 
younger son of the orator, and uncle of the tri- 1 
umvir, was expelled the Senate in 70, and was 
the colleague of Cicero in the praetorship (65) 
and consulship (63). He was one of Catiline's 
conspirators, but deserted the latter by Cicero's 
promising him the province of Macedonia. He 
had to lead an army against Catiline, but, un- 
willing to fight against his former friend, he 
gave the command on the day of battle to his 
legate, M. Petreius. At the conclusion of the j 
war, Antony went into his province, which he 
plundered shamefully; and on his return to 
Rome in 59, was accused both of taking part mi 
Catiline's conspiracy and of extortion in his 
province. He was defended by Cicero, but was 
condemned, and retired to the island of Cephal- 
lenia. He was subsequently recalled, probably | 
by Caesar, and was iu Rome at the beginning of 
44. — 4. M, the Triumvir, was son of No. 2, and 
Julia, the sister of L. Julius Caesar, consul in 
64, and was born about 83 B.C. His father 



ANTONIUS. 



ANTONIUS PRIMUS. 



died while he was still young, and he was 
brought up by Cornelius Lentulus, who married 
his mother Julia, and who was put to death by 
Cicero in 63 as one of Catiline's conspirators ; 
whence he became a personal enemy of Cicero. 
Antony indulged in his earliest youth in every 
kind of dissipation, and his affairs soon became 
deeply involved. In 58 he went to Syria, where 
he served with distinction under A. Gabinius. 
He took part in the campaigns against Aristo- 
bulus in Palestine (57, 56), and in the restora- 
tion of Ptolemy Auletes to Egypt in 55. In 54 
he went to Caesar in Gaul, and by the influence 
of the latter was elected quaestor. As quaestor 
(52) he returned to Gaul, and served under 
Caesar for the next two years (52, 51). He re- 
turned to Rome in 50, and became one of the 
most active partisans of Caesar. He was trib- 
une of the plebs in 49, and in January fled to 
Caesar's camp in Cisalpine Gaul, after putting 
his veto upon the decree of the Senate which 
deprived Cassar of his command. He accom- 
panied Ccesar in his victorious march into Italy, 
and was left by Caesar in the command of Italy, 
while the latter carried on the war in Spain. 
In 48 Antony was present at the battle of Phar- 
salia, where he commanded the left wing ; and 
in 47 he was again left in the command of Italy 
during Caesar's absence in Africa. In 44 he was 
consul with Caesar, when he offered him the 
kingl^- diadem at the festival of the Lupercalia. 
After Caesar's murder on the 15th of March, 
Antony endeavored to succeed to his power. 
He therefore used every means to appear as 
his representative ; he pronounced the speech 
over Caesar's body, and read his will to the peo- 
ple ; and he also obtained the papers and private 
property of Caesai'. But he found a new and un- 
expected rival in young Octavianus, the adopted 
son and great-nephew of the dictator, who came 
from Apollonia to Rome, assumed the name 
of Caesar, and at first joined the Senate in 
order to crush Antony. Toward the end of the 
year Antony proceeded to Cisalpine Gaul, which 
had'been previously granted him by the Senate ; 
but Dec. Brutus refused to surrender the pro- 
vince to Antony and threw himself into Mutina, 
where he was besieged by Antony. The Senate 
approved of the • conduct of Brutus, declared 
Antony a publie enemy, and intrusted the con- 
duct of the war against him to Octavianus. 
Antony was defeated at the battle of Mutina, in 
April, 43, and was obliged to cross the Alps. 
Both the consuls, however, had fallen, and the 
Senate now began to show their jealousy of 
Octavianus. Meantime Antony was joined by 
Lepidus with a powerful army : Octavianus be- 
came reconciled to Antony; and it was agreed 
that the government of the state should be 
vested in Antony, Octavianus, and Lepidus, under 
the title of Triumviri Reipublicce Constitucndce, 
for the next five years. The mutual friends 
of each were proscribed, and in the numerous 
executions that followed, Cicero, who had at- 
tacked Antony in the most unmeasured manner 
in his Philippic Orations, fell a victim to An- 
tony. In 42, Antony and Octavianus crushed 
the republican party by the battle of Philippi, 
in which Brutus and Cassius fell. Antony then 
went to Asia, which he had received as his 
share of the Roman world. In Cilicia he met 



with Cleopatra, and followed her to Egypt, » 
captive to her charms. In 41 Fulvia, the wife 
of Antony, and his brother L. Antonius, made 
war upon Octavianus in Italy. Antony pre. 
pared to support his relatives, but the war 
was brought to a close at the beginning of 40, 
before Antony could reach Italy. The oppor- 
tune death of Fulvia facilitated the reconciliation 
of Antony and Octavianus, which was cemented 
by Antony marrying Octavia, the sister of Octa- 
vianus. Antony remained in Italy till 39, when 
the triumvirs concluded a peace with Sext. Pom 
pey, and he afterward went to his provinces 
in the East. In this year and the following, 
Ventidius, the lieutenant of Antony, defeated the 
Parthians. In 37 Antony crossed over to Italy, 
when the triumvirate was renewed for five years. 
He then returned to the East, and shortly after- 
ward sent Octavia back to her brother, and 
surrendered himself entirely to the charms of 
Cleopatra. In 36 he invafled Parthia, but he 
lost a great number of his troops, and was 
obliged to retreat. He was more successful 
in his invasion of Armenia in 34, for he obtained 
possession of the person of Artavasdes, the 
Armenian king, and carried him to Alexandrea. 
Antony now laid aside entirely the character 
of a Roman citizen, and assumed the pomp 
and ceremony of an eastern despot. His con- 
duct, and the unbounded influence which Cleo 
patra had acquired over him, alienated many of 
his friends and supporters ; and Octavianus 
thought that the time had now come for crush 
ing his rival. The contest was decided by the 
memorable sea-fight off Actium, September 2d. 
31, in which Antony's fleet was completely 
defeated. Antony, accompanied by Cleopatra, 
fled to Alexandrea, where he put an end to his 
own fife in the following year (30), when Octavi- 
anus appeared before the city. — 5. C, brother of 
the triumvir, was praetor in Macedonia, B.C. 44, 
fell into the hands of Marcus Brutus in 43, and 
was put to death by Brutus in 42, to revenge 
the murder of Cicero. — 6. L., youngest brother 
of the triumvir, was consul in 41, when he 
engaged in war against Octavianus at the insti- 
gation of Fulvia, his brother's wife. He was 
unable to resist Octavianus, and threw himself 
into the town of Perusia, which he was obliged 
to surrender in the following year; hence the 
war is usually called that of Perusia. His life 
was spared, and he was afterwards appointed by 
Octavianus to the command of Iberia. Cicero 
draws a frightful picture of Lucius's character. 
He calls him a gladiator and a robber, and heaps 
upon him every term of reproach and contempt. 
Much of this is of course exaggeration. — 7. M, 
called by the Greek writers Antyllus, which is 
probably only a corrupt form of Antonillus 
(young Antonius), elder son of the triumvir by 
Fulvia, was executed by order of Octavianus, 
after the death of his father in B.C. 30. — 8. Iu- 
lus, younger son of the triumvir by Fulvia, was 
brought up by his step-mother Octavia at Rome, 
and received great marks of favor from Augus- 
tus. He was consul in B.C. 10, but was put to 
death in 2, in consequence of his adulterous inter- 
course with Julia, the daughter of Augustus. 

Antonius Felix. Vid. Felix. 

Antonius Musa. Vid. Musa. 

Antonius Pkimus. Vid. Primus. 

71 



ANTRON 



APELLA 



Antron {'Avrpuv and ol 'Avrp&vec : 'Avrpu- 
vcoc : now Fano), a town in Phthiotis in Thes- 
saly, at the entrance of the Sinus Maliacus. 

Antonnacum (now Andernach), a town of the 
Ubii on the Rhine. 

Anubis ("AvovSii), an Egyptian divinity, wor- 
shipped in the form of a human being with a 
dog's head. He was originally worshipped sim- 
ply as the representative of the dog, which ani- 
mal, like the cat, was sacred in Egypt ; but his 
worship was subsequently mixed up with other 
religious systems, and Anubis thus assumed a 
symbolical or astronomical character, at least 
with the learned. His worship prevailed through- 
out Egypt, but he was most honored at Cynopo- 
Ms in Middle Egypt. Later myths relate that 
knubis was the son of Osiris and Nephthys, 
born after the death of his father ; and that Isis 
brought him up, and made hitn her guard and 
companion, who thus performed to her the same 
service that dogs perform to men. In the tem- 
ples of Egypt Anubis seems to have been rep- 
resented as the guard of other gods, and the 
place in the front of a temple was particularly 
sacred to him. The Greeks identified him with 
their own Hermes, and thus speak of Hermanu- 
bis in the same manner as of Zeus Ammon. 
His worship was introduced at Rome toward 
the end of the republic, and, under the empire, 
spread very widely both in Greece and at Rome. 

Anxur. Vid. Tarracina. 

[Anxur, an ally of Turnus in Italy, wounded 
by iEneas.] 

Anxurus, an Italian divinity, who was wor- 
shipped in a grove near Anxur (Tarraeina), to- 
gether with Eeronia. He was regarded as a 
youthful Jupiter, and Feronia as Juno. On 
coins his name appears as Axur or Anxur. 

Anysis ("Avvoig), an ancient king of Egypt, 
in whose reign Egypt was invaded by the Ethi- 
opians under their king, Sabaco. 

Anyte {'Avvtt]), of Tegea, the authoress of 
several epigrams in the Greek Anthology, flour- 
ished about B.C. 300, [a date which some writ- 
ers, on mere conjecture, have changed to TOO 
B.C.] The epigrams are for the most part in 
the style of the ancient Doric choral songs. 

Anytus ("AvvTog), a wealthy Athenian, son 
of Anthemion, the most influential and formida- 
ble of the accusers of Socrates, B.C. 399 (hence 
Socrates is called Anyti reus, Hor., Sat. ii, 4, 
3). He was a leading man of the democratic- 
al party, and took au active part along with 
Thrasybulus, in the overthrow of the Thirty 
Tyrants. The Athenians, having repented of 
their condemnation of Socrates, sent Anytus into 
banishment. 

[A cede (^AoiSrj), one of the three oldest Muses, 
whose worship was introduced into Bceotia by 
the Aloidae.] 

Aon ("Aojv), son of Neptune, and an ancient 
Boeotian hero, from whom the Aones, au ancient 
race in Bceotia, were believed to have derived 
their name. Aoina was the name of the part 
of Bceotia near Phocis, in which were Mount 
Helicon and the fountain Aganippe (Aoyiioe aquce, 
Ov., Fast, iii., 456). The Muses are also called 
Aonides, since they frequented Helicon and the 
fountain of Aganippe. (Ov., Met, v., 333.) 

Aonides. Vid. Aon. 

[Aornos ("Aopvoe), a city of Bactria, next to 
72 



Bactra in importance, having a strong and lofty 
citadel, but taken by Alexander the Great. 
Wilson regards the name as of Sanscrit origin 
(from Awarana), and meaning " an iticlosure" 
or " stockade."— % A mountain fastness of India 
on this side of the Indus, between the Cophen 
and Indus, to which the inhabitants of Bazira 
fled from before Alexander.] 

Aoksi ("Aopooi) or Adorsi, a powerful people 
of Asiatic Sarmatia, who appear to have had 
their original settlements on the northeast of 
the Caspian, but are chiefly found between the 
Palus Maeotis (now Sea of Azof) and the Cas- 
pian, to the southeast of the River Tanais (now 
Don), whence they spread far into European Sar- 
matia. They carried on ia considerable traffic 
in Babylonian merchandise, which they fetched 
on camels out of Media and Armenia. 

Aous or ^Eas ('Auoc or Alag: now Viosa, 
Viussa or Vovussa), the principal river of the 
Greek part of Illyricum, rises in Mount Lacmon, 
the northern part of Pindus, and flows into the 
Ionian Sea near Apollonia. 

[Apama ('Aird/ua or 'Aivilfirj), wife of Seleucus 
Nicator, and mother of Antiochus Soter.] 

Apamea or -ia ('A-jrdfj.Eia : 'Aira/iuvc, Apameus, 
-enus, -ensis), the name of several Asiatic cities, 
three of which were founded by Seleucus I. Ni- 
cator, and named in honor of his wife Apama. 1. 
A. ad Orontem (now Famiah), the capital of the 
Syrian proviuce Apamene, and, under the Ro- 
mans, of Syria Secunda, was built by Seleucus 
Mcator on the site of the older city of Pella 
in a very strong position on the River Orontes 
or Axius, the citadel being on the left (west) 
bank of the river, and the city on the right. It 
was surrounded by rich pastures, in which Se- 
leucus kept a splendid stud of horses and five 
hundred elephants. — 2. In Osroene in Mesopo- 
tamia (now Balasir), a town built by Seleucus 
Nicator on the east bank of the Euphrates, op- 
posite to Zeugma, with which it was connected 
by a bridge, commanded by a castle, called Se 
leucia. In Pliny's time (A.D. 77) it was only 
a ruin. — 3. A. Cibotus or ad M^eandrum ('A. j) 
Ki6(jt6c, or irpbe MaiavSpov), a great city of 
Phrygia, on the Maeander, close above its con- 
fluence with the Marsyas. It was built by An- 
tiochus I. Soter, who named it in honor of his 
mother Apama, and peopled it with the inhabit- 
ants of the neighboring Celaeuas. It became 
one of the greatest cities of Asia within the 
Euphrates ; and, under the Romans, it was the 
seat of a Conventus Juridicus. The surround- 
ing country, watered by the Masander and its 
tributaries, was called Apamena Regio. — 4. A. 
Myrleon, in Bithynia. Vid. Myrlea. — 5. A 
town built by Antiochus Soter, in the district 
cf Assyria called Sittacene, at the junction of 
the Tigris with the Royal Canal which connect- 
ed the Tigris with the Euphrates, and at the 
northern extremity of the island called Mesene. 
which was formed by this canal and the two 
rivers. — 6. A. Mesenes (now Korna), in Baby- 
lonia, at the south point of the same Island of 
Mesene, and at the junction of the Tigris and 
Euphrates. — 7. A. Rhagiana ('A. i] npog 'Pa- 
yalc), a Greek city in the district of Choarene 
in Parthia (formerly in Media), south of the 
Caspian Gates. 

[Apella, a very common name of Roman 



APELLES. 



APHRODISIAS. 



freedmen : the Jews in Rome, mostly freedmen, 
dwelt on the further side of the Tiber, and were 
regarded as superstitious ; hence Apella came to 
be used proverbially for a superstitious person. 
(Crcdat Judceus Apella, Hor., Sat., i., 5, 100.)] 

Apelles ('AireX?,r/c), the most celebrated of 
Grecian painters, was born, most probably, at 
Colophon in Ionia, though some ancient writers 
call him a Coan, and others an Ephesian. He 
was the contemporary and friend of Alexander 
the Great (B.C. 336-323), whom he probably 
accompanied to Asia, and who entertained so 
high an opinion of him, that he was -the only 
person whom Alexander would permit to take 
his portrait. After Alexander's death he ap- 
pears to have travelled through the western 
parts of Asia. Being driven by a storm to 
Alexandrea, after the assumption of the regal 
title by Ptolemy (B.C. 306), whose favor he had 
not gained while he was with Alexander, his 
rivals laid a plot to ruin him, which he defeated 
by an ingenious use of his skill in drawing. We 
are not told when or where he died. Through- 
out his life Apelles labored to improve himself, 
especially in drawing, which he never spent a 
day without practicing. Hence the proverb 
Nulla dies sine linea. A list of his works is 
given by Pliny (xxxv., 36). They are for the 
most part single figures, or groups of a vei-y few 
figures. Of his portraits the most celebrated 
was that of Alexander wielding a thunderbolt ; 
but the most admired of all his pictures was the 
" Venus Anadyomene" (rj avaSvo/ievn 'Afpodirn), 
or Venus rising out of the sea. The goddess 
was wringing her hair, and the falling drops of 
water formed a transparent silver veil around 
her form. He commenced another picture of 
Venus, which he intended should surpass the 
Venus Anadyomene, but which he left unfinished 
at his death. 

Apellicon ('A-keXKlkuv), of Teos, a Peripa- 
tetic philosopher and great collector of books. 
His valuable library at Athens, containing the 
autographs of Aristotle's works, was carried to 
Rome by Sulla (B.C. 83) : Apellicon had died 
just before. 

Apennines Mons (6, 'Airevvivoc and to 'Att£v- 
vlvov bpoc, probably from the Celtic Pen, " a 
height"), the Apennines, a chain of mountains 
whicli runs throughout Italy from north to south, 
and forms the backbone of the peninsula. It is a 
continuation of the Maritime Alps (vid. Alpes), 
begins near Genua, and ends at the Sicilian Sea, 
and throughout its whole course seuds off nu- 
merous branches in all directions. It rises to 
its greatest height in the country of the Sabines, 
where one of its points (now Monte Corno) is 
9521 feet above the sea ; and further south, at 
the boundaries of Samnium, Apulia, and Lu- 
cania, it divides into two main branches, one 
of which runs east through Apulia and Calabria, 
and terminates at the Salentine promontory, 
and the other west, through Bruttium, termina- 
ting apparently at Rhegium and the Straits of 
Messina, but in reality continued throughout 
Sicily. The greater part of the Apennines is 
composed of limestone, abounding in numerous 
caverns and recesses, which, in ancient as well 
as modern times, were the resort of numerous 
robbers : the highest points of the mountains 
are covered with snow, even during most of the 



summer (nivali vertice se attollens Apenninus 
Virg., JEn., xii., 703). 

Apee, M., a Roman orator and a native of 
Gaul, rose by his eloquence to the rank of quass- 
tor, tribune, and praetor, successively. He is one 
of the speakers in the Dialogue Be Oratoribus, 
attributed to Tacitus. 

Aper, Arrius, praetorian prefect, and son-in- 
law of the Emperor Numerian, whom he was 
said to have murdered : he was himself put to 
death by Diocletian on his accession in A.D. 284. 

Aperantia, a town and district of ^Etoha near 
the Achelous, inhabited by the Aperantii. 

[Aperopia ('ATrepo-nca : now Dhoko or Bello 
Poulo), a small island in the Argolic Gulf, near 
Hydrea.] 

Apesas ('Ansaac : now Fuha?), a mountain 
on the borders of Phliasia and Argolis, with a 
temple of Jupiter (Zeus), who was hence called 
Apesantius, and to whom Perseus here first sac- 
rificed. 

Aphaca (ra "Atpatca : now Afka ?), a town pf 
Ccele-Syria, between Heliopolis and Byblus 
celebrated for the worship and oracle of Venus 
(Aphrodite) Aphacltis ('AQcikItic). 

Aphareus {'Afapevc), son of the Messenian 
king Perieres and Gorgophone, and founder of 
the town of Arene in Messenia, which he called 
after his wife. His two sons, Idas and Lynceus, 
the Apharetidx (Aphareia proles, Ov., Met., viii., 
304), are celebrated for their fight with the Dios- 
curi, which is described by Pindar. (Jfcm., x., 
111.) — [2. Son of Caletor, slain by iEneas before 
Troy. — 3. A centaur, whose arm was crushed 
by Theseus with the trunk of an oak at the nup- 
tials of Pirithotis.] — 4. An Athenian orator and 
tragic poet, flourished B.C. 369-342. After the 
death of his father, his mother married the ora- 
tor Isocrates, who adopted Aphareus as his son. 
He wrote thirty-five or thirty-seven tragedies, 
and gained four prizes. 

AphetvE ('A<peTai and 'AfyeTai • 'Aferaioc : 
[now Fetio?\), a sea-port and promontory of 
Thes,saly, at the entrance of the Sinus Malia- 
cus, from which the ship Argo is said to have 
sailed. 

Aphidas ('A$EiSae), son of Areas, obtained 
from his father Tegea and the surrounding ter- 
ritory. He had a son, Aleus. — [2. Son of Poly- 
pemon, for whom Ulysses, on his return to Itha- 
ca, passed himself off to Eumaeus. — 3. A cen 
taur, slain by Theseus at the nuptials of Piri 
thous.] 

Aphidna ("A<j>iSva and "Aipidvai : 'A(j>i6vawc), 
an Attic demus not far from Decelea, originally 
belonged to the tribe iEantis, afterward to Leon 
tis, and last to Hadrianis. It was in ancient 
times one of the twelve towns and districts into 
which Cecrops is said to have divided Attica, 
in it Theseus concealed Helen, but her brothers, 
Castor and Pollux, took the place and rescued 
their sister. 

[Aphidnus, one of the companions of iEneas, 
slain by Turnus.] 

Aphrodisias ('AApoStaidc : 'Afpodiaeve : Aph- 
rodisiensis), the name of several places famous 
for the worship of Aphrodite (Venus). 1. A. 
Cari^e (now Gheira, ruins), on the site of an 
old town of the Leleges, named Ninoe : under 
the Romans a free city and asylum, and a flour- 
ishing school of art. — 2. Veneris Oppidum (now 
73 



APHRODISIUM. 



APIDANUS. 



Porio Cavaliere), a town, harbor, and island on 
the coast of Cilicia, opposite to Cyprus. — 3. A 
town, harbor, and island on the coast of Cyrena- 
Ica, in North Africa. — i. Vid. Gades. — [5. (Now 
Kaisch), an island in the Persian Gulf, on the 
coast of Carmania, earlier called Catasa.] 

[Aphrodisium ('AfpoStcwv), a town on the 
northern coast of Cyprus. — 2. A village of Arca- 
dia, east of Megalopolis. — 3. One of the three 
minor harbors into which the Piraeus was sub- 
divided. — 4. A. Promontorium, a promontory at 
the eastern base of the Pyrenees, with a temple 
of Aphrodite (Venus).] 

Aphrodite ('AippodiTTj), one of the great di- 
vinities of the Greeks, the goddess of love and 
beauty. Iu the Iliad she is represented as the 
daughter of Jupiter (Zeus) and Dione, and, in 
later traditions, as a daughter of Saturn (Cronos) 
and Euonyme, or of Uranus and Hemera ; but 
the poets most frequently relate that she was 
sprung from the foam (arj>poc) of the sea, whence 
they derive her name. She is commonly rep- 
resented as the wife of Vulcan (Hephaestus) ; 
but she proved faithless to her husband, and 
was in love with Mars (Ares), the god of war, 
to whom she bore Phobos, Deimos, Harmonia, 
and, according to later traditions, Eros and An- 
teros also. She also loved the gods Bacchus 
(Dionysus), Mercury (Hermes), and Neptune 
(Poseidon), and the mortals Anchises, Adonis, 
and Butes. She surpassed all the other god- 
desses in beauty, and hence received the prize 
of beauty from Paris. She likewise had the 
power of granting beauty and invincible charms 
to others, and whoever wore her magic girdle 
immediately became an object of love and de- 
sire. In the vegetable kingdom the myrtle, 
rose, apple, poppy, &c, were sacred to her. 
The animals sacred to her, which are often 
mentioned as drawing her chariot or serving 
as her messengers, are the sparrow, the dove, 
the swan, the swallow, and a bird called iynx. 
The planet' Venus and the spring-month of April 
were likewise sacred to her. The principal 
places of her worship in Greece were the isl- 
ands of Cyprus and Cythera. The sacrifices 
offered to her consisted mostly of incense and 
garlands of flowers, but in some places animals 
were sacrificed to her. Respecting her festi- 
vals, vid. Diet, of Antiq., art. Adonia, Anagogia, 
Aphrodisia, Catagogia. Her worship was of 
Eastern origin, and probably introduced by the 
Phoenicians into the islands of Cyprus, Cyth- 
era, and others, whence it spread all over 
Greece. She appears to have been originally 
identical with Astarte, called by the Hebrews 
Ashtoreth, and her connection with Adonis clear- 
ly points to Syria. Respecting the Roman god- 
dess Venus, vid. Vends. 

Aphroditopolis ( Afpodlrnc ttoAjc), the name 
of several cities in Egypt. 1. In Lower Egypt : 
(1.) In the Nomos Leontopolites, in the Delta, 
between Arthribis and Leontopolis ; (2.) (Now 
Chybin-el-Koum), iu the Nomos Prosopites, in 
the Delta, on a navigable branch of the Nile, 
between Naucratis and Sais ; probably the same 
as Atarbechis, which is an Egyptian name of the 
same meaning as the Greek Aphroditopolis. — 
2. In Middle Egypt or Heptanomis (now Atfyh), 
a considerable city on the east bank of the Nile ; 
the chief city of the Nomos Aphroditopolites. — 
74 



3. In Upper Egypt, or the Thebais : (1.) Vene- 
ris Oppidum (now Tachta), a little way from the 
west bank of the Nile ; the chief city of the No- 
mos Aphroditopolites ; (2.) In the Nomos Her- 
monthites (now Deir, northwest of Esneh), on the 
west bank of the Nile. 

Aphthonius ('A<j>86vwc), of Antioch, a Greek 
rhetorician, lived about A.D. 315, and wrote the 
introduction to the study of rhetoric, entitled 
Progymnasmata (TTpoyvp.vdciia-a). It was con- 
structed on the basis of the Progymnasmata of 
Hermogenes, and became so popular that it was 
used as the common school-book in this branch 
of education for several centuries. On the re- 
vival of letters it recovered its ancient popu- 
larity, and during the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries was used every where, but more es- 
pecially in Germany, as the text book for rhet- 
oric. The number of editions and translations 
which were published during that period is 
greater than that of any other ancient writer. 
The best edition is in Wak's Rhetores Grmci, 
voL i. Aphthonius also wrote some iEsopic 
fables, which are extant. 

Aphytis ('Atfivnc : now Athyto), a town in 
the peninsula Pallene in Macedonia, with a cele- 
brated temple and oracle of Jupiter Amnion. 

Apia ('An'ta, sc. yij), the Apian land, an an- 
cient name of Peloponnesus, especially Argolis, 
said to have been so called from Apis, a mythical 
king of Argos. 

Apioata, wife of Sejanus, was divorced by 
him, A.D. 23, after she had borne him three 
children, and put an end to her own life on the 
execution of Sejanus, 31. 

Apicius, the name of three notorious gluttons. 
— 1. The first lived in the tune of Sulla, and is 
said to have procured the condemnation of Ru- 
tilius Rufus, B.C. 92. — 2. The second and most 
renowned, M. Gabius Apicius, flourished under 
Tiberius. [It is stated by Seneca that, after 
having spent upon his culinary dainties one 
hundred mill ions of sesterces (sestertium millies), 
upward of three millions of dollars, he became 
overwhelmed with debts, and was thus forced, 
for the first time, to look into his accounts. He 
found that he would have only ten millions of 
sesterces {sestertium centies), a sum somewhat 
over three hundred thousand dollars, left after 
paying his debts ;] upon which, despairing of 
being able to satisfy the cravings of hunger from 
such a pittance, he forthwith put an end to his 
life by poison. But he was not forgotten. Sun- 
dry cakes (Apicia) and sauces long kept alive 
his memory ; Apion, the grammarian, composed 
a work upon his luxurious labors, and his name 
passed into a proverb in all matters connected 
with the pleasures of the table. — 3. A contem- 
porary of Trajan, sent to this emperor, when 
lie was in Parthia, fresh oysters, preserved by 
a skillful process of his own. The treatise we 
now possess, bearing the title C/Elii Apicii de 
Opsoniis et Condhnentis, sive de He Culinaria 
Libri decern, is a sort of Cook and Confection- 
er's Manual, containing a multitude of receipts 
for cookery. It was probably compiled at a late 
period by some one who prefixed the name of 
Apicius, in order to insure the circulation of his 
book. — Editions : By Almeloveeu, Amstelod., 
1709 ; and by Bernhold, Ansbaeh., 1800. 

Apidanus ('Amdavoc, Ion. 'H~t6av6r), a river 



APIOL^E. 



APOLLO. 



in Thessaly, which receives the Enipeus near 
Pharsalus, and empties into the Peneus. 

ApioLjE, a town of Latium, destroyed by Tar- 
quinius Priseus. 

Apion ('Arnuv), a Greek grammarian, and a 
native of Oasis Magna in Egypt, studied at Alex- 
andrea, and taught rhetoric at Rome in the 
reigns of Tiberius and Claudius. In the reign 
of Caligula he left Rome, and in A.D. 38 he was 
sent by the inhabitants of Alexandrea at the 
head of an embassy to Caligula to bring forward 
complaints against the Jews residing in their 
city. Apion was the author of many works, all 
of which are now lost [with the exception of a 
few fragments]. Of these the most celebrated 
were upon the Homeric poems. He is said not 
only to have made the best recension of the text 
of the poems, but to have written explanations 
of phrases and words in the form of a diction- 
ary (M&ic 'OfiTiptKat). He also wrote a work 
on Egypt in five books, and a work against the 
Jews, to which Josephus replied in his treatise 
Against Apion. 

Apion, Ptolem^eus. Vid. Ptolemjeus, Api- 
ox. 

Apis (^Aiuc). 1. Son of Phoroneus and La- 
odice, king of Argos, from whom Peloponnesus 
was called Apia : he ruled tyrannically, and was 
killed by Thelxion and Telchis.— 2. The Bull of 
Memphis, worshipped with the greatest rever- 
ence as a god among the Egyptians. The Egyp- 
tians believed that he was the offspring of a 
young cow, fructified by a ray from heaven. 
There were certain signs by which he was re& 
ognized to be the god. It was requisite that 
he should be quite black, have a white square 
mark on the forehead, on his back a figure simi- 
lar to that of an eagle, have two kinds of hair in 
his tail, and on his tongue a knot resembling an 
insect called cantharus. "When all these signs 
were discovered, the animal was consecrated 
with great pomp, and was conveyed to Mem- 
phis, where he had a splendid residence, con- 
taining extensive walks and courts for his 
amusement. His birth-day, which was celebrat- 
ed every year, was his most solemn festival : it 
was a day of rejoicing for all Egypt. The god 
was allowed to live only a certain number of 
years, probably twenty-five. If he had not died 
before the expiration of that period, he was killed 
and buried in a sacred well, the place of which 
was unknown except to the initiated. But if 
he died a natural death, he was buried publicly 
and solemnly ; and as his birth filled all Egypt 
with joy and festivities, so his death threw the 
whole country into grief and mourning. The 
worship of Apis *Was originally nothing but the 
simple worship of the bull ; but in the course of 
time, the bull, like other animals, was regarded 
as a symbol, and Apis is hence identified with 
Osiris or the Sun. 

Apis ( t Atuc : now Kasser Schama ?) a city 
of Egypt on the coast of the Mediterranean, on 
the border of the country toward Libya, about 
one hundred stadia west of Parsetonium ; cele- 
brated for the worship of 'the god Apis. 

[Apisaon ('Amcrduv), son of Phausius, slain 
by Eurypylus before Troy. — 2. Son of Hippasus, 
a leader of the Pseonians, slain by Lycomedes 
before Troy.] . 

Apobathmi ('ATr66a6/ioi), a place in Argolis, 



on the sea, not far from Thyrea, where Dauaua 
is said to have landed. 

[Apobathra ('ATToBadpa : now Boja), a place 
near Sestos, where Xerxes's bridge of boats 
ended.] 

Apodoti and Apodeot^e (' Airoduroi and 'Airo- 
dorot); a people in the southeast of iEtolia, be- 
tween the Evenus and Hylsethus. 

Apollinaeis, Sidonius. Vid. Sidonius. 

[Apollinaris, Sulpicius. Vid. Suxpicius.] 

Apollinis Promontorium ('An6X?iuvog aKpov ' 
now Cape Zibeeb or Cape Farina), a promontory 
of Zeugitana in Northern Africa, forming the 
western point of the Gulf of Carthage. 

[Apollinopolis {^AkoXXuvoc ttoXic). 1. Magna 
ttoXic fieyu?i7j 'Ano/iTiuvoc : now Edfou), the cap- 
ital of the nome named after it, Apolioniates, in 
Upper Egypt, on the west bank of the Nile. The 
people of this city were haters and destroyers of 
the crocodile. — 2. Parva (^AnoXXuvog tj fiinpd : 
now Kuss), a city of Upper Egypt, on the east 
bank of the Nile, in the Nomos Coptites, between 
Coptos and Thebes.] 

Apollo (' AttoXXuv), one of the great divini- 
ties of the Greeks, son of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Latona (Leto), and twin-brother of Diana (Ar- 
temis), was born in the Island of Delos, whither 
Latona (Leto) had fled from the jealous Juno 
(Hera). Vid. Leto. After nine days' labor, 
the god was born under a palm or olive tree at 
the foot of Mount Cynthus, and was fed by 
Themis with ambrosia and nectar. The pow- 
ers ascribed to Apollo are apparently of different 
kinds, but all are connected with one another, 
and may be said to be only ramifications of one 
and the same, as will be seen from the follow- 
ing classification. He is: 1. Hie god who pun- 
ishes, whence some of the ancients derived his 
name from undWvfii, destroy. (iEsch., Again., 
1081.) As the god who punishes, he is repre- 
sented with bow and arrows, the gift of Vulcan 
(Hephsestus) ; whence his epithets, Ikotoc, kna- 
epyoc, tK.arn&o'Xoc, kTivtoto^oc and upyvporoljoc, 
arcitenens, &c. All sudden deaths were be- 
lieved to be the effect of the arrows of Apollo ; 
and with them he sent the plague into the camp 
of the Greeks. — 2. The god who affords help and 
wards off evil. As he had the power of punish- 
ing men, so he was also able to deliver men, if 
duly propitiated ; hence his epithets, ukeoioc, 
uKeGTup, akei;LKaK.oc, ourr)p, anoTpoTraiog, hm- 
novpioc, iarpofzavTic, opifer, salutifer, &c. From 
his being the god who afforded help, he is the 
father of iEseulapius, the god of the healing art, 
and was also identified in later times with 
Pseeon, the god of the healing art in Homer. 
Vid. P^eon. — 3. The god of prophecy. Apollo 
exercised this power in his numerous oracles, and 
especially in that of Delphi. Vid. Diet, of Ant., 
art. Oracoxum. He had also the power of 
communicating the gift of prophecy both to 
gods and men, and all the ancient seers and pro 
phets are placed in some relationship to him. 
— 4. The god of song and music. We find him 
in the Iliad (i., 603) delighting the immortal 
gods with his phorminx ; and the Homeric 
bards derived their art of song either from 
Apollo or the Muses. Later traditions ascribed 
to Apollo even the invention of the flute and 
lyre, while it is more commonly related that he 
received the lyre from Mercury (Hermes). Re- 

75 



APOLLOCRATES. 



APOLLONIA. 



specting bis musical contests, vid. Marsyas, 
Midas. — 5. The god who protects the flocks and, 
cattle (vofiiocdeac, from vofxbc or Xo/ii}, a meadow 
»r pasture land). There are in Homer only a 
ew allusions to tliis feature in the character of 
Apollo, but in later writers it assumes a very 
prominent form, and in the story of Apollo tend- 
ing the flocks of Admetus at Phera? in Thessaly, 
the idea reaches its height. — 6. Tlie god who de- 
lights in the foundation of towns and the estab- 
lishment of civil constitutions. Hence a town or 
a colony was never founded by the Greeks with- 
out consulting an oracle of Apollo, so that in 
every case he became, as it were, their spiritual 
leader. — 7. The god of the Sun. In Homer, 
Apollo and Helios, or the Sun, are perfectly 
distinct, and his identification with the Sun, 
though almost universal among later writers, 
was the result of later speculations and of for- 
eign, chiefly Egyptian, influence. Apollo had 
more influence upon the Greeks than any other 
god. It may safely be asserted that the Greeks 
would never have become what they were with- 
out the worship of Apollo : in him the brightest 
side of the Grecian mind is reflected. Respect- 
ing his festivals, vid. Diet, of Ant, art. Apol- 
lonia, Thargelia, and others. In the religion 
of the early Romans there is no trace of the 
worship of Apollo. The Romans became ac- 
quainted with this divinity through the Greeks, 
and adopted all then- notions and ideas about 
him from the latter people. There is no doubt 
that the Romans knew of his worship among the 
Greeks at a very early time, and tradition says 
that they consulted his oracle at Delphi, even 
before the expulsion of the kings. But the 
first time that we hear of his worship at Rome 
is in B.C. 430, when, for the purpose of avert- 
ing a plague, a temple was raised to him, and 
soon after dedicated by the consul, 0. Julius. 
A second temple was built to him in 350. Dur- 
ing; the second Punic war, in 212, the ludi Apol- 
linares were instituted in his honor. Vid. Diet, 
of Ant., art. Lddi Apollinares. His worship, 
however, did not form a very prominent part in 
the religion of the Romans till the time of Au- 
gustus, who, after the battle of Actium, dedicat- 
ed to him a portion of the spoils, built or embel- 
lished his temple at Actium, and founded a new 
one at Rome on the Palatine, and instituted 
quinquennial games at Actium. The most beau- 
tiful and celebrated among the extant repre- 
sentations of Apollo are the Apollo Belvedere 
at Rome, which was discovered in 1503 at Ret- 
tuno, and the Apollino at Florence. In the 
Apollo Belvedere, the god is represented with 
commanding but serene majesty ; sublime intel- 
lect and physical beauty are combined in the 
most wonderful manner. 

Apollocrates ('ATroXXoKpurvc), elder son of 
Dionysius the Younger, was left by his father in 
command of the island and citadel of Syracuse, 
but was compelled by famine to surrender them 
to Dion, about B.C. 354. 

Apollodorus ('AnoXlciAopoc). 1. Of Amphip- 
OLrs one of the generals of Alexander the 
Great, was intrusted in B.C. 331, together with 
Menes, with the administration of Babylon and 
of all the satrapies as far as Cilicia. — 2. Tyrant 
of Cassandrea (formerly Potidasa), in the pen- 
insula of Pallene, obtained the supreme power 
76 



in B.C. 3*79, and exercised it with the utmost 
cruelty. He was conquered and put to death 
by Antigonus Gonatas. — 3. Of Cartstus, a 
comic poet, probably lived B.C. 300-260, and 
was one of the most distinguished of the poets 
of the new Attic comedy. It was from him that 
Terence took his Hecyra and Phormio. — i. Of 
Gela in Sicily, a comic poet and a contempo- 
rary of Menander, lived B.C. 340-290. He is 
frequently confounded with Apollcdorus of Ca- 
rystus. — 5. A Grammarian of Athens, son of 
Asclepiades,, and pupil of Aristarchus and Pana> 
tius, flourished about B.C. 140. He wrote a 
great number of worts, all of which have per- 
ished with the exception of his Bibliotheca. 
This work consists of three books, and is by far 
the best among the extant works of the kind. 
It contains a well-arranged account of the my- 
thology and the heroic age of Greece : it begins 
with the origin of the gods, and goes down to 
the time of Theseus, when the work suddenly 
breaks off. — Editions : By K^yne, Gottingen, 
1803, 2d ed.; by Clavier, Paris, 1805, with a 
French translation ; and by Westermann in the 
Mythographi, Brunswick, 1843. Of the many 
other works of Apollodorus, one of the most im- 
portant was a chronicle in iambic verses, com- 
prising the history of one thousand and forty 
years, from the destruction of Troy (11 S4) down 
to his own time, B.C. 143. — 6. Of Pergamus, a 
Greek rhetorician, taught rhetoric at Apollonia in 
his advanced age, and had as a pupil the young 
Octavius, afterward the Emperor Augustus. — 7. 
^ painter of Athens, flourished about B.C. 408, 
with whom commenced a new period in the his- 
tory of the art. He made a great advance in 
coloring, and invented chiaroscuro. — 8. An ar- 
chitect of Damascus, lived under Trajan anr 
Hadrian, by the latter of whom he was put to 
death.— [9. Of Phalerum, one of the intimate 
friends of Socrates, and who was present at his 
death. — 10. Of Lemnos, a writer on agriculture 
previous to the time of Aristotle.] 

Apollonia ('ATroXXuvia : ' A-TvoWoviaTric). 1. 
(Now Pollina or Pollona), an important town in 
Illyria or New Epiru's, not far from the mouth 
of the Aous, and sixty stadia from the sea. It 
was founded by the Corinthians and Coreyrav 
ans, and was equally celebrated as a place of 
commerce and learning : many distinguished 
Romans, among others the young Octavius, af- 
terward the Emperor Augustus, pursued then- 
studies here. Persons travelling from Italy to 
Greece and the East, usually landed either at 
Apollonia or Dyrrhachium ; and the Via Egnatia, 
the great high road to the East, commenced at 
Apollonia, or, according to others, at Dyrrha- 
chium. Vid. Egnatia Via. — 2. (Now Polina), 
a town in Macedonia, on the Via Egnatia, be- 
tween Thessalonica and Amphipolis, and south 
of the Lake of Bolbe. — 3. (Now Sizcboli), a 
town in Thrace on the Black Sea, with two 
harbors, a colony of Miletus, afterward called 
Sozopolis, whence its modern name : it had a 
celebrated temple of Apollo, from which Lucul- 
lus carried away a colossus of this god, and 
erected it on the Capitol at Rome. — 4. A castle 
or fortified town of the Locri Ozote, near Nau- 
pactus. — 5. A town in Sicily, on the northern 
coast, of uncertain site. — 6. (Now Abullionte), a. 
town in Bithynia, on the Lake Apolloniatis, 



APOLLONIATIS. 



APOLLONIUS. 



through which the River Rhyndacus flows. — 7. 
A town on the borders of Mysia and Lydia, be- 
tween Pergamus and Sardis. — 8. A town in 
Palestina, between Caesarea and Joppa. — 9. A 
town in Assyria, in the district of Apolloniatis, 
through which the Delas or Durus (now Diala) 
flows. — (10. Now Marza Susa), a town in Cy- 
renaiea, and the harbor of Cyrene, one of the five 
towns of the Pentapolis in Libya: it was the 
birth-place of Eratosthenes. 

[Apolloniatis. Vid. Assyria, 1.] 

[Apollonidas (' 'AiroUuvldac), a Greek poet, 
under whose name there are thirty-one pieces 
extant in the Greek Anthology. He flourished 
under Augustus and Tiberius.] 

[Apollonides {'A7roXXo}vid7ic, Dor. 'kiroXkuv- 
idac). 1. Commander of the cavalry in Olyn- 
thus, who opposed Philip of Macedon, and pre- 
vented the surrender of the town to him. Philip, 
however, by his agents in Olynthus, procured 
his banishment. — 2. A Bceotian officer in the 
army of Cyrus the Younger, who was, after the 
death of Cyrus, deprived of his office, and de- 
graded to a menial condition. — 3. Of Chios, 
who betrayed Chios to the Persian general 
Memnon during Alexander's eastern expedi- 
tion : he was afterward taken and put in con- 
finement. — 4. A Stoic philosopher, friend of the 
younger Cato, with whom he conversed on the 
allowableness of suicide before committing that 
act at Utica. — 5. A Greek physician and sur- 
geon, born at Cos, obtained reputation and hon- 
or at the Persian court under Artaxerxes Lon- 
gimanus. He became engaged in a disreputa- 
ble attempt, and was put to death by torture.] 

Apollonis ('Airolluvic), a city in Lydia, be- 
tween Pergamus and Sardis, named after Apol- 
lonis, the mother of King Eumenes. It was 
one of the twelve cities of Asia which were 
destroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Ti- 
berius (A.D. 17). 

APOLLONIUS (^AlToXkuVLOc). 1. Of Alabanda 
in Caria, a rhetorician, taught rhetoric at Rhodes 
about B.C. 100. He was a very distinguished 
teacher of rhetoric, and used to ridicule and de- 
spise philosophy. He was surnamed 6 MaXanoc. 
and must be distinguished from the following. 
— 2. Of Alabanda, surnamed Molo, likewise a 
rhetorician, taught rhetoric at Rhodes, and also 
distinguished himself as a pleader in the courts 
of justice. In B.C. 81, when Sulla was dicta- 
tor, Apollonius came to Rome as ambassador 
of the Rhodians, on which occasion Cicero 
heard him ; Cicero also received instruction 
from Apollonius at Rhodes a few years later. — 
3. Son of Archebulus, a grammarian of Alex- 
andres in the first century of the Christian era, 
and a pupil of Didymus. He wrote an Homeric 
Lexicon, which is still extant, and, though ' much 
interpolated, is a work of great value. — Edi- 
tions: By Villoison, Paris, 1773 ; "by H. Tollius, 
Lugd. Bat., 1788 : and by Bekker, Berlin, 1833. 
— 3. Surnamed Dyscolus, " the ill-tempered," 
a grammarian at Alexandrea, in the reigns of 
Hadrian and Antoninus Pius (A.D. 117-161), 
taught at Rome as well as Alexandrea. He 
and his son Herodianus are called by Priseian 
the greatest of all grammarians. Apollonius 
was the first who reduced grammar to any 
thing like a system. Of his numerous works 
only four are extant. L Hepl cvvruljeuc rov 



%oyov fiepav, "De Constructione Orationis," 01 
" De Ordinatione sive Constructione Dictio- 
num," in four books ; edited by Fr. Sylburg, 
Frankf., 1590, and by I. Bekker, Berlin, 1817. 
2. Tlepl avruvvji'iac, " De Pronomine ;" edited 
by I. Bekker, Berlin, 1814. 3. Ilepl cvvdscftov, 
" De Conjunctionibus," and, 4. Tlupt mi^rnxdruv, 
" De Adverbiis," printed in Bekker's Anecdot., 
ii., p. 477, &c. Among the works ascribed to 
Apollonius by Suidas there is one, irepl naTEipevo- 
fj-evije iaroplac, on fictitious or forged histories : 
this has been erroneously supposed to be the 
same as the extant work 'laropcac dav/xaoiai, 
which purports to be written by au Apollonius 
(published by Westermann, Paradoxographi, 
Brunswick, 1839); but it is now admitted that 
the latter work was written by an Apollonius 
who is otherwise unknown. — 5. Pergjeus, from 
Perga in Pamphylia, one of the greatest mathe- 
maticians of antiquity, commonly called the 
" Great Geometer," was educated at Alexan- 
drea under the successors of Euclid, and flour- 
ished about B.C. 250-220. His most important 
work was a treatise on Conic Sections in eight 
books, of which the first four, with the com- 
mentary of Eutocius, are extant in Greek ; and 
all but the eighth in Arabic. We have also in- 
troductory lemmata to all the eight by Pappus 
Edited by Halley, " Apoll. Perg. Conic, lib. viii.," 
<Scc, Oxon., 1710, fol. The eighth book is o 
conjectural restoration founded on the introduc 
tory lemmata of Pappus. — 6. Rhodius, a poel 
and grammarian, son of Silleus or Illeus and 
Rhode, was born at Alexandrea, or, according 
to one statement, at Naucratis, and flourisheo 
in the reigns of Ptolemy Philopator and Ptolemy 
Epiphanes (B.C. 222-181). In his youth he was 
instructed by Callimachus ; but they afterward 
became bitter enemies. Their tastes were en- 
tirely different ; for Apollonius admired and imi- 
tated the simplicity of the ancient epic poets, 
and disliked and despised the artificial and learn- 
ed poetry of Callimachus. When Apollonius 
read at Alexandrea his poem on the Argonautic 
expedition (Argonautica), it did not meet with 
the approbation of the audience ; he attributed 
its failure to the intrigues of Callimachus, and 
revenged himself by writing a bitter epigram 
on Callimachus which is still extant. (Anth. 
Grcec, xi., 275.) Callimachus, in return, attack- 
ed Apollonius in his Ibis, which was imitated by 
Ovid in a poem of the same name. Apollonius 
now left Alexandrea and went to Rhodes, where 
he taught rhetoric with so much success, that 
the Romans honored him with their franchise : 
henee he was called the " Rhodian." He after- 
ward returned to Alexandrea, where he read a 
revised edition of his Argonautica with great 
applause. He succeeded Eratosthenes as chiel 
librarian at Alexandrea, in the reign of Ptolemy 
Epiphanes, about B.C. 194, and appears to have 
held this office till his death. The Argonaut- 
ica, which consists of four books, and is still ex- 
tant, gives a straightforward and simple descrip- 
tion of the adventures of the Argonauts : it is a 
close imitation of the Homeric language and 
style, but exhibits marks of art and labor, and 
thus forms, notwithstanding its many resem- 
blances, a contrast with the natural and easy 
flow of the Homeric poems. Among the Ro- 
mans the work was much read, and P. Teren- 

77 



APOLLONIUS. 



APPIANUS. 



tras Varro Atacinus acquired great reputation 
by his translation of it. The Argonautica of 
Valerius Flaccus is only a free imitation of 
it. — Editions : By Brunek, Argentorat., 1T80 ; 
by G. Sehsefer, Lips., 1810-13 ; by Wellauer, 
Lips., 1828. Apollonius "wrote several other 
works which are now lost. — 1. Tyanensis or 
Tyan^eus, i. e., of Tyana in Cappadocia, a Py- 
thagorean philosopher, was born about four 
years before the Christian era. At a period 
when there was a general belief in magical 
powers, it would appear that Apollonius obtain- 
ed great influence by pretending to them ; and 
we may believe that his Life by Philostratus 
gives a just idea of his character and reputation, 
however inconsistent in its facts and absurd in 
its marvels. Apollonius, according to Philos- 
tratus, was of noble ancestiy, and studied first 
under Euthydemus of Tarsus ; but, being dis- 
gusted at the luxury of the inhabitants, he re- 
tired to the neighboring town of JEgse, where 
he studied the whole circle of the Platonic, 
Skeptic, Epicurean, and Peripatetic philosophy, 
and ended by giving his preference to the Pyth- 
agorean. He devoted himself to the strictest 
asceticism, and subsequently travelled through- 
out the East, visiting Nineveh, Babylon, and 
India. On his return to Asia Minor, we first 
hear of his pretensions to miraculous power, 
founded, as it would seem, on the possession of 
some divine knowledge derived from the East. 
From Ionia he crossed over into Greece, and 
came thence to Rome, where he arrived just 
after an edict against magicians had been issued 
by Nero. He accordingly remained only a short 
time at Rome, and next went to Spain and Af- 
rica ; at Alexandrea he was of assistance to 
Vespasian, who was preparing to seize the em- 
pire. The last journey of Apollonius was to 
^Ethiopia, whence he returned to settle in the 
Ionian cities. On the accession of Domitian, 
Apollonius was accused of exciting an insur- 
rection against the tyrant : he voluntarily sur- 
rendered himself, and appeared at Rome before 
the emperor; but, as his destruction seemed 
impending, he escaped by the exertion of his 
supernatural powers. The last years of his life 
were spent at Ephesus, where he is said to have 
proclaimed the death of the tyrant Domitian at 
the instant it took place. Many of the won- 
ders which Philostratus relates in connection 
with Apollonius are a clumsy imitation of the 
Christian miracles. The proclamation of the 
birth of Apollonius to his mother by Proteus, 
and the incarnation of Proteus himself, the cho- 
rus of swans which sang for joy on the occa- 
sion, the casting out of devils, raising the dead, 
and healing the sick, the sudden disappearances 
and reappearances of Apollonius, his adventures 
in the cave of Trophonius, and the sacred voice 
which called him at his death, to which may be 
added his claim as a teacher having authority to 
reform the world, can not fail to suggest the 
parallel passages in the Gospel history, [from 
which they have evidently been borrowed.] 
We know, too, that Apollonius was one among 
many rivals set up by the Eclectics to our Sa- 
viour, an attempt renewed by the English free- 
thinkers Blount and Lord Herbert. Stall it must 
be allowed that the resemblances are very gen- 
eral, and, on the whole, it seems probable that 
78 



the life of Apollonius was not written with a 
controversial aim, as the resemblances, although 
real, only indicate that a few things were bor- 
rowed, and exhibit no trace of a systematic 
parallel. Vid. Philostratus. — 8. Of Tyre, a 
Stoic philosopher, who lived in the reign of 
Ptolemy Auletes, wrote a history of the Stoic 
philosophy from the time of Zeno. — 9. Apollo- 
nius and Tauriscus of Tralles, were two broth 
ers, and the sculptors of the group which is com- 
monly known as the Farnese bull, representing 
the punishment of Diree by Zethus and Amphi- 
on. Vid. Dirce. It was taken from Rhodes to 
Rome by Asinius Pollio, and afterward placed in 
the baths of Caracalla, where it was dug up in 
the sixteenth century, and deposited in the Far- 
nese palace. It is now at Naples. Apollonius 
and Tauriscus probably flourished in the first cen- 
tury of the Christian era. 

Apollophanes ('AnoA7io<j>dv7;g), a poet of the 
old Attic comedy, of whose comedies a few frag- 
ments are extant, lived about B.C. 400. [The 
fragments are collected in Meineke's Fragm. Coin. 
Grcec, vol. i., p. 482-484, edit, minor.] 

Aponus or Aponi Fons (now Abano), warm 
medicinal springs near Patavium, hence called 
Aqua? Patavinas, were much frequented by the 
sick. 

Appia or Apia ('Anma, 'Anta), a city of Phry- 
gia Pacatiana. 

Appla Via, the most celebrated of the Roman 
roads (regina viarum, Stat., Silv., ii., 2, 12,), was 
commenced by Appius Claudius Caecus when 
censor, B.C. 319, and was the great fine of com- 
munication between Rome and Southern Italy. 
It issued from the Porta Capena, and, passing 
through Aricia, Tres Tabernce, Appii Forum. 
Tarracina, Fundi, Formice, Minturnce, Sinuessa, 
and Casilinum, terminated at Capua, but was 
eventually extended through Calatia and Cau- 
dium to Beneventum, and finally thence through 
Venusia, Tarentum, and Uria, to Brundisium. 

Appianus ('ATrniavos), the Roman historian, 
was born at Alexandrea, and lived at Rome 
during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and An- 
toninus Pius. He wrote a Roman history 
('PufiaiKa or Tu/ialKr) ioTopla) in twenty-four 
books, arranged, not synchronistically, but eth- 
nographically, that is, he did not relate the his- 
tory of the Roman empire as a whole in chro- 
nological order, but he gave a separate account 
of the affairs of each country, till it was finally 
incorporated in the Roman empire. The sub- 
jects of the different books were : 1. The king- 
ly period. 2. Italy. 3. The Samnites. 4. The 
Gauls or Celts. 5. Sicily and the other islands. 
6. Spain. 1. Hannibal's wars. 8. Libya, Car- 
thage, and Numidia. 9. Macedonia. 10. Greece 
and the Greek states in Asia Minor. 11. Syria 
and Parthia, 12. The war with Mithradates 
13-21. The civil wars, in nine books, frorr- 
those of Marius and Sulla to the battle of Ac 
tium. 22. 'EnaTovTacTta, comprised the history 
of a hundred years, from the battle of Actiuni 
to the beginning of Vespasian's reign. 23. The 
-wars with Illyria. 24. Those with Arabia 
We possess only eleven of these complete, 
namely, the sixth, seventh, eighth, eleventh, 
twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, six- ■ 
teenth, seventeenth, and twenty-third : there 
are fragments of several of the others. The 



APPIAS. 



APULIA. 



Parthian history, which has come down to us 
as part of the eleventh book, is not a work of 
Appian, but merely a compilation from Plu- 
tarch's Lives of Antony and Crassus. Appian's 
work is a compilation. His style is clear and 
simple ; but he possesses few merits as an his- 
torian, and he frequently makes the most ab- 
surd blunders. Thus, for instance, he places 
Saguntum on the north of the Iberus, and states 
that it takes only half a day to sail from Spain 
to Britain. The best edition is that of Sehweig- 
hauser, Lips., 1785. 

Appias, a nymph of the Appian well, which 
was situated near the temple of Venus Genetrix 
in the forum of Julius Caesar. It was surrounded 
by statues of nymphs, called Appiades. 

Applc Forum. Vid. Forum Appii. 

[Appiol^e, an old city of Latium, said to have 
been taken and burned by Tarquinius Priseus, 
and to have furnished from its spoils the sums 
necessary for the construction of the Circus 
Maximus.] 

[Appius Claudius. Vid. Claudius.] 

Appuleius or Apuleius, of Medaura in Africa, 
was born about A.D. 130, of respectable parents. 
He received the first rudiments of education at 
Carthage, and afterward studied the Platonic 
philosophy at Athens. He next travelled ex- 
tensively, visiting Italy, Greece, and Asia, and 
becoming initiated in most mysteries. At length 
he returned home, but soon afterward undertook 
a new journey to Alexandrea. On his way 
thither he was taken ill at the town of CEa, and 
was hospitably received into the house of a 
young man, Sicinius Pontianus, whose mother, 
a very rich widow of the name of Pudentilla, 
he married. Her relatives, being indignant that 
so much wealth should pass out of the family, 
impeached Appuleius of gaining the affections 
of Pudentilla by charms and magic spells. The 
cause was heard at Sabrata before Claudius 
Maximus, proconsul of Africa, A.D. IT 3, and 
the defence spoken by Appuleius is still extant. 
Of his subsequent career we know little : he 
occasionally declaimed in public with great ap- 
plause. The most important of the extant works 
of Appuleius are, 1. Metamorphoscon seu de Asino 
Aureo Libri XI. This celebrated romance, to- 
gether with the Asinus of Lucian, is said to have 
been founded upon a work bearing the same 
title by a certain Lucius of Patrae. It seems to 
have been intended simply as a satire upon the 
hypocrisy and debauchery of certain orders of 
priests, the frauds of juggling pretenders to su- 
pernatural powers, and the general profligacy 
of public morals. There are some, however, 
who discover a more recondite meaning, and 
especially Bishop Warburton, in his Divine Le- 
gation of Moses, who has at great length en- 
deavored to prove that the Golden Ass was 
written with the view of recommending the Pa- 
gan religion in opposition to Christianity, and 
especially of inculcating the importance of initia- 
tion into the purer mysteries. The well-known 
and beautiful episode of Cupid and Psyche is in- 
troduced in the fourth, fifth, and sixth books. 
This, whatever opinion we may form of the prin- 
cipal nan'ative, is evidently an allegory, and is 
generally understood to shadow forth the pro- 
gress of the soul to perfection. II. Floridorum 
Libri IV. An Anthology, containing select ex- 



tracts from various orations and dissertations, 
collected, probably, by some admirer. III. Be 
Beo Socratis Liber. IV. Be Bogmate Platonis 
Libri tres. The first book contains some ac- 
count of the speculative doctrines of Plato, the 
second of his morals, the third of his logic. V 
Be Mundo Liber. A translation of the work 
Ttepl k'oo)xov, at one time ascribed to Aristotle. 
VI. Apologia sive Be Magia Liber. The oration 
described above, delivered before Claudius Max- 
imus. The best edition of the whole works of 
Appuleius is by Hilde brand, Lips., 1842. 

Appuleius Saturninus. Vid. Saturnlnus. 

Apries ('ATtpiric, 'Airpiac), a king of Egypt, 
the Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, succeeded his 
father Psammis, and reigned B.C. 595-570. Af- 
ter an unsuccessful attack upon Cyrene he was 
dethroned and put to death by Amasis. 

Apronius. 1. Q., one of the worst instru- 
ments of Verres in oppressing the Sicilians. — 
2. L., served under Drusus (A.D. 14) and Ger- 
manicus (15) in Germany. In 20 he was pro- 
consul of Africa, and praator of Lower Germany, 
where he lost his life in a war against the Frisii. 
Apronius had two daughters, one of whom was 
married to Plautius Silvanus, the other to Len- 
tulus Gaetulicus, consul in 26. 

[Aprusa (now Ausa), a river of Umbria in 
Italy, flowing near Ariminum.] 

[Apseudes (AfevSrjc), a Nereid, mentioned in 
the Iliad of Homer.] 

Apsilje (Ai/»j/lai), a Scythian people in Col- 
chis, north of the River Phasis. 

Apsines ('kipivTic), of Gadara in Phoenicia, a 
Greek Sophist and rhetorician, taught rhetoric 
at Athens about A.D. 235. Two of his works 
are extant : Tlepl tuv fiepuv rov ttoXitikov "kbyov 
rexvrj, which is much interpolated ; and Uspl 
run ko'x 7 l/- laTl < J p£ vov wpoBATj/idrav, both of which 
are printed in "Walz., Rhetor. Grceci, vol. ix., p. 
465, sqq., and p. 534, sqq. 

[Apsinthii (Aipivdcoi), a people of Thrace, 
said by Herodotus to border on the Thracian 
Chersonesus.] 

Apsus (now Crevasta), a river in Ulyria (Nova 
Epirus), which flows into the Ionian Sea. 

Apsyrtus. Vid. Absyrtus. 

Apta Julia (now Apt), chief town of the Vul- . 
gientes in Gallia Narbonensis, and a Roman 
colony. „ 

Aptera (Anrepa : 'AKTspaloc : now PaWo- 
hastron on the Gulf of Suda), a town on the west 
coast of Crete, eighty stadia from Cydonia. 

Apuani, a Ligurian people on the Macra, were 
subdued by the Romans after a long resistance 
and transplanted to Samnium, B.C. 180. 

Apuleius. Vid. Appuleius. 

Apulia (Apulus), included, in its widest sig- 
nification, the whole of the southeast of Italy 
from the River Frento to the promontory Iapy- 
gium, and was bounded on the north by the 
Frentani, on the east by the Adriatic, on the 
south by the Tarentine Gulf, and on the west 
by Samnium and Lucania, thus including the 
modern provinces of Bari, Otranto, and Capi- 
tanata, in the kingdom of Naples. Apulia, in its 
narrower sense, was the country east of Sam- 
nium on both sides of the Aufidus, the Daunia 
and Peucetia of the Greeks : the whole of the 
southeast part was called Calabria by the Ro- 
mans. The Greeks gave the name of Daunia 
79 



AQPM 



ARA UBIOKUM. 



to the north part of the country from the Frento 
to the Aufidus, of Peucetia to the country from 
the Aufidus to Tarentum and Brundisium, and 
of Iapygia or Messapia to the whole of the re- 
maining south part, though they sometimes in- 
cluded under Iapygia all Apuha in its widest 
meaning. The northwest of Apuha is a plain, 
but the south part is traversed by the east branch 
of the Apennines, and has only a small tract of 
land on the coast on each side of the mountains. 
The country was very fertile, especially in the 
neighborhood of Tarentum, and the mountains 
afforded excellent pasturage. The population 
was of a mixed nature : they were, for the most 
part, of ffiyrian origin, and are said to have set- 
tled in the country under the guidance of Iapyx, 
Daunus, and Peucetius, three sons of an Illyr- 
ian king, Lycaon. Subsequently many towns 
were founded by Greek colonists. The Apu- 
lians joined the Samnites against the Romans, 
and became subject to the latter on the conquest 
of the Samnites. 

Aqujs, the name given by the Romans to 
many medical springs and bathing-places. 1. 
Aureus or Coloxia Aurelia Aquexsis (now 
Baden-Baden). 2. CaliDjE or Sous (now Bath) 
in Britain. 3. Cotille, mineral spi'iugs in Sam- 
uium near the ancient town of Cutilia, which 
perished in early times, and east of Reate. 
There was a celebrated lake in its neighborhood 
with a floating island, which was regarded as 
the umbilicus or centre of Italy. Vespasian 
died at this place. 4. Mattiacle or Fontes 
Mattiaci (now Wiesbaden), in the land of the 
Mattiaci in Germany. 5. P atavism (vid. AroNi 
Fons). 6. Sextm (now Aix), a Roman colony 
in Gallia Narbonensis, founded by Sextius Cal- 
vinus, B.C. 122 ; its mineral waters were long 
celebrated, but were thought to have lost much 
of their efficacy in the time of Augustus. Near 
this place Marius defeated the Teutoni, B.C. 
102. 1. Statiell^e (now Acqui), a town of the 
Statielli in Liguria, celebrated for its warm 
baths. 

AquvE, in Africa. 1. (Now Meriga, ruins), in 
the interior of Mauretania Caesariensis. — 2. Ca- 
liDjE (now Gurbos or Hammam V Enf), on the 
Gulf of Carthage. — 8. Regm (now Hammam 
Truzza), in the north part of Byzaceua. — 4. 
Tacapitan^e (now Harnmat-el-Khabs), at the 
southern extremity of Byzacena, close to the 
large city of Tacape (now Khabs). 

Aquila. 1. Of Pontus, translated the Old 
Testament into Greek in the reign of Hadrian, 
probably about A.D. 130. Only a few fragments 
remain, which have been published in the edi- 
tions of the Hexapla of Origen. — 2. Julius 
Aquila, a Roman jurist quoted in the Digest, 
probably lived under or before the reign of Sep- 
timius Severus, A.D. 193-198. — 3. L. Pontius 
Aquila, a friend of Cicero, and one of Caesar's 
murderers, was killed at the battle of Mutina, 
B.C. 43. — 4. Aquila Romanus, a rhetorician who 
probably lived in the third century after Christ, 
wrote a small work entitled De Figuris Senten- 
tiarum et Elocutionis, which is usually printed 
with Rutilius Lupus. — Editions: By Ruhnken, 
Lugd. Bat., 1*768, reprinted with additional notes 
by Frotscher, Lips., 1831. 

Aquilaiua (now Alhowareah), a town on the 
coast of Zeugitana in Africa, on the west side 
80 



of Hermseum Promontorium (now Cape Bon), 
the eastern extremity of the Gulf of Carthage, 
It was a good landing-place in summer. 

Aquileia (Aquileiensis : now Aquileia or 
Aglar), a town m Gallia Transpadaua, at the 
very top of the Adriatic, between the rivers 
Sontius and Natiso, about sixty stadia from the 
sea. It was founded by the Romans in B.C. 
182 as a bulwark against the northern barbari- 
ans, and is said to have derived its name from 
the favorable omen of an eagle (aquila) appear- 
ing to the colonists. As it was the key of Italy 
on the northeast, it was made one of the strong- 
est fortresses of the Romans. From its posi- 
tion it became also a most flourishing place of 
commerce : the Via iEmilia was continued to 
this town, and from it all the roads to Rae- 
tia, Norieum, Pannonia, Istria, and Dalmatia 
branched off. It was taken and completely de- 
stroyed by Attila in A.D. 452 : its inhabitants 
escaped to the Lagoons, where Venice was after- 
ward built. 

Aquillia Via, began at Capua, and ran south 
through Nola and Nuceria to Salernum; from 
thence it ran through the very heart of Luea- 
nia and the country of the Bruttii, passing Neru- 
hem, Interamnia, Cosentia, Vibo, and Medina, and 
terminated at Rhegium. 

Aquillius or Aquilius. 1. M'., consul B.C. 
129, finished the war against Aristonicus, son 
of Eumenes of Pergamus. On his return to 
Rome he was accused of maladministration in 
his province, but was acquitted by bribing the 
judges. — 2. M'., consul in B.C. 101, conquered 
the slaves in Sicily, who had revolted under 
Athenion. In 98 he was accused of maladmin- 
istration in Sicily, but was acquitted. In 88 he 
went into Asia as one of the consular legates 
in the Mithradatic war : he was defeated, and 
handed over by the inhabitants of Mytilene to 
Mithradates, who put him to death by pouring 
molten gold down his throat. 

Aquillius Gallus. Vid. Gallus. 

Aquilonia (Aquilonus), a town of Samuium, 
east of Bovianum, destroyed by the Romans in 
the Samnite wars. 

Aquinum (Aquinas : now Aquino), a town of 
the Volscians, east of the River Melpis, in a fer- 
tile country ; a Roman municipium, and after- 
ward a colony ; the birth-place of Juvenal ; cel- 
ebrated for its purple dye. (Hor., Ep., i., 10, 
27.) 

Aquitania. 1. The country of the Aquitani, 
extended from the Garumna (now Garonne) tc 
the Pyrenees, and from the ocean to Gallia Nar- 
bonensis : it was first conquered by Caesar's le-, 
gates, and again upon a revolt of the inhabitants 
in the time of Augustus. — 2. The Roman prov- 
ince of Aquitania, formed in the reign of Au- 
gustus, was of much wider extent, and was 
bounded on the north by the Ligeris (now Loire), 
on the west by the ocean, on the south by the 
Pyrenees, and on the east by the Mons Ceven- 
na, which separated it from Gallia Narbonensis. 
The Aquitani were one of the three races which 
inhabited Gaul ; they were of Iberian or Span- 
ish origin, and differed from the Gauls and Bel- 
gians in language, customs, and physical pecu- 
liarity. 

Ara Ubiorum, a place in the neighborhood of 
Bouu in Germany, perhaps Godesbcrg : others 



ARABIA. 

'suppose it to be another name of Colonia Agrip- j 
pina (now Cologne). 

Arabia [n 'ApaBla : "Apaf, pi. "ApaSec, "Apafioi, 
Arabs, Arabus, pi. Arabes, Arab! : now Arabia), 
a country at the southwest extremity of Asia, 
forming a large peninsula, of a sort- of hatchet- 
shape, bounded on the west by the Arabicus 
Sinus (now Red Sea), on the south and south- 
east by the Erythr^eum Mare (now Gulf of 
Bab-el-Mandeb and Indian Ocean), and on the 
northeast by the Persicus Sinus (now Persian 
Gulf). On the north or land side its bounda- 
ries were somewhat indefinite, but it seems to 
have included the whole of the desert country 
between Egypt and Syria on the one side, and 
the banks of the Euphrates on the other ; and it 
was often considered to extend even further on 
both sides, so as to include, on the east, the 
southern part of Mesopotamia along the left 
bank of the Euphrates, and on the west, the 
part of Palestine east of the Jordan, and the 
part of Egypt between the Eed Sea and the 
eastern margin of the Nile valley, which, even 
as a part of Egypt, was called Arabia Nomos. 
In the stricter sense of the name, which confines 
it to the peninsula itself, Arabia may be consid- 
ered as bounded on the north by a line from the 
head of the Red Sea (at Suez) to the mouth of 
the Tigris (now Shat-el- Arab), which just about 
coincides with the parallel of thirty degrees north 
latitude. It was divided into three parts : (1.) 
Arabia Petrjea (r/ Trerpala 'ApaBla: northwest 
part of El-Hejaz), including the triangular piece 
of land between the two heads of the Red Sea 
(the peninsula of Mount Sinai) and the country 
immediately to the north and northeast, and 
called, from its capital, Petra, while the literal 
signification of the name, " Rocky Arabia," agrees 
also with the nature of the country: (2.) Ara- 
bia Deserta (now El-Jebel), including the great 
Syrian Desert, and a portion of the interior of 
the Arabiau peninsula : (3.) Arabia Felix (now 
El-Nejed, El-Hejaz, El-Yemen, El-Hadramaut, 
Oman, and El-Hejer) consisted of the whole 
country not included in the other two divisions ; 
the ignorance of the ancients respecting the 
interior of the peninsula leading them to class 
it with Arabia Felix, although it properly be- 
longs to Arabia Deserta, for it consists, so far as 
it is known, of a sandy desert of steppes and 
table land, interspersed with Oases ( Wadis), and 
fringed with mountains, between which and the 
sea, especially on the western coast, lies a belt 
of low limd (called Tehamah), intersected by 
numerous mountain torrents, which irrigate the 
strips of land on their banks, and produce that 
fertility which caused the ancients to apply 
the epithet of Felix to the whole peninsula. 
The width of the Tehamah is, in some places 
on the western coast, as much as from one to 
two days' journey, but on the other sides it 
is very narrow, except at the eastern end of 
the peninsula (about Muskai in Oman), where 
for a small space its width is again a day's 
journey. The inhabitants of Arabia were of 
the race called Semitic or Aramaean, and closely 
related to the Israelites. The northwestern dis- 
trict (Arabia Petraea) was inhabited by the 
various tribes which constantly appear in Jew- 
ish history : the Amalekites, Midiauites, Edom- 
ites, Moabites, Ammonites, &a. The Greeks 
6 



ARABIA. 

and Romans called the inhabitants by the name 
of Nabath^ei, whose capital was Petra. The 
people of Arabia Deserta were called Arabes 
Scenltae {'Zk.tivIto.l), from their dwelling in tents, 
and Arabes Nomades (Nofiudec), from their 
mode of life, which was that of wandering 
herdsmen, who supported themselves partly by 
their cattle, and to a great extent, also, by the 
plunder of caravans, as their unchanged de 
scendants, the Bedouins or Bedawee, still do 
The people of the Tehatnah were (and are) of 
the same race ; but their position led them at 
an early period to cultivate both agriculture 
and commerce, and to build considerable cities. 
Their chief tribes were known by the follow- 
ing names, beginning south of the Nabathaei 
on the western coast : the Thamydeni and Minaei 
(in the southern part of Hcjaz), in the neigh- 
borhood of Macoraba (now Mecca); the Sabaei 
and Homerita?, in the southwestern part of the 
peninsula (now Yemen) ; on the southeastern 
coast, the Chatramolitae and Adramitss (in El- 
Radramaut, a country very little known, even 
to the present day) ; on the eastern and north- 
eastern coast, the Omamtae and Daracheni (in 
Oman, and El-Ahsa or El-Hejer). From the 
earliest known period a considerable traffic 
was carried on by the people in the north (espe 
cially the Nabathaei) by means of caravans, 
and by those on the southern and eastern coast 
by sea, in the productions of their own country 
(chiefly gums, spices, and precious stones), and 
in those of India and Arabia. Besides this 
peaceful intercourse with the neighboring coun 
tries, they seem to have made military expe 
ditions at an early period, for there can be no 
doubt that the Hyksos or " Shepherd-kings,' 
who for some time ruled over Lower Egypt, 
were Arabians. On the other hand, they have 
successfully resisted all attempts to subjugate 
them. The alleged conquests of some of the 
Assyrian kings could only have affected small 
portions of the country on the north. Of the 
Persian empire we are expressly told that they 
were independent. Alexander the Great died 
too soon even to attempt his contemplated 
scheme of circumnavigating the peninsula and 
subduing the inhabitants. The Greek kings of 
Syria made unsuccessful attacks upon the Naba- 
thaei., Under Augustus, ^Elius Gallus, assisted 
by the Nabathaei, made an expedition into Ara- 
bia Felix, but was compelled to retreat into 
Egypt to save his army from famine and the 
climate. Under Trajan, Arabia Petraea was 
conquered by A. Cornelius Palma (A.D. 107), 
and the country of the Nabathaei became a Ro- 
man province. Some partial and temporary 
footing was gained at a much later period, on the 
southwestern coast, by the ^Ethiopians ; and 
both in this direction and from the north Chris 
tianity was early introduced into the country, 
where it spread to a great extent, and continued 
to exist side by side with the old religion (which 
was Sabaism, or the worship of heavenly bo- 
dies), and with some admixture of Judaism, 
until the total revolution produced by the rise 
of Mohammedanism in 622. "While maintain 
ing their independence, the Arabs of the Desert 
have also preserved to this day their ancient 
form of government, whicli is strictly patri- 
archal, under the heads of tribes and families 

81 



ARABICUS SINUS. 



ARATUS. 



{Emirs and Sheiks). In the more settled dis- 
tricts, the patriarchal authority passed into the 
hands of kings, and the people were divided 
into the several castes of scholars, warriors, 
agriculturists, merchants, and mechanics. The 
Mohammedan revolution lies beyond our limits. 

Arabicus Sinus (6 'ApaBucoc nohiroc : now 
Red Sea), a long narrow gulf between Africa 
and Arabia, connected on the south with the 
Indian Ocean by the Angustiss Divse (now Straits 
of Bab-el- Mandcb), and on the north divided into 
two heads by the peninsula of Arabia Petraaa 
(now Peninsula of Sinai), the east of which was 
called Sinus iElanites or iElaniticus (now Gulf 
of Akaba), and the west Sinus Heroopolites or 
Heroopoliticus (now Gulf of Suez). The upper 
part of the sea was known at a very early pe- 
riod, but it was not explored in its whole ex- 
tent till the maritime expeditions of the Ptole- 
mies. Respecting its other name, see Eryth- 
rjjum Mare. 

Arabis ("ApaBic, also 'ApdBioc, "Apfitf, 'Apra- 
Clc, and 'AprdBtoc: now Poorally or Agbor), a 
river of Gedrosia, falling into the Indian Ocean 
1000 stadia (100 geographical miles) west of the 
mouth of the Indus, and dividing the Orltae on 
its west from the Arabltse or Arbies on its 
east, who had a city named Arbis on its eastern 
bank. 

ArabTtje. Vid. Arabis. 

[Arabius (Scholasticus), a Grecian poet, prob- 
ably in the time of Justinian, who has left seven 
epigrams, which are found in the Anthologia 
Grteca.] 

Arachnjsum ('Apaxvalov), a mountain form- 
ing the bouudary between Argolis and Corin- 
ihia. 

Arachne, a Lydiau maiden, daughter of Id- 
uion of Colophon, a famous dyer in purple. 
Arachne excelled in the art of weaving, and, 
proud of her talent, ventured to challenge Mi- 
nerva (Athena) to compete with her. Arachne 
produced a piece of cloth in which the amours of 
llie gods were woven, and as Minerva (Athena) 
could find no fault with it, she tore the work to 
pieces. Arachne, in despair, hung herself : the 
goddess loosened the rope and saved her life, but 
the rope was changed into a cobweb and Arachne 
herself into a spider (updxvn), the animal most 
xlious to Minerva (Athena). (Ov., Met. vi., 1, 
seq.) This fable seems to suggest the idea that 
nan learned the art of weaving from the spider, 
and that it was invented in Lydia. 

Arachosia ('Apaxoxyia : 'Apaxuroi or -tirai : 
southeastern part of Afghanistan and northeast- 
ern part of Beloochislan), one of the extreme east- 
ern provinces of the Persian (and afterward of the 
Parthian) empire, bounded on the east by the 
Indus, on the north by the Paropamisadas, on the 
west by Drangiana, and on the south by Gedro- 
sia. It was a fertile country, watered by the 
River Arachotus, with a town of the same name, 
built by Semiramis, and which was the capital 
of the province until the foundation of Alexan- 
drea. The shortest road from Persia to India 
passed through Arachosia. 

Arachotus. Vid. Arachosia. 

Auachthus or Aretho ("Apaxdoc or 'Aptduv : 
now Arta), a river of Epirus, rises in Mouut 
Lacmon or the Tymphean Mouutains, and flows 
into the Ambracian Gulf, south of Ambracia : 
82 



it is deep and difficult to cross, and navigable up 
to Ambracia. 

[Aracia ('ApaKca), or Alexandri Insula (now 
Charedsch or Karek), an island in the Persian 
Gulf, opposite the coast of Persis, containing a 
mountain sacred to Neptune.] 

Aracynthus ('ApaKvvdoc : now Zigos), a mount- 
ain on the southwest coast of iEtolia, near Pleu- 
ron, sometimes placed in Acaruania. Later 
writers erroneously make it a mountain between 
Bceotia and Attica, and hence mention it in con- 
nection witb Amphion, the Boeotian hero. (Pro- 
pert., iii., 13, 41 ; Actmo (i. e. Attico) Aracyniho, 
Virg., Eel, ii., 24.) 

Aradus ( "Apadoc : 'Apdihoc, Aradlus : in Old 
Testament, Arvad : now Ruad), an island off 
the coast of Phoenicia, at the distance of twenty 
stadia (two geographical miles), with a city which 
occupied the 'whole surface of the island, seven 
stadia in circumference, which was said to have 
been founded by exiles from Sidon, aud which 
was a very flourishing place under its own kings, 
under the SeleucidEe, and under the Romans. 
It possessed a harbor on the main land, called 
Antaradus. 

Ar* Phil^enorum. Vid. Phil^enorum Ar^e. 

ArvEthyrea ('Apaidvpta), daughter of Aras, 
an autochthon who was believed to have built 
Arantea, the most ancient town in Phliasia 
After her death, her brother Aoris called th« 
country of Phliasia Arasthyrea, in honor of hii 
sister. 

Araphen ('Apa<j>jjv : 'Apafrjvioc, 'Apadxjvodev; 
now Jtqfina), an Attic demus belonging to the 
tribe ^Egeis, on the east of Attica, north of the 
River Erasinus, not far from its mouth. 

Arar or Araris (now Saone), a river of GauL 
rises in the Vosges, receives the Dubis (now 
Doubs) from the east, after which it becomes 
navigable, and flows with a quiet stream into the 
Rhone at Lugdunum (now Eyon). In the time 
of Ammiauus (A.D. 370) it was also called Sau- 
conna, and in the Middle Ages Sangona, whence 
its modern name Saone. 

[Ararene (' Apapnvr/), a barren district of 
Arabia Felix, iuhabited by nomad tribes, through 
which jElius Gallus had to make his way in his 
unsuccessful attempt to subjugate Arabia.] 

Araros ('Apapuc), an Athenian poet of the 
Middle Comedy, son of Aristophanes, flourished 
B.C. 375. [The fragments of his comedies are 
collected in Meineke's Fragm. Comic. Graze, vol. 
i., p. 630-632, edit, minor.] 

Aras. Vid. Ar^ethyrea. 

Araspes ('Apdo-Knc), a Mede, and a friend of 
the elder Cyrus, is one of the characters in Xeu- 
ophon's Cyropredia. He contends with Cyrus 
that love has no power over him, but shortly af- 
terward refutes himself by falling in love with 
Panthea, whom Cyrus had committed to his 
charge. Vid. Abradatas. 

Aratus ("Aparoc). 1. The celebrated general 
of the Achseans, son of Clinias, was bom at 
Sicyon, B.C. 271. On the murder of his father 
by Abantidas, Aratus, who was then a child, was 
conveyed to Argos, where he was brought up. 
When he had reached the age of twenty, he 
gained possession of his native city, B.C. 251, 
deprived the usurper Nicoeles of his power, aud 
united Sicyon to the Achaean league, which 
gained, in consequence, a great accession of 



II 



ARAURA. 



ARCADIA. 



power Vid. Kcbjei. In 245 he was elected 
general of the league, which office he frequently 
held in subsequent years. Through his influ- 
ence a great number of the Greek cities joined 
the league ; but he excelled more in negotiation 
than in war, and in his war with the ^Etoliaus 
and Spartans he was often defeated. In order 
to resist these enemies, he cultivated the friend- 
ship of Antigouus Doson, king of Macedonia, 
and of his successor Philip ; but as Philip was 
evidently anxious to make himself master of all 
Greece, dissensions arose between him and Ara- 
tus, and the latter was eventually poisoned in 
213, by the king's order. Divine honors were 
paid to him by his countrymen, and an annual 
festival ('ApuTsta, vid. Diet, of Antiq.) establish- 
ed. Aratus. wrote Commentaries, being a his- 
tory of his own times down to B.C. 220, at 
which point Polybius commenced his history. 
— 2. Of Soli, afterward Pompeiopolis, in Cilicia, 
or (according to one authority) of Tarsus, flour- 
ished B.C. 270, and spent all the latter part of 
his life at the court of Antigonus Gonatas, king 
of Macedonia. He wrote two astronomical po- 
ems, entitled Phenomena (iatvofieva), consisting 
of 732 verses, and Diosemeia (Aioan/neia), of 422. 
The design of the Phamomena is to give an in- 
troduction to the knowledge of the constella- 
tions, with the rules for their risings and set- 
tings. The Diosemeia consists of prognostics 
of the weather from astronomical phenomena, 
with an account of its effects upon animals. It 
appears to be an imitation of Hesiod, and to 
have been imitated by Virgil in some parts of 
the Georgics. The style of these two poems is 
distinguished by elegance and accuracy, but it 
wants originality and poetic elevation. That 
thjy became very popular both in the Grecian 
and Roman world (cum sole et luna semper Ara- 
tus erit, Ov., Am., i., 15, 16), is proved by the 
number of commentaries and Latin translations. 
Parts of three poetical Latin translations are 
preserved. One written by Cicero when very 
young, one by Caasar Germanicus, the grand- 
son of Augustus, and one by Festus Avienus. 
— Editions. [Most copious and complete, by 
Buhle, Lips., 1793-1801, 2 vols. ; later, with re- 
vised text], by Voss, Heidelb., 1824, with a Ger- 
man poetical version ; by Buttmaun, Berol., 
1826 ; and by Bekker, Berol., 1828. 

[Araura (now St. Tiberi), earlier Cessero, a 
town of the Volcae Arecomici, on the Arauris, 
in Gallia Narbonensis.] 

Arauris (now Heraulf), erroneously Rauraris 
in Strabo, a river in Gallia Narbonensis, rises 
in Mount Cevenna, and flows into the Mediter- 
ranean. 

Arausio (now Orange,) a town of the Cavari 
or Cavares, and a Roman colony, in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, on the road from Arelate to Vienna : 
it still contains remains of an amphitheatre, 
circus, acqueduct, triumphal arch, &c. 

Araxes ('Apd^rjc), the name of several rivers. 
— 1. In Armenia Major (now Eraskhov Aras), 
rises in Mount Aba or Abus (near Erzeroum), 
from the opposite side of which the Euphrates 
flows ; and, after a great bend southeast, and 
then northeast, joins the Cyrus (now Kour), 
which flows down from the Caucasus, and falls 
with it into the Caspian by two mouths, in about 
39° 20' north latitude. The lower part, past Ae- 



taxata, flows through a plain, which was call 
ed to 'Apaljnvbv Trediov. The Araxes was pro- 
verbial for the force of its current ; and hence 
Virgil (JEn., viii., 728) says pontem indignatus 
Araxes, with special reference to the failure of 
' both Xerxes and Alexander in throwing a bridge 
I over it. It seems to be the Phasis of Xeno- 
phon. — 2. In Mesopotamia. Vid. Aborrhas. 
! — 3. In Persis (now Bend-Emir), the river on 
which Persepolis stood, rises in the mountaius 
east of the head of the Persian Gulf, and flows 
southeast into a salt lake (now Bakhtegan) not 
far below Persepolis. — 4. It is doubtful whether 
the Araxes of Herodotus is the same as the 
Oxus, Jaxartes, or Volga. — 5. The Peneus, in 
Thessaly, was called Araxes from the violence 
of its torrent (from apuouu). 

Araxus ("Apa^oc : now Cape Papa), a prom- 
ontory of Achaia, near the confines of Elis. 

Arbaces ("ApfiuKnc), the founder of the Medi- 
an empire, according to Ctesias, is said to have 
taken Nineveh in conjunction with Belesis, the 
Babylonian, and to have destroyed the old As- 
syrian empire under the reign of Sardanapalus, 
B.C. 876. Ctesias assigns twenty-eight years 
to the reign of Arbaces, B.C. 876-848, and 
makes his dynasty consist of eight kings. This 
account differs from that of Herodotus, who 
makes Deioces the first king of Media, and as- 
signs only four kings to his dynasty. 

Arbela (tu "ApCijXa : now Erbille), a city of 
Adiabene in Assyria, between the rivers Lycus 
and Caprus ; celebrated as the head-quarters of 
Darius Codomannus before the last battle in 
which he was overthrown by Alexander (B.C. 
331), which is hence frequently called the battle 
of Arbela, though it was really fought near Gac 
gamela, about fifty miles west of Arbela. The 
district about Arbela was called Arbelitis ('Ap- 
6n7uTLg). 

Arbis. Vid. Arabis. 

[Arbiter. Vid. Petronius.] 

Arbucala or Arbocala (now Villa Fasila ?), 
the chief town of the Vacctei in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, taken by Hannibal after a long re- 
sistance. 

Arbuscula, a celebrated female actor in pan- 
tomimes in the time of Cicero. 

Arca or -je. ("ApK.7) or -at : now Tell-Arka), a 
very ancient city in the north of Phoenicia, not 
far from the sea-coast, at the foot of Mount 
Lebanon : a colony under the Romans, named 
Arca CaBsarea or Cassarea Libani : the birth- 
place of the Emperor Alexander Severus. 

Arcadia ('ApKad'ia : "ApKac, pi. 'ApuudEc), a 
country in the middle of Peloponnesus, was 
bounded on the east by Argolis, on the north by 
Achaia, on the west by Elis, and on the south 
by Messenia and Laconica. Next to Laconica 
it was the largest country in the Peloponnesus 
its greatest length was about fifty miles, its 
breadth from thirty-five to forty-one miles. It 
was surrounded on all sides by mountains, 
which likewise traversed it in every direction 
and it may be regarded as the Switzerland of 
Greece. Its principal mountains were Cyllene 
and Erymanthus in the north, Artemisius irr the 
east, and Parthenius, Majnalus, and Lyeajus in 
the south and southwest. The AlphOus, the 
greatest river of Peloponnesus, rises in Arcadia, 
and flows through a considerable part of thff 

83 



ARCADIUS 



ARCHEDEMUS. 



country, l /ceiving numerous affluents. The 
northern and eastern parts of the country -were 
barren and unproductive ; the western and 
southern were more fertile, with numerous val- 
leys where corn was grown. The Arcadians, 
said to be descended from the eponymous hero 
Arcas, regarded thenselves as the most ancient 
people in Greece : the Greek writers call them 
indigenous (avroxdovee) and Pelasgians. In con- 
sequence of the physical peculiarity of the coun- 
try, they were chiefly employed in hunting and 
the tending of cattle, whence their worship of 
Pan, who was especially the god of Arcadia, and 
of Diana (Artemis). They were a people sim- 
ple in their habits and moderate in their desires : 
they were passionately fond of music, and cul- 
tivated it with great success (soli cantare periti 
Arcades, Virg., Eel., x., 32), which circumstance 
was supposed to soften the natural roughness 
of their character. The Arcadians experienced 
fewer changes than any other people in Greece, 
and retained possession of their country upon 
the conquest of the rest of Peloponnesus by the 
Dorians. Like the other Greek communities, 
they were originally governed by kings, but are 
said to have abolished monarchy toward the 
close of the second Messenian war, and to have 
stoned to death their last king Aristocrates, be- 
cause he betrayed his allies the Messenia.ns. 
The different towns then became independent 
republics, of which the most important were 
Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenxjs, Psophis, and 
Pheneos. Like the Swiss, the Arcadians fre- 
quently served as mercenaries, and in the Pelo- 
pounesian war, they were found in the armies 
of both the Lacedaemonians and Athenians. 
The Lacedaemonians made many attempts to 
obtain possession of parts of Arcadia, but these 
attempts were finally frustrated by the battle 
of Leuctra (B.C. 371); and in order to resist 
all future aggressions on the part of Sparta, 
the Arcadians, upon the advice of Epami- 
uondas, built the city of Megalopolis, and in- 
stituted a general assembly of the whole na- 
tion, called the Myrii (Mvploi, vid. Diet, of Antiq., 
s. I 1 .). They subsequently joined the Achaean 
League, and finally became subject to the Ro- 
mans. 

Arcadius, emperor of the East (A.D. 395- 
408), elder son of Theodosius I., was born in 
Spain, A.D. 383. On the death of Theodosius 
he became emperor of the East, while the West 
was given to his younger brother Honorius. 
Arcadius possessed neither physical nor intel- 
lectual vigor, and was entirely governed by un- 
worthy favorites. At first he was ruled by Ru- 
fiuus, the prsefect of the East; and on the mur- 
der of the latter soon after the accession of 
Arcadius, the government fell into the hands of 
the eunuch Eutropius. Eutropius was put to 
death in 399, and his power now devolved upon 
Gainas, the Goth ; but upon his revolt and death 
in 401, Arcadius became entirely dependent upon 
his wife Eudoxia, and it was through her influ- 
ence that Saint Chrysostom was exiled in 404. 
Arcadius died on the first of May, 408, leaving 
the empire to his son, Theodosius II., who was 
a minor. 

[Arcadius ('ApKadiog), a Greek grammarian 
jf Antioch, of uncertain date, but certainly not 
earlier than 200 A.D. He wrote a useful work 
84 



on accents (nepl tovuv), which is extant.— Edi 
Hons: By Barker, Leipzig, 1820, and by Dindorij 
in his Graminat. Greed, Leipzig, 1823.] 

Arcanum. Vid. Arpinum. 

Arcas ("Apuae), king and eponymous hero of 
the Arcadians, son of Jupiter (Zeus) and Cal- 
listo, grandson of Lycaon, and father of Aphidas 
and Elatus. Arcas was the boy whose flesh 
his grandfather Lycaon placed before Jupiter 
(Zeus), to try his diviue character. Jupiter 
(Zeus) upset the table (rpuircfa) which bore the 
dish, and destroyed the house of Lycaon by light- 
ning, but restored Arcas to life. When Areas 
had grown up, he built on the site of his father's 
house the town of Trapezus. Areas and his 
mother were placed by Jupiter (Zeus) among 
the stars. 

Arcesilaus or Arcesilas ('ApKeaiXaoc, 'Apxe- 
a'Aac), a Greek philosopher, son of Seuthes or 
Scythes, was born at Pitane in _<Eolis, and flour 
ished about B.C. 250. He studied at first in 
his native town under Autolycus, a mathema- 
tician and afterward went to Athens, where he 
became the disciple first of Theophrastus, and 
next of Polemo and of Crantor. He succeeded 
Crates about B.C. 241 in the chair of the Acad- 
emy, and became the founder of the second or 
middle (fiecy) Academy. He is said to have 
died in his seventy-sixth year from a fit of 
drunkenness. His philosophy was of a skep- 
tical character, though it did not go so far as 
that of the followers of Pyrrhon. He did not 
doubt the existence of truth in itself, only our 
capacities for obtaining it, and he combated 
most strongly the dogmatism of the Stoics. 

Arcesilaus ('ApueccAaoc). 1. Son of Lycus 
and Theobule, leader of the Boeotians in the 
Trojan war, slain by Hector. — 2. The name of 
four kings of Cyrene. Vid. Battus and Bat- 
tiadjE. — [3. A Sicilian, who accompanied 
Agathocles to Africa, but, on the departure of 
the latter from that country, murdered his son 
Archagathus. — 4. A sculptor in the first cen- 
tury B.C., who was held in high esteem at 
Rome : he was intimate with L. Lentulus, and 
was greatly commended by Varro.] 

Arcesius ('ApKsiatoe), son of Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Euryodia, father of Laertes, and grandfather 
of Ulysses. Hence both Laertes and Ulysses 
are called Areesiades ('ApKELaiddrje). 

ArchjEOPolis ('ApxaiOTTolic), the later capital 
of Colchis, near the River Phasis. 

[Archagathus. Vid. Arcesilaus, 3.] 

Archandropolis ('ApxdvSpov iruXie), a city of 
Lower Egypt, on the Nile, between Canopua 
and Cercasorus. 

[Archebates ('Apxe6dT7je), son of Lycaon, 
destroyed by Jupiter (Zeus) by lightning.] 

Archedemus {^Apxk6i]jj.oe ; Dor. 'ApxeSa/ioe). 
1. A popular leader at Athens, took the first 
step against the generals who had gained the 
battle of Arginusae, B.C. 406. The comic poets 
called him " blear-eyed'' (yXu/iuv), and said that 
he was a foreigner, and had obtaiued the fran- 
chise by fraud. — 2. An iEtolian (called Archi- 
damus by Livy), commanded the ^toliau troops 
which assisted the Romans in their war with 
Philip (B.C. 199-197). He afterward took an 
active part against the Romaus, and eventual- 
ly joined Perseus, whom he accompanied in his 
flight after .his defeat in 168— 3. Of Tarsus, a 



AROHEDICUS. 



ARCHIAS. 



Stoic philosopher, mentioned by Cicero, Seneca, 
and other ancient writers. 

Archedicus ('ApxEdiKog), an Athenian comic 
poet of the new comedy, supported Antipater 
and the Macedonian party. 

Archegetes ('A.pxV7£~Vc), a surname of 
Apollo, probably in reference to his being a 
leader of colonies. It was also a surname of 
other gods. 

Akchelais ('ApxEAa'k). 1. In Cappadocia 
(now Akserai), on the Cappadox, a tributary of 
the Halys, a city founded by Archelaus, the last 
king of Cappadocia, and made a Roman colony 
by the Emperor Claudius. — 2. A town of Pales- 
tine, near Jericho, founded by Archelaus, the 
son of Herod the Great. 

Archelaus ('Ap^Aaoc). 1. Son of Herod 
the Great, was appointed by his father as his 
successor, and received from Augustus Judffia, 
Samaria, and Idumaea, with the title of ethnarbh. 
In consequence of his tyrannical government, 
the Jews accused him before Augustus in the 
tenth year of his reign (A.D. 7): Augustus 
banished him to Vienna in Gaul, where he died. 
—2. King of Macedonia (B.C. 413-399), an il- 
legitimate son of Perdiccas II, obtained the 
throne by the murder of his half-brother. He 
improved the internal condition of his kingdom, 
and was a warm patron of art and literature. 
His palace was adorned with magnificent paint- 
ings by Zeuxis ; and Euripides, Agathou, and 
other men of eminence, were among his guests. 
According to some accounts, Archelaus was ac- 
cidently slain in a hunting party by his favorite, 
Craterus or Crateuas ; but, according to other 
accounts, he was murdered by Craterus. — 3. A 
distinguished general of Mithradates. In B. 
C. 81 he was sent into Greece by Mithradates 
with a large fleet and army ; at first he met 
with considerable success, but was twice de- 
feated by Sulla in 86, near Chasronea and Or- 
chomeuos in Boeotia, with immense loss. There- 
upon he was commissioned by Mithradates to 
sue for peace, which he obtained ; but subse- 
quently being suspected of treachery by the 
k»?g, he deserted to the Romans just before 
the commencement of the second Mithradatic 
war, B.C. 81, — 4. Son of the preceding, was 
raised by Pompey, in B.C. 63, to the dignity of 
priest of the goddess (Enyo or Bellona) at Co- 
mana in Pontus or Cappadocia. In 56 or 55 
Archelaus became king of Egypt by marrying 
Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, who, 
after the expulsion of her father, had obtained 
the sovereignty of Egypt. Archelaus, however, 
was king of Egypt only for six months, for Ga- 
binius marched with an arrny into Egypt in or- 
der to restore Ptolemy Auletes, and iu the bat- 
tle which ensued, Archelaus perished. — 5. Son 
of No. 4, and his successor in the office of high- 
priest of Comaua, was deprived of his dignity 
by Julius Caesar in 47. — 6. Son of No. 5, re- 
ceived from Antony, in B.C. 36, the kingdom 
of Cappadocia, a favor which he owed to the 
charms of his mother Glaphyra. After the bat- 
tle of Aetium, Octavianus not only left Arche- 
laus in the possession of his kingdom, but sub- 
sequently added to it a part of Cilici'a and Lesser 
Armenia. But, having incurred the enmity of 
Tiberius by the attention which he had paid to 
Caesar he wa3 summoned to Rome soon after 



the accession of Tiberius and accused of trea 
son. His life was spared, but he was obliged 
to remain at Rome, where he died soon after, 
A.D. 17. Cappadocia was then made a Roman 
province. — 7. A philosopher, probably born at 
Athens, though others make hirn a native of 
Miletus, flourished about B.C. 450. The philo- 
sophical system of Archelaus is remarkable, as 
forming a point of transition from the older to 
the newer form of philosophy in Greece. As a 
pupil of Anaxagoras, he belonged to the Ionian 
school, but he added to the physical system of 
hjs teacher some attempts at moral speculation. 
— 8. A Greek poet, in Egypt, lived under the 
Ptolemies, and wrote epigrams, some of which 
are still extant in the Greek Anthology. — 9. A 
sculptor of Priene, son of Apollonius, made the 
marble bas-relief representing the Apotheosis of 
Homer, which formerly belonged to the Colon- 
na family at Rome, and is now in the Townley 
Gallery of the British Museum. He probably 
lived in the reign of Claudius. 

[Archelochus ('ApxiXoxos), son of the Tro- 
jan Antenor ; slain by Ajax.] 

[Archemachus ('Apxefia.x°s)i a greek his- 
torian of Eubcea, who wrote a work on his na- 
tive country (ra EvColku), consisting of at least 
three books.] 

Archemorus ('Apxtfwpot;), or Opheltes, son 
of the Nemean king Lycurgus and Eurydice. 
When the Seven heroes, on their expedition 
against Thebes, stopped at Nemea to obtaiu 
water, Hypsipyle, the nurse of the child Ophel- 
tes, while showing the way to the Seven, left 
the child alone. In the meantime, the child 
was killed by a dragon, and buried by the Seven. 
But as Amphiaraus saw in this accident an 
omen boding destruction to him and his com- 
panions, they called the child Archemorus, that 
is, " Forerunner of Death,'' and instituted the 
Nemean game's in honor of him. 

[Archeptolemds ('ApxeTTTo^efiOQ), son of Iph- 
itus, charioteer of Hector, was slain by Teucer.] 

[Archestratus ('ApxecTpaTos), one of the ten 
generals appointed to supersede Alcibiades in 
the command of the Athenian fleet, after the 
battle of Notium, B.C. 407.— 2. A member of 
the /3ovXtj at Athens, who, during the siege of 
the city, after the battle of iEgospotami, B C. 
405, was thrown into prison for advising cajsitu- 
lation on the terms proposed by Sparta.] 

Archestpatus ('ApxeorpaTog), of Gela or Syr- 
acuse, about B.C. 350, wrote a poem on the Art 
of Cookery, which was imitated or translated 
byEnnius in his Carmina Hedypatheticaov Hedy- 
pathica (from ijSvKujdeui). 

[Archetius, a companion of Turnus, slain by 
Mnestheus.] 

Archias ('Apxiac). 1. An Heraclid of Corinth, 
left his country in consequence of the death of 
Action, and founded Syracuse, B.C. 734, by 
command of the Delphic oracle. — [2. A Theban, 
who betrayed the citadel (Cadmea) to the Spar- 
tan commander Phoebidas, B.C. 382. He was 
at the head of the party in the interest of Spar- 
ta, but was slain by the Theban exiles under 
Pelopidas. — 3. Of Thurii, originally an actor, 
was sent, B.C. 322, after the battle of Cranon, 
to apprehend the orators whom Antipater had 
demanded of the Athenians, and who had fled 
from Athens. Vid. Hyperides and Demosthe- 

85 



ARCHIDAMIA. 



ARCHILOCHUS 



kes. He was nicknamed fyvyadodqpac;, " exile- 
hunter ;" and ended his life, as be deserved, in 
poverty and disgrace.] — 4. A. Lioinius Archias, 
a G reek poet, born at Antiocb in Syria, about 
B.C. 120, very early obtained celebrity by his 
verses. In 102 he came to Rome, and was re- 
ceived in the most friendly way by many of the 
Roman nobles, especially by the Luculli, from 
whom he afterward obtained the gentile name 
of Licinius. After a short stay at Rome he ac- 
companied L. Lucullus, the elder, to Sicily, and 
followed him, in the banishment to which he 
was sentenced for his management of the sla,ve 
war in that island, to Heraclea in Lucania, in 
which town Archias was enrolled as a citizen ; 
and as4his town was a state united with Rome 
by a fcedus, he subsequently obtained the Ro- 
man franchise in accordance with the lex Plau- 
tia Papiria passed in B.C. 89. At a later time 
he accompanied L. Lucullus the younger to 
the Mithradatic war. Soon after his return, a 
charge was brought against him in 61 of as- 
suming the citizenship illegally, and the trial 
came on before Q. Cicero, who was prastor this 
year. He was defended by his friend M. Cicero 
in the extant speech Pro Archia, in which the 
orator, after briefly discussing the legal points 
of the case, rests the defence of his client upon 
his surpassing merits as a poet, which entitled 
him to the Roman citizenship. We may pre- 
sume that Archias was acquitted, though we 
have no formal statement of the fact. Archias 
wrote a poem on the Cimbrie war in honor of 
Marius ; another on the Mithradatic war in hon- 
or of Lucullus ; and at the time of his trial was 
engaged on a poem in honor of Cicero's con- 
sulship. No fragments of these works are ex- 
tant ; and it is doubtful whether the epigrams 
preserved under the name of Archias in the 
Greek Anthology were really written by him. 

[Archidamia ('Apxidufieia), the priestess of 
Ceres (Demeter) at Sparta, who, through love 
of Aristomenes, set him at liberty when he had 
been taken prisoner. — 2. A Spartan woman, who 
distinguished herself by her heroic spirit when 
Sparta was nearly taken by Pyrrhus in B.C. 
272, and opposed the plan which had been en- 
tertained of sending the women to Crete.] 

Archidamus ('Apx'tda{toc;), the name of five 
kings of Sparta. 1. Son of Anaxidamus, con- 
temporary with the Tegeatan war, which fol- 
lowed soon after the second Messenian, B.C. 
668. — 2. Son of Zeuxidamus, succeeded his 
grandfather Leotychides, and reigned B.C. 469- 
427. During his reign, B.C. 464, Sparta was 
made a heap of ruins by a tremendous earth- 
quake ; and for the next ten years he was en- 
gaged in war against the revolted Helots and 
Messenians. Toward the end of his reign the 
Peloponuesian war broke out : he recommend- 
ed his countrymen not rashly to embark in the 
war, and he appears to have taken a more cor- 
rect view of the real strength of Athens than 
any other Spartan. After the war had been de- 
clared (B.C. 431) he invaded Attica, and held 
the supreme command of the Peloponuesian 
forces till his death in 429. — 3. Grandson of No. 
2, and son of Agesilaus II., reigned B.C. 361- 
338. During the lifetime of his father he took 
an active part in resisting the Thebans and the 
various other enemies of Sparta, and in 367 he 
86 



' defeated the Arcadians and Argives in the 
I Tearless Battle," so called because he had 
won it without losing a man. In 362 he de- 
fended Sparta against Epaminoudas. In the 
third Sacred war (B.C. 356-346) he assisted 
the Phociaus. In 338 he went to Italy to aid 
: the Tarentiues against the Lucauians, and there 
j fell in battle. — 4. Grandson of No. 3, and sod 
of Eudomidas I., was king in B.C. 296, when 
he was defeated by Demetrius PolH'cetes. — 5. 
. Son of Eudamidas II., and the brother of Agit 
' IV. On the murder of Agis, in B.C. 240, Ar 
chidamus fled from Sparta, but afterward ob 
tained the throne by means of Aratus. He was. 
however, slain almost immediately after his re 
turn to Sparta. He was the last king of the 
Eurypontid race. 

Archigenes ('Apxiyevris), an eminent Greek- 
physician born at Apamea in Syria, pi-acticed 
atfRome in the time of Trajan, A.D. 98-117. 
He published a treatise on the pulse, on which 
Galen wrote a Commentai'y. He was the most 
eminent physician of the sect of the Eclectici, 
and is mentioned by Juvenal as well as by other 
writers. Only a few fragments of his works re- 
main. 

Archilochus ('Apxihoxoc), of Paros, was one 
of the earliest Ionian lyric poets, and the first 
Greek poet who composed Iambic verses accord- 
ing to fixed rules. He flourished about B.C. 7 14- 
676. He was descended from a noble family, 
who held the priesthood in Paros. His grand- 
father was Tellis, his father Telesicles, and his 
mother a slave, named Enipo. In the flower 
of his age (between B.C. 710 and TOO), Archilo- 
chus went from Paros to Thasos with a colony, 
of which one account makes him the leader. 
The motive for this emigration can only be con- 
jectured. It was most probably the result of 
a political change, to which cause was added, 
in the case of Archilochus, a sense of personal 
wrongs. He had been a suitor to Neobule, one 
of the daughters of Lyeambes, who first prom- 
ised and afterward refused to give his daughter 
to the poet. Enraged at this treatment, Archil- 
ochus attacked the whole family in an Iambic 
poem, accusing Lyeambes of perjury, and his 
daughters of the most abandoned lives. The 
verses were recited at the festival of Ceres 
(Demeter), aud produced such an effect, that 
the daughters of Lyeambes are said to have 
hung themselves through shame. The bitter- 
ness which he expresses in his poems toward 
his native islaud seems to have arisen in part 
also from the low estimation in which he was 
held, as being the sou of a slave. Neither was 
he more happy at Thnsos. He draws the most 
melancholy picture of his adopted country, which 
he at length quitted in disgust. While at Tha 
sos, he incurred the disgrace of losing his shield 
in au engagement with the Thraciaus of the op 
posite continent ; but instead of being ashamed 
of the disaster, he recorded it in his verse. At 
length he returned to Paros, and in a war be- 
tween the Parians and the people of Naxos, 
he fell by the hand of a Naxian named Calondas 
or Corax. Archilochus shared with his con- 
temporaries, Thaletas aud Terpauder, in the 
honor of establishing lyric poetry throughout 
Greece. The invention of the elegy is ascribed 
to him, as well as to Calliuus ; but it was on 



ARCHIMEDES. 



ARCTOS. 



his satiric Tambic poetry that his fame was 
founded. His Iambics expressed the strongest 
feelings in the most unmeasured language. The 
licence of Ionian democracy and the bitterness 
of a disappointed man were united with the 
highest degree of poetical power to give them 
force and point. The emotion accounted most 
conspicuous in his verses was " rage," " Archi- 
lochum proprio rabies armavit iambo." (Hor., 
Ars. Poet., 79.) The fragments of Archilochus 
are collected in Bergk's Poet. Lyrici Grate, and 
by Licbel, Archi/ochi Rcliquice, Lips., 1812, 8vo; 
[2d edit., somewhat enlarged, Vienna, 1818, 8vo.] 
Archimedes {'Apxi/iijSnc), of Syracuse, the 
most famous of ancient mathematicians, was 
born B.C. 287. He was a friend, if not a kins- 
man, of Hiero, though his actual condition in 
life does not seem to have been elevated. In 
the early pare of his life he travelled into Egypt, 
where he studied under Conou the Samian, a 
mathematician and astronomer. After visiting 
other countries, he returned to Syracuse. Here 
he constructed for Hiero various engines of war, 
which, many years afterward, were so far ef- 
fectual in the defence of Syracuse against Mar- 
cellus as to convert the siege into a blockade, 
and delay the taking of the city for a consider- 
able time. The accounts of the performances 
of these engines are evidently exaggerated ; and 
the story of the burning of the Roman ships by 
the reflected rays of the sun, though very cur- 
rent in later times, is probably a fiction. He 
superintended the building of a ship of extraor- 
dinary size for Hiero, of which a description is 
given in Athen£eus (v., p. 206, d.), where he is 
also said to have moved it to the sea by the help 
of a screw. He invented a machine called, from 
its form, Cochlea, and now known as the water- 
screw of Archimedes, for pumping the water 
out of the hold of this vessel. His most cele- 
brated performance was the construction of a 
sphere ; a kind of orrery, representing the move- 
ments of the heavenly bodies. When Syracuse 
was taken (B.C. 212), Archimedes was killed 
by the Roman soldiers, being at the time intent 
upon a mathematical problem. Upon his tomb 
was placed the figure of a sphere inscribed in 
a cylinder. When Cicero was qusestor in Sicily 
(75), he found this tomb near one of the gates 
of the city, almost hid among briers, and for- 
gotten by the Syracusans. The intellect of Ar- 
chimedes was of the very highest order. He 
possessed, in a degree never exceeded, unless 
by Newton, the inventive genius which discov- 
ers new provinces of inquiry, and finds new 
points of view for old and familiar objects ; the 
clearness of conception which is essential to 
the resolution of complex phenomena into their 
constituent elements; and the power and habit 
of intense and persevering thought, without 
which other intellectual gifts are comparatively 
fruitless. The following works of Archimedes 
have come down to us : 1. On Equiponderants 
and Centres of Gravity. 2. The Quadrature of 
the Parabola. 3. On the Sphere and Cylinder. 
4. On Dimension of the Circle. 5. On Spirals. 
6. On Conoids and Spheroids. 7. The Arenarius. 
8. On Floating Bodies. 9. Lemmata. The best 
edition of his works is by Torelli, Oxon., 1792. 
There is a French translation of his works, with 
notes, by F. Peyrard, Paris, 1808, and an En- 



glish translation of the Arenarius by G. Ander- 
son, London, 1784. 

Aechinus {'kpxivoc), one of the leading Athe 
nians, who, with Thrasybulus and Anytus, over- 
threw the government of the Thirty, B.C. 403. 

Aechippus ("Apxtmroc), an Athenian poet of 
the old comedy, about B.C. 415. [The frag- 
ments of Archippus are collected in Meineke's 
Fragm. Comic. Grcecor., vol. i., p. 408-415, edit, 
minor.] 

[Arcbippus s an ancient king of the Marrubii 
in Italy, one of the allies of Turnus in his war 
with iEueas.] 

Archytas ('Apxvrac). 1. Of Amphissa, a 
Greek epic poet, nourished about B.C. 300. — 2 
Of Tarentum, a distinguished philosopher, math- 
ematician, general, and statesman, probably liv- 
ed about B.C. 400, and onward, so that lie was 
contemporary with Plato, whose life he is said 
to have saved by his influence with the tyrant 
Dionysius. He was seven times the general of 
his city, and he commanded in several cam- 
paigns, in all of which he was victorious. After 
a life which secured to him a place among the 
very greatest men of antiquity, he was drowned 
while upon a voyage ou the Adriatic. (Hor., 
Carm., i., 28.) As a philosopher, he belonged 
to the Pythagorean school, and he appears to 
have been himself the founder of a new sect. 
Like the Pythagoreans in general, he paid much 
attention to mathematics. Horace calls him 
maris et terra} numeroque carentis arence Menso- 
rem. To his theoretical science he added the 
skill of a pratical mechanician, and constructed 
various machines and automatons, among which 
his wooden flying dove in particular was the 
wonder of antiquity. He also applied mathe- 
matics with success to musical science, and 
even to metaphysical philosophy. His influence 
as a philosopher was so great, that Plato was 
undoubtedly indebted to him for some of his 
views ; and Aristotle is thought by some writers 
to have borrowed the idea of his categories, as 
well as some of his ethical principles, from Ar- 
chytas. [The fragments of Archytas are pub- 
lished in part by Gale, Opusc. Mythol., Cantab, 
1671, Amst., 1688; and more fully by Oreiii, 
Opusc. Sentent. et Moral., vol. ii., p. 234, seqqi] 

Aeconnesus ('ApuCvvnooc : 'Apicovvijowc). 1. 
An island off the coast of Ionia, near Lebedus, 
also called Aspis and Maoris. — 2. (Now Orak 
Ada), an island off the coast of Caria, opposite 
Halicarnassus, of which it formed the harbor. 

Aectinus ('ApKTivoc), of Miletus, the most 
distinguished among the cyclic poets, probably 
lived about B.C. 776. Two epic poems were 
attributed to him. 1. The JEthiopis, which was 
a kind of continuation of Homer's Iliad : its 
chief heroes were Memnon, king of the JEthio- 
pians, and Achilles, who slew him. 2. The De- 
struction of llion, which contained a description 
of the destruction of Troy, and the subsequent 
events until the departure of the Greeks. [The 
fragments of Arctinus have been collected by 
Diibner, Homeri Carm. et Cycli Fpici Reliq., 
Paris, 1837, and by Duntzer, Die Fragm. des ep. 
Pocsie bis auf Alex., Koln, 1840 ; and Nachtrag, 
p. 16, Koln, 1841.] 

Aectophylax. Vid. Aectos. 

Arctos ("ApKTOc), " the Bear," two constella- 
tions near the North Pole. 1. The Great Beae 

87 



ARCTURUS. 



ARES. 



( Apuroc fieyd\r] : Ursa Major), also called the 
Wagon (ilfia^a : plaustrum). The ancient Ital- 
ian name of this constellation was Septem Tri- 
ones, that is, the Seven Ploughing Oxen, also Sep- 
tentrio, and with the epithet Major to distinguish 
it from the Septentrio Minor, or Lesser Bear : 
hence Virgil (^En., iii., 356) speaks of gcniinos- 
que Triones. The Great Bear was also called He- 
lice (kMnri) from its sweeping round in a curve. — 
2. The Lesser or Little Bear ("ApK~oc fiiKpd: 
Ursa Minor), likewise called the Wagon, was 
first added to the Greek catalogues by Thales, 
by whom it was probably imported from the 
East. It was also called Phcenice (lowlier/), from 
the circumstance that it was selected by the 
Phoenicians as the guide by which they shaped 
their course at sea, the Greek mariners with 
less judgment employing the Great Bear for the 
purpose ; and Cynosura (Kvvocovpa), dog's tail, 
from the resemblance of the constellation to the 
upturned curl of a dog's tail. The constella- 
tion before the Great Bear was called Bootes 
(Bo<t>rr)c) Arctophylax ['kpKro(pv\a!;),ov Arcturus 
('ApKTOvpoc, from ovpoc, guard) ; the two latter 
names suppose the constellation to represent a 
man upon the watch, and denote simply the po- 
sition of the figure in reference to the Great 
Bear, while Bootes, whieh is found in Homer, 
refers to the Wagon, the imaginary figure of 
Bootes being fancied to oecupy the place of the 
driver of the team. At a later time Arctophylax 
became the general name of the constellation, 
and the word Arcturus was confined to the chief 
star in it. All these constellations are connect- 
ed in mythology with the Arcadian nymph Cal- 
listo, the daughter of Lycaon. Metamorphosed 
by Jupiter (Zeus) upon the earth into a she- 
bear, Callisto was pursued by her son Areas in 
the chase, and when he was on the point of kill- 
ing her, Jupiter (Zeus) placed them both among 
the stars, Callisto becoming the Great Bear, and 
Areas the Little Bear, or Bootes. In the poets 
the ephithets of these stars have constant refer- 
ence to the family and country of Callisto : thus 
we find them called Lycaonis Arctos ; Moenalia 
Arctos and Maznalis Ursa (from Mount Msenalus 
in Arcadia) : Erynxardhis Ursa (from Mount Ery- 
manthus in Arcadia) : Parrhasides Stella; (from 
the Arcadian town Parrhasia). Though most 
traditions identified Bootes with Areas, others 
pronounced him to be Icarus or his daughter 
Erigone. Hence the Septentriones are called 
Boves Icarii. Vid. Diet, of Antiq., p. 147, 148, 
159, 2d ed. 

Arcturus. Vid. Arctos. 

Ardea (Ardeas, -atis : now Ardea). 1. The 
chief town of the Rutuli in Latium, a little to 
the left of the River Numicus, three miles from 
the sea, was situated on a rock surrounded by 
marshes, in an unhealthy district. It was one 
of the most ancient places in Italy, and was said 
to have been the capital of Turnus. It was 
conquered and colonized by the Romans, B.C. 
442, from which time its importance declined. 
In its neighborhood was the Latin Aphrodisium 
or temple of Venus, which was under the super- 
intendence of the Ardeates. — 2. (Now Arde- 
kdn ?), an important town in Persis, southwest 
of Persepolis. 

[ Ardericca ('ApdepiKua, now Akkerkuf? Hee- 
ren). 1. A town above Babylon, where the Eu- 
88 



phrates was so diverted from its course that iX 
passed three times through this place — 2. A 
town of Susiana, not far from Susa ; perhaps the 
same as the Aracca of later writers, where Da- 
rius Hystaspis settled the captured Eretrians.] 

[Asdescus ("ApdyoKoc), a river of European 
Sarmalia, flowing into the Ister ; the god of this 
stream was, according to Hesiod, a son of Oce- 
anus and Tethys.] 

Arduexna Silva (now the Ardennes), a vast 
forest in the northwest of Gaul, extended from 
the Rhine and the Treviri to the Nervii and 
Remi, aud north as far as the Scheldt : there 
are still considerable remains of this forest, 
though the greater part of it has disappeared. 

Ardys ("Apdvc), son of Gyges, king of Lydia, 
reigned B.C. 678-629 : he took Priene, and made 
war against Miletus. 

Area or Aretias ("Apeia or 'AprjTiac vijooc, 
i. e., the island of Ares : now Kerasunt Ada), 
also called Chaleeiitis, an island off the coast 
of Pontus, close to Pharnacea, celebrated in the 
legend of the Argonauts. 

[Aregonis ('Aprj-yovlc), wife of Ampycus, and 
mother of Mopsus.] 

[Areilycus ('Ap7jt2.vKoc), a Trojan warrior, 
slain by Patroelus.j 

Areithous ('Ap7j'Wooc). 1. King of Arne in 
Bceotia, and husband of Philomedusa, is called 
in the Iliad (vii., 8) Kopwr/rng, because he fought 
with a club : he fell by the hand of the Ai'cadian 
Lycurgus. — [2. Charioteer of Rhigmus, slain 
by Achilles.] 

Akelate, Arelas, or Arelatum (Arelatensis 
now Aries), a town in Gallia Narbonensis, at 
the head of the delta of the Rhone on the left 
bank, and a Roman colony founded by the sol- 
diers of the sixth legion, Colonia Arelate Sexta- 
norum. It is first mentioned by Ctesar, and un- 
der the emperors it became one of the most 
flourishing towns on this side of the Alps. Con- 
stautiue the Great built au extensive suburb on 
the right bank, which he connected with the 
original city by a bridge. The Roman remains 
at Aries attest the greatness of the ancient city : 
there are still to be seen an obelisk of granite, 
and the ruins of an aqueduct, theatre, amphi- 
theatre, palace of Constantine, and a large Ro- 
man cemetery. 

[Arellius Fuscus. Vid. Fuscus.] 

Aremorica. Vid. Akmorica. 

Arenacum (now Arnheim or ^Ert ?), a town 
of the Batavi in Gallia Belgica. 

[Aren^e Montes (now Arenas Gordas), high 
sand hills in Hispauia Bajtica, between the Bae- 
tis aud Urium.] 

[Arene ('Ap//v7j). 1. Daughter of the Spartan 
king (Ebalus, wife of Aphareus. — 2. A city of 
Elis, ou the River Minye'ius, said to have been 
named after the foregoing : it was the residence 
of Aphareus.] 

Areopagus. Vid. Athenje. 

Ares ("Apjyf), (the Latin Mars), the Greek 
god of war and one of the great Olympian gods, 
is represented as the son of Zeus (Jupiter) and 
Hera (Juno). The character of Ares (Mars) in 
Greek mythology will be best understood by 
comparing it with that of other divinities who 
are likewise iu some way connected with war. 
Athena (Minerva) represents thoughtfulness and 
wisdom in the affairs of war, aud protects men 



ARESIAS. 



AREVA 



and their habitations during its ravages. Ares 
(Mars), on the other hand, is nothing but the 
personification of bold force and strength, and 
not so much the god of war as of its tumult, con- 
fusion, and horrors. His sister Eris calls forth 
war, Zeus (Jupiter) directs its course, but Ares 
(Mars) loves war for its own sake, and delights 
in the din and roar of battles, in the slaughter 
of men, and the destruction of towns. He is 
not even influenced by party spirit, but some- 
times assists the one, and sometimes the other 
side, just as his inclination may dictate ; whence 
Zeus (Jupiter) calls him ul^o-apooaXkoq. (12., v., 
889.) This savage and sanguinary character of 
Ares (Mars) makes him hated by the other 
gods and by his own parents. It was contrary 
to the spirit of the Greeks to represent a being 
like Ares (Mars), with all his overwhelming 
physical strength, as always victorious ; and 
when he eomes in contact with higher powers, 
he is usually conquered. He was wounded by 
Diomedes, who was assisted by Athena (Miner- 
va), and in his fall he roared like ten thousand 
warriors. The gigantic Aloidee had likewise 
conquered him, and kept him a prisoner for thir- 
teen months, until he was delivered by Hermes 
(Mercury). He was also conquered by Hercules, 
with whom he fought on account of his son Cyc- 
nus, and was obliged to return to Olympus. 
This fierce and gigantic, but, withal, handsome 
god, loved and was beloved by Aphrodite (Ve- 
nus). Vid. Aphrodite. When Aphrodite (Ve- 
nus) loved Adonis, Ares (Mars), in his jealousy, 
metamorphosed himself into a boar, and killed 
his rival. Vid. Adonis. According to a late 
tradition, Ares (Mars) slew Halirrhothius, the 
son of Poseidon (Neptune), when he was on the 
point of violating Alcippe, the daughter of Ares 
(Mars). Hereupon Poseidon (Neptune) accused 
Ares (Mars) in the Areopagus, where the Olym- 
pian gods were assembled in court. Ares (Mars) 
was acquitted, and this event was believed to 
have given rise to the name Areopagus. The 
warlike character of the tribes of Thrace led to 
the belief that the god's residence was in that 
country, and here and in Scytliia were the prin- 
cipal seats of his worship. In Scythia he was 
worshipped under the form of a sword, to which 
not only horses and other cattle, but men also, 
were sacrificed. In Greece itself the worship of 
Ares (Mars) was not very general. All the 
stories about Ares (Mars), and his worship in the 
countries north of Greece, seem to indicate that 
his worship was introduced into the latter coun- 
try from Thrace. The Romans identified their 
god Mars with the Greek Ares. Vid. Mars. 

[Aresias ('Apeaiae), one of the thirty tyrants 
in Athens under the Spartan ascendency.] 

Arestor ('Apearap), father of Argus, the 
guardian of Io, who is therefore called Arestor- 
ides. 

Aret^eus ('Aperalog), the Cappadocian, one 
of the most celebrated of the ancient Greek 
physicians, probably lived in the reign of Ves- 
pasian. He wrote in Ionic Greek a general 
treatise on diseases in eight books, which is still 
extant. The best edition is by C. G. Kiihn, 
Lips., 1828. 

[Aretaon (Aperdav), a Trojan, slain by Teu- 
cer.] 

Aretas ('Anfj-ar), the name of several kings 



of Arabia Petrasa. 1. A contemporary of Ponv 
pey, invaded Judaea in B.C. 65, in order to place 
Hyreanus on the throne, but was driven back by 
the Romans, who espoused the cause of Aristobu- 
lus. His dominions were subsequently invaded 
by Scam-us, the lieutenant of Pompey. — 2. The 
father-in-law of Herod Antipas, invaded Judsea 
because Herod had dismissed the daughter of 
Aretas in consequence of his connection with 
Herodias. This Aretas seems to have been 
the same who had possession of Damascus 
at the time of the conversion of the Apostle 
Paul, A.D. 31. 

Arete ('ApijrT]). 1. Wife of Alcinous, king 
of the Phasacians, received Ulysses with hospi- 
tality. — 2. [Arete, in Greek Aperi}], daughter 
of the elder Dionysins and Aristomache, wife of 
Thearides, and after his death of her uncle 
Dion. After Dion had fled from Syracuse, 
Arete was compelled byier brother to marry 
Timocrates, one of his friends ; but she was 
again received by Dion as his wife when he had 
obtained possession of Syracuse, and expelled 
the younger Dionysius. After the assassination 
of Dion in 353, she was drowned by his enemies. 
— 3. Daughter of Aristippus, the founder of the 
Cyrenaic school of philosophy, was instructed 
by him in the principles of his system, which 
she transmitted to her son, the younger Aris- 
tippus. 

Arethusa (Aptdovaa), one of the Nereids, and 
the nymph of the famous fountain of Arethusa. 
in the island of Ortygia, near Syracuse. For 
details, see Alpheus. Virgil {Eclog., iv., 1 ; x., 1) 
reckons her among the Sicilian nymphs, and as 
the divinity who insjsired pastoral poetry. There 
were several other fountains in Greece which 
bore the name of Arethusa, of which the most 
important was one in Ithaca, now Lebado, and 
another in Eubcea, near Chalcis. 

Arethusa ('ApeOovaa : now Er-Restun). 1. A 
town and fortress on the Orontes, in Syria : in 
Strabo's time, the seat of a petty Arabian prin- 
cipality. — [2. a city of Macedonia, between Am 
phipolis and the Lake Bolbe. — 3. A bituminous 
lake in Greater Armenia, through which the 
Tigris was said to flow without mingling its 
waters, at no great distance from its source. 
Strabo gives as the Oriental names of this lake, 
Arsene and Thospilis.] 

Aretias. Vid,. Area. 

Aretium. Vid. Arretium. 

[Aretus ("Ap^rof). 1. Son of Priam, slain by 
Automedon. — 2. Son of Nestor.] 

Areus (Apevc), two kings of Sparta. 1. Suc- 
ceeded his grandfather, Cleomenes II, since his 
father Acrotatus had died before him, and 
reigned B.C. 309-265. He made several un- 
successful attempts to deliver Greece from the 
dominion of Antigonus Gonatas, and at length 
fell in battle against the Macedonians in 265, 
and was succeeded by bis son Acrotatus. — 
2. Grandson of No. 1, reigned for eight years 
(the duration of his life) under the guardianship 
of his uncle Leonidas II, who succeeded him 
about B.C. 256. 

[Areus (Apeiog), of Alexandria, a Stoic or 
Pythagorean philosopher, who enjoyed in a high 
degree the confidence of Augustus, and was said 
to have been his instructor in philosophy.] 

[Areva (now Alaiizon, or, according to Flore/, 
89 



AREVACiE. 



ARGONAUT J3. 



ilce.ro), a tributary of the Durius, in Hispania 
Tarraeonensis.] 

Aeevac^e or Arevaci, the most powerful 
tribe of the Celtiberians in Spain, near the 
sources of the Tagus, derived then- name from 
the River Areva (q. v.). 

Arg^eus ('Apyaloc). 1. King of Macedonia, 
sen and successor of Perdiccas I, the founder of 
the dynasty. — 2. A pretender to the Macedonian 
crown, dethroned Perdiccas II, and reigned two 
vears. 

AnGiEUS Mons ('Apyalog : now Erdjish-Dagh), 
a lofty snow-capped mountain nearly in the cen- 
tre of Cappadocia ; an offset of the Anti-Taurus. 
At its foot stood the celebrated city of Mazaca 
or Ceesarea. 

Arganthonius (Apyavduvioc), king of Tartes- 
sus in Spain, in the sixth century B.C., is said to 
have reigned eighty years, and to have lived one 
hundred and twenty. 

Arganthonius or GLrganthus Mons (to 'Ap- 
yavQCiviov opoc : now Katirli), a mountain in 
Bithynia, running out into the Propontis, forming 
the Promontorium Posidium (Cape Bouz), and 
separating the bays of Cios and Astacus. 

[Arge ("Apyn), a Hyperborean maiden, who 
came with Opis to Delos.J 

Argennum or Arginum ("Apyevvov, 'Apylvov : 
now Cape Blanco). 1. A promontory on the 
Ionian coast, opposite to Chios. — [2. A promon- 
tory of the eastern coast of Sicily, now Capo 
San Alessio.] 

[ArgennOsa, an island with a city of same 
name between the promontory of Argennum, 
and the Ionian coast, and the promontorium Po- 
sidium in the island of Chios.] 

[Argentanum (now San Marco), a city of 
Bruttium.] 

[Argentaria or Argentuaria, also Argento- 
varia (now Arzenlieim), the capital city of Gal- 
lia Belgica, where Gratian defeated the Ale- 
manni A.D. 378.] 

Argenteus (now Argens), a small river in 
Gallia Narbonensis, which flows into the Medi- 
terranean near Forum Julii. 

Argentoratum or -tits (now Strassburg), an 
important town on the Rhine, in Gallia Belgica, 
the head-quarters of the eighth legion, and a 
Roman municipium. In its neighborhood Ju- 
lian gained a brilliant victory over the Aleman- 
ni, A.D. 357. It was subsequently called Strate- 
burgum and Stratisburgum, whence its modern 
name. 

Arges. Vid. Ctclopes. 

Argia ('Apyeta). 1. Daughter of Adrastus and 
Amphithea, and wife of Polynices. — [2. Daugh- 
ter of Autesion, wife of the Spartan king Aris- 
todemus, by whom she became the mother of 
Eurysthenes and Proeles.] 

Argia (Apyeca). Vid. Argos. 

[Argileonis ('Apyileuvlc), a Spartan female, 
mother of the celebrated general Brasidas.] 

Argiletum, a district in Rome, which extend- 
ed from the south of the Quirinal to the Capito- 
line and the Forum. It was chiefly inhabited 
by mechanics and booksellers. The origin of 
the name is uncertain : the most obvious deri- 
vation is from argilla, " potter's clay f but the 
more common explanation in antiquity was Argi- 
leium, " death of Argus," from a hero Argus who 
was buried there. 

90 



I ArgIlus ("ApyiAoc : 'Apyi/uoc), a town in Bi 
sa'ltia, the eastern part of Mygdonia, in Mace- 
donia, between Amphipolis and Bromiscus, a col 
ony of Andros. 

Arginus^e (Apyivovcai or 'Apyivovaoat), three 
small islands off the coast of iEolis, opposite 
Mytilene in Lesbos, celebrated for the naval vic- 
tory of the Athenians over the Lacedaemonians 
under Callicratidas, B.C. 406. 

[Argiope (ApywTrn), a nymph, mother of the 
Thracian bard Thamyris by Philammon.] 

Argiphontes (ApycMpovrnc), " the slayer of 
Argus," a surname of Hermes. 

Argipp^ei ('ApyniKaloi), a Scythian tribe in 
Sarmatia Asiatica, who appear, from the descrip- 
tion of them by Herodotus (iv, 23), to have been 
of the Calmue race. 

Argissa. Vid. Argura. 

Argithea, the chief town of Athamania, in 
Epirus. 

Argiva, a surname of Hera or Juno, from Ar- 
gos, where, as well as in the whole of Pelopon- 
nesus, she was especially honored. Vid. Argos. 

Argivi. Vid. Argos. 

Argo. Vid. Argonauts. 

[Argolious Sixus. Vid. Argos.] 

Argolis. Vid. Argos. 

Argonautjs (Apyovavrai), the Argonauts, 
" the sailors of the Argo," were the heroes who 
sailed to JEa. (afterward called Colchis) for the 
purpose of fetching the golden fleece. The 
story of the Argonauts is variously related by 
the ancient writers, but the common tale ran as 
follows : In Iolcus in Thessaly reigned Pelias, 
who had deprived his half-brother jEsou of the 
sovereignty. In order to get rid of Jason, the 
son of jEson, Pelias persuaded Jason to fetch 
the golden fleece, which was suspended on an 
oak-tree in the grove of - Ares (Mars) in Colchis, 
and was guarded day and night by a dragon. 
Jason willingly undertook the enterprise, and 
commanded Argus, the son of Phrixus, to build 
a ship with fifty oars, which was called Argo 
('Apyu) after the name of the builder. Jason 
was accompanied by all the great heroes of the 
age, and their number is usually said to have 
been fifty. Among these were Hercules, Cas- 
tor and Pollux, Zetes and Calais, the sons of 
Boreas, the singer Orpheus, the seer Mopsus, 
Philammon, Tydeus, Theseus, Amphiaraus, Pe- 
leus, Nestor, Admetus, <fec. After leaving Iol- 
cus they first landed at Lemnos, where they 
united themselves with the women of the island, 
who had just before murdered their fathers and 
husbands. From Lemnos they sailed to the 
Doliones at Cyzicus, where King Cyzicus re- 
ceived them hospitably. They left the coun- 
try during the night, and being thrown back 
on the coast by a contrary wind, they were 
taken for Pelasgians, the enemies of the Do- 
liones, and a struggle ensued, in which Cyzi- 
cus was slain ; but, being recognized by the 
Argonauts, they buried him, and mourned over 
his fate. They next landed in Mysia, where 
they left behind Hercules and Polyphemus, who 
had gone into the country in search of Hylas, 
whom a nymph had carried off while he was 
fetching water for his companions. In the 
country of the Bebryces, lung Amycus chal- 
lenged the Argonauts to fight with him; and 
when he was killed by Pollux, [the Bebryces, 



ARGONAUTS. 



A RGOS. 



to aveDge the death of their king, made an 
attack on Pollux, but the Argonauts, having 
seized their arms, repulsed them, and slew many 
in their flight ; they then] sailed to Salmydes- 
sus in Thrace, where the seer Phineus was tor- 
mented by the Harpies. When the Argonauts 
consulted him about their voyage, he promised 
them his advice ou condition of their delivering 
him from the Harpies. This was done by Zetes 
and Calais, two sons of Boreas ; and Phineus 
now advised them, before sailing through the 
Symplegades, to mark the flight of a dove, and 
to judge from its fate what they themselves 
would have to do. When they approached the 
Symplegades, they sent out a dove, which, in its 
rapid flight between the rocks, lost only the end 
of its tail. The Argonauts now, with the assist- 
ance of Juno (Hera), followed the example of 
the dove, sailed quickly between the rocks, and 
succeeded in passing without injury to their ship, 
with the exception of some ornaments at the 
stern. Henceforth the Symplegades stood im- 
movable in the sea. On their arrival at the 
country of the Mariandyni, the Argonauts were 
kindly received by their king, Lycus. The seer 
Idmou and the helmsman Tiphys died here, and 
the place of the latter was supplied by Ancasus. 
They now sailed along the coast until they arriv- 
ed at the mouth of the River Phasis. The Col- 
chiau king ^letes promised to give up the golden 
fleece if Jason alone would yoke to a plough 
two fire breathing oxen with brazen feet, and 
sow the teeth of the dragon which had not been 
used by Cadmus at Thebes, and which he had 
received from Minerva (Athena). The love of 
Medea furnished Jason with means to resist 
fire and steel, on condition of his taking her as 
bis wife ; and she taught him how he was to 
kill the warriors that were to spring up from 
the teeth of the dragon. While Jason was 
engaged upon his task, iEetes formed plans for 
burning the ship Argo and for killing all the 
Greek heroes. But Medea's magic powers lulled 
to sleep the dragon who guarded the golden 
fleece ; and after Jason had taken possession of 
the treasure, he and his Argonauts, together 
with Medea and her young brother Absyrtus, 
embarked by night and sailed away. iEetes 
pursued them ; but, before he overtook them, 
Medea murdered her brother, cut him into pieces, 
and threw his limbs overboard, that her father 
might be detained in his pursuit by collecting 
the limbs of his child. JEetes at last returned 
home, but sent out a great number of Colchians, 
threatening them with the punishment intended 
for Medea if they returned without her. While 
the Colchians were dispersed in all directions, 
the Argonauts had already reached the mouth 
of the River Eridanus. But Jupiter (Zeus), 
angry at the murder of Absyrtus, raised a storm 
which cast the ship from its course. When 
driven on the Absyrtian Islands, the ship began 
to speak, and declared that the anger of Jupiter 
(Zeus) would not cease unless they sailed toward 
Ausonia, and got purified by Circe. They now 
sailed along the coasts of the Ligyans and Celts, 
and through the sea of Sardinia, and, continuing 
their course along the coast of Tyrrhenia, they 
arrived in the Island of Mcea,, where Circe puri- 
fied them. When they were passing by the 
Sirens, Orpheus sang to prevent the Argonauts 



being allured by them. Butes, however, swam 
to them, but Venus (Aphrodite) carried him te 
Lilybaeum. Thetis and the Nereids conducted 
them through Scylla and Charybdis and between 
the whirling rocks (nerpat TcXayKrai) ; and, sail- 
ing by the Thracian island with its " oxen of 
Helios, they came to the Pheeacian island r >f 
Corcyra, where they were received b} r Alcinous. 
In the mean time, some of the Colchians, not 
being able to discover the Argonauts, had settled 
at the foot of the Ceraunian Mountains ; others 
occupied the Absyrtian islands near the coast of 
Illyricum ; and a third band overtook the Argo- 
nauts in the island of the Phasacians. But as 
their hopes of recovering Medea were deceived 
by Arete, the queen of Alcinous, they settled in 
the island, and the Argonauts continued their 
voyage. During the night they were overtaken 
by a storm ; but Apollo sent brilliant flashes of 
lightning, which enabled them to discover a 
neighboring island, which they called Anaphe. 
Here they erected an altar to Apollo, and solemn 
rites 'were instituted, which continued to be ob- 
served down to very late times. Their attempt 
to land in Crete was prevented by Talus, who 
guarded the island, but was killed by the arti- 
fices of Medea. From Crete they sailed to 
iEginaj' and from thence between Eubcea and 
Locris to Iolcus. Respecting the events sub- 
sequent to their arrival in Iolcus, vid, iEsoN, 
Medea, Jason, Pelias. The story of the Argo- 
nauts probably arose out of accounts of com- 
mercial enterprises which the wealthy Minyaus, 
who lived in the neighborhood of Iolcus, made 
to the coasts of the Euxine. The expedition of 
the Argonauts is related by Pindar in the fourth 
Pythian ode, by Apollouius Rhodius in his 
Argonautica, and by his Roman imitator, Vale- 
rius Flaccus. 

Argos (rd "Apyoc, -eog), is said by Strabo (p. 
3*72) to have siguified a plain in the language of 
the Macedonians and Thessalians, and it may 
therefore contain the same root as the Latin 
word ager. In Homer we find mention of the 
Pelasgic Argos, that is, a town or district of 
Thessaly, and of the Achaean Argos, by which 
he means sometimes the whole Peloponnesus 
sometimes Agamemnon's kingdom of Argos, of 
which Mycenae was the capital, and sometimes 
the town of Argos. As Argos frequently sig- 
nifies the whole Peloponnesus, the most import 
ant part of Greece, so the 'Apyeloi often occur 
in Homer as a name of the whole body of the 
Greeks, in which sense the Roman poets also 
use Argivi. — 1. Aegos, a district of Peloponne- 
sus, called Argolis (r) 'ApyoXtg) by Herodotus, but 
more frequently by other Greek writers either 
Argos, Argla (tj 'Apyeta), or Argolice ({] 'Apyo- 
TiiK-rj). Under the Romans Argolis became the 
usual name of the country, while the word Argos 
or Argi was confined to the town. Argolis, un- 
der the Romans, siguified the country bounded 
ou the north by the Corinthian territory, on the 
west by Arcadia, on the south by Laconia, and 
included toward the east the whole Acte or pen 
insula between the Saronic and Argolic gulfs ; 
but, during the time of Grecian independence, 
Argolis or Argos was only the country lying 
round the Argolicus Sinus (now Gulf of Nauplia), 
bounded on the west by the Arcadian Mountains, 
and separated on lie north by a range of mount- 
01 



AEGOS. 

ains from Corinth, Cleonae, and Phlius. Argolis, 
as understood by the Eomans, was, for the most 
part, a mountainous and unproductive country : 
the only extensive plain adapted for agriculture 
■was in the neighborhood of the city of Argos. 
Its rivers were insignificant, and mostly dry in 
summer : the most important was the Inaclius. 
The country was divided into the districts of Ar- 
gla or Argos proper, Epidaueia, Tecszenia, and 
Heemionis. The original inhabitants of the 
country were, according to mythology, the Cy- 
Durii ; but the main part of the population con- 
sisted of Pelasgi and Achaei, to whom Dorians 
were added after the conquest of Peloponnesus 
by the Dorians. See below, No. 2. — 2. Aegos, or 

A. EGI, -oeum, in the Latin writers, now Argo, the 
capital of Argolis, and, next to Sparta, the most 
important town of Peloponnesus, situated in a 
level plain a little to the west of the Inachus. It 
had an ancient Pelasgic citadel, called Larissa, 
and another built subsequently on another height 
(duas arces habent Argi, Liv., xxxiv., 25). It 
possessed numerous temples, and was particu- 
larly celebrated for the worship of Juno (Hera), 
whose great temple, Herceum, lay between Argos 
and Mycenae. The remains of the Cyclopian 
walls of Argos are still to be seen. The city is 
said to have been built by Inachus or his son 
Phoeoneus, or grandson Aegus. The descend- 
ants of Inachus, who may be regarded as the 
Pelasgian kings, reigned over the country for 
nine generations, but were at length deprived 
of the sovereignty by Danaus, who is said to 
have corns from Egypt. The descendants of 
Danaus were in their time obliged to submit to 
the Achaean race of the Pelopidaa. Under the 
rule of the Pelopidae Mycenae became the capi- 
tal of the kingdom, and Argos was a dependent 
state. Thus Mycenae was the royal residence 
of Atreus and of his son Agamemnon ; but under 
Orestes Argos again recovered its supremacy. 
Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Do- 
rians Argos fell to the share of Temenus, whose 
descendants ruled over the country ; but the 
great bulk of the population continued to be 
Achaean. All these events belong to Mythol- 
ogy ; and Argos first appears in history about 

B. C. 75 0, as the chief state of Peloponnesus, 
under its ruler Phidon. After the time of Phi- 
don its power declined, and it was not even able 
to maintain its supremacy over the other towns 
of Argolis. Its power was greatly weakened 
by its wars with Sparta. The two states long 
contended for the district of Cynuria, which lay 
between Argolis and Laconia, and which the 
Spartans at length obtained by the victory of 
their three hundred champions, about B.C. 550. 
In B.C. 524, Cleomenes, the Spartan king, de- 
feated the Argives with such loss near Tiryns 
that Sparta was left without a rival in Pelopon- 
nesus. In consequence of its weakness and of 
its jealousy of Sparta, Argos took no part in the 
Persian war. In order to strengthen itself, Ar- 
gos attacked the neighboring towns of Tiryns, 
Mycenae, &c, destroyed them, and transplanted 
their inhabitants to Argos. The introduction 
of so many new citizeus was followed by the 
abolition of royalty and of Doric institutions, 
and by the establishment tf a democracy, which 
continued to be the form of government till later 
times, when the city fell under the power of 

92 



ARIA. 

tyrants. In the Peloponnesian war Argos sided 
with Athens against Sparta. In B.C. 243 it 
joined the Achaean League, and on the conquest 
of the latter by the Eomans, 146, it became a 
part of the Eoman province of Achaia. At an 
early time Argos was distinguished by its culti- 
vation of music and poetry (vid. Sacadas, Tel- 
esilla) ; but at the time of the intellectual 
greatness of Athens, literature and science seem 
to have been entirely neglected at Argos. It 
produced some great sculptors, of whom Agela- 
das and Polycletus are the most celebrated. 

Aegos Amphtlochicuh ("Apyog to 'Ap.ipu.oxi 
k'ov), the chief town of Amphilochia in Acarna- 
nia, situated on the Ambracian Gulf, and found- 
ed by the Argive Amphilochus. 

Aegos Hippium. Vid. Arpi. 

[Aegos Pelasgicum ("Apyoc to TlcXaoyiKbv), 
an ancient city and district of Thessaly, men- 
tioned by Homer ; but in Strabo's time the city 
no longer existed.] 

Aegous Poetus (now Porto Ferraio), a town 
and harbor in the Island of Ilva (now Elba). 

Aeguea ("Apyovpa), a town in Pelasgiatis in 
Thessaly, called Argissa by Homer (1L, ii., T3S). 

Argus ("Apyoc). 1. Son of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Niobe, third king of Argos, from whom Argos 
derived its name. — 2. Surnamed Panoptes, " the 
all-seeing," because he had a hundred eyes, sou 
of Agenor, Arestor, Inachus, or Argus. Juno 
(Hera) appointed him guardian of the cow into 
which Io had been metamorphosed ; but Mercury 
(Hermes), at the command of Jupiter (Zeus), 
put Argus to death, either by stoning him, or by 
cutting off his head after sending him to sleep 
by the sweet notes of his flute. Juno (Hera) 
transplanted his eyes to the tail of the peacock, 
her favorite bird. — 3. The builder of the Argo, 
son of Phrixus, Arestor, or Polybus, was sent by 
iEetes, his grandfather, after the death of Phrix- 
us, to take possession of his inheritance in Greece. 
On his voyage thither he suffered shipwreck, was 
found by Jason in the Island of Aretias, and car- 
ried back to Colchis. 

Argyra ('Apyvpd), a town in Achaia near Pa- 
trae, with a fountain of the same name. 

Argyripa. Vid. Aspi. 

Aeia ('Apeia, 'Apia ? "Apeiog, "Apiog : the east- 
ern part of Khorassan, and the western and north- 
western part of Afghanistan), the most import- 
ant of the eastern provinces of the ancient Per- 
sian Empire, was bounded on the east by the 
Paropamisadas, on the north by Margiana and 
Hyrcania, on the west by Parthia, and on the 
south by the great desert of Carmania. It was 
a vast plain, bordered on the north and east by 
mountains, and on the west and south by sandy 
deserts ; and, though forming a part of the great 
saudy table-land, now called the Desert of Iran, 
it contained several very fertile oases, especially 
in its northern part, along the base of the Sari- 
phi (now Eohistan and Hazarah) Mountains, 
which was watered by the river Aeius or -as 
(now Herirood), on which stood the later capital 
Alexandrea (now Herat). The river is lost in 
the sand. The lower course of the great river 
Etymandeus (now Hehnund) also belonged to 
Aria, and the lake into which it falls was called 
Aeia Lacus (now Zurrah). From Aria was de 
rived the name under which all the eastern pro 
vinces were included. Vid. Aeiana. 



ARIA LAOUS. 



ARDLEUS. 



Abu Lacus. Vid. Aria. 

Ariabignes ('Api.a6tyv7]c), son of Darius Hys- 
taspis, one of the commanders of the fleet 
of Xerxes, fell in the battle of Salamis, B.C. 
±80. 

Ariadne {^Apid&vrj), daughter of Minos and 
Pasiphae or Creta, fell in love with Theseus 
when he was sent by his father to convey the 
tribute of the Athenians to Minotaurus, and 
gave him the clew of thread by means of which 
he found his way out of the Labyrinth, and 
which she herself had received from Vulcan 
(Hephaestus). Theseus, in return, promised to 
marry her, and she accordingly left Crete with 
him ; but on their arrival in the Island of Dia 
(Naxos), she was killed by Diana (Artemis). 
This is the Homeric account (Od., xi., 322); 
but the more common tradition related that 
Theseus left Ariadne in Naxos alive, either be- 
cause he was forced by Bacchus (Dionysus) to 
leave her, or because he was ashamed to bring 
a foreign wife to Athens. Bacchus (Dionysus) 
found her at Naxos, made her his wife, and 
placed among the stars the crown which lie 
gave her at their marriage. There are several 
circumstances in the story of Ariadne which 
offered the happiest subjects for works of art, 
and some of the finest ancient works, on gems 
as well as paintings, are still extant, of which 
Ariadne is the subject. 

Arleus ('Apialog) or Arid^eus ('Apidaioc;), 
the friend of Cyrus, commanded the left wing 
of the army at the battle of Cunaxa, B.C. 401. 
After the death of Cyrus he purchased his par- 
don from Artaxerxes by deserting the Greeks. 

Ariamnes ('±\.pidfivng), the name of two kings 
of Cappadocia, one the father of Ariarathes I., 
and the other the son and successor of Ariara- 
thes II. 

Ariana ('Apiav?j : now Iran), derived from 
Aria, from the specific sense of which it must 
be carefully distinguished, was the general name 
of the eastern provinces of the ancient Persian 
Empire, and included the portion of Asia bound- 
ed on the west by an imaginary line drawn 
from the Caspian to the mouth of the Persian 
Gulf, on the south by the Indian Ocean, on the 
east by the Indus, and on the north by the great 
chain of mountains called by the general name 
of the Indian Caucasus, embracing the provin- 
ces of Parthia, Aria, the Paropamisadse, Ara- 
chosia, Drangiana, Gedrosia, and Carmania 
(now Khorassan, Afghanistan, Bcloochhtan, and 
Kirman). But the name was often extended to 
the country as far west as the margin of the 
Tigris valley, so as to include Media and Persis, 
and also to the provinces north of the Indian 
Caucasus, namely, Bactria and Sogdiana (now 
Bokhara). The knowledge of the ancients re- 
specting the greater part of this region was con- 
fined to what was picked up in the expeditions 
of Alexander and the wars of the Greek kings 
of Syria, and what was learned from merchant 
caravans. 

[Ariantas, a king of the Scythians, who, in 
order to take a census of his subjects, ordered 
each to bring him an ai'row-head. So great a 
number was collected, that he caused a bronze 
vessel to be made from them, and this he pre- 
served as a memorial.] 

[Ariapithes, a king of the Scythians, who 



I was treacherously murdered by Spargapitbes 
king of the Agathyrsi.] 

[Ariarathea ('Apiapddeia), a city of Cappa- 
docia, founded by the Cappadociau king Ariara- 
thes IV. : it lay between Sebastia and Comana 
Aurea.] 

_ Ariarathes ^Apiapddix), the name of several 
kings of Cappadocia. — 1. Son of Ariamnes I., 
assisted Ochus in the recovery of Egypt, B.C. 
350. Ariarathes was defeated by Perdiccas, 
and crucified 322. Eumenes then obtained 
possession of Cappadocia. — 2. Son of Holopher- 
nes, and nephew of Ariarathes I., recovered 
Cappadocia after the death of Eumenes, B.C. 
315. He was succeeded by Ariamnes II. — 3. 
Son of Ariamnes II., and grandson of No. 2, 
married Stratomce, daughter of Antioehus II, 
king of Syria. — 4. Son of No. 3, reigned B.C. 
220-162. He married Antiochis, the daughter 
of Antioehus III., kiug of Syria, and assisted 
Antioehus in his war against the Eomaus. 
After the defeat of Antioehus, Ariarathes sued 
for peace in 188, which he obtained on favorable 
terms. In 183-179, he assisted Eumenes in his 
war against Pharnaces. — 5. Son of No. 4, pre- 
viously called Mithradates, reigned B.C. 163- 
130. He was surnamed Philopator, and was 
distinguished by the excellence of his character 
and his cultivation of philosophy and the liberal 
arts. He assisted the Romans in their war 
against Aristonicus of Pergamus, and fell in 
this war, 130— 6. Son of No. 5, reigned B.C. 
130-96. He married Laodice, sister of Mithra- 
dates VI., king of Pontus, and was put to death 
by Mithradates by means of Gordius. On his 
death the kingdom was seized by Nicom.edes, 
king of Bithynia, who married Laodice, the 
widow of the late king. But Nicomedes was 
soon expelled by Mithradates, who placed upon 
the throne, — 7. Son of No. 6. He was, how- 
ever, also murdered by Mithradates in a short 
time, who now took possession of his kingdom. 
The Cappadocians rebelled against Mithradates, 
and placed upon the throne, — 8. Second son of 
No. 6 ; but he was speedily driven out of the 
kingdom by Mithradates, and shortly afterward 
died. Both Mithradates and Nicomedes at- 
tempted to give a king to the Cappadocians ; but 
the Romans allowed the people to choose whom 
they pleased, and their choice fell upon Ario- 
barzanes. — 9. Son of Ariobarzanes II., reigned 
B.C. 42-36. He was deposed and put to death 
by Antony, who appointed Archelaus as his sue- 
cessor. 

Ariasp^e or Agriasf^e ('Apiuo-Kai, 'Aypidc- 
irai), a people in the southern part of the Per- 
sian province of Drangiaua, on the very borders 
of Gedrosia, with a capital city, Ariaspe ('Apt 
damj). In return for the services which they 
rendered to the army of Cyrus the Great when 
he marched through the desert of Carmania. 
they were honored with the name of Eiiepye- 
Tai, and were allowed by the Persians to re- 
tain their independence, which was confirmed 
to them by Alexander as the reward of similar 
services to himself. 

[Ariaspes ('Apidairnc), called by Justin (10, 
1) Ariarates, son of the Persian kiug Artaxerxes 
Mnemon.] 

[AribjEus ('ApiGaiog), king of the Cappado- 
cians, was slain by the Hvrcanians in the time 

93 



ARICIA. 



ARIOVISTUS. 



of the elder Cyrus, according to Xenophon in 
bis Cyropoedia.] 

Aricia (Ariclnus : now Ariccia or Riccia), an 
ancient town of Latium, at the foot of the Alban 
Mount, on the Appian Way, sixteen miles from 
Rome. It was a member of the Latin confed- 
eracy, was subdued by the Romans, with the 
other Latin towns, in B.C. 338, and received 
the Roman fraucbise. In its neighborhood was 
the celebrated grove and temple of Diana Ari- 
elua, on the borders of the Lacus Nemorensis 
(now Nemi). Diana was worshipped here with 
barbarous customs : her priest, called rex nemo- 
rensis, was always a runaway slave, who obtain- 
ed his office by killing his predecessor in single 
combat. The priest was obliged to fight with 
any slave who succeeded in breaking off a 
branch of a certain tree in the sacred grove. 

Arid^eus. Vid. Arleus, Arrhid^eus. 

[Aridolis ('Apt'duZtc), tyrant of Alabanda in 
Caria, accompanied Xerxes in his expedition 
against Greece, and was taken captive by the 
Greeks off Artemisium, B.C. 480.] 

Arii, is the name applied to the inhabitants 
of the province of Aria, but it is probably, also, 
a form of the generic name of the whole Per- 
sian race, derived from the root ar, which means 
noble, and which forms the first syllable of a 
great number of Persian names. Compare 
Aemi. 

Arimaspi ('ApifiaaTro'i), a peojjle in the north 
of Seythia, of whom a fabulous account is given 
by Herodotus (iv., 27). The germ of the fable 
is perhaps to be recognized in the fact that the 
Ural Mountains abound in gold. 

Arimazes ('Api/id&c) or Ariomazes ('Apiofiu- 
£i?c), a chief in Sogdiana, whose fortress was 
taken by Alexander in B.C. 328. In it Alex- 
ander found Roxana, the daughter of the Bac- 
triau chief Oxyartes, whom lie made his wife. 

Arimi ("Apifioi) and Arima (tu "Api/ua, sc. bpii), 
the names of a mythical people, district, and ! 
range of mountains in Asia Minor, which the 
old Greek poets made the scene of the punish- 
ment of the monster Typhoeus. Vigil (j£n„ 
ix., 716) has misunderstood the eiv 'Apt/not? of 
Homer (11., ii., 783), and made TyphSeus lie be- 
neath Iuarime, an island off the coast of Italy, 
namely, Pithecusa or ^Euaria (now Ischia). 

Ariminum (Arimiuensis : now Rimini), a town 
in Umbria, on the coast, at the mouth of the little 
River Ariminus (now Marocchia). It was origin- 
ally inhabited by Umbi'ians and Pelasgians, was 
afterward iu the possession of the Senoues, and 
was colonized by the Romans in B.C. 268, from 
which time it appears as a flourishing place. 
After leaving Cisalpine Gaul, it was the first 
town which a person arrived at in the northeast 
of Italia proper. 

Ariobauzanes ('ApioCapZdvng). I. Kings or 
Satraps of Pontus. — 1. Betrayed by his, son 
Mithradates to the Persian king about B.C. 
400.— 2. Son of Mithradates I, reigned B.C. 
363-337. He revolted from Artaxerxes iu 362, 
and may be regarded as the founder of the king- 
dom of Pontus. — 3. Son of Mithradates III., 
reigned 266-240, and was succeeded by Mith- 
radates IV. II. Kings of Cappadocia. — 1. Sur- 
named Philoromceus, reigned B.C. 93-63, and 
was elected king by the Cappadocians, under 
the direction of the Romaus. He was several 
94 



times expelled from his kingdom by Mithra.la- 
tes, but was finally restored by Pompey iu 63, 
shortly before his death. — 2. Surnamed Pkilo- 
pator, succeeded his father in 63. The time of 
his death is not known, but it must have been 
before 51, in which year his son was reigning. 
— 3. Surnamed Eusebes and Philoromceus, son 
of No. 2, whom he succeeded about 51. He as- 
sisted Pompey against Caesar in 48, but was 
nevertheless pardoned by Caesar, who even en- 
larged his territories. He was slain in 42 by 
Cassius, because he was plotting against him 
in Asia. 

Arion ('Apiuv). 1. Of Methymna in Lesbos, 
an ancient Greek bard and celebrated player 
on the cithara, is called the inventor of the 
dithyrambic poetry and of the name dithyramb. 
He lived about B.C. 625, aud spent a great part 
of his life at the court of Periauder, tyrant oi 
Corinth. Of his life scarcely any thing is known 
beyond the beautiful story of his escape from 
the sailors with whom he sailed [from Taren 
turn in Italy] to Corinth. On one occasion, 
thus runs the story, Arion went to Sicily to take 
part in some musical contest. He won the 
prize, and, laden with presents, he embarked in 
a Corinthian ship to return to his friend Peri- 
ander. The rude sailors coveted his treasures, 
and meditated his murder. After trying in vain 
to save his life, he at length obtained permission 
once more to play on the cithara. In festal at- 
tire, he placed himself in the prow of the ship, 
and invoked the gods in inspired strains, and 
then threw himself into the sea. But many 
song-loving dolphins had assembled round the 
vessel, and one of them now took the bard on 
its back and carried him to Tsenarus, from 
whence he returned to Corinth in safety, and 
related his adventure to Periauder. Upon the 
arrival of the Corinthian vessel, Periauder in- 
quired of the sailors after Arion, who replied 
that he had remained behind at Tarentum ; but 
when Arion, at the bidding of Periauder, came 
forward, the sailors owned their guilt, aud were 
punished according to their desert. In the times 
of Herodotus and Pausanias there existed at 
Tasnarus a brass monument, representing Arion 
riding on a dolphin. Arion aud his cithara (lyre) 
were placed anioug the stars. A fragment of a 
hymu to Neptune (Poseidon), ascribed to Arion. 
is contained in Bergk's Poetm Lyrici G-rceci, p. 
566, &c. — 2. A fabulous horse, which Neptune 
(Poseidon) begot by Ceres (Demeter) ; for, in 
order to escape from the pursuit of Neptune 
(Poseidon), the goddess had metamorphosed 
herself into a mare, and Neptune (Poseidon) 
deceived her by assuming the figure of a horse. 
There were many other traditions respecting 
the origin of this horse, but all make Neptune 
(Poseidon) its father, though its mother is dif- 
ferent in the various legends. 

Ariovisius, a German chief, who crossed the 
Rhine at the request of the Sequani, when they 
were hard pressed by the ^Edui. He subdued 
the iEdui, but appropriated to himself part of 
the territory of the Sequani, and threatened to 
take still more. The Sequaui now united with 
the jEdui iu imploring the help of Csesar, who 
defeated Ariovistus about fifty miles from the 
Rhine, B.C. 58. Ariovistus escaped across the 
river iu a small boat. 



ARIPHON. 



ARISTARCHUS. 



[Aeipho.v (' Aplfov). 1. The father of Xan- 
tbippus, and grandfather of Pericles. — 2. Of Sic- 
yon, a Greek poet, author of a beautiful psean to 
Health, preserved by Athenseus : it is given in 
Bergk's Poetoe Lyrici Grceei, p. 841.] 

[Arisbe ('ApicBri). 1. Daughter of Merops, 
first -wife of Priam, to whom she bore iEsacus. 
— 2. Daughter of Teucer, wife of Dardauus, 
from whom the town Arisbe, in Troas, was said 
to be named.] 

[Arisbe ('AptaSr], now Mussa Koi). 1. A town 
of Troas, on the Selle'is, not far from Abydus, 
founded by the Lesbians, or, according to Anax- 
imenes of Lampsacus, by the Milesians, the ear- 
lier town having been destroyed by Achilles in 
the Trojan war. It was occupied by the army of 
Alexander after the passage of the Hellespont : 
at a later period it was captured by the Gauls, 
and in Strabo's time it no longer existed. It 
appears to have been subsequently rebuilt, and 
to have become a considerable place under the 
later emperors. — 2. A city of Lesbos, made trib- 
utary at an early period by the Methymnseans : 
it was destroyed by an earthquake.] 
• [Arisbus {" Apiofjoc), a river of Thrace, flow- 
ing into the Hebrus.] 

Arist^netus ('ApioTaiveroc), the reputed au- 
thor of two books of Love Letters, taken almost 
entirely from Plato, Lucian, Philostratus, and 
Plutarch. Of the author nothing is known. 
The best edition is by Boissonade, Paris, 1822. 

Arist^enus {' Aplaraivoc), of Megalopolis, 
sometimes called Aristmnetus, was frequently 
strategus or general of the Achaean League from 
B.C. 198 to 185. He was the political opponent 
of Philopoemen. and a friend of the Romans. 

Aristyeus ('Apioraloc), a divinity worshipped 
in various parts of Greece, was once a mortal, 
who became a god through the benefits he had 
conferred upon mankind. The different ac- 
counts about him seem to have arisen in differ- 
ent places and independently of one another, so 
thiit they referred to several distinct beings, 
who were subsequently identified and united 
into one. He is described either as a son of 
Uranus and Ge, or, according to a more general 
tradition, as the son of Apollo and Oyrene. His 
mother Cyrene had been carried off by Apollo 
from Mount Pelion to Libya, where she gave 
birth to Aristasus. Aristseus subsequently went 
to Thebes in Boeotia ; but after the unfortunate 
death of his son Action, he left Thebes, and 
visited almost all the Greek colonies on the 
coasts of the Mediterranean. Finally he went 
to Tbrace, and after dwelling for some time 
near Mount Hasmus, where he founded the town 
of Aristsson, he disappeared. Aristseus is one 
of the most beneficent divinities in ancient my- 
thology : he was worshipped as the protector 
of flocks and shepherds, of vine and olive plant- 
ations ; he taught men to keep bees, and avert- 
ed from the fields the burning heat of the sun 
and other causes of destruction. 

Aristagoras ('ApicTayopag). 1. Of Miletus, 
brother-in-law of Histiseus, was left by the latter, 
during his stay at the Persian court, in charge 
nf the government of Miletus, Having failed 
in an attempt upon Naxos (B.C. 501), which he 
had promised to subdue for the Persians, and 
fearing the consequences of his failure, he in- 
duced the Ionian cities to revolt from Persia. 



He applied for assistance to the Spartans and 
Athenians : the former refused, but the latter 
sent him twenty ships and some troops. In 
499 his army captured and burned Sardis, but 
was finally chased back to the coast. The 
Athenians now departed ; the Persians con- 
quered most of the Ionian cities ; and Aristag- 
oras, in despair, fled to Thrace, where he wac 
slain by the Edonians in 497. — [2. Son of Her- 
aclides, tyrant of Cyme in ^Eolis, one of the Io- 
nian chiefs left by Darius to guard the bridge 
over the Danube. — 3. Tyrant of Cyzicus, also 
in the service of the Persian king, and left by 
him as one of the guards of the bridge over the 
Danube. — 4. A Greek author, who composed a 
work on Egypt, flourished near the time of Pla- 
to. — 5. A comic poet of the old comedy, of whom 
a few slight fragments remain, given by Mei- 
neke, Fragm. Comic. Grcec, vol. i., p. 427-428, 
edit, minor.] 

Aristander (' koLOTavdpog), the most celebra- 
ted soothsayer ot Alexander the Great, wrote a 
work on prodigies. 

Aristarchus ('ApLBrapxbc). 1. An Athenian, 
one of the leaders in the revolution of the " Four 
Hundred," B.C. 411. He was afterward put to 
death by the Athenians, not later than 406.— 2. A 
Lacedaemonian, succeeded Oleander as harniost 
of Byzantium in 400, and in various ways ill 
treated the Greeks of, Cyrus's army, who bad 
recently returned from Asia. — 3. Of Tegea, a 
tragic poet at Athens, contemporary with Eu- 
ripides, flourished about B.C. 454, and wrote 
seventy tragedies. — 4. Of Samos, an eminent 
mathematician and astronomer at Alexandrea, 
flourished between B.C. 280 and 264. He em- 
ployed himself in the determination of some of 
the most important elements of astronomy ; but 
none of his works remain, except a treatise on 
the magnitudes and distances of the sun and 
moon (nepl fiEyedQv not imoaTrj/idruv riXiov koI 
o-e?ajv7is). Edited by Wallis, Oxon, 1688, and 
reprinted in vol. iii. of his works. There is a 
French translation, and an edition of the text, 
Paris, 1810. — 5. Of Samothrace, the celebrated 
grammarian, flourished B.C. 156. He was edu- 
cated in the school of Aristophanes of Byzan- 
tium, at Alexandrea, where he himself founded 
a grammatical and critical school. At an ad- 
vanced age he left Alexandrea and went to 
Cyprus, where he is said to have died at the 
age of 72, of voluntary starvation, because he 
was suffering from incurable dropsy. Aristar- 
chus was the greatest critic of antiquity. His 
labors were chiefly devoted to the Greek poets, 
but more especially to the Homeric poems, of 
which he published a recension, which has been 
the basis of the text from his time to the pres- 
ent day. The great object of his critical labors 
was to restore the genuine text of the Homeric 
poems, and to clear it of all later interpolations 
and corruptions. He marked those verses which 
he thought spurious with an obelos, and those 
which he considered as particularly beautiful 
with an asterisk. He divided the Iliad and 
Odyssey into twenty-four books each. He did 
not confine himself to a recension of the text, 
but also explained and interpreted the poems : 
he opposed the allegorical interpretation which 
was then beginning to find favor, and which at 
a later time became very general. His gram- 

95 



ARISTEAS. 



ARISTIPPTJS. 



matieal principles were attacked by many of his 
contemporaries : the most eminent of his oppo- 
nents was Crates of Mallus. ' / 

Akisteas ('Apiareac). 1. Of Proconnesus, an 
epic poet of whose life we have only fabulous 
accounts. His date is quite uncertain : some 
place him in the time of Croesus and Cyrus ; 
but other traditions make him earlier than Ho- 
mer, or a contemporary and teacher of Homer. 
The ancient writers represent him as a magi- 
cian, who rose after his death, and whose soul 
could leave and re-enter its body according to 
its pleasure. He was connected with the wor- 
ship of Apollo, which he was said to have in- 
troduced at Metapontum. He is said to have 
travelled through the countries north aud east 
of the Euxine, and to have visited the Issedones, 
Ariniaspse, Cimmerii, Hyperborei, and other 
mythical nations, and after his return to have 
written an epic poem in three books, called The 
Arimaspea (ra 'Apiftuoneia). This work is fre- 
quently mentioned by the ancients, but it is 
impossible to say who was the real author of 
it. — [2. Of Chios, a distinguished officer in the 
army of the Ten Thousand. — 3. An Argive, 
who invited Pyrrhus to'Argos, B.C. 272, as his 
rival Aristippus was supported by Antigonus 
Gonatas.] 

Aristeas or Arist^eus, an officer of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus (B.C. 285-247), the reputed author 
of a Greek work, giving an account of the man- 
ner in which the translation of the Septuagint 
was executed, but which is generally admitted 
by the best critics to be spurious. Printed at 
Oxford, 1692, 8vo. 

Aristides ('ApiaretSTjc:). 1. An Athenian, son 
of Lysimachus, surnamed the " Just," was of an 
ancient and noble family. He was the political 
disciple of Clisthenes, and partly on that ac- 
count, partly from personal character, opposed 
from the first to Themistocles. Aristides fought 
as the commander of his tribe at the battle of 
Marathon, B.C 490 ; and next year, 489, he was 
archon. In 483 or 482 lie suffered ostracism, 
probably in consequence of the triumph of the 
maritime and democratic policy of his rival. He 
was still in exile in 480 at the battle cf Salamis, 
where he did good service by dislodging the 
enemy, with a band raised and armed by him- 
self, from the islet of Psyttaleia. He was re- 
called from banishment after the battle, was ap- 
pointed general in the following year (479), and 
commanded the Athenians at the battle of Pla- 
taeae. In 477, when the allies had become dis- 
gusted with the conduct of Pausanias aud the 
Spartans, he and his colleague Cimon' had the 
glory of obtaining for Athens the commaud of the 
maritime confederacy ; aud to Aristides was by 
general consent intrusted the task of drawing 
up its laws and fixing its assessments. This 
first tribute {tyopog) of 460 talents, paid into a 
common treasury at Delos, bore his name, and 
was regarded by the allies in after times as 
marking their Saturnian age. This is his last 
recorded act. He died after 471, the year of 
the ostracism of Themistocles, and very likely 
in 468. He died so poor, that he did not leave 
enough to pay for his funeral : his daughters 
were portioned by the state, and his son, Ly- 
simachus, received a grant of land and of money. 
— 2. The author of a work entitled Milesiaca, 
96 



which was probably a romance, having Miletns 
for its scene. It was written in prose, and waa 
of a licentious character. It was translated into 
Latin by L Cornelius Sisenna, a contemporary 
of Sulla, and it seems to have become popular 
with the Romans. Aristides is reckoned as 
the inventor of the Greek romance, and the 
title of his work gave rise to the term Milesian, 
as applied to works of fiction. His age and 
country are unknown, but the title of his work 
is thought to favor the conjecture that he was a 
native of Miletus. — 3. Of Thebes, a celebrated 
Greek painter, flourished about B.C. 360-330. 
The point in which he most excelled was in 
depicting the feelings, expressions, and pas- 
sions which may be observed in common life. 
His pictures were so much valued, that, long 
after his death, Attalus, king of Pergamus, offer- 
ed six hundred thousand sesterces for one of 
them. — 4. ^Elius Aristides, surnamed Theo- 
dorus, a celebrated Greek rhetorician, was born 
at Adriani, in Mysia, in A.D. 117. He studied 
under Herodes Atticus at Athens, and subse- 
quently travelled through Egypt, Greece, and 
Italy. The fame of his talents and acquire- 
ments was so great, that monuments were 
erected to his honor in several towns which he 
had honored with his presence. Shortly before 
his return he was attacked by an illness which 
lasted for thirteen years, but this did not prevent 
him from prosecuting his studies. He subse- 
quently settled at Smyrna, and when this city 
was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 178, 
he used his influence with the emperor, M. Au- 
relius, to induce him to assist in rebuilding the 
town. The Smyrnaeans showed their gratitude 
to Aristides by offering him various honors aud 
distinctions, most of which he refused : he ac- 
cepted only the office of priest of iEsculapius 
(Asclepius), which he held until his death, about 
A.D. 180. The works of Aristides which have 
come down to us are fifty-five orations and dec- 
lamations, and two treatises on rhetorical sub- 
jects of little value. His orations are much su- 
perior to those of the rhetoricians of his time 
His admirers compared him to Demosthenes : 
and even Aristides did not think himself much 
inferior. This vanity and self-sufficiency made 
him enemies and opponents ; but the number 
of his admirers was far greater, and several 
learned grammarians wrote commentaries on 
his orations, some of which are extaut. The 
best edition of Aristides is by W. Diudorf, Lips., 
1829. — 5. Quintilianus Aristides, the author 
of a treatise in three books on music, probably 
lived in the first century after Christ. His work 
is perhaps the most valuable of all the ancient 
musical treatises : it is printed in the collection 
of Meibomius entitled Anligucc Musicx Auctorcs 
Septcm, Amst., 1652. 

Aristion ('kpiariuv), a philosopher either of 
the Epicurean or Peripatetic school, made him- 
self tyrant of Athens through the influence of 
Mithradates. He held out against Sulla in B. 
C. 87 ; and when the city was taken by storm, 
he w T as put to death by Sulla's orders. 

ARiSTiPrus {'kp'aTLiTTTog). 1. Son of Aritades, 
born at Cyreue, Mid founder of the Cyrenaic 
school of philosophy, flourished about B.C. 370. 
The fame of Suerates brought him to AtheDS, 
aud he remained with that philosopher almost 



ARISTIUS FUSCCJS. 



ARISTOCRATES. 



□p to the time of his execution, B.C. 399. 
Though a disciple of Socrates, he 'wandered 
both in principle and practice very far from the 
teaching and example of his great master. He 
was luxurious in his mode of living ; he in- 
dulged in sensual gratifications and the society 
of the notorious Lais ; and he took money for 
his teaching (being the first of the disciples of 
Socrates who did so). He passed part of his 
life at the court of Dionysius, tyrant of Syra- 
cuse ; but he appears at last to have returned to 
Cyrene, and there to have spent his old age. 
The anecdotes which are told of him, however, 
do not give us the notion of a person who was 
the mere slave of his passions, but rather of one 
who took a pride in extracting enjoyment from 
all circumstances of every kind, and in con- 
trolling adversity and prosperity alike. They 
illustrate and confirm the two statements of 
Horace (Ep., i., 1, 18), that to observe the pre- 
cepts of Aristippus is mihi res, non me rebus sub- 
jnngere, and (i., 17, 23) that omnis Aristippum 
decuit color et status et res. Thus, when re- 
proached for ' his love of bodily indulgences, he 
answered that there was no shame in enjoy- 
ing them, but that it would be disgraceful if he 
could not at any time give them up. To Xeno- 
phon and Plato he was very obnoxious, as we 
see from the Memorabilia (ii., 1), where he main- 
tains an odious discussion against Socrates in 
defence of voluptuous enjoyment, and from the 
Phcedo, where his absence at the death of Soc- 
rates, though he was only at ./Egina, two hund- 
red stadia from Athens, is doubtless mentioned 
as a reproach. He imparted his doctrine to his 
daughter Arete, by whom it was communicated 
to her son, the younger Aristippus. — [2. Aris- 
tippus, an Aleuad, of Larissa in Thessaly, re- 
ceived money and troops from Cyrus, to resist a 
faction opposed to him, and for the ulterior 
purposes of Cyrus, to whom he sent the troops 
under command of Menon. — 3. An Argive, who 
obtained the supreme power in Argos through 
the aid of Antigonus Gonatas, about B.C. 272. — 
4. An Argive, tyrant of Argos after the theWmir- 
der of Aristomachus L Aratus made many at- 
tempts to deprive him of his tyranny, but at first 
without success: he fell at length in a battle 
against Aratus, and was succeeded in the tyran- 
ny by Aristomachus II. Vid. Aristomachus, 
Nos. 3 and 4.] 

[Aristius Euscus. Vid. Fusous. No. 2.] 

Aristo, T., a distinguished Roman jurist, lived 
under the Emperor Trajan, and was a friend of 
the younger Pliny. His works are occasionally 
mentioned in the Digest, but there is no di- 
rect extract from any of them in that compi- 
lation. He wrote notes on the Libri Poste- 
riorum of Labeo, on Cassius, whose pupil he had 
been, and on Sabinus. 

Aristo. Vid. Ariston. 

Aristobulus ('AptcToSovXo^), princes of Ju- 
dam. 1. Eldest son of Joannes Hyrcanus, as- 
sumed the title of King of Judaea on the death 
of his father in B.C. 1 07. He put to death his 
brother Antigonus in order to secure his power, 
but died in the followiug year, 100. — 2. Younger 
son of Alexander Jannteus and Alexandra. 
After the death of his mother in B.C. 70, there 
was a civil war for some years between Aristo- 
duItss and his brother Hyrcanus for the posses- 1 



sion of the crown. At length, in B.C. 63, Aristo- 
bulus was deprived of the the sovereignty by 
Pompey, and cai-ried away as a prisoner to 
Rome. In 57 he escaped from his confinement 
at Rome with his son Antigonus, and, return- 
ing to Juda?a, renewed the war ; but he was 
taken prisoner, and sent back to Rome by Ga- 
binius. In 49 he was released by Julius Ca;sar, 
who sent him into Judaea, but he was poisoned 
on the way by some of Pompey's party. — 3. 
Grandson of No. 2, son of Alexander, and broth- 
er of Herod's wife Mariamne. He was made 
high-priest by Herod when he was only seven- 
teen years old, but was afterward drowned at 
Jericho, by order of Herod, B.C. 35. — 4. Son of 
Herod the Great by Mariamne, was put to death 
in B.C. 6, with his brother Alexander, by order 
of their father, whose suspicions had been excit- 
ed against them by their brother Antipatkr. — 
5. Surnamed " the Younger," son of Aristobulus 
and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great. 
He was educated at Rome with his two brothers, 
Agrippa L and Herod the future king of 
Chalcis. He died, as he had lived, in a private 
station. — 6. Son of Herod, king of Chalcis, 
grandson of No. 4, and great-grandson of Herod 
the Great. In A.D. 55, Nero made him king 
of Armenia Minor, and in 61 added to his do- 
minions some portion of the Greater Armenia 
which had been given to Tigranes. He joined 
the Romans in the war against Antiochus, king 
of Commagene, in 73. 

Aristobulus. 1. Of Cassandrea, served un- 
der Alexander the Great in Asia, and wrote a 
history of Alexander, which was one of- the 
chief sources used by Arrian in the composition 
of his work. — 2. An Alexandrine Jew, and a 
Peripatetic philosopher, lived B.C. 170, under 
Ptolemy VI. Philometor. He is said to have 
been the author of commentaries upon the books 
of Moses, the object of which was to prove that 
the Greek philosophy was taken from the books 
of Moses ; but it is now admitted that this work 
was written by a later writer, whose object was 
to induce the Greeks to pay respect to the Jew- 
ish literature. 

Aristocles ('ApioTOKliic). 1. Of Rhodes, a 
Greek grammarian and rhetorician, a contem- 
porary of Strabo. — 2. Of Pergamus, a Sophist 
and rhetorician, and a pupil of Herodes Atticus, 
lived under Trajan and Hadrian. — 3. Of Mes- 
sene, a Peripatetic philosopher, probably lived 
about the beginning of the third century after 
Christ. He wrote a work on philosophy, some 
fragments of which are preserved by Eusebius. 
— 4. Sculptors. There were two sculptors of 
this name : Aristocles the elder, who is called 
both a Cydonian and a Sicyonian, probably be- 
cause he was born at Cydonia and practiced his 
art in Sicyon ; and Aristocles the younger, of 
Sicyon, grandson of the former, son of Clecetas, 
and brother of Canachus. These artists founded 
a school of sculpture at Sicyon, which se- 
cured an hereditary reputation, and of which 
we have the heads for several generations, name- 
ly, Aristocles, Clecetas, Aristocles and Cana- 
chus, Synnoon, Ptolichus, Sostratus, and Pantias. 
The elder Aristocles probably lived about B.C. 
600-568 ; the younger about 540-508.— [5. Ear- 
lier name of Plato. Vid. Plato.] 

Aristoorates ('ApiuToicpaTrig). 1. Last King 
97 



ARISTODEMUS. 



ARISTOMENES. 



of Arcadia, was the leader of the Arcadians in 
the second Messenian war, wjien they assisted 
the Messenians against the Spartans. Having 
been bribed by the Spartans, he betrayed the 
Messenians, and was, in consequence, stoned to 
death by the Arcadians about B.C. 668, who 
now abolished the kingly office. — 2. An Atheni- 
an of wealth and influence, son of Scellias, was 
one of the Athenian generals at the battle of 
Arginusae, B.C. 406, and on his return to Athens 
was brought to trial and executed. 

Aristodemus ('ApioToSijpos). 1. -A. descend- 
ant of Hercules, son of Aristomachus, and fa- 
ther of Eurysthenes and Procles. According 
to some traditions, Aristodemus was killed at 
Naupaetus ly a flash of lightning, just as he 
was setting out on his expedition into Pelopon- 
nesus ; but a Lacedaemonian tradition related 
that Aristodemus himself came to Sparta, was 
the first king of his race, and died a natural 
death. — 2. A Messenian, one of the chief heroes 
in the first Messenian war. As the Delphic 
oracle had declared that the preservation of the 
Messenian state demanded that a maiden of the 
house of the JSpytids should be sacrificed, Aris- 
todemus offered his own daughter. In order to 
save her life, her lover declared that she was 
with child by him ; but Aristodemus, enraged at 
this assertion, murdered his daughter, and open- 
ed her body to refute the calumny. Aristode- 
mus was afterward elected king in place of 
Euphaes, who had fallen in battle agaiust the 
Spartans. He continued the war against the 
Spartans, till at length, finding further resist- 
auee 'hopeless, he put an end to his life, on the 
tomb of his daughter, about B.C. 723. — 3. Ty- 
rant of Cuma? in Campania, at whose court Tar- 
quinius Superbus died, B.C. 496. — 4. One of the 
three hundred Spartans at Thermopylae (B.C. 
480), was not present at the battle in which his 
comrades fell, either in consequence of sick- 
ness, or because he had been sent on an errand 
from the camp. The Spartans punished him 
with Atimia, or civil degradation. Stung with 
this treatment, he met his death at Plataese in 
the following year (479), after performing the 
wildest feats of valor. — 5. A tragic actor of 
Athens in the time of Demosthenes, took a 
prominent part in the political affairs of his 
time, and advocated peace with Macedonia. 
He was employed by the Athenians in the ne- 
gotiations with Philip, with whom he was a 
great favorite. — 6. Of Miletus, a friend and flat- 
terer of Antigonus, king of Asia, who sent him 
into Greece in B.C. 315, in order to promote 
his interests there. — 7. There were many lit- 
erary persons of this name referred to by the 
ancient grammarians, whom it is difficult to dis- 
tinguish from one another. Two were natives 
of Nysa in Caria, both grammaiians, one a teach- 
er of Pompey, and the other of Strabo. There 
was also an Aristodemus of Elis, and another 
of Thebes, who are quoted as writers. [The 
fragments of these writers are collected and 
published together by Miiller, Fragm. Histor. 
Grcec, vol. iii., p. 307-311.} 

Aristogiton (' hpiGToyei-uv). 1. The con- 
spirator against the sous of Pisistratus. Vid. 
Harmodius. — 2. An Athenian orator and ad- 
versary of Demosthenes, Hyperides, and Diuar- 
chus. He was often accused by Demosthenes 
98 



and others, and defended himself iu a numoer 
of orations which are lost. Am ong the extant 
speeches of Demosthenes there are two against 
Aristogiton, and among those of Dinarchus there 
is one. 

Aristomache ('AptoTOfidxv)- [1- One of the 
daughters of Priam, and wife of Ciitolaus.] — 
2. Daughter of Hipparinus of Syracuse, sister 
of Dion, and wife of the elder Dionysius, who 
married her and Doris of Loeri on the same day. 
She afterward perished with her daughter 
Arete. 

Aristomachus ( kpiarofiaxog). 1. Son of Ta- 
laus and brother of Adrastus. — 2. Son of Cleo- 
demus or Cleodaeus, grandson of Hyllus, great- 
grandson of Hercules, and father of Terrwnus, 
Cresphontes, and Aristodemus. He fell in bat- 
tle when he invaded Peloponnesus ; but his 
three sons were more successful, and conquer- 
ed Peloponnesus. — 3. Tyrant of Argos, under 
the patronage of Antigonus Gonatas, was as- 
sassinated, and succeeded by Aristippus II. — 4. 
Tyrant of Argos, succeeded Aristippus II. : he 
resigned his power upon the death of Demetri- 
us in B.C. 229, and induced Argos to join the 
Achaean League. He afterward deserted the 
Achaeans, and again assumed the tyranny of Ar- 
gos ; but the city having been taken by Antigo- 
nus Doson, Aristomachus fell into the hands of 
the Achaeans, and was by them put to death. 

Aristomenes ('ApLdTo/j.ev?]Q). 1. The Messe- 
nian, the hero of the second war with Sparta, 
belongs more to legend than to history. He 
was a native of Andania, and was sprung from 
the royal line of iEpytus. Tired of the yoke of 
Sparta, he began the war in B.C. 685, thirty- 
nine years after the end of the first war. Soon 
after its commencement, he so distinguished 
himself by his valor that he was offered the 
throne, but refused it, aud received the office 
of supreme commander. After the defeat of 
the Messenians in the third year of the war, 
through the treachery of Aristocrates, the Ar- 
cadia* leader, Aristomenes retreated to the 
mounxain fortress of Ira, and there maintained 
the war eleven years, constantly ravaging the 
land of Laconia. In one of his incursions, how- 
ever, the Spartans overpowered him with su- 
perior numbers, and carrying him, with fifty of 
his comrades, to Sparta, cast them into thg 
pit (neddac;) where condemned criminals were 
thrown. The rest perished ; not so Aristome- 
nes, the favorite of the gods; for legends told 
how an eagle bore him up on its wings as he 
fell, and a fox guided him on the third day from 
the cavern. But having incurred the anger of 
the Twin Brothers, his country was destined to 
ruin. The city of Ira, which he had so long 
successfully defended, fell into the hands of the 
Spartans; Aristomenes, after performing prodi- 
gies of valor, was obliged to leave his country, 
which was again compelled to submit to the 
Spartans, B.C. 668. He afterward settled at 
Ialysus in Rhodes, where he died. Damagetus, 
king of Ialysus, had been enjoined by the Del- 
phic oracle " to marry the daughter of the best 
of the Greeks," and he therefore took to wife 
the daughter of Aristomenes, who accompanied 
him to Rhodes. The Rhodians honored Aris- 
tomenes as a hero, aud from him were descend- 
ed the illustrious family of the Diagoridaj. — % 



ARISTON. 

An Aearnanian, who governed Egypt with jus- 
tice and wisdom during the minority of Ptole- 
my V. Epiphanes, but was put to death by Ptole- 
my in 192. — 3. A comic poet of Athens, flour- 
ished during the Peloponnesian war : [of his 
comedies only a few fragments remain, which are 
collected in Meineke's Fragm. Comic. Grcec, vol. 
i., p. 415-V, edit, minor.] 

Ariston ('Apiaruv). 1. Of Chios, a Stoic 
philosopher, and a disciple of Zeno, flourished 
about B.C. 260. Though he professed himself 
a Stoic, yet he differed from Zeno in several 
points, and became the founder of a small 
school. He is said to have died of a coup de 
soleil. — 2. A Peripatetic philosopher of lulls in 
the Island of Ceos, succeeded Lycon as head 
of the Peripatetic, school about B.C. 230. He 
wrote several philosophical works which are 
lost. — 3. Of Alexandrea, a Peripatetic philoso- 
pher and a contemporary of Strabo, wrote a 
work on the Nile ; [and another, ■Kepi 'kdijvaluv 
unoiKLac, as Vossius has shown, with whom also 
Miiller agrees, who has given the fragments of 
these works, in his Fragm. Hist. Greec, vol. iii., 
p. 324-5.] 

Aristonaum; ('Apiarovavrai), a town in Achaia, 
the harbor of Pallene. 

Aristonicds ('AptaroviKOc). 1. [A tyrant of 
Methymna, in Lesbos, who oppressed the Les- 
bians. He was subsequently taken prisoner by 
the naval commanders of Alexander at Chios, 
given up to the Methymneans, and by them 
cruelly put to death.] — 2. A natural son of Eu- 
menes II. of Pergamus. Upon the death of his 
brother, Attalus III., B.C. 133, who left his 
kingdom to the Romans, Aristonicus laid claim 
to the crown. At first he met with considerable 
success. He defeated in 131 the consul P. Li- 
cinius Crassus ; but in 130 he was defeated and 
taken prisoner by M. Perperna, was carried to 
Rome by M'. Aquillius in 129, and was there put 
to death. — 3. An Alexandrine grammarian, a 
contemporary of Strabo, and the author of sev- 
eral works, most of which related to the Homeric 
poems. 

Aristonymus ('ApiGTuvvfioc), a comic poet and 
contemporary of Aristophanes and Amipsias, [of 
whose plays scarcely any thing survives : two or 
three fragments are given in Meineke's Fragm. 
Comic. Grate, vol. i., p. 401-2, edit, minor.] 

Aristophanes ('ApiaTotpuvijc). 1. The cele- 
brated comic poet, was born about B.C. 444, and 
probably at Athens. His father Philippus had 
possessions in ^Egina, and may originally have 
come from that island, whence a question arose 
whether Aristophanes was a genuine Athenian 
citizen : his enemy Cleon bi'ought against him 
more than one accusation to deprive him of his 
civic rights (fewa? ypa<f>al), but without success. 
He had three sons, Philippus, Araros, and Ni- 
costratus, but of his private history we know 
uo,thing. He probably died, about B.C. 380. The 
comedies of Aristophanes are of the highest his- 
torical interest, containing as they do an admi- 
rable series of caricatures on the leading men 
of the day, and a contemporary commentary on 
the evils existing at Athens. Indeed, the cari- 
cature is the only feature in modern social life 
which at all resembles them. Aristophanes was 
a bold aud often a wise patriot. He had the 
strongest affection for Athens and longed to see 



ARISTOPHANES. 

her restored to the state in which she was flour 
ishing in the previous generation, and almost in 
his own childhood, before Pericles became the 
head of the government, and when the age of 
Miltiades and Aristides had but just passed 
away. The first great evil of his own time 
against which he inveighs is the Peloponnesian 
war, which he regards as the work of Pericles. 
To this fatal war, among a host of evils, he as- 
cribes the influence of demagogues like Cleon 
at Athens. Another great object of his indig 
nation was the recently adopted system of edu 
cation, which had been introduced by the Soph- 
ists, acting on the speculative and inquiring 
turn given to the Athenian mind by the Ionian 
and Eleatic philosophers, aud the extraordinary 
intellectual development of the age following 
the Persian war. The new theories introduced 
by the Sophists threatened to overthrow the 
foundations of morality, by making persuasion, 
and not truth, the object of man in his intercourse 
with his fellows, and to substitute a universal 
skepticism for the religious creed of the people. 
The worst effects of such a system were seen in 
Alcibiades, who combined all the elements which 
Aristophanes most disliked, heading the war 
party in politics, and protecting the sophistical 
school in philosophy and also in literature. Of 
this latter school — the literary and poetical Soph- 
ists — Euripides was the chief, whose works 
are full of that uereopoaofia which contrasts sc 
offensively with the moral dignity of iEschylus 
and Sophocles, and for which Aristophanes in- 
troduces him as soaring in the air to write his 
tragedies. Another feature of the times was 
the excessive love for litigation at Athens, the 
consequent importance of the dicasts, and dis- 
graceful abuse of their power, all of which enor- 
mities are made by Ai-istophanes objects of con- 
tinual attack. But though he saw what were 
the evils of his time, he had not wisdom to find 
a remedy for them, except the hopeless and un- 
desirable one of a movement backward ; and 
therefore, though we allow him to have been 
honest and bold, we must deny him the epithet 
of great. The following is a list of his extant 
comedies, with the year in which they were 
performed : 425. Acharnians. Produced in the 
name of Callistratus. First prize. — 424. 'Imrelc, 
Knights or Horsemen. The first play produced 
in the name of Aristophanes himself. First 
prize ; second Cratinus. — 423. Clouds. First 
prize, Cratinus ; second, Amipsias. — 422. Wasps, 
Second prize. — Clouds (second edition), failed in 
obtaining a prize. Some writers place this B.C. 
411, and the whole subject is very uncertain. 
— 419. Peace. Second prize; Eupolis, first. — 
Birds. Second prize ; Amipsias, first ; Phryn- 
iehus, third. — 411. Lysistrata. — Thesmophoria- 
zusce. During the Oligarchy. — 408. First Plu- 
tus. — 405. Frogs. First prize ; Phrynichus, sec 
ond; Plato, third. Death of Sophocles— 392. 
Fcclesiazusce. — 388. Second edition of the Flu- 
tus. — The last two comedies of Aristophanes 
were the ^Eolosicon aud Cocalus, produced about 
B.C. 387 (date of the peace of Antalcidas) by Ar- 
aros, one of his sons. Suidas tells us that Aris- 
tophanes was the author, in all, of fifty-four plays. 
As a poet Aristophanes possessed merits of the 
highest order. His works contain snatches of 
lyric poetry which are quite noble, and some oi 
99 



ARISTOPHON. 



ARISTOTELES. 



uis choruses, particularly one in the Knights, in 
which the horses are represented as rowing tri- 
remes in an expedition against Corinth, are writ- 
ten with a spirit and humor unrivalled in Greek, 
and are not very dissimilar to English ballads. 
He was a complete master of the Attic dialect, 
and iii his hands the perfection of that glorious 
language is wonderfully shown. No flights are 
too bold for the range of his fancy : animals of 
every kind are pressed into his service ; frogs 
chaunt choruses, a dog is tried for stealing a 
cheese, and an iambic verse is composed of the 
grunts of a pig. — Editions : The best, of the col- 
lective plays are by Invernizzi, completed by 
Beck and Dindorf, 13 vols., Lips., 1794-1826; 
by Bekker, 5 vols. 8vo, Lond., 1829 ; [and by Din- 
dorf, 4 vols., in 7 parts, 8vo, Oxford, 1835-38]. — 
2. Of Byzantium, son of Apelles, and one of the 
most eminent Greek grammarians at Alexan- 
dra, He was a pupil of Zenodotus and Era- 
tosthenes, and teacher of the celebrated Aristar- 
chus. He lived about B.C. 264, in the reign of 
Ptolemy II. and Ptolemy III, and had the su- 
preme management' of the library at Alexandrea. 
Aristophanes was the first who introduced the 
use of accents in the Greek language. He de- 
voted himself chiefly to the criticism and inter- 
pretation of the Greek poets, and more espe- 
cially of Homer, of whose works he made a new 
>tnd critical edition (dtopdoaic). The philoso- 
phers Plato and Aristotle likewise engaged his 
attention, and of the former, as of several of the 
poets, he made new and critical editions. All 
we possess of his numerous works consists of 
fragments scattered through the Scholia on the 
poets, some arguments to the plays of the tragic 
poets and of Aristophanes, and a part of his 
AeijeiC, which is printed in Boissonade's edition 
of Herodian's Partitiones, London, 1819, p. 283- 
289. [A collection of all the extant fragments 
of Aristophanes has been made by Nauck, Halle, 
1 848, 8vo.] 

Aristophon ('Apcoroipuv). 1. Of the demus 
of Azenia in Attica, one of the most distinguish- 
ed Athenian orators about the close of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. The number of laws which he 
pi'oposed may be inferred from his own state- 
ment, as preserved by ^Eschines, that he was 
accused seventy-five times of having made ille- 
gal proposals, but that lie had always come off 
victorious. In B.C. 354 he accused Iphicrates 
and Timotheus, and in the same year he came 
forward in the assembly to defend the law of 
Leptines against Demosthenes. The latter 
treats him with great respect, and reckons him 
among the most eloquent orators. — 2. Of the 
demus of Colyttus, a contemporary of Demos- 
thenes, and an orator of great distinction and 
influence. It was this Aristophon whom iEs- 
chines served as a clerk, and in whose service 
he was trained for his public career. Vid. Ms- 
ohines. — 3. A comic poet of the middle comedy ; 
[the fragments of his plays remaining are col- 
lected by Meineke, in his Fragm Comic. Grxc, 
vol. ii., p. 67 5-6*7 9, ed. minor.] — 4. A painter of 
some distinction, son and pupil of Aglaophon, 
and brother of Polygnotus. 

Aristoteles ('AptaroTeTinc), the philosopher, 
was born at Stagira, a town in Chalcidice in 
Macedonia, B.C. 384. His father, Nicomachus, 
was physician in ordinary to Amyntas II., king 
00 



of Macedonia, and the author of several treatises 
on subjects connected with natural science : his 
mother, Phaestis (or Phsestias), was descended 
from a Chalcidian family. The studies and oc- 
cupation of his father account for the early in- 
clination manifested by Aristotle for the inves- 
tigation of nature, an inclination which is per- 
ceived throughout his whole life. He lost his 
father before he had attained his seventeenth 
year, and he was intrusted to the guardianship 
of one Proxenus of Atarneus in Mysia, who was 
settled in Stagira. In 367 he went to Athens 
to pursue his studies, and there became a pupil 
of Plato upon the return of the latter from Sici- 
ly about 365. » Plato soon distinguished him 
above all his other disciples. He named him 
the " intellect of his school," and his house the 
house of the " reader." Aristotle lived at 
Athens for twenty years, till 347. During the 
whole of this period the good understanding 
which subsisted between teacher and scholar 
continued, with some trifling, exceptions, undis- 
turbed, for the stories of the disrespect and in- 
gratitude of the latter toward the former are 
nothing but calumnies invented by his enemies. 
During the last ten years of his first residence 
at Athens, Aristotle gave instruction in rhetoric, 
and distinguished himself by his opposition to 
Isocrates. It was at this time that he publish- 
ed his first rhetorical writings. Upon the death 
of Plato (347) Aristotle left Athens ; perhaps he 
was offended by Plato having appointed Speu- 
sippus as his successor in the Academy. He 
first repaired to his friend Hermias at Atarneus, 
where he married Pythias, the adoptive daugh 
ter of the prince. On the death of Hermias. 
who was killed by the Persians (344), Aristotle 
fled from Atarneus to Mytilene. Two years 
afterward (342) he accepted an invitation from 
Philip of Macedonia to undertake the instruc- 
tion of his son .Alexander, then thirteen years 
of age. Here Aristotle was treated with the 
most marked respect. His native city, Stagira, 
which had been destroyed by Philip, was re- 
built at his request, and Philip caused a gym- 
nasium (called NympliNum) to be built there in 
a pleasant grove expressly for Aristotle and his 
pupils. Several of the youths of the Macedo- 
nian nobles were educated by Aristotle along 
with Alexander. Aristotle spent seven years 
in Macedonia, but Alexander enjoyed his in- 
struction without interruption for only four. 
Still, with such a pupil, even this short period 
was sufficient for a teacher like Aristotle to 
fulfill the highest purposes of education, and to 
create in his pupil that sense ol the noble and 
great which distinguishes Alexander from all 
those conquerors who have only swept like a 
hurricane through the world. On Alexander's 
accession to the throne in 335, Aristotle return- 
ed to Athens. Here he found his friend Xenoc- 
rates president of the Academy. He himself 
had the Lyceum, a gymnasium sacred to Apollo 
Lyceus, assigned to him by the state. He soon 
assembled round him a large number of distin- 
guished scholars, to whom he delivered lectures 
on philosophy in the shady walks (irepirra-oi) 
which surrounded the Lyceum, while walking 
up and down (KepuraTuv), and not sitting, whicL 
was the general practice of the philosophers 
From one or other of these circumstances thi 



ARISTOTELES. 

name Peripatetic is derived, which was after- 
ward given to his school. He gave two dif- 
ferent courses of lectures every day. Those 
which he delivered in the morning (eudivoc ite- 
omaroc ) to a narrower circle of chosen (esote- 
ric) hearers, and which were called acroamatic 
or acroatic, embraced subjects connected with 
the more abstruse philosophy (theology), phys- 
ics, and dialectics. Those which he delivered 
in the afternoon (6ei?avbe ■Keplvaroc), and intend- 
ed for a more promiscuous circle (which, accord- 
ingly, he called exoteric), extended to rhetoric, 
sophistics, and politics. He appears to have 
taught not so much in the way of conversation 
as in regular lectures. His school soon became 
the most celebrated at Athens, and he continued 
to preside over it for thirteen years (335-323). 
During this time he also composed the greater 
part of his works. In these labors he was as- 
sisted by the truly kingly liberality of his former 
pupil, who not only presented him with 800 
talents, but also caused large collections of nat- 
ural curiosities to be made for him, to which 
posterity is indebted for one of his most excel- 
lent works, the History of Animals* Meanwhile 
various causes contributed to throw a cloud 
over the latter years of the philosopher's life. 
In the first place he felt deeply the death of his 
wife Pythias, who left behind her a daughter of 
the same name : he lived subsequently with a 
friend of his wife's, the slave Herpyllis, who 
bore him a son, Nicomachus. But a source of 
still greater grief was an interruption of the 
friendly relation in which he had hitherto stood 
to his royal pupil. This was occasioned by the 
conduct of Callisthenes, the nephew and pupil 
of Aristotle, who had vehemently and injudi- 
ciously opposed the changes in the conduct and 
policy of Alexander. Still Alexander refrain- 
ed from any expression of hostility towards his 
former instructor, although their former cordial 
connection no longer subsisted undisturbed. 
The story that Aristotle had a share in poison- 
ing the king is a fabrication of a later age ; 
and, moreover, it is certain that Alexander died 
a natural death. After the death of Alexan- 
der (323), Aristotle was looked upon with suspi- 
cion at Athens as a friend of Macedonia ; but 
as it was not easy to bring any political accusa- 
tion against him, he was accused of impiety 
(aaeCelac) by the hierophant Eurymedon. He 
withdrew from Athens before his trial, and es- 
caped in the beginning of 322 to Chalcis in Eu- 
boea, where he died in the course of the same 
year, in the sixty-third year of his age, of a 
chronic disease of the stomach. His body was 
transported to his native city Stagira, and his 
memory was honored there, like that of a hero, 
by yearly festivals. He bequeathed to Theo- 
phrastus his well-stored library and the origi- 
nals of his writings. In person Aristotle was 
short and of slender make, with small eyes, 
and a lisp in his pronunciation, using L for R, 
and with a sort of sarcastic expression in his 
countenance. He exhibited remarkable atten- 
tion to external appearance, and bestowed much 
care on his dress and person. He is described 
as having been of weak health, which, consid- 
ering the astonishing extent of his studies, 
shows all the more the energy of his mind. The 
uumerous works of Aristotle may be divided 



ARISTOTELES. 

into the following classes, according to the sub- 
jects of which they treat : we only mention the 
most important in each class. I. Dialectics 
and Logic. The extant logical writings are 
comprehended as a whole under the title Or- 
ganon ("Opyavov, i. e., instrument of science). 
They are occupied with the investigation of the 
method by which man arrives at knowledge. 
An insight into the nature and formation of con- 
clusions, and of proof by means of conclusions, 
is the common aim and centre of all the sep- 
arate six works composing the Organon : these 
separate works are, 1. Karnyopiai, Prozdicamen- 
ta, in which Aristotle treats of the (ten) com- 
prehensive generic ideas, under which all the 
attributes of things may be subordinated as 
species. — 2. Tlepl £p[ti]veiac, De Interpretatione, 
concerning the expression of thought by means 
of speech. — 3, 4. 'MiaXyriKa nporepa and varepa, 
Analytica, each in two books, on the theory of 
conclusions, so called from the resolution of 
the conclusion into its fundamental component 
parts. — 5. Tottiku, De Locis, in eight books, of 
the general points of view (tottoi), from which 
conclusions may be drawn. — 6. TLepl coQictikuv 
'eXeyXuv, concerning the fallacies which only 
apparently prove something. The best edition 
of the Organon is by Waitz, Lips., 1844. II. 
Theoretical Philosophy, consisting of Meta- 
physics, Mathematics, and Physics, on all of 
which Aristotle wrote works. 1. The Meta- 
physics, in fourteen books (tuv fiera rd. fvoiKil), 
originally consisted of distinct treatises, inde- 
pendent of one another, and were put together 
as one work after Aristotle's death. The title, 
also, is of late origin, and was given to the work 
from its being placed after (perd.) the Physics 
(rd, ijivutKa). The best edition is by Braudis, 
Berol., 1823. — 2. In Mathematics we have two 
treatises by Aristotle: (1.) Tlepl ardfioiv ypa/.i- 
fiuv, i. e., concerning indivisible lines; (2.) M;/- 
XaviKu. irpoBlij/xaTa, Mechanical Problems.- — o. 
In Physics we have, (1.) Physics ((fivaiKij unpoil- 
aic, called also, by others, irepl upxtiv), in eight 
books. In these Aristotle develops the general 
principles of natural science (Cosmology). (2.) 
Concerning the Heaven (rcspl ovpavov), in four 
books. (3.) On Production and Destruction (nepl 
yeveaeac Kal tpdopuc, de Generatione et Corrup- 
tione), in two books, develop the general laws 
of production and destruction. (4.) On Meteor- 
ology (pereupoXoyiKa, de Meteoris), in four books. 
(S.) On the Universe (irepl noo/iov, de Mundo), a 
letter to Alexander, treats the subject of the 
last two works in a popular tone and a rhetor- 
ical style altogether foreign to Aristotle. The 
whole is probably a translation of a work with 
the same title by Appuleius. (6.) TJie History 
of Animals (nepl t^uuv laropia), in nine books, 
treats of all the peculiarities of this division of 
the natural kingdom, according to genera, class- 
es, and species, especially giving all the char- 
acteristics of each animal according to its ex- 
ternal and internal vital functions, according 
to the manner of its copulation, its mode of 
life, and its character. The best edition is by 
Schneider, Lips., 1811. The observations in 
this work are the triumph of ancient sagacity, 
and have been confirmed by the results of the 
most recent investigations (Cuvier). (7.) On 
the parts of Animals (rrepl friuv fiopluv), iu four 
101 



ARISTOTELES. 

books, in which Aristotle, after describing the 
phenomena in each species, develops the causes 
of these phsenomena by means of the idea to be 
formed of the purpose "which is manifested in 
the formation of the animal. (8.) On the Gen- 
eration of Animals (nepl fawv yevtaeuc) in five 
books, treats of the generation of animals and 
the organs of generation. — (9.) De Incessu Ani- 
malium (nepl £uov iropeLac). (10.) Three books 
on the Soul {nepl ipvxyc). Aristotle defines the 
soul to be the " internal formative principle of a 
body which may be perceived by the senses, and 
is capable of life." Best edition by Trendelen- 
burg, Jena?, 1833. Several anatomical works 
of Aristotle have been lost. He was the first 
person who, in any special manner, advocated 
anatomical investigations, and showed the ne- 
cessity of them for the study of the natural 
sciences. He frequently refers to investiga- 
tions of his own on the subject. III. Practi- 
cal Philosophy or Politics. All that falls 
within the sphere of practical philosophy is com- 
prehended in three principal works : the Ethics, 
the Politics, and the (Economics. 1. Hie Ni- 
comachean Ethics ('HdiKu 'NiKoudxeia), in ten 
books. Aristotle here begins with the highest 
and most universal end of life, for the individ- 
ual as well as for the community in the state. 
This is happiness (evoaifiovia) ; and its condi- 
tions are, on the one hand, perfect virtue ex- 
hibiting itself in the actor, and, on the other 
hand, corresponding bodily advantages and fa- 
vorable external circumstances. Virtue is the 
readiness to act constantly and consciously ac- 
cording to the laws of the rational nature of 
man (opdoc Xoyog). The nature of virtue shows 
itself in its appearing as the medium between 
two extremes. In accordance with this, the 
several virtues are enumerated and character- 
ized. Best editions by Zell, Heidelb., 1820; 
Coray, Paris, 1822 ; Cardwell, Oxon., 1828 ; 
Michelet, Berol., 1848, 2d edition— 2. The Eu- 
demean Ethics ('HOiku ~Evdjjfzeca), in several books, 
of which only books i., ii., iii., and vii. are in- 
dependent, while the remaining books iv., v., 
and vi. agree word for word with books v., vi., 
and vii. of the Nicomacheon Ethics. This eth- 
ical work is perhaps a recension of Aristotle's 
lectures, edited by Eudemus. — 3. 'HOiku. Me- 
yaXa, in two books. — 4. Politics (Uo?a-ucu), in 
eight books. The Ethics conduct us to the Pol- 
itics. The connection between the two works 
is so close, that in the Ethics by the word vare- 
oov reference is made by Aristotle to the Poli- 
tics, and in the latter by wporepov to the Ethics. 
The Politics show how happiness is to be attain- 
ed for the human community in the state; for the 
object of the state is not merely the external 
preservation of life, "but happy hfe," as it is at- 
tained by " means of virtue" (fiptrfi, perfect de- 
velopment of the whole man). Hence, also, eth- 
ics form the first and most general foundation 
of political life, because the state cannot attain 
its highest object if morality does not prevail 
among its citizens. The house, the family, is 
the element of the state. Accordingly, Aristo- 
tle begins with the doctrine of domestic econo- 
my, then proceeds to a description of the differ- 
ent forms of government, after which he gives 
a delineation of the most important Hellenic 
constitutions, and then investigates which of i 
102 



ARISTOTELES. 

i. the constitutions is the best (the ideal of a state) 
The doctrine concerning education, as the most 
important condition of this best state, forms thf 
conclusion. Best editions, by Schneider, Fran 
cof. ad. Viadr., 1809 ; Coray, Paris, 1821 ; Gott 
ling, Jense, 1824; Stahr, with' a German trans- 
lation, Lips., 1S37 ; Barthelemy St. Hilaire, with 
a French translation, Paris, 1837, — 5. (Economics 
(olKovofiLKil), in two books, of which only the first 
is genuine. IV. Works on Art, which have 
for their subject the exercise of the creative 
faculty, or Art. To these belong the Poetics and 
Rhetoric. 1. The Poetics (Tlepl notn-iKT/c). Aris- 
totle penetrated more deeply than any of the 
ancients into the essence of Hellenic art. He 
is the father of the aesthetics of poetry, as he is 
the completer of Greek rhetoric as a science. 
The greatest part of the treatise contains a 
theory of Tragedy ; nothing else is treated of, 
with the exception of the epos ; comedy is 
merely alluded to. Best editions, by Tyrwhitt, 
Oxon., 1794; Hermann, Lips., 1802; Grafenhan, 
Lips., 1821; Bekker, Berol., 1832; Ritter, Co- 
lon., 1839. — 2. Tlie Rhetoric (rix vr l finropiKij), in 
three books. Rhetoric, as a science, according 
to Aristotle, stands side by side with Dialectics. 
The only thing which makes a scientific treat- 
ment of rhetoric possible is the argumentation 
which awakens conviction : he therefore directs 
his chief attention to the theory of oratorical 
argumentation. The second main division of 
the work treats of the production of that favor- 
able disposition in the hearer, in consequence 
of which the orator appears to him to be worthy 
of credit. The third part treats of oratorical 
expression and arrangement. According to a 
story current in antiquity, Aristotle bequeathed 
his library and MSS. to Theophrastus, his suc- 
cessor in the Academy. Cn the death of Theo- 
phrastus, the libraries and MSS., both of Aris 
totle and Theophrastus, are said to have come 
into the hands of his relation and disciple, Ne- 
leus of Scepsis. This Neleus sold both libraries 
to Ptolemy II., king of Egypt, for the Alexan- 
drine library ; but he retained for himself, as 
an heir-loom, the original MSS. of the works of 
these two philosophers. The descendants of 
Neleus, who were subjects of the King of Per- 
gamus, knew of no other way of securing them 
from the search of the Attali, who wished to 
rival the Ptolemies in forming a large library, 
than concealing them in a cellar, where for a 
couple of centuries they were exposed to the 
ravages of damp and worms. It was not till 
the beginning of the century before the birth of 
Christ that a wealthy book-collector, the Athe- 
nian Apellicon of Teos, traced out these valua- 
ble relics, bought them from the ignorant heirs, 
and prepared from them a new edition of Aris- 
totle's works. After the capture of Athens, 
Sulla conveyed Apellieon's library to Rome, B. 
C. 84. Vid. Apellicon. From this story an 
error arose, which has been handed down from 
the time of Strabo to the present day. It was 
concluded from this account that neither Aris- 
totle nor Theophrastus had published their writ- 
ings, with the exception of some exoteric works, 
which had no impoftant bearing on their sys- 
tem, and that it was not till 200 years later 
that they were brought to light by the above- 
mentioned Apellicon, and published to the phi' 



ARISTOXENUS. 



ARMENIA. 



osophical world. That, however, was by no 
means the cause. Aristotle, indeed, did not pre- 
pare a complete edition, as we call it, of his 
writings. Nay, it is certain that death overtook 
him before he could finish some of his works 
and put the finishing hand to others. Never- 
theless, it can not be denied that Aristotle des- 
tined all his works for publication, and published 
several in his life-time. This is indisputably 
certain with regard to the exoteric writings. 
Those which had not been published by Aristo- 
tle himself, were given to the world by Theo- 
phrastus and his disciples in a complete form. 
—Editions : The best edition of the complete 
works of Aristotle is by Bekker, Berlin, 1831- 
1840, 4 to, text in 2 vols., and a Latin translation 
in one volume. This edition has been reprint- 
ed at Oxford in 11 vols. 8vo. There is a ste- 
reotyped edition published by Tauchnitz, Leip- 
zig, 1832, 16mo, in 16 vols., and another edition 
of the text by Weise, in one volume, Leipzig, 
1843. — [2. One of the thirty tyrants established 
in Athens B.C. 404 : he would also appear to 
have been one of the 400, and to have taken an 
active part in the scheme of fortifying Eetionea, 
and admitting the Spartans into the Pirseeus, 
B.C. 411. In B.C. 405 he was living in banish- 
ment, and is mentioned by Xenophon as being 
with Lysander during the siege of Athens. — 3. 
Of Sicily, a rhetorician, who wrote against the 
Panegyricus of Isocrates. — 4. Of Athens, an 
orator and statesman, under whose name some 
forensic orations were known in the time of Di- 
ogenes Laertius, which were distinguished for 
their elegance. — 5. Of Argos, a Megaric or dia- 
lectic philosopher, belonged to the party at Ar- 
gos which was hostile to Cleomenes of Sparta.] 

Aristoxenus CApiGTotjevoc). 1. Of Tareutum, 
a Peripatetic philosopher and a musician, flour- 
ished about B.C. 318. He was a disciple of 
Aristotle, whom he appears to have rivalled in 
the variety of his studies. According to Suidas, 
he produced works to the number of 453 upon 
music, philosophy, history — in short, every de- 
partment of literature. We know nothing of 
his philosophical opinions except that he held 
the soul to be a harmony of the body (Cic, Tusc, 
i., 10), a doctrine which had been already dis- 
cussed by Plato in the Phmdo. Of his numer- 
ous works, the only one extant is his Elements 
of Harmony (dpfiovacil GTOtxeia), in three books, 
edited by Meibomius, in the Antiques Musical 
Auctores Septem, Amst., 1652. — [2. Of Selinus 
in Sicily, a Greek poet, who is said to have been 
the first who wrote in anapa?stic metres. — 3. 
A celebrated Greek physician, who flourished 
about the beginning of the Christian era, and 
was the author of a work Tlepl tt/c 'HpofoXov 
kipeGsuc, Be Herophili Secta.] 

Aristus ("Apiaroc). 1. Of Salamis in Cyprus, 
wrote a history of Alexander the Great. — 2. An 
Academic philosopher, a contemporary and Mend 
of Cicero, and teacher of M. Brutus. 

Arius, river. Vid. Aria. 

[Arids ("Apetoc). 1. A Pythagorean or Stoic 
philosopher of Alexandrea, an instructor of Au- 
gustus in philosophy ; highly esteemed by Augus- 
tus, who declared, after the capture of Alexan- 
drea, that he spared the city chiefly for the sake 
of Arius. Besides philosophy, he also taught 
rhetoric, and wrote on that art. — 2. The cele- 



brated heretic, born shortly after the middle of 
the third century A.D. In the religious dispute! 
at Alexandrea, A.D. 306, Arius at first took tha 
part of Meletius, but afterward became reconcil 
ed to the Bishop of Alexandrea, the opponent of 
Meletius, who made Arius deacon. Soon after 
this he was excommunicated by Peter of Alex- 
andrea, but was restored by his successor Achil- 
las, and ordained priest A.D. 313. In 318 the 
celebrated controversy with Bishop Alexander 
broke out, a controversy which has had a great- 
er and more lasting influence upon the develop- 
ment of the Christian religion than any other. 
■ So fierce did the dispute become, that the Em- 
peror Constantine was forced to convoke a gen- 
eral council at Nica?a (Nice), A.D. 325, at which 
j upward of three hundred bishops were present. 
The errors of Arius were condemned ; and he 
was compelled to go into exile into Illyricum, 
where he remained until recalled by the em- 
peror in 330, and allowed to return to Alexan- 
drea, through the influence of Eusebius of Nico- 
media. His ever-wakeful opponent, however, 
Athanasius, was not so easily deceived as the 
emperor, and, notwithstanding the order of Con- 
stantine, refused to receive him into the com- 
I munion of the Church. This led to a renewed 
[ application to the emperor ; and when Arius 
| finally seemed on the point of triumphing over 
his sturdy orthodox opponents, he was removed 
I suddenly by the hand of death, A.D. 336.] 

Ariusia (tj 'Apiovoia x"P a )> a district on the 
north coast of Chios, where the best wine in 
the island was grown (Ariusium Vinwn, Virg., 
Eel., v., 11.) 

Armene ('Ap/nEvi] or -rjvn : now AJdiman), a 
town on the coast of Paphlagonia, where the 
10,000 Greeks, during their retreat, rested five 
days, entertained by the people of Sinope, a lit- 
tle to the west of which Armene stood. 

Armenia ('Appevia : 'Apfikvioc, Armenius : now 
Armenia), a country of Asia, lying between Asia 
Minor and the Caspian, is a lofty table-land, 
backed by the chain of the Caucasus, watered 
by the rivers Cyrus and Araxes, containing the 
sources also of the Tigris and of the Euphrates, 
the latter of which divides the country into twe 
unequal parts, which were called Major and Mi- 
nor. 1. Armenia Major or Propria ('A. y fie 
ydXn or 7] 'id'iuc KaTiOV/ievn : now Erzeroum, Ears, 
Van, and Erivan), was bounded on the north- 
east and north by the Cyrus (now Eur), which 
divided it from Albania and Iberia ; on the north- 
west and west by the Mosehici Mountains (the 
prolongation of the chain of the Anti-Tau- 
rus), and the Euphrates (now Frat), which di- 
vided it from Colchis and Armenia Minor ; and 
on the south and southeast by the mountains 
called Masius, Niphates, and Gorditei (the pro- 
longation of the Taurus), and the lower course 
of the Araxes, which divided it from Mesopo 
tamia, Assyria, and Media: on the east the 
country comes to a point at the confluence of 
the Cyrus and Araxes. It is intersected by 
chains of mountains, between which run the 
two great rivers Araxes, flowing east into 
the Caspian, and the Arsanias (now Murad), or 
south branch of the Euphrates, flowing west into 
the main stream (now Frat) just above Mount 
Masius. The eastern extremity of the chain ol 
mountains which separates the basius of these 
103 



ARMENIUS MONS. 



ARFISSA. 



twc rivers, and -which is an offshoot of the Anti- 
Taurus, forms the Ararat of Scripture. In the 
south of the country is the great lake of Van, 
Arsissa Palus, inclosed by mountain chains 
■which connect Ararat with the southern range 
of mountains. — 2. Armenia Minor ('A. jiiKpu, or 
Ppaxvrtpa), was bounded on the east by the 
Euphrates, which divided it from Armenia Ma- 
jor, on the north and northwest by the mount- 
ains Scodlses, Paryadres, and Anti-Taurus, di- 
viding it from Pontus and Cappadoeia, and on the 
south by the Taurus, dividing it from Comma- 
gene in Northern Syria, so that it contained the 
country east and south of the city of Siwas (the 
ancient Cabira or Sebaste) as far as the Euphra- 
tes and the Taurus. The boundaries between 
Armenia Minor and Cappadoeia varied at dif- 
ferent times ; and, indeed, the whole country up 
to the Euphrates is sometimes called Cappado- 
eia, and, on the other hand, the whole of Asia 
Minor east of the Halys seems at one time to 
have been included under the name of Armenia. 
The people of Armenia claimed to be aboriginal ; 
and there can be little doubt that they were one 
of the most ancient families of that branch of 
the human race which is called Caucasian. 
Their language, though possessing some re- 
markable peculiarities of its own, was nearly 
allied to the Indo-Germanie family ; and their 
manners and religious ideas were similar to 
those of the Medes and Persians, but with a 
greater tendency to the personification of the 
powers of nature, as in the goddess Anaitis, 
whose worship was peculiar to Armenia. They 
had commercial dealings with Assyria and Phoe- 
nicia. In the time of Xenophon they had pre- 
served a great degree of primitive simplicity, 
but four hundred years later Tacitus gives an 
unfavorable view of their character. The ear- 
liest Armenian traditions rejDresent the country 
as governed by native kings, who had perpetu- 
ally to maintain their independence against at- 
tacks from Assyria. They were said to have 
been conquered by Semiramis, but again threw 
off the yoke at the time of the Median and Baby- 
lonian revolt. Their relations to the Medes and 
Persians seem to have varied between success- 
ful resistance, unwilling subjection, and friendly 
alliance. A body of Armenians formed a part 
of the army which Xexes led against Greece ; 
and they assisted Darius Codomannus against 
Alexander, and in this war they lost their king, 
and became subject to the Macedonian empire 
(B.C. 328). After another interval of success- 
ful revolt (B.C. 317-274), they submitted to the 
Greek kings of Syria ; but when Antiochus the 
Great was defeated by the Romans (B.C. 190), 
the country again regained its independence, and 
it was at this period that it was divided into the 
two kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor, 
under two different dynasties, founded respect- 
ively by the nobles who headed the revolt, 
Artaxias and Zariadras. Ultimately, Armenia 
Minor was made a Roman province by Trajan ; 
md Armenia Major, after being a perpetual ob- 
ject of contention between the Romans and the 
Parthians, was subjected to the revived Persian 
empire by its first king, Artaxerxes (Ardeshir), 
in A.D. 226. 

Armenius Mons (to 'Apfthiov opog), a branch 
of the Anti-Taurus chain in Armenia Micor. 
104 



Arminius (the Latinized form of Hermann, 
"the chieftain"), son of Sigimon, "the con- 
queror," and chief of the tribe of the Cherusci, 
who inhabited the country to the north of the 
Hartz Mountains, now forming the south of 
Hanover and Brunswick. He was born in B.C. 
18 ; and in his youth he led the warriors of 
his tribe as auxiliaries of the Roman legions in 
Germany, where he learned the language and 
military discipline of Rome, and was admitted 
to the freedom of the city, and enrolled among 
the equites. In A.D. 9, Arminius, who was now 
twenty-seven years old, and had succeeded his 
father as chief of his tribe, persuaded his coun- 
trymen to rise against the Romans, who were 
now masters of this part of Germany, and which 
seemed destined to become, like Gaul, a Roman 
province. His attempt was crowned with suc- 
cess. Quintilius Varus, who was stationed in 
the country with three legions, was destroyed 
with almost all his troops (vid. Varus) ; and the 
Romans had to relinquish all their possessions 
beyond the Rhine. In 14, Arminius had to de- 
fend his country against Germanicus. At first 
he was successful; the Romans were defeated, 
and Germanicus withdrew toward the Rhine 
followed by Arminius. But having been com- 
pelled by his uncle, Inguiomer, against his own 
wishes, to attack the Romans in their intrench- 
ed camp, his army was routed, and the Romans 
made good their retreat to the Rhine. It was 
in the course of this campaign that Thusnelda, 
the wife of Arminius, fell into the hands of the 
Romans, and was reserved, with the infant boy 
to whom she soon after gave birth in her captiv- 
ity, to adorn the triumph of Germanicus at Rome. 
In 16, Arminius was again called upon to resist 
Germanicus, but he was defeated, and his coun- 
try was probably only saved from subjection by 
the jealousy of Tiberius, who recalled Germani 
cus in the following year. At length Arminius 
aimed at absolute power, and was, in conse- 
quence, cut off by his own relations in the thirty- 
seventh year of his age, A.D. 19. 

Armorica or Aremorica, the name of the 
northwest coast of Gaul from the Ligeris (now 
Loire) to the Sequana (now Seine), derived from 
the Celtic ar, air, " upon," and muir, mor, " the 
sea." The Armoricm civitates are enumerated 
by Cjesar (B. G., vii., 75). 

Arna (Arnas, -atis : now Civitella d'Arno), a 
town in Umbria, near Perusia. 

Arn^e ("Apvai), a town in Chalcidice in Mace- 
donia, south of Aulon and Bromiscus. 

[ArNjEus ('Apvaloc), the proper name of the 
beggar Irus, mentioned in the Odyssey. Vid. 
Irus.] 

Arne ("Apvy). 1. A town in Bceotia, mention- 
ed by Homer (R, ii., 507), supposed by Pausa 
nias to be the same as Chan-onea, but placed by 
others near Acraephium, on the east of the Lake 
Copais. — [2. A town of Maguesia in Thessaly, on 
the Maliac Gulf, said to have derived its name 
from Arne, a daughter of iEolus. — 3. A foun- 
tain in the territory of Mantinea in Arcadia.] 

[Arne ('Apvj)). 1. A daughter of JSolus. Vid. 
the foregoing, No. 2. — 2. The betrayer of her 
native country to King Minos, and, on this i.c 
count, changed into a jackdaw.] 

Arnissa ("Apviaaa: now Ostrova?) a tern in 
Eordasa iu Macedonia. 



ARNOBIUS. 



ARRIANUS. 



Aknobius. 1. The elder, a native of Africa, | 
lived about A.D. 300, in the reign of Diocletian. 
He was first a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca in 
Africa, but afterward embraced Christianity ; 
and, to remove all doubts as to the reality of his 
conversion, he wrote, while yet a catechumen, 
his celebrated work against the Pagans, in seven 
books (Libri septem adversus Gentes), which we 
still possess. The best editions are by Orelli, 
lips., 1816, [and by Hildebrand, Halle, 1844].— 
2. The Younger, lived about A.D. 460, and was 
probably a bishop or presbyter in Gaul. He 
wrote a commentary on the Psalms, still extant, 
which shows that he was a Semi-Pelagian. 

Arnon ("Apvav : now Wad-el Mojib), a con- 
siderable river of East Palestine, rising in the 
Arabian Desert, and flowing west through a 
rocky valley into the Lacus Asphaltites (now 
Dead Sea). The surrounding district was call- 
ed Arnonas ; and in it the Romans had a mili- 
tary station, called Castra Arnonensia. 

Arntjs (now Arno), the chief river of Etruria, 
rises iu the Apennines, flows by Pisse, and falls 
into the Tyrrhenian Sea. It gave the name to 
the Tribus Arniensis, formed B.C. 38V. 

Aroa ('Apoa or 'Apon), the ancient name of 
Patr^b. 

[Aroanius ('Apouvioc), a river of Arcadia, 
rises in Mount Cyllene, loses itself in some 
natural cavities near Pheneus, then reappears 
at the foot of Penteleion, and joins the Ladon. 
The same name was given to two other streams, 
one a tributary likewise of the Ladon, the other 
a tributary of the Erymanthus.] 

Aromata (to. 'Apufiara, 'Apo/xaTav unpov : now 
Gape Gicardafui), the easternmost promontory 
of Afi'ica, at the southern extremity of the Ara- 
bian Gulf: the surrounding district was also 
called Aromata or Aromatophora Regio, with a 
town 'ApufiuTOV kpiropLov : so named from the 
abundance of spices which the district produced. 

Arpi (Arpanus : now Arpi), an inland town 
in the Daunian Apulia, founded, according to 
tradition, by Diomedes, who called it "Apyog ln- 
■klov, from which its later names of Argyrippa 
or Argyripa and Arpi are said to have arisen 
(Ille (Diomedes) urbem Argyripam, patriot cog- 
nomine gentis, Virg., JEn., xi., 246). During the 
time of its independence it was a flourishing 
commercial town, using Salapia as its harbor. 
It was friendly to the Romans in the Samnite 
wars, but revolted to Hannibal after the battle 
of Cannas, B.C. 216 : it was taken by the Ro- 
mans in 213, deprived of its independence, and 
never recovered its former prosperity. 

[Arpina ("Apmva), an ancieut place in Elis, 
near the Alpheus, so called from a daughter of 
the Asopus : near it flowed the River Arpina- 
tes.] 

Arpinum (Arpinas, -atis : now Arpino), a town 
of Latium, on the small river Fibrenus (now Fi- 
Ireno), originally belonging to the Volscians and 
afterward to the Samnites, from whom the Ro- 
mans wrested it, was a Roman municipium, 
and received the jus suffragii, or right of voting 
in the Roman comitia, B.C. 188. It was the 
birth-place of Marius and Cicero; the latter of 
whom was born iu his father's villa, situated 
on a small island formed by the River Fibrenus. 
Cicero's brother Quintus had an estate south of 
Arpinum, called Arcanum. 



| [Arrabo (in Ptolemy ~Hapa66v, now Raab). a 
river in Pannonia, a tributary of the Danube. 
At its mouth lay the city and fortress Arrabo, 
now liaab.] 

Arretium or AretIum (Arretinus : now Arez- 
zo), one of the most important of the twelve 
cities of Etruria, was situated in the northeast 
of the country at the foot of the Apennines, and 
possessed a fertile territory near the sources of 
the Arnus and the Tiber, producing good wine 
and corn. It was thrice colonized by the Ro- 
mans, whence we read of Arretini Veteres, Fi- 
denates, Julienses. It was particularly cele- 
brated for its pottery, which was of red ware. 
The Cilnii, from whom Maecenas was descend- 
ed, were a noble family of Arretium. The 
ruins of a city two or three miles to the south- 
east of Arezzo, on a height called Poggio di San 
Gornelio, or Gastel Secco, are probably the re- 
mains of the ancient Arretium. 

Arrhapachitis ('Ap'p'aTraxtTis), a district of 
Assyria, between the rivers Lycus and Choatras. 

Arrhib2eus ('A/5/5i6atof), chieftain of the Mace 
donians of Lyncus, revolted against King Per- 
diccas iu the Peloponnesian war. It was ta 
reduce him that Perdiccas sent for Brasidas 
(B.C. 424), and against him took place the un- 
successful joint expedition, in which Perdiccas 
deserted Brasidas, and Brasidas effected his 
bold and skillful retreat. 

Arrhid^eus {'Ap'pidalog) or Arid^eus ('Apt 
dalog ). 1. A half-brother of Alexander the Great, 
son of Philip and a female dancer, Philinna of 
Larissa, was of imbecile understanding. He 
was at Babylon at the time of Alexander's death, 
B.C. 323, and was elected king under the name 
of Philip. The young Alexander, the infant 
son of Roxana, was associated with him in the 
government. In 322 Arrhidasus married Euryd- 
ice. On their return to Macedonia, Eurydice 
attempted to obtain the supreme power iu op- 
position to Polysperchon ; but Arrhidseus and 
Eurydice were made prisoners, and put to death 
by order of Olympias, 317. — 2. One of Alexan- 
der's generals, obtained the province of the Hel 
lespontine Phrygia at the division of the prov- 
inces in 321 at Triparadisus, but was deprived 
of it by Antigonus in 319. 

Arria. 1. Wife of Cteeina Paatus. When her 
husband was ordered by the Emperor Claudius 
to put an end to his life, A.D. 42, and hesitated 
to do so, Arria stabbed herself, handed the dag- 
ger to her husband, and said, " Paetus, it does 
not pain me." — 2. Daughter of the preceding, 
and wife of Thrasea. 

^Arrianus ('Ap'p'iavoe). h Of Eiaomedia in 
Bithynia, born about A.D. 90, was a pupil and 
friend of Epictetus, and first attracted attention 
as a philosopher by publishing at Athens the 
lectures of his master. In 124 he gained the 
friendship of Hadrian during his stay in Greece, 
and received from the emperor the Roman citi- 
zenship ; from this time he assumed the name 
of Flavius. In 136 he was appointed prasfect of 
Cappadocia, which was invaded the year after 
by the Alani or Massagetae, whom he defeated 
Under Antoninus Pius, in 1 46, Arrian was con 
sul ; and about 150 he witharew from public life, 
and from this time lived in his native town of Ni- 
comedia, as priest of Ceres (Demeter) and Pros- 
i erpiua (Persephonej. He died at an advanced 
105 



ARRIBAS. 



ARSACES. 



age in the reign of M. Aurelius. Arrian was 
one of the most active and best writers of his 
time. He was a close imitator of Xenophon, 
both in the subjects of his works and in the 
style in which they were written. He regard- 
ed his relation to Epictetus as similar to that of 
Xenophon to Socrates ; and it was his endeavor 
to carry out that resemblance. With this view 
he published, 1. The philosophical lectures of 
his master (Aiarpdal 'Ettikt^tov), in eight books, 
the first half of which is still extant. Edited iu 
Schweighauser's JEpictetem Philosophies Monu- 
menta, vol. iii., and in Corae's TLdpepya 'EXkr\v. 
Btflwd., vol. viii. — 2. An abstract of the prac- 
tical philosophy of Epictetus ('Eyjeipj'tW 'Errt- 
KTijrov), which is still extant. This celebrated 
work maintained its authority for many cen- 
turies, both with Christians and Pagans. The 
best editions are those of Schweighauser and 
Corae, in the collections above referred to. He 
also published other works relating to Epictetus, 
which' are now lost. His original works are : 
3. A treatise on the chase (Kwriyr/TiKog), which 
forms a kind of supplement to Xenophon's work 
on the same subject, and is printed in most edi- 
tions of Xenophon's works.— -4. The History of 
the Asiatic expedition of Alexander the Great 
('Avd6aatQ 'AXetjuvdpov), in seven books, the 
most important of Arrian's works. This great 
work reminds the reader of Xenophon's Anab- 
asis, not only by its title, but also by the ease 
and clearness of its style. It is also of great 
value for its historical accuracy, being based 
upon the most trustworthy histories written by 
the contemporaries of Alexander, especially 
those of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and of Aris- 
tobulus, the son of Aristobulus. — 5. On India 
('IvSikt) or rh 'lv6acd), which may be regarded 
as a continuation of the Anabasis, at the end of 
which it is usually printed. This work is writ- 
ten in the Ionic dialect, probably in imitation 
nfCtesiasof Cnidus, whose work on the same 
subject Arrian wished to supplant by a more 
trustworthy and correct account. The best 
editions of the Anabasis are by Ellendt, Regi- 
montii, 1832, and by 0. W. Kriiger, Berlin 
1835-49, 2 vols. ; of the Indica by Schmieder, 
Halle, 1798. — 6. A description of a voyage round 
the coasts of the Euxine (Trepiit'kovc, novrov Eif- 
eivov), which had undoubtedly been made by Ar- 
rian himself during his government of Cappa- 
docia. This Periplus has come down to us, to- 
gether with a Periplus of the Erythraean, and a 
Periplus of the Euxine and the Palus Maeotis, 
both of which also bear the name of Arrian, but 
they belong undoubtedly to a later period. The 
best editious are in Hudson's Geographi Minores, 
vol. i., and in Gail's and Hoffmann's collections 
of the minor Geographers. — 7. A work on Tac- 
tics (Aoyoc TaicTinoQ or Texvn TaKTiKrj), of which 
we possess at present only a fragment : printed 
in Blancard's collection of the minor works of 
Arrian. Arrian also wrote numerous other 
works, all of which are now lost. — 2. A Roman 
jurisconsult, probably lived under Trajan, and 
is perhaps the same person with the orator Ar- 
rianus, who corresponded with the younger 
Pliny. He wrote a treatise De Literdictis, of 
which the second book is quoted in the Digest. 

Arribas, Arrybas, Arymbas, or Tharrytas ' 
(' A fifiiCac:, 'kp'p'v&aQ, 'Apvu6ac, or OaodvTag), a de- 1 
106 



seendant of Achilles, and one of tho early kings ; 
of the Molossians in Epirus. He is said to have 
been educated at Athens, and on his return to 
his native country to have framed for the Mo- ! 
lossians a code of laws, and established a regu- 
lar constitution. 

Arrius. Q. 1. Prsetor B.C. 72, defeated 
Crixus, the leader of the runaway slaves, but i 
was afterward conquered by Spartacus. In 71, 
Arrius was to have succeeded Veres as pro- 
prsetor in Sicily, but died on his way to Sicily j 
— 2. A son of the preceding, was an unsuccess- 
ful candidate for the consulship B.C. 59. He ! 
was an intimate friend of Cicero. 

Arrius Aper. Vid. Aper. 

Arruntius, L. 1. Proscribed by the trium- 
virs in B.C. 43, but escaped to Sextus Pompey 
in Sicily, and was restored to the state with 
Pompey. He subsequently commanded the left 
wing of the fleet of Oetavianus at the battle of 
Actium, 31, and was consul in 22. — 2. Sou of 
the preceding, consul A.D. 6. Augustus de- i 
clared in his last illness that Arruntius was not ' 
unworthy of the empire, and would have bold- j 
ness enough to seize it, if an opportunity pre- 
sented. This rendered him an object of sus- 
picion to Tiberius. He was charged in A.D. 
37 as an accomplice in the crimes of Albucilla, 
and put an end to his own life. 

Arsa (now Azunga), a town in Hispania Bae- 
tica. 

Arsaces ('ApadKrjc), the name of the founder 
of the Parthian empire, which was also borne j 
by all his successors, who were hence called | 
the Arsacidce. — 1. He was of obscure origin, 
and seems to have come from the neighborhood I 
of the Ochus. He induced the Parthians to re- 
volt from the Syrian empire of tl>3 Seleucidae, 
and he became the first monarch of the Parthi- j 
ans. This event probably took place about 
B.C. 250, in the reign of Antiochus II. ; but the 
history of the revolt, as well as of the events 
which immediately followed, is stated very dif- 
ferently by different historians. Arsaces reign- 
ed only two years, and was succeeded by his 
brother Tiridates. — 2. Tiridates, reigned thir- 
ty-seven years, B.C. 248-211, and defeated Se- 
leucus Callinicus, the successor of Antiochus II. | 
— 3. Artabanus I, son of the preceding, was 
attacked by Antiochus III. (the Great), who, 
however, was uuable to subdue his country, and 
at length recognized him as king about 210. — 
4. Priaeatius, son of the preceding, reigned fif- 
teen years, and left three sons, Phraates, Mith- 
radates, and Artabanus. — 5. Phraates I., sub- 
dued the Mardi, and, though he had many sons, 
left the kingdom to his brother Mithradates. — 
6. Mithradates I., son of Arsaces IV., greatly 
enlarged the Parthian empire by his conquests. 
He defeated Demetrius Nicator, king of Syria, j 
and took him prisoner in 138. Mithradates 
treated Demetrius with respect, and gave him 
his daughter Rhodogune in marriage. Mithra 
dates died during the captivity of Demetrius, 
between 138 aud 130. — 7. Phraates II., sou of 
the preceding, carried on war against Antiochus 
VII. Sidetes, whom Phraates defeated aud slew 
in battle, B.C. 128. Phraates himself was 
shortly after killed iu battle by the Scythians, 
who had beeu invited by Antiochus to assist 
him against Phraates, but who did not arrive 



ARSACES, 



ARSACES. 



till after the fall of the former. — 8. Artabanus 
II., youngest brother of Arsaces VI., and young- 
est son of Arsaces IV., fell in battle against the 
Thogarii or Tochari, apparently after a short 
reign. — 9. Mithradates II, son of the preced- 
ing, prosecuted many wars with success, and 
added many nations to the Parthian empire, 
whence he obtained the surname of Great. It 
was in his reign that the Romans first had any. 
official communication with Parthia. Mithra- 
dates sent an ambassador to Sulla, who had 
come into Asia B.C. 92, and requested alliance 
with the Romans. — 10. ( Mnascires ? ) Noth- 
ing is known of the successor of Arsaces IX. 
Even his name is uncertain — 11. Sanatroces, 
reigned seven years, and died about B.C. 70. — 
12. Phraates III. son of the preceding. He 
lived at the time of the war between the Ro- 
mans and Mithradates of. Pontus, by both of 
whom he was courted. He contracted an alli- 
ance with the Romans, but he took no part in 
the war. At a later period misunderstandings 
arose between Pompey and Phraates, but Pom- 
pey thought it more prudent to avoid a war with 
the Parthians, although Phraates had invad- 
ed Armenia, and Tigranes, the Armenian king, 
implored Pomoey's assistance. Phraates was 
murdered soon afterward by his two sons, Mith- 
radates and Orodes. — Mithradates III., son of 
the preceding, succeeded his father during the 
Armenian war. On his return from Armenia, 
Mithradates was expelled from the throne on 
account of his cruelty, and was succeeded by 
his brother Orodes. Mithradates afterward 
made war upon his brother, but was taken pris- 
oner and put to death. — 14. Orodes I, brother 
of the preceding, was the Parthian king whose 
general Surenas defeated Crassus and the Ro- 
mans, B.C. 53. Vid. Crassus. After the death 
of Crassus, Orodes gave the command of the 
army to his son Pacorus, who entered Syria in 
51 with a small force, but was driven back by 
Crassius. In 50 Pacorus again crossed the Eu- 
phrates with a much larger army, and advanced 
as far as Antioch, but was defeated near Anti- 
gonea by Cassius. The Parthians now remained 
quiet for some years. In 40 they crossed the 
Euphrates again, under the command of Paco- 
rus and Labienus, the son of T. Labienus. They 
overran Syria and part of Asia Minor, but were 
defeated in 39 by Ventidius Bassus, one of An- 
tony's legates : Labienus was [taken and put 
to death by Ventidius after the battle], and the 
Parthians retired to their own dominions. In 
38, Pacorus again invaded Syria, but was com- 
pletely defeated and fell in the battle. ' This 
defeat was a severe blow to the aged king 
Orodes, who shortly afterward surrendered the 
crown to his son Phraates during his life-time. 
— 15. Phraates IV., commenced his reign by 
murdering his father, his thirty brothers, and 
his own son, who. was grown up, that there 
might be none of the royal family whom the 
Parthians could place upon the throne in his 
stead. In consequence of his cruelty, many of 
the Parthian nobles fled to Antony (37), who 
invaded Parthia in 36, but was obliged to retreat 
after losing a great part of his army. A few 
years afterward the cruelties of Phraates pro- 
duced a rebellion against him ; he was driven 
nut of the country, and Tiridates proclaimed 



king i j his stead. Phraates, however, was soon 
restored by the Scythians, and Tiridates fled to 
Augustus, carrying with him the youngest son 
of Phraates. Augustus restored his son to 
Phraates on condition of his surrendering the 
Roman standards and prisoners taken in the 
war with Crassus and Antony. They were 
given up in 20 ; their restoration caused univer- 
sal joy at Rome, and was celebrated not only 
by the poets, but by festivals and commemmora- 
tive monuments. Phraates also sent to Augus- 
tus as hostages his four sons, with their wives 
and children, who were carried to Rome. In 
A.D. 2, Phraates was poisoned by his wife Ther 
musa and her son Phraataces. — 16. Phraata- 
ces, reigned only a short time, as he was ex- 
pelled by his subjects on account of his crimes. 
The Parthian nobles then elected as king Oro- 
des, who was of the family of the Arsaeidas. — 
17. Orodes II., also reigned only a short time, 
as he was killed by the Parthians on account 
of his cruelty. Upon his death the Parthians 
applied to the Romans for Vonones, one of 
the sons of Phraates IV., who was according- 
ly granted to them. — 18. Vonones I., son of 
Phraates IV., was also disliked by his subjects, 
who therefore invited Artabanus, King of Media, 
to take possession of the kingdom. Artabanus 
drove Vonones out of Parthia, who resided first 
in Armenia, next in Syria, and subsequently in 
Cilicia. He was put to death in A.D. 19, ac 
cording to some accounts by order of Tiberius 
on account of his great wealth. — 19. Artaba- 
nus III, obtained the Parthian kingdom soon 
after the expulsion of Vonones, about A.D. 1 6. 
Artabanus placed Arsaces, one of his sons, over 
Armenia, and assumed a hostile attitude toward 
the Romans. His subjects, whom he oppressed, 
dispatched an embassy to Tiberius to beg him 
to send Parthia Phraates, one of the sons of 
Phraates IV. Tiberius willingly complied with 
the request ; but Phraates, upon arriving in Sy- 
ria, was carried off by a disease, A.D. 35. As 
soon as Tiberius heard of his death, he set up Ti- 
ridates, another of the Arsacidse, as a claimant 
of the Parthian throne : Artabanus was obliged 
to leave his kingdom, and fly for refuge to 
the Hyrcanians and Carmauians. Hereupon 
Vitellius, the governor of Syria, crossed the 
Euphrates, and placed Tiridates on the throne. 
Artabanus was, however, recalled next year 
(36) by his fickle subjects. He was once more 
expelled by his subjects, and once more restored. 
He died soon after his last restoration, leaving 
two sons, Bardanes and Gotarzes, whose civil 
wars are related differently by Josephus and 
Tacitus. — 20. Gotarzes, succeeded his father, 
Artabanus III, but was defeated by his brother 
Bardanes and retired into Hyreania. — 21. Bar 
danes, brother of the preceding, was put to 
death by his subjects in 47, whereupon Gotarzes 
again obtained the crown. But, as he ruled 
with cruelty, the Parthians secretly begged the 
Emperor Claudius to send them from Rome Me- 
herdates, grandson of Phraates IV. Claudius 
complied with their request, and commanded 
the governor of Syria to assist Meherdates, but 
the latter was defeated in battle, and taken pris- 
oner by Gotarzes. — 22. Vonones II., succeeded 
Gotarzes about 50. His reign was short. — 23. 
Vologeses I, son of Vonones II. or Artabanus 
107 



ARSACES. 



ARSINOE. 



III. Soon after his accession he conquered 
Armenia, which he gave to his brother Tiridates. 
In 55 he gave up Armenia to the Romans, but 
in 58 he again placed his brother over Armenia, 
and declared war against the Romans. This 
war terminated in favor of the Romans: the 
Parthians were repeatedly defeated by Domitius 
Corbulo, and Tiridates was driven out of Ar- 
menia. At length, in 62, peace was concluded 
between Vologeses and the Romans on condi- 
tion that Nero would surrender Armenia to Ti- 
ridates, provided the latter would come to Rome 
and receive it as a gift from the Roman em- 
peror. Tiridates came to Rome in 63, where 
he was received with extraordinary splendor, 
and obtained from Nero the Armenian crown. 
Vologeses afterward maintained friendly rela- 
tions with Vespasian, and seems to have lived 
till the reign of Domitian. — 24. Pacorus, suc- 
ceeded his father, Vologeses I., and was a con- 
temporary of Domitian and Trajan. — 25. Chos- 
roes or Osroes, succeeded his brother Pacorus 
during the reign of Trajan. His conquest of 
Armenia occasioned the invasion of Parthia by 
Trajan, who stripped it of many of its provinces, 
and made the Parthians for a time subject to 
Rome. Vid. Trajanus. Upon the death of 
Trajan in AD. 117, the Parthians expelled Par- 
thamaspates, whom Trajan had placed upon the 
throne, and recalled their former king, Chosroes. 
Hadrian relinquished the conquests of Trajan, 
and made the Euphrates, as before, the eastern 
boundary of the Roman empire. Chosroes died 
during the reign of Hadrian. — 26. Vologeses 
EL, succeeded his father Chosroes, and reigned 
from about 122 to 149. — 21. Vologeses III, be- 
gan to reign in 149. He invaded Syria in 162, 
but the generals of the Emperor Verus drove 
him back into his own dominions, invaded Mes- 
opotamia and Assyria, and took Seleucia and 
Ctesiphon ; and Vologeses was obliged to pur- 
chase a peace by ceding Mesopotamia to the 
Romans. Prom this time to the downfall of the 
Parthian empire, there is great confusion in the 
list of kings. — 28. Vologeses IV, probably as- 
cended the throne in the reign of Commodus. 
His dominions were invaded by Septimus Seve- 
rus, who took Ctesiphon in 199. On the death 
of Vologeses IV, at the beginning of the reign of 
Caracalla, Parthia was torn asunder by contests 
for the crown between the sons of Vologeses. 
— 29. Vologeses V, son of Vologeses IV, was 
attacked by Caracalla in 215, and about the 
same time was dethroned by his brother Arta- 
banus. — 30. Aetabanus IV, the last king of Par- 
thia. The war commenced by Caracalla against 
Vologeses, was continued against Artabanus ; 
but Macrinus, the successor of Caracalla, con- 
cluded peace with the Parthians. In this war 
Artabanus had lost the best of his troops, and 
the Persians seized the opportunity of recover- 
ing their long-lost independence. They were 
led by Artaxerxes (Ardeshir), the son of Sassan, 
and defeated the Parthians in three great bat- 
tles, in the last of which Artabanus was taken 
prisoner and killed, A.D. 226. Thus ended the 
Parthian empire of the Arsacidaa, after it had 
existed four hundred and seventy-six years. 
The Parthians were now obliged to submit to 
Artaxerxes, the founder of the dynasty of the Sas- 
lanidae, which continued to reign till A.D. 651. 



I Aesacia ('ApoaKia : ruins southeast of Tehtr 
I ran), a great city of Media, south of the Cas- 
pian Porta?, originally named Rhaga? ('Payai) ; 
rebuilt by Seleucus Nicator, and called Euro- 
pus (EvpuKoc) ; agaiu destroyed in the Parthian 
wars, and rebuilt by Arsaees, who named it after 
himself 

Aesacid^;, the name of a dynasty of Parthian 
kings. Vid. Aesaces. It was also the name of 
a dynasty of Armenian kings, who reigned in Ar 
menia from B.C. 149 to A.D. 428. This dynasty 
was founded by Artaxias L, who was related to 
the Parthian Arsacidae. 

[Aesameives ('Apaafievnc), son of Darius Hys 
taspis, a commander in the army of Xerxes.] 

[Aesajies ('Apcd/inc). 1. Father of Hystaspes, 
and grandfather of Darius. — 2. Son of Darius, 
and Artystone, daughter of Cyrus, commanded 
the Arabians and ^Ethiopians, who lived above 
Egypt, in the army of Xerxes. — 3. An illegiti- 
mate son of Artaxerxes Mnemon, murdered by 
his brother Artaxerxes Ochus.— 4. A Persian 
Satrap of Lydia under Darius Codomannus : by 
not securing the Cilician passes, he afforded 
Alexander an opportunity of a ready passage 
into Upper Asia from Asia Minor.] 

Aesajiosata ('Apaafiuaara, also wrongly ab- 
breviated 'Apfj.6aa.-a : now Shemshat), a town 
and strong fortress in Armenia Major, between 
the Euphrates and the sources of the Tigris, near 
the most frequented pass of the Taurus. 

Aesanias, -ius, or -us ('Apoav'iac, <fcc), the 
name of two rivers of Great Armenia. — 1. (Now 
Murad), the southern arm of the Euphrates 
Vid. Aemenia. — 2. (Now Arslan ?), a smalJ 
stream rising near the sources of the Tigris 
and flowing west into the Euphrates near Mel- 
itene. 

Arsenaria or -enn- ('Apcijvapta : now Ar- 
zaw, ruins), a town in Mauretania Caesariensis, 
three miles (Roman) from the sea : a Roman 
colony. 

Arsene. Vid. Arzaxene. 

Arses, Narses, or Oarses ('Apanc, Nupcrnc, 
or 'Odporjc), youngest son of King Artaxerxes III 
Ochus, was raised to the Persian throne by the 
eunuch Bagoas after he had poisoned Artaxerxes 
B.C. 339, but he was murdered by Bagoas in the 
third year of his reign, when he attempted to free 
himself from the bondage in which he was kept. 
After the death of Arses, Bagoas made Darius 
EEL king. 

Arsia (now Arsa), a river in Istria, forming 
the boundary between Upper Italy and EUyri- 
cum, with a town of the same name upon it. 

Arsia Silva, a wood in Etruria, celebrated 
for the battle between the Tarquins and the 
Romans. 

ArsJnoe (' Apuivorj). I. Mythological. 1. The 
daughter of Phegeus, and wife of Alcmason. 
As she disappi'oved of the murder of Alcmaeon, 
the sons of Phegeus put her into a chest and 
carried her to Agapenor at Tegea, where they 
accused her of having killed Alcniaeon. Via. 
Alcmaeon, Agenor. — 2. Nurse of Orestes, saved 
the latter from the hands of Clytemnestra, and 
carried him to Strophius, father of Pylades. 
Some accounts call her Laodamia. — 3. Daughter 
of Leucippus and Philodice, became by Apollo 
mother of Eriopis and JSsculapius. II. Histori- 
cal. 1. Mother of Ptolemy I., was a concubine 



ARSINOE. 



ARTANES. 



of Philip, father of Alexander the Great, and ! Arsissa or Mantiana ("Apowaa, r/ Mavriavq : 
married Lagus -while she was pregnant with now Van), a great lake abounding in fish, in 



Ptolemy. — 2. Daughter of Ptolemy I. and Ber- 
enice, married Lysimachus, king of Thrace, in 
B.C. 300 ; after the death of Lysimachus in 281, 
she married her half-brother, Ptolemy Cerau- 
nus, who murdered her children by Lysima- 
chus ; and, lastly, in 279, she married her own 
brother Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. Though Ar- 
sinoe bore Ptolemy no children, she was ex- 
ceedingly beloved by him : he gave her name 
to several cities, called a district (vo/iog) of 
Egypt Arsinoites after her, and honored her 
memory in various ways. — 3. Daughter of Ly- 
simachus, married Ptolemy II. Philadelphus 
soon after his accession, B.C. 285. In conse- 
quence of her plotting against her namesake 
[No. 2.], when Ptolemy fell in love with her, 
she was banished to Coptos, in Upper Egypt. 
She had by Ptolemy three children, Ptolemy III. 
Evergetes, Lysimachus, and Berenice. — 4. Also 
called Eurydice and Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol- 
emy III. Evergetes, wife of her brother Ptol- 
emy IV. Philopator, and mother of Ptolemy V. 
Epiphanes. She was killed by Philammon by 
order of her husband. — 5. Daughter of Ptolemy 
XI. Auletes, escaped from Caesar when he was 
besieging Alexandrea in B.C. 47, and was rec- 
ognized as queen by the Alexandreans. After 
the capture of Alexandrea she was carried to 
Rome by Caesar, and led in triumph by him in 
46. She was afterward dismissed by Caesar, 
and returned to Alexandrea; but her sister 
Cleopatra persuaded Antony to have her put to 
death in 41. 

Arsinoe ('Apaivori : 'Apuivosvc or -or/Tvc), the 
name of several cities of the times of the suc- 
cessors of Alexander, each called after one or 
other of the persons of the same name (see 
above). — 1. In ^Etolia, formerly Kuvuna. — 2. 
On the northern coast of Cyprus, on the site of 
the older city of Marium (Mdptov), which Ptol- 
emy I. had destroyed. — 3. A port on the west- 
ern coast of Cyprus. — 4. (Now Famagosta), on 
the southeastern coast of Cyprus, between Sal- 
umis and Leucolla. — 5. In Cilicia, east of Ane- 
murium. — 6. (Now Ajeroud or Suez), in the No- 
mos Heroopoiites in Lower Egypt, near or upon 
the head of the Sinus Heroopoiites or western 
branch of the Red Sea (now Gulf of Suez). It 
was afterward called Cleopatris. — 7. (Now lie- 
dinet-el-Faioum, ruins), the chief city of the No- 
mos Arsinoites in the Heptanomis or Middle 
Egypt (vid. Mgyytvs, p. 18, b); formerly called 
Crocodllopolis (KpoKoSuXuv nolle), and the dis- 
trict Nomos Crocodilopolites, from its being the 
chief seat of the Egyptian worship of the croc- 
odile. This nomos also contained the Lake Mce- 
ris and the Labyrinth. — 8. In Cyrenaica, also 
called Taucheira. — 9. On the coast of the Trog- 
lodyta; on the Red Sea, east of Egypt. Its 
probable position is a little below the parallel of 
Thebes. Some other cities called Arsinoe are 
better known by other names, such as Ephesus 
in Ionia and Patara in Lycia. 

[Arsinous ('Apo'tvooc), father of Heoamede ; 
ruler of Tenedos.j 

[Arsites ('Apotrrje), satrap of the Helles- 
pontine Phrygia when Alexander the Great in- 
vaded Asia : after the defeat of the Persians at 
the Granicus he put himself to death.] 



the south of Armenia Major. Vid. Armenia. 

Artabanus ('Apru6avoc). 1. Son of Hystas- 
pes and brother of Darius, is frequently men- 
tioned in the reign of his nephew Xerxes as a 
wise and frank counsellor. — 2. An Hyrcanian, 
commander of the body-guard of Xerxes, as- 
sassinating this king in B.C. 465, with the view 
of setting himself upon the throne of Persia, but 
was shortly afterward killed by Artaxerxes — 
3. 1., II., Ill, IV., kings of Parthia. Vid. Arsa- 
oes III, VIII., XIX., XXX. 

[Artabazanes ('ApTaSa^dvTje), oldest son of 
Darius Hystaspis, half-brother of Xerxes, and 
called, also, Ariabignes. Vid. Ariabignes] 

Artabazus ('Aprddafyc): 1. A Mede, acts a 
prominent part in Xenophon's account of Cyrus 
the Elder. — 2. A distinguished Persian, a son 
of Pharnaces, commanded the Parthians and 
Choasmians in the expedition of Xerxes into 
Greece, B.C. 480. He served under Mardonius 
in 479, and after the defeat of the Persians at 
Plata?03, he fled with forty thousand men, and 
reached Asia in safety. — 3. A general of Ar- 
taxerxes I., fought against Inarus in Egypt, 
B.C. 462. — 4. A Persian general, fought uudei 
Artaxerxes II. against Datames, satrap of Cap 
padocia, B.C. 362. Under Artaxerxes III, Ar- 
tabazus, who was then satrap of Western Asia 
revolted in B.C. 356, but was defeated and 
obliged to take refuge with Philip of Macedonia. 
He was afterward pardoned by Artaxerxes, and 
returned to Persia ; and he was one of the most 
faithful adherents of Darius III. Codomannus, 
who raised him to high honors. On the death 
of Darius (330) Artabazus received from Alex- 
ander the satrapy of Baetria. One of his 
daughters, Barsine, became by Alexander the 
mother of Hercules ; a second, Artocama, mar- 
ried Ptolemy, son of Lagus ; and a third, Ar- 
tonis, married Eumenes. 

Artabri, afterward ArotrebjE, a Celtic peo- 
ple in the northwest of Spain, near the Promon- 
tory Nerium or Celticum, also called Artabrum 
after them (now Cape Finisterre). 

Artace ('ApTuKTi : now Artaki), a sea-port 
town of the peninsula of Cyzicus, in the Pro 
pontis : also a mountain in the same peninsula. 

Artach^ees ('ApTaxaiTjc), a distinguished Per- 
sian in the army of Xerxes, died while Xerxes 
was at Athos. The mound which the king 
raised over him is still in existence. 

[Artaoie {'ApTaKiTj), a fountain in the coun- 
try of the mythic Laestrygones.] 

Artaooana ('ApraKoava or -ndvva : now Sehh- 
van ?), the ancient capital of Aria, not far from 
the site of the later capital, Alexandrea. 

An/Ma ('Apraloi), was, according to Herodo- 
tus (vi., 61), the old native name of the Per- 
sians. It signifies noble, and appears in the 
form Apra, as the first part of a large number 
of Persian proper names. Compare Ann. 

[Artaoera or Ab-tager^; ('AprayTjpac), a 
mountain fortress in southern Armenia, on the 
Euphrates.] 

[Artagerses ('ApTayepcTjc), a commander in 
the army of Artaxerxes.] 

[Artanes ('Ap-uvrjc), son of Hystaspes and 
brother of Darius, fought and fell at the battle 
of Thermopylae] 

109 



ARTANES. 



ARTAXERXES. 



Artanes ('ApTuviie). 1. A river in Thrace, 
falling into the Ister. — 2. A river iu Bithynia. 

[Artaozus ('Aprdo(o^), a friend and supporter 
of the younger Cyrus.] 

Artaphernes ^Apra^epvrje). I. Son of Hys- 
taspes and brother of Darius. He was satrap 
of Sardis at the time of the Ionian revolt, B.C. 
500. Vid. Aristagoras. — 2. Son of the former, 
commanded, along with Datis, the Persian army 
of Darius, which was defeated at the battle of 
Marathon, B.C. 490. Artaphernes commanded 
the Lydians and Mysians in the invasion of 
Greece by Xerxes in 480. — [3. A Persian, sent 
by Artaxerxes I. to Sparta with a letter, ar- 
rested on his way by Aristides and taken to 
Athens, where his letter was translated : the 
Atheniaus endeavored to turn this to their ad- 
vantage, and sent Artaphernes in a galley, with 
their ambassadors, to Ephesus.] 

Artaunum (now Sallurg, near Homburg ?), a 
Roman fortress in Germany on Mount Taunus, 
built by Drusus and restored by Germanicus. 

Artavasdes ('ApraovdcdTjc or ' kpraddadrig) or 
Artabazes ('Apra6dCvg). 1. King of the Great- 
er Armenia, succeeded his father Tigranes. In 
the expedition of Crassus against the Parthians, 
B.C. 54, Artavasdes was an ally of the Romans ; 
but after the defeat of the latter, he concluded 
a peace with the Parthian king. In 36 he joined 
Antony in his campaign against the Parthians, 
and persuaded him to invade Media, because he 
was at enmity with his namesake Artavasdes, 
king of Media ; but he treacherously deserted 
Antony in the middle of the campaign. Antony 
accordingly invaded Armenia in 34, contrived 
to entice Artavasdes into his camp, where he 
was immediately seized, carried him to Alex- 
andra and led him in triumph. He remained 
in captivity till. 30, when Cleopatra had him 
killed after the battle of Aetium, and sent his 
head to his old enemy, Artavasdes of Media, in 
hopes of obtaining assistance from the latter. 
This Artavasdes was well acquainted with 
Greek literature, and wrote tragedies, speeches, 
aud historical works. — 2. King of Armenia, 
probably a grandson of No. 1, was placed upon 
the throne by Augustus, but was deposed by 
the Armenians. — 3. King of Media Atropatene, 
and an enemy of Artavasdes I, king of Arme- 
nia. Antony invaded his country in 36, at the 
instigation of the Armenian king, but he was 
obliged to retire with great loss. Artavasdes 
afterward concluded a peace with Antony, and 
gave his daughter Iotape in marriage to Alex- 
ander, the son of Antony. Artavasdes was 
subsequently engaged in wars with the Par- 
thians aud Armenians. He died shortly before 
20 B.C. 

Artaxata or -je. (tH 'Aprd^ara or -^cara: 
ruins at Ardachat, above Nakshivan), the later 
capital of Great Armenia, built by Artaxias, 
under the advice of Hannibal, on a peninsula, 
surrounded by the River Araxes. After being 
burned by the Romans uuder Corbulo (A.D. 58), 
it was restored by Tiridates, and called Nero- 
ma (Nepuveta). It was still standing in the 
fourth century. 

Artaxerxes or Artoxerxes ('Apratjep&c; or 
'Aoroitpir/c), the name of four Persian kings, is 
compounded of Arta, which meaus " honored," 
and Xerxes, which is the same as the Zend 



Jcsathra, " a king :" consequently Artaxerxei 
means " the honored king." 1. Surnamed 
Longimanus, from the circumstance of his right 
hand being longer than his left, reigned B.C. 
465—425. He ascended the throne after his fa- 
ther, Xerxes I., had been murdered by Arta- 
banus, and after he himself had put to death his 
brother Darius at the instigation of Artabanus. 
His reign was disturbed by several dangerous in- 
surrections of the satraps. The Egyptians also 
revolted in 460, under Inarus, who was support- 
ed by the Athenians. The first army which 
Artaxerxes sent under his brother Achtemenes 
was defeated and Achsemencs slain. The sec- 
ond army which he sent, under Artabazus and 
Megabyzus, was more successful. Inarus was 
defeated in 456 or 455, but Amyrtseus, another 
chief of the insurgents, maintained himself in 
the marshes of Lower Egypt. At a later period 
(449) the Athenians under Cimon sent assist- 
ance to Amyrtaeus ; and even after the death 
of Cimon, the Athenians gained two victories 
over the Persians, one by land and the other by 
sea, in the neighborhood of Salamis in Cyprus. 
After this defeat Artaxerxes is said to have con- 
cluded peace with the Greeks on terms very ad- 
vantageous to the latter. Artaxerxes was suc- 
ceeded by his son Xerxes II. — 2. Surnamed 
Mnemon, from his good memory, succeeded his 
father, Darius II., and reigned B.C. 405-359. 
Cyrus, the younger brother of Artaxerxes, who 
was satrap of Western Asia, revolted against 
his brother, and, supported by Greek mercena- 
ries, invaded Upper Asia. In the neighborhood 
of Cunaxa, near Babylon, a battle was fought 
between the armies of the two brothers, in 
which Cyrus fell, B.C 401. Vid. Cyrus. Tis- 
saphernes was appointed satrap of Western 
Asia in the place of Cyrus, and was actively 
engaged in wars with the Greeks. Vid. Thim- 
bron, Dercyllidas, Agesilaus. Notwithstand- 
ing these perpetual conflicts with the Greeks, 
the Persian empire maintained itself by the dis- 
union among the Greeks themselves, which was 
fomented and kept up by Persian money. The 
peace of Antalcidas, in B.C. 388, gave the Per- 
sians even greater power and influence than 
they had possessed before. Vid. Antalcidas. 
But the empire was suffering from internal dis- 
turbances, and Artaxerxes had to carry on fre- 
quent wars with tributary princes and satraps, 
who endeavored to make themselves independ- 
ent. Thus he maintained a long struggle against 
Evagoras of Cyprus, from 385 to 376 ; he also 
had to carry on war against the Cardusians, on 
the shores of the Caspian Sea ; and his attempts 
to recover Egypt were unsuccessful. Toward 
the end of his reign he put to death his eldest 
son Darius, who had formed a plot to assassi- 
nate him. His last days were still further em- 
bittered by the unnatural conduct of his son 
Ochus, who caused the destruction of two of 
his brothers, in order to secure the succession 
for himself. Artaxerxes was succeeded by 
Ochus, who ascended the throne under the 
name of Artaxerxes III. — 3. Also called Ochus, 
reigned B.C. 359-338. In order to secure his 
throne, he began his reign with a merciless ex- 
tirpation of the members of his family. He 
himself was a cowardly and reckless despot; 
and the gre»t advantages which the Persian 



ART AX IAS. 



ARTEMIS. 



arras gained during his reign -were owing only to 
his Greek generals and mercenaries. These ad- 
vantages consisted in the conquest of the revolted 
satrap Artabazus (vid. Artabazus, No. 4), and in 
the reduction of Phoenicia, of several revolted i 
towns in Cyprus, and of Egypt, 350. The reins 
of government were entirely in the hands of the 
eunuch Bagoas and of Mentor the Rhodian. At 
last he was poisoned by Bagoas, and was suc- 
ceeded by his youngest son, Arses. — 4. The 
founder of the dynasty of the Sassanid^e. 

Artaxias ('Aprafrac) or Artaxes ('ApTafrc), 
the name of three kings of Armenia. 1. The 
founder of the Armenian kingdom, was one of 
the generals of Antiochus the Great, but revolt- 
ed from him about B.C. 188, and became an in- 
dependent sovereign. Hannibal took refuge at 
.the court of Artaxias, and he superintended the 
building of Artaxata, the capital of Armenia. 
A rtaxias was conquered and taken prisoner by 
Antiochus IV. Epiphanes about 165. — 2. Son 
of Artavasdes, was made king by the Armeni- 
ans when his father was taken prisoner by An- 
tony in 34. In 20, Augustus, at the request of 
the Armenians, sent Tiberius into Armenia in 
order to depose Artaxias and place Tigranes on 
the throne, but Artaxias was put to death before 
Tiberius reached the country. Tiberius, however, 
took the credit to himself of a successful expedi- 
tion, whence Horace (Epist, i. 12, 26) says, 
Claudi viriute Neronis Armenius cecidit. — 3. Son 
of Polemon, king of Pontus, was proclaimed king 
of Armenia by Germanicus in A.D. 18. He died 
about 35. 

Artayctes ('ApravKTr/c;), Persian governor of 
Sestus on the Hellespont, when the town was ta- 
ken by the Greeks in B.C. 478, met with an igno- 
minious death on account of the sacrilegious acts 
which he had committed against the tomb of the 
hero Protesilaus. 

[Artaynte (' Apravvrn), a daughter of Masistes, 
the brother of Xerxes I., who gave her in mar- 
riage to his son Darius, while he himself was se- 
cretly iu love with her : this, becoming known to 
Amastris, brought down her vengeance on the 
mother of Artaynte, whom she suspected of hav- 
ing been the cause of the king's passion.] 

[Artayntes ('ApravvT7]g), one of the generals 
in the army of Xerxes ; after the battle of Sala- 
mis, he, with several other generals, sailed to 
Samos to watch the Ionians ; but, after the de- 
feat of the Persians at Platseas and Mycale, he 
abaudoued his post and returned to Persia.] 

Artemidorus ('ApTCfiidopot;). 1. Surnamed 
Aristophanius, from his being a disciple of the 
celebrated grammarian Aristophanes, was him- 
self a grammarian, and the author of several 
works now lost. — 2. Of Cnidus, a friend of Ju- 
lius Cffisar, was a rhetorician, and taught the 
Greek language at Rome. — 3. Daldianus, a na- 
tive of Ephesus, but called Daldiauus, from 
Daldis in Lydia, his mother's birth-place, to dis- 
tinguish him from the geographer Artemidorus. 
He lived at Rome in the reigns of Antoninus 
Pius and M. Aurelius (A.D. 138-180), and wrote 
a work on the interpretation of dreams ('Oveipo- 
KpiTiis.il), in five books, which is still extant. The 
object of the work is to prove that the future 
is revealed to man in dreams, and to clear the 
science of interpreting tbem from the abuses 
with which the fashion of the time had sur- 



rounded it. The style is simple, correct, and 
elegant. The best edition is by Reiff, Lips., 
1805. — 4. Of Efhesus, a Greek geographer, 
lived about B.C. 100. He made voyages round 
the coasts of the Mediterranean, in the Red Sea, 
and apparently even in the Southern Ocean. He 
also visited Iberia and Gaul. The work, in 
which he gave the results of his investigations, 
consisted of eleven books, of which Marcianus 
afterward made an abridgment. The original 
work is lost; but we possess fragments of Mar- 
cianus's abridgment, which contain the peri- 
plus of the Pontus Euxinus, and accounts of 
Bithynia and Paphlagonia. These fragments 
are printed in Hudson's Geographi Minores, 
vol. i. 

Artemis ("Aprsfttc), the Latin D'iana, one of 
the great divinities of the Greeks. According 
to the most ancient account, she was the daugh- 
ter of Jupiter (Zeus) and Leto (Latona), and the 
twin-sister of Apollo, born with him iu the isl- 
and of Delos. She was regarded in various 
points of view by the Greeks, which must be 
carefully distinguished. 1. Artemis (Diana), aa 
the sister of Apollo, is a kind of female Apollo, 
that is, she as a female divinity represented 
the same idea that Apollo did as a male divini- 
ty. As sister of Apollo, Artemis (Diana) is, 
like her brother, armed with a bow, quiver, and 
arrows, and sends plagues and death among 
men and animals. Sudden deaths, but more 
especially those of women, are described as the 
effect of her arrows. As Apollo was not only 
a destructive god, but also averted evils, so Ar- 
temis (Diana) likewise cured and alleviated the 
sufferings of mortals. In the Trojan war she 
sided, like Apollo, with the Trojans. She was 
more especially the protectress of the young ; 
and from her watching over the young of fe- 
males, she came to be regarded as the goddess 
of the flocks and the chase. In this manner 
she also became the huntress among the im- 
mortals. Artemis (Diana), like Apollo, is un- 
married ; she is a maiden divinity never con- 
quered by love. She slew Orion with her ar- 
rows, according to one account, because he 
made an attempt upon her chastity ; and she 
changed Action into a stag simply because 
he had seen her bathing. With her brother 
Apollo, she slew the children of Niobe, who 
had deemed herself superior to Leto (Latona). 
When Apollo was regarded as identical with 
the sun or Helios, nothing was more natural 
than that his sister should be regarded as Se- 
lene or the moon, and accordingly the Greek 
Artemis is, at least in later times, the goddess 
of the moon. Hence Artemis (Diana) is repre- 
sented in love with the fair youth Endymion, 
whom she kissed in his sleep, but this legend 
properly relates to Selene or the Moon, and is 
foreign to the character of Artemis (Diana), 
who, as we have observed, was a goddess un- 
moved by love. — 2. The Arcadian Artemis is a 
goddess of the nymphs, and was worshipped as 
such in Arcadia in very early times. She hunt- 
ed with her nymphs on the Arcadian Mount- 
ains, and her chariot was drawn by four stags 
with golden antlers. There was no connection 
between the Arcadian Artemis and Apollo. — 
3. The Taurian Artemis. The worship of this 
! goddess was connected, at least in early times, 
111 



TJfiMlSIA. 



ARYANDES. 



with human sacrifices. According to the Greek 
legend there was in Taurus a goddess, whom 
the Greeks for some reason identified with their 
own Artemis (Diana), and to whom all strangers 
thrown on the coast of Tauris -were sacrificed. 
Iphigenia and Orestes brought her image from 
thence, and landed at Brauron in Attica, whence 
the goddess derived the name of Brauronia. 
The Brauronian Artemis was worshipped at 
Athens and Sparta, and in the latter place the 
boys were scourged at her altar till it was be- 
sprinkled with their blood. This cruel cere- 
mony was believed to have been introduced by 
Lycurgus, instead of the human sacrifices which 
had until then been offered to her. Iphigenia, 
who was at first to have been sacrificed to Ar- 
temis (Diana), and who then became her priest- 
ess, was afterward identified with the goddess, 
who was worshipped in some parts of Greece, 
as at Hermione, under the name of Iphigenia. 
Some traditions stated that Artemis made Iphi- 
genia immortal, in the character of Hecate, the 
goddess of the moon. — 4. Tlie Ephesian Artemis 
{Diana) was a divinity totally distinct from the 
Greek goddess of the same name. She seems 
to have been the personification of the fructify- 
ing and all-nourishing powers of nature. She 
was an ancient Asiatic divinity, whose worship 
the Greeks found established in Ionia when 
they settled there, and to whom they gave the 
name of Artemis. Her original character is 
sufficiently clear from the fact that her priests 
were eunuchs, and that her image in the mag- 
nificent temple of Ephesus represented her with 
many breasts (noXvtiaoroc). The representations 
of the Greek Artemis in works of art are differ- 
ent, according as she is represented either as a 
huntress or as the goddess of the moon. As 
the huntress, she is tall, nimble, and has small 
hips; her forehead is high, her eyes glancing 
freely about, and her hair tied up, with a few 
locks floating down her neck; her breast is 
covered, and the legs up to the knees are naked, 
the rest being covered by the chlamys. Her at- 
tributes are the bow, quiver, and arrows, or a 
spear, stags, and dogs. As the goddess of the 
moon, she wears a long robe which reaches 
down to her feet, a veil covers her head, and 
above her forehead rises the crescent of the 
moon. In her hand she often appears holding a 
torch. The Romans identified their goddess Di- 
ana with the Greek Artemis. 

Artemisia ('Apre/uoia). 1. Daughter of Lyg- 
damis, and queen of Halicarnassus in Caria, ac- 
companied Xerxes, in his invasion of Greece, 
with five ships, and in the battle of Salamis 
(B.C. 480) greatly distinguished herself by her 
prudence and courage, for which she was after- 
ward highly honored by the Persian king. — 2. 
Daughter of Hecatomnus, and sister, wife, and 
successor of the Carian prince Mausolus, reigned 
B.C. 352-350. She is renowned in history for 
her extraordinary grief at the death of her hus- 
band Mausolus. She is said to have mixed his 
ashes in her daily drink ; and to perpetuate his 
memory, she built at Halicarnassus the celebra- 
ted monument, Mausoleum, which was regarded 
as one of the seven wonders of the world, and 
the name of which subsequently became the 
generic term for any splendid sepulchral monu- 
ment 

112 



Artemisium ('AprtfiLGiov), properly a temple 
of Artemis. 1. A tract of country on the north- 
ern coast of Eubcea, opposite Magnesfa, so called 
from the temple of Artemis (Diana) belonging to 
the town of Hestioaa: off this coast the Greeks 
defeated the fleet of Xerxes, B.C. 480.— 2. A 
promontory of Caria, near the Gulf Glaucus, so 
called from the temple of Artemis it its neigh- 
borhood. 

Artejiita ('Aprt/ii-a). 1. (Now Shercban?), 
a city on the Sillas, in the district of Apollonia- 
tis in Assyria. — 2. A city of Great Armenia, 
south of the Lake Arsissa. 

Artemon ('Aprefiuv), a Lacedaemonian, built 
the military engines for Pericles in his war 
against Samos in B.C. 441. There were also 
several writers of this name, whose works are 
lost. 

[Artimas ('ApTifiag), a Persian satrap, men- 
tioned in the Anabasis.] 

[Artiscus ("Apricr/toc : now Bujuk-Bere), a 
river of Thrace, a tributary of the Hebrus.] 

[Artontes ( 'Aprov rnc), son of Mardonius.] 

Artorius, M., a physician at Rome, was the 
friend and physician of Augustus, whom he at- 
tended in his campaign against Brutus and Cas- 
sius, B.C. 42. He was drowned at sea shortly 
after the battle of Actium, 31. 

Arverni, a Gallic people in Aquitania, in the 
country of the Mons Cebenna, in the modern 
Auvergne. In early times they were the most 
powerful people in the south of Gaul: they 
were defeated by Domitius Ahenobarbus and 
Fabius Maximus in B.C. 121, but still possessed 
considerable power in the time of Ca?sar (58). 
Their capital was Nemossus, also named Augus- 
tonemetum or Arverni on the Elaver (now Allier). 
with a citadel, called at least in the Middle Ages 
Clarus Mons, whence the name of the modern 
town, Clermont. 

Arvina, a cognomen of the Cornelia gens, 
borne by several of the Cornelii, of whom the 
most important was A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina, 
consul B.C. 343 and 322, and dictator 320. He 
commanded the Roman armies against the Sam- 
mites, whom he defeated in several battles. 

Aruns, an Etruscan word, was regarded by 
the Romans as a proper name, but perhaps sig- 
nified a younger son in general. 1. Younger 
brother of Lucumo, i. <?., L. Tarquinius Priscus. 
— 2. Younger brother of L. Tarquiuius Superbus, 
was murdered by his wife. — 3. Younger son of 
Tarquiuius Superbus, fell in combat with Brutus. 
— 4. Son of Porsena, fell in battle before Aricia. 
— 5. Of Clusium, invited the Gauls across the 
Alps. * 

Aruntius. Vid. Arruntius. 

Arusianus, Messus or Messids, a Roman gram- 
marian, lived about A.D. 450, and wrote a Latin 
phrase book, entitled Quadriga, vel Excmpla El- 
ocutionum ex Virgilio, Sallustio, Terentio, et Ci- 
cerone per literas digesta.. It is called Quadriga 
from its being composed from four authors. The 
best edition is by Lindemaun, in his Corpus 
Grammaticorum Latin., vol. L, p. 199. 

Arxata ("Apfara : now Hakshivan), the capi- 
tal of Great Armenia, before the buildiug of Ar- 
taxata, lay lower down upon the Araxes, on the 
confines of Media. 

Artandes ('Apvdvdric), a Persian, who was 
appointed by Canibyses governor of Egypt, but 



ARruAS. 



ASCONIDS pedianus. 



was put to death by Darius, because he coined 
silver money of the purest metal, in imitation 
of the gold money of that monarch. 

[Arybas or Arymbas. Vid. Arribas.] 

Aryoanda ('Apvitavda), a small town of Ly- 
cia, east of Xanthus, ou the River Aryeandus, 
a tributary of the Limyrus. 

Arzanene ('Ap^avrjvTj), a district of Armenia 
Major, bounded on the south by the Tigris, on 
the west by the Nymphius, and containing in it 
the Lake Ars«ne ('Apaqvi} : now Erzen). It 
formed part of Gordyene. 

[Arzen or -es, or Atranutzin ('Ap&v, "Ap&e, 
'Arpdvovrtyv : now Erzeroum), a strong fortress 
in Great Armenia, near the sources of the Eu- 
phrates and the Araxes, founded in the fifth 
century. 

AsjEI ('AaaloL), a people of Sarmatia Asiatica, 
near the mouth of the Tanais (now Don). 

Asander ("Aaavdpoe). 1. Son of Philotas, 
brother of Parmenion, and one of the generals 
of Alexander the Great. After the death of 
Alexander in 323, he obtained Caria for his sat- 
rapy, and took an active part in the wars which 
followed. He joined Ptolemy and Cassander in 
their league against Antigonus, but was de- 
feated by Antigonus in 313. — 2. A general of 
Pharnaces II., king of Bosporus. He put Phar- 
naces to% death in 47, after the defeat of the 
latter by Julius Cassar, in hopes of obtaining the 
kingdom. But Caesar conferred the kingdom 
upon Mithradates of Pergamus, with whom 
Asander carried on war. Augustus afterward 
confirmed Asander in the sovereignty. [He 
died of voluntary starvation in his ninety- third 
year.] 

[Asbolus ("AcfioAo?), a centaur, famed for his 
skill in prophesying from the flight of birds; 
fought against the Lapithae at the nuptials of 
Pirithous. He was crucified by Hercules.] 

Asbystve ('AaBvarat,), a Libyan people, in the 
north of Cyrenaica. Their country was called 

'AodvGTLQ. 

Asca ("Anna), a city of Arabia Felix. 

Ascalabus, son of Misme, respecting whom 
the same story is told which we also find relat- 
ed of Abas, son of Metanira. Vid. Abas, No. I. 

Ascalaphus ('AoKaXa^oc;). 1. Son of Mars 
(Ares) and Astyoche, led, with his brother Ial- 
meuus, the Minyans of Orchomenos against 
Troy, and was slain by De'iphobus. — 2. Son of 
Acheron and Gorgyra or Orphne. When Pro- 
serpina (Persephone) was in the lower world, 
and Pluto gave her permission to return to the 
upper, providing she had not eaten any thing, 
Ascalaphuc declared that she bad eaten part of 
a pomegranate. Ceres (Demeter) punished him 
by burying him under a huge stone, and when 
this stone was subsequently removed by Her- 
cules, Pronerpina (Persephone) changed him 
into an owl (uaicdXafoc), by sprinkling him with 
water from the River Phlegethon. 

Ascalon ^AaKakuv : ' AoKaXuvurq^ : now 
Askaldn), me of the chief cities of the Philis- 
tines, on tb* coast of Palestine, between Azotus 
and Gaza. 

Ascania [i] 'Aanavia Xipvrj). 1. (Now Lake 
of hnik), i Bithynia, a great fresh-water lake, 
at the eaatr m end of which stood the city of Ni- 
caea (now Jwik). The surrounding district was 
also called Aseania. — 2. (Now Lake of Burdur), 
8 



a salt-water lake on the borders of Phrygia ana 
Pisidia, which supplied the neighboring country 
with salt. 

Ascanius ('Ao/cdvios). [1. An ally of the Tro- 
jans from the Phrygian Ascania. — 2. Son of 
Hippotion, also an ally of the Trojans.] — 3. Son 
of Jilneas by Creusa. According to some tra- 
ditions, Ascanius remained in Asia after th6 fall 
of Troy, and reigned either at Troy itself or at 
some other town in the neighborhood. Accord- 
ing to other accounts, he accompanied his father 
to Italy. Other traditions, again, gave the name 
of Ascanius to the son of ^Eneas and Lavinia. 
Livy states that on the death of his father Asca- 
nius was too young to undertake the govern- 
ment, and that, after he had attained the age of 
manhood, he left Lavinium in the hands of his 
mother, and migrated to Alba Longa. Here he 
was succeeded by his son Silvius. Some writ- 
ers relate that Ascanius was also called Ilus or 
lulus. The gens Julia at Rome traced its origin 
from lulus or Ascanius. 

Asciburgium (now Asburg, near Mors), an an- 
cient place on the left bank of the Rhine, found- 
ed, according to fable, by Ulysses. 

Ascii (uokioi, i. e., shadowless), a term applied 
to the people living about the equator, between 
the tropics, who have, at certain times of the 
year, the sun in their zenith at noon, when, con- 
sequently, erect objects can cast no shadow. 

AsglepiaDjE, the reputed descendants of As- 
clepius (^Esculapius). Vid. ^Esculapius. 

Ascxepiades ('AcKX7!TTid3rjg). 1. A lyric poet, 
who is said to have invented the metre called 
after him (Metrum Asclepiadeum), but of whose 
life no particulars are recorded. — 2. Of Tragilua 
in Thrace, a contemporary and disciple of Isoc- 
rates, about B.C. 360, wrote a work called 
TpayajdovfiEva in six books, being an explana- 
tion of the subjects of the Greek tragedies 
[The fragments of this work are published in 
Muller's Fragm. Hist. Grcec, vol. iii., p. 301-6. 
— 3. Of Samos, a bucolic poet, who flourished 
just before the time of Theocritus, as he is 
mentioned as his teacher : several epigrams in 
the Anthology are ascribed to him.] — 4. Of 
Myrlga in Bithynia, in the middle of the first 
century B.C., wrote several grammatical works ; 
[and a history of Bithynia, in ten books : a few 
fragments of this last work are collected in 
Muller's Fragm. Hist. Grcec, vol. iii., p. 300-1.] 
— 5. There were a great many physicians of this 
name, the most celebrated of whom was a na- 
tive of Bithynia, who came to Rome in the 
middle of the first century B.C., where he ac 
quired a great reputation by his successful cures 
Nothing remains of his writings but a few frag 
ments published by Gumpert, Asclepiadis Bithym 
Fragmenta, Vinar., 1794. 

Asclepiodorus ('Aon?ir;m6So>po(;). 1. A gen 
eral of Alexander the Great, afterward madt 
satrap of Persia by Antigonus, B.C. 317. — 2. A 
celebrated Athenian painter, a contemporary of 
Apelles. 

Asclepius. Vid. -iEsCULAPIUS. 
_ Asconius Pedianus, Q., a Roman gramma 
rian, born at Patavium (now Padua), about B.C 
2, lost his sight in his seventy-third year, in tht 
reign of Vespasian, and died in his eighty-fiftl 
year, in the reign of Domitian. His most import 
ant work was a Commentary on the speeches 
113 



ASCORDUS. 



ASIA. 



of Cicero, and we still possess fragments of 
his Commentaries on the Divinatio, the first 
two speeches against Verres, and a portion of 
the third, the speeches for Cornelius (i., ii.), 
the speech In toga Candida, for Scaurus, against 
Piso, and for Milo. They are written in very 
pure language, and refer chiefly to points of 
history and antiquities, great pains being be- 
stowed on the illustration of those constitutional 
forms of the senate, the popular assemblies, and 
the courts of justice, which were fast falling 
into oblivion under the empire. This character, 
however, does not apply to the notes on the 
Verrine orations, which were probably written 
by a later grammarian. Edited in the fifth vol- 
ume of Cicero's works by Orelli and Baiter. 
There is a valuable essay on Asconius by Mad- 
vig, Hafnise, 1828. 

Ascordus, a river in Macedonia, which rises 
in Mount- Olympus, and flows between Agassa 
and Dium into the Thermaic Gulf. 

Ascea ("Aoicpa : 'AuKpaloc), a town in Breo- 
tia, on Mount Helicon, where Hesiod resided, 
who had removed thither with his father from 
Cyme in ^Eolis, and who is therefore called 
Ascrceus. 

Asoulum. 1. Picenum (Asculanus : now As- 
coli), the chief town of Picenum and a Roman 
municipium, was destroyed by the Romans in 
the Social War (B.C. 89), but was afterward 
rebuilt. — 2. Apulum (Asculinus : now Ascoli di 
Satriano), a town of Apulia, in Daunia, on the 
confines of Samnium, near which the Romans 
were defeated by Pyrrhus, B.C. 219. 

Ascuris (now Ezero), a lake in Mount Olym- 
pus in Perrhasbia in Thessaly, near Lapathus. 

Asdrubal. Vid. Hasdrubal. 

Asea (rj 'Aoea), a town in Arcadia, not far 
from Megalopolis. 

Asellio, P. Sempronius, tribune of the sol- 
diers under P. Scipio Africanus at Numantia, 
B.C. 133. wrote a Roman history from the Pu- 
nic wars inclusive to the times of the Gracchi. 

Asellus, Tib. Claudius, a Roman eques, was 
deprived of his horse by Scipio Africanus Minor, 
when censor, B.C. 142, and in his tribuneship 
of the plebs in 139 accused Scipio Africanus be- 
fore the people. 

Asia ('Agio), daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, 
wife of Iapetus, and mother of Atlas, Prome- 
theus, and Epimetheus. According to some 
traditions, the continent of Asia derived its 
name from her. 

Asia ('Acta : 'Aaievg, -lavog, -luTTjg, -ariicoi : 
now Asia), also in the poets Asis ^daig), one of 
the three great divisions which the ancients 
made of the known world. It is doubtful wheth- 
er the name is of Greek or Eastern origin ; but, 
in either case, it seems to have been first used 
by the Greeks for the western part of Asia Mi- 
nor, especially the plains watered by the river 
Cayster, where the Ionian colonists first settled ; 
and thence, as their geographical knowledge 
advanced, they extended it to the whole coun- 
try east, northeast, and southeast. The first 
knowledge which the Greeks possessed of the 
opposite shores of the iEgean Sea dates before 
the earliest historical records. The legends 
respecting the Argonautie and the Trojan ex- 1 
petitions, and other mythical stories, on the one 
hand, and the allusions to commercial and other I 
114 



intercourse with the people of Asia Minor, 
Syria, and Egypt, on the other hand, indicate a 
certain degree of knowledge of the coast from 
the mouth of the Phasis, at the eastern extrem- 
ity of the Black Sea, to the mouth of the Nile. 
This knowledge was improved and increased 
by the colonization of the western, northern, 
and Southern coasts of Asia Minor, and by the 
relations into which these Greek colonies were 
brought, first with the Lydian, and then with 
the Persian empires, so that, in the middle of 
the fifth century B.C., Herodotus was able to 
give a pretty complete description of the Per- 
sian empire, and some imperfect accounts of the 
parts beyond it ; while some knowledge of 
southern Asia was obtained by way of Egypt ; 
and its northern regions, with their wandering 
tribes, formed the subject of marvellous stories 
which the traveller heard from the Greek colo- 
nists on the northern shores of the Black Sea. 
The conquests of Alexander, besides the per- 
sonal acquaintance which they enabled the 
Greeks to form with those provinces of the Per- 
sian empire hitherto only known to them by 
report, extended their knowledge over the re- 
gions watered by the Indus and its four great 
tributaries {the Punjab and Scinde) ; the lower 
course of the Indus and the shores between its 
mouth and the head of the Persian Gulf were 
explored by Nearchus ; and some further knowl- 
edge was gained of the nomad tribes which 
roamed (as they still do) over the vast steppes 
of Central Asia by the attempt of Alexander to 
penetrate, on the northeast, beyond the Jaxartes 
(now Sihoun) ; while, on all points, the Greeks 
were placed in advanced positions from which to 
acquire further information, especially at Alex- 
andrea, whither voyagers constantly brought ac- 
counts of the shores of Arabia and India, as far 
as the island of Taprobane, and even beyond 
this, to the Malay peninsula and the coasts of 
Cochin China. On the east and north the wars 
and commerce of the Greek kingdom of Syria 
carried Greek knowledge of Asia no further, 
except in the direction of India to a small ex- 
tent, but of course more acquaintance was gain- 
ed with the countries already subdued, until the 
conquests of the Parthians shut out the Greeks 
from the country east of the Tigris valley ; a 
limit which the Romans, in their turn, were 
never able to pass. They pushed their arms, 
however, further north than the Greeks had 
done, into the mountains of Armenia, and they 
gained information of a great caravan route be- 
tween India and the shores of the Caspian, 
through Bactria, and of another commercial 
track leading over Central Asia to the distant 
regions of the Seres. This brief sketch will 
show that all the accurate knowledge of the 
Greeks and Romans respecting Asia was con- 
fined to the countries which slope down south- 
ward from the great mountain chain formed by 
the Caucasus and its prolongation beyond the 
Caspian to the Himalayas : of the vast elevated 
steppes between these mountains and the cen- 
tral range of the Altai (from which the northern 
regious of Siberia again slope down to the Arc- 
tic Ocean) they only knew that they were in- 
habited by nomad tribes, except the country 
directly north of Ariana, where the Persian em- 
pire had extended beyond the mountain chain, 



ASIA. 



ASOPIS. 



and wl ere the Greek kingdom of Bactria had 
been subsequently established. The notions of 
the ancients respecting the size and form of 
Asia were such as might be inferred from what 
has been stated. Distances computed from the 
accounts .of travellers are always exaggerated ; 
and hence the southern part of the continent 
was supposed to extend much further to the 
east than it really does (about 60° of longitude 
too much, according to Ptolemy), while to the 
north and northeastern parts, which were quite 
unkuown, much too small an extent was assign- 
ed. However, all the ancient geographers, ex- 
cept Pliny, agreed in considering it the largest 
of the three divisions of the world, and all be- 
lieved it to be surrounded by the ocean, with 
the curious exception of Ptolemy, who recurred 
to the early notion, which we find in the poets, 
that the eastern parts of Asia and the south- 
eastern parts of Africa were united by land 
which inclosed the Indian Ocean on the east 
and south. The different opinions about the 
boundaries of Asia on the side of Africa are 
mentioned under Africa: on the side of Europe 
the boundary was formed by the River Tanais 
(now Don), the Palus Mseotis (now Sea of Azof), 
Poutus Euxinus (now Black Sea), Propontis 
(now Sea of Marmara), and the jEgean (now 
Archipelago). The most general division of 
Asia was into two parts, which were different 
ac different times, and known by different names. 
To the earliest Greek colonists the River Halys, 
the eastern boundary of the Lydian kingdom, 
formed a natural division between Upper and 
Lower Asia (jj dva 'A., or rd uva 'Ao'ltjc, and i] 
hutu 'A., or ra Kara ti/c 'AoiTjc, or 'A. 7} evroc 
AXvoe TTora/iov) ; and afterward the Euphrates 
was adopted as a more natural boundary. An-, 
other division was made by the Taurus into A. 
intra Taurum, i. e., the part of Asia north and 
northwest of the Taurus, and A. extra Taurum, 
all the rest of the continent ('A. evroc tov Tav- 
pov, and 'A. ektoc tov Tavpov). The division 
ultimately adopted, but apparently not till the 
fourth century of our era, was that of Asia Ma- 
jor and Asia Minor. 1. Asia Major ('A. ri 
jieydXn) was the part of the continent east of 
the Tanais, the Euxiue, an imaginary line drawn 
from the Euxine at Trapezus (now Trebizond) to 
the Gulf of Issus, and the Mediterranean : thus 
it included the couutries of Sarmatica Asiatica, 
with all the Scythian tribes to the east, Colchis, 
Iberia, Albania, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Babylo- 
nia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Media, Susiana, Per- 
sis, Ariaua, Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactriana, Sog- 
diana, India, the land of the Sinae and Serica ; 
respecting which, see the several articles. — 
2. Asia Minor ('Aaia r/ fiticpa : now Anatolia), 
was the peninsula on the extreme west of Asia, 
bounded by the Euxine, ^Egean, and Mediter- 
ranean on the north, west, and south ; and on the 
east by the mountains on the west of the upper 
course of the Euphrates. It was, for the most 
part, a fertile country, intersected with mount- 
ains and rivers, abounding in minerals, possess- 
ing excellent harbors, and peopled, from the 
earliest known period, by a variety of tribes 
from Asia and from Europe. For particulars 
respecting the country, the reader is referred 
to the separate articles upon the parts into 
which it was divided by the later Greeks, name- 



ly, Mysia, Lydia, and Caria on the west ; Lycra, 
Pamphylia, and Cilicia on the south ; Bithynia, 
Paphlagonia, and Pontus on the north; and 
Phrygia, Pisidia, Galatia, and Cappadocia in the 
centre : see, also, the articles Troas, jEolia, 

I Ionia, Doria, Lycaonia, Isauria, Pergamus, 
Halys, Sangarius, Taurus, &c. — 3. Asia Pro- 
pria ('A. ?/ Id'iuc KaXovjiivrj), or simply Asia, the 
Roman province, formed out of the kingdom of 
Pergamus, which was bequeathed to the Ro- 
mans by Attalus III. (B.C. 130), and the Greek 
cities on the west coast, and the adjacent isl- 
ands, with Rhodes. It included the districts of 
Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia, and was gov- 

j erned at first by propraetors, afterward by pro- 
consuls. Under Constantine the Great a new 

• division was made, and Asia only extended 

j along the coast from the Promontorium Lectuo 
to the mouth of the Masander. 

[Asiaticus, a surname of the Scipios and Va- 
lerii.] 

[ Asidates ('AotduTTic), a Persian nobleman, 
whose castle was unsuccessfully attacked by Xen- 
ophon, but who was afterward captured with all 
his property.] 

[ Asina, a surname of the Scipios.] 

JAsin^eus Sinus, another name of the Messenl- 
acus Sinus. Vid. Asine, No. 3.] 

Asinarus ('Aowapoc : now Fiume di Noto or 
Freddo?), a river on the east side of Sicily, on 
which the Athenians were defeated by the Syra- 
cusans, B.C. 413: the Syracusans celebrated here 
an annual festival called Asinaria. 

Asine {'Aoivrj : 'Aaivaloc). 1. (Now Passawa), 
a town in Laconica, on the coast between Tana- 
rum and Gythium. — 2. (Now Phurnos), a town 
in Argolis, west of Hermione, was built by the 
Dryopes, who were driven out of the town by 
the Argives after the first Messenian war, and 
built No. 3. — 3. (Now Saratza?), an important 
town in Messenia, near the Promontory Acritas, 
on the Messenian Gulf, which was hence also 
called the Asinssan Gulf. 

Asinia Gens, plebeian, came from Teate, the 
chief town of the Marrucini ; and the first per- 
son of the name'mentioned is Herius Asinius, the 
leader of the Marrucini in the Marsic war, B.C. 
90. The Asinii are given under their surnames, 
Gallus and Pollio. 

Asius ("Aawc). 1. Son of Hyrtacus of Arisbe, 
and father of Acamas and Phaenops, an ally of 
the Trojans, slain by Idomeueus. — 2. Son of Dy- 
mas and brother of Hecuba, whose form Apollo 
assumed when he roused Hector to fight against 
Patroclus. — [3. Son of Imbrasus, accompanied 
iEneas to Italy.] — 4. Of Samos, one of the ear li- 
est Greek poets, lived probably about B.C. TOO. 
He wrote epic and elegiac poems, which have 
perished with the exception of a few fragments ; 
[and these have been published with the frag- 
ments of Callinus and Tyrtaus, by Bach ; in the 
Minor Epic Poets, in Didot's Bill. Grcec; and 
by Bergk, in his Poet. Lyrici Grose] 

AsmirjEa, a district and city of Serica, in the 
north of Asia, near mountains called Asmiu^ei 
Montes, which are supposed to be the Altai 
range, and the city to be Khamil, in the centre 
of Chinese Tartary. 

[Asopis ('A(T6j7nfj. 1. Daughter of the river- 
god Asopus. — 2. Daughter of Thespius, mothei 
of Mentor.] 

115 



ASOPUS. 



ASPHALTITES LACTJS. 



I 



Asopus ('Aauiroc). 1. (Now Basilikos), a riv- 
er in Peloponnesus, rises near Phlius, and flows 
through the Sicyonian territory into the Corinth- 
ian Gulf. Asopus, the god of this river, was 
bou of Oceanus and Tethys, husbaud of Metope, 
and father of Evadne, Euboea, and ^Egina, each 
of whom was therefore called Asopis ('AguttIc). 
When Jupiter (Zeus) carried off ^Egina, Aso- 
pus attempted to fight with him, but he was 
smitten by the thunderbolt of Jupiter (Zeus), and 
from that time the bed of the river contained 
pieces of charcoal. By iEgiua Asopus became 
the grandfather of jEacus, who is therefore 
called Asopiades. — 2. (Now Asopo), a river in 
Boeotia, forms the northern boundary of the ter- 
ritory of Platffiae, flows through the south of 
Boeotia, and falls into the Eubosan Sea near 
Delphinium in Attica. [On the banks of this 
river was fought the famous battle of Plataeas.] 
— 3. A river in Phthiotis in Thessaly. rises in 
Mount (Eta, and flows into the Maliac Gulf near 
Thermopylas. — 4. A river in Phrygia, flows past 
Laodicea into the Lycus. — 5. (Now Esapo), a 
town in Laconica, on the east side of the Laco- 
uian Gulf. 

A spadana ('Aa7ra3uva : now Ispahan?), a town 
of the district Parsetacene in Persis. 

[Aspalis ('AoTtaMc), daughter of Argasus, 
concerning whom an interesting legend is pre- 
served in Antoninus Liberalis.] 

[Aspar, a Numidiau, sent by Jugurtha to Boc- 
chus in order to learn his designs, when the lat- 
ter had sent for Sulla. He was, however, de- 
ceived by Bocehus.] 

Asparagium (now lscarpar), a town in the ter- 
ritory of Dyrrhachium, in Illyria. 

Aspasia ('Aairaaia). 1. The elder, of Miletus, 
daughter of Axiochus, the most celebrated of 
the Greek Hetseras (vid. Diet, of Antiq,, s. v.), 
came to reside at Athens, and there gained and 
fixed the affections of Pericles, not more by her 
beauty than by her high mental accomplish- 
ments. Having parted with his wife, Pericles 
attached himself to Aspasia during the rest of 
his life as closely as was allowed by the law, 
which forbade marriage with a foreign woman 
under severe penalties. The enemies of Peri- 
cles accused Aspasia of impiety (aoeSeia), and 
it required all the personal influence of Pericles, 
who defended her, and his most earnest en- 
treaties and tears, to procure her acquittal. The 
house of Aspasia was the centre of the best 
literary and philosophical society of Athens, and 
was frequented- even by Socrates. On the death 
of Pericles (B.C. 429), Aspasia is said to have 
attached herself to one Lysicles, a dealer in cat- 
tle, and to have made him, by her instructions, 
a first-rate orator. The son of Pericles by As- 
pasia was legitimated by a special decree of the 
people, and took his father's name. — 2. The 
Younger, a Phocrean, daughter of Hermotimus, 
was the favorite concubine of Cyrus the Young- 
er, who called her Aspasia after the mistress 
of Pericles, her previous name having been Mil- 
to [from jiikroc,, vermilion, being so called on 
account of the brilliancy of her complexion.] 
After the death of Cyrus at the battle of Cunaxa 
(B.C. 401), she fell into the hands of Artaxerxes, 
who likewise became deeply enamored of her. 
When Darius, son of Artaxerxes, was appointed 
successor to the throne, he asked his father to 
116 



surrender Aspasia to him. The request could 
not be refused as coming from the king elect ; 
Artaxerxes, therefore, gave her up ; but he soon 
after took her away again, and made her a priest- 
ess of a temple at Ecbatana, where strict celibacj 
was requisite. 

Aspasii. Vid. Aspii. 

Aspasius ('AtjTTuaiog). 1. A peripatetic phi- 
losopher, lived about A.D. 80, and wrote com- 
mentaries on most of the works of Aristotle 
A portion of his commentaries on the Nico 
machean Ethics is still preserved. — 2. Of Byb- 
lus, a Greek sophist, lived about A.D. 180, and 
wrote commentaries on Demosthenes aud JEs- 
chines, of which a few extracts are preserved ; 
[the extracts relating to him are collected by 
Miiller, in the third volume of Didot's Fragmenta 
Hisloricorum Gracorum, p. 576. — 3. Of Tyre, a 
rhetorician and. historian, who, according to Sui- 
das, wrote a history of Epirus and of things in 
it in twenty books ; but Miiller {Fragmenta His- 
toricorum Gracorum, p. 576), with much proba- 
bility, suggests Tvpov for 'Hirstpov, and so the 
account would be of Tyre. — 4. Of Eavenna, a 
distinguished sophist and rhetorician, who lived 
about 225 A.D., in the reign of Alexander Seve- 
rus. His works are now lost.] 

Aspendus ("Aoirevdoc : 'A<jksv6wc, Aspendius: 
now Dashashkehr or Manaugat), a strong and 
flourishing city of Pamphylia, on the small navi- 
gable river Eurymedon, sixty stadia (six geo- 
graphical miles) from its mouth: said to have 
been a colony of the Argives. 

Asper, ^Emilius, a Roman grammarian, who 
wrote commentaries on Terence aud Virgil, 
must be distinguished from another gramma- 
rian, usually called Asper Junior, the author of 
a small work entitled Ars Grammatica, printed 
in the Grammat. Lat. Auctores, by Putschius, 
Hanov., 1605. 

AsphaltItes Lacus or M\re Mortuum ('Acr- 
(paTiTiTic or 2o3o[iitic Xip>r}, or i) -daXaaaa i] vek- 
pa), the great salt and bituminous lake in the 
southeast of Palestine, which receives the 
water of the Jordan, [is of an irregular oblong 
figure, about forty miles long and eight miles 
broad.] It has no visible outlet, and its surface 
is [a little more than thirteen hundred feet] bis- 
low the level of the Mediterranean. [It is called 
the Dead Sea from the desolation prevailing 
along its shores, as well as from the belief that 
no living creature can exist in its waters.] Al- 
though the tales about birds dropping down dead 
as they fly over it are now proved to be fabu- 
lous, [yet the waters and the surrounding soil 
are so intensely impregnated with salt and sul- 
phur that no tree or plants grow on its banks : 
and it is doubted, with great probability, whether 
any fish live in its waters, for these, when ex- 
amined by a powerful microscope, have been 
found to contaiu no animalcule or animal matter 
whatever. This sea has been very recently ex- 
plored for the first time with accuracy by Lieu 
tenant Lynch of the United States navy, who 
has proved that the bottom of the sea consist* 
of two submerged plains, an elevated and a de 
pressed one, the former averaging thirteen, the 
latter thirteen hundred feet below the surface. 
The shallow portion is to the south ; the deeper, 
which is also the larger, to the north. Thia 
southern and shallow portion would appear to 



ASPIL 



ASTAPA. 



have been originally the fertile plain of Siddira, 
in which the guilty cities stood. 

Aspii or Aspasii ("Aanioi, 'Aairuaioi), an In- 
dian tribe, in the district of the Paropamisadas, 
between the rivers Choes (now Kama) and Indus, 
in the northeast of Afghanistan and the north- 
west of the Punjab. 

Aspis ('A<X7nf). 1. Clypea (now Klibiah), a 
city on a promontory of the same name, near the 
northeastern point of the Carthaginian territory, 
founded by Agathocles, and taken in the first 
Punic war by the Romans, who called it Clypea, 
the translation of 'Aante. — 2. (Now Marsa-Zaff- 
ran? ruins), in the African Tripolitana, the best 
harbor on the coast of the Great Syrtis. — 3. Vid. 
Arconnesus. 

AsPLEDON('Acnr/l770&>i> : 'AanXnSovLoc), or Sple- 
don, a town of the Minyae, in Baeotia, on the 
River Melas, near Orchomenus; built by the 
mythical Aspledon, son of Neptune (Poseidon) 
and Midea. 

Assa ("Aoca : 'Aaaalog), a town in Chaleidice, 
in Macedonia, on the Singitic Gulf. 

Assaoeni (^kuaaKTjvoi), an Indian tribe, in the 
district of the Paropamisadce, between the rivers 
Cophen (now Cabool) and Indus, in the northwest 
of the Punjab. 

Assaeacus ^kcaupaKog), king of Troy, son of 
Tros, father of Capys, grandfather of Anchises, 
and great-grandfather of ^Eneas. Hence the Ro- 
mans, as descendants of JSneas, are called clomvs 
Assaraci (Virg., JEn., i., 284). 

Assesus ('Aggtiooc), a town of Ionia, near Mi- 
letus, with a temple of Minerva (Athena), sur- 
uamed 'Aoojjaia. 

Assorts ('Acaupoe or 'Aoawpiov : 'Aaaapivoc : 
now Asaro), a small town in Sicily, between 
Enna and Agyriura. 

Assus ("Afftroc: "Aaaiot;, 'Aaaevc: now Asso, 
ruins near Beirani). 1. A flourishing city in the 
Troad, on the Adramyttian Gulf, opposite to 
Lesbos : afterward called Apollonia : the birth- 
place of Cleanthes the Stoic. — [2. A tributary of 
the Cephisus, in Phocis and Bceotia.] 

Assyria ('Aaavpia : 'Auavpwc, Assyrius : now 
Kurdistan). 1. The country properly so called, 
in the narrowest sense, was a district of West- 
ern Asia, extending along the eastern side of 
the Tigris, which divided it on the west and 
uorthwest from Mesopotamia and Babylonia, 
and bounded on the north and east by Mouut 
Niphates and Mount Zagrus, which separated 
it from Armenia and Media, and on the south- 
east by Susiana. It was watered by several 
streams, flowing into the Tigris from the east ; 
two of which, the Lycus or Zabatus (now Great 
Zab), and the Caprus, or Zabas, or Auzabas (now 
Little Zab), divided the country into three parts : 
that between the Upper Tigris and the Lycus 
was called Aturia (a mere dialectic variety of 
Assyria), was probably the most ancient seat 
of the monarchy, and contained the capital, 
Nineveh or Ninus; that between the Lycus 
and the Caprus was called Adiabene; and the 
part southeast of the Caprus contained the dis- 
tricts of Apolloniatis and Sittacene. Another 
division into districts, given by Ptolemy, is the 
following : Arrhagachitis, Calacine, Adiabene, 
Arbeliti6, Apolloniatis, and Sittacene. — 2. In a 
wider sense the name was applied to the whole 
country watered by the Euphrates and the Ti- 



gris, between the mountains of Armenia on the 
north, those of Kurdistan on the east, and the 
Arabian Desert on the west, so as to include, 
besides Assyria proper, Mesopotamia and Bab- 
ylonia; nay, there is sometimes an apparent 
confusion between Assyria and Syria, which 
gives ground for the supposition that the terms 
were originally identical. — 3. By a further ex- 
tension the word is used to designate the As- 
syrian Empire in its widest sense. The early 
history of this great monarchy is too obscure to 
be given here in any detail; and, indeed, it is 
only just now that new means of investigating 
it are being acquired. The germ of this empire 
was one of the first great states of which we 
have any record, and was probably a powerful 
and civilized kingdom as early as Egypt. Its 
reputed founder was Ninus, the builder of the 
capital city ; and in its widest extent it included 
the countries just mentioned, with Media, Per- 
sia, and portions of the countries to the east 
and northeast, Armenia, Syria, Phoenicia, and 
Palestine, except the kingdom of Judah; and, 
beyond these limits, some of the Assyrian kings 
made incursions into Arabia and Egypt. The 
fruitless expedition of Sennacherib against the 
latter country and the miraculous destruction 
of his army before Jerusalem (B.C. 714), so 
weakened the empire, that the Medcs revolted 
and formed a separate kingdom, and at last, in 
B.C. 606, the governor of Babylonia united with 
Cyaxares, the king of Media, to conquer Assyr- 
ia, which was divided between them, Assyria 
Proper falling to the share of Media, and the 
rest of the empire to Babylon. The Assyrian 
king and all bis family perished, and the city of 
Ninus was razed to the ground. Compare 
Babylon and Media. It must be noticed as a 
caution, that some writers confound the Assyr- 
ian and Babylonian empires under the former 
name. 

Asta (Astensis). 1. (Now Asti in Piedmont), 
an inland town of Liguria on the Tanarus, a Ro- 
man colony. — 2. (Now Mesa de Asta), a town in 
Hispania Bastica, near Gades, a Roman colony 
with the surname Regia. 

Astaboras ('AaraSopac : now Atbarah or Ta- 
cazza) and Astapus ('AaTairovc , now Bahr-el-Az- 
rek or Blue River), two rivers of ./Ethiopia, hav- 
ing their sources in the highlands of Abyssinia, 
and uniting in about 17° north latitude to form 
the Nile. The land inclosed by them was the 
so-called island of Meroe. 

Astactjs ("AaraKoc). 1. A Theban, father of 
Ismarus, Leades, Asphodicus, and Melanippus. 
— [2. Son of Neptune (Poseidon) and the nymph 
Olbia, reputed founder of the city Astaous, q. v, 
2-J 

Astacus ("Acra/cof : 'AaTaKTjvoc). 1. (Now 
Dragomestre), a city of Acarnania, on the Ache- 
loiis. — 2. A celebrated city of Bithynia, at the 
southeast corner of the Sinus Astaeenue ('Aara 
unvbc KoXnoo), a bay of the Propontis, was a col 
ony from Megara, but afterward received fresh 
colonists from Athens, who called the place Olbia 
('OXGia). It was destroyed by Lysimachus, but 
rebuilt on a neighboring site, at the northeast 
corner of the gulf, by Nicomedes I., who named 
his new city Nicomedia. 

Astapa (now Estcpa), a town in Hispania 
Baetica. 

117 



ASTAPUS. 



ASTYDAMIA. 



ASTAPUS. Vid. ASTABORAS. 

Astarte. Vid. Aphrodite and Syria Dea. 

Astelephus ('AoTelefoc), a river of Colchis, 
one hundred and twenty stadia (twelve geograph- 
ical miles) south of Sebastopolis. 

[Aster ('Aar^p), a skillful archer, one of the 
garrison of Methone in Macedonia, who, when 
Philip was besieging that city, aimed an arrow at 
him, with this inscription on it, 'Aarr/p ^Mir-ira 
fiavdaiftov Tre/MTtei {3e2.oc, and deprived him of an 
eye. Philip sent back an arrow into the town 
with the inscription on. it, 'Aorepa iiXiiriroc, rjv 
?i.d6?j, Kpefijjaerai. When the place was taken, 
Philip crucified Aster.] 

Asteria ('AoTepia), daughter of the Titan Cceus 
aud Phoebe, sister of Leto (Latona), wife of Perses, 
and mother of Hecate. In order to escape the 
embraces of Jupiter (Zeus), she is said to have 
taken the form of a quail (ortyx, oprv%,) and to 
have thrown herself down from heaven into the 
sea, where she was metamorphosed into the 
island Asteria (the island which had fallen from 
heaven like a star), or Ortygia, afterward called 
Delos. 

[Asteria. Vid. Asteris.] 

Asterion or Asterius ('AcTEptuv or ' Aorepcoc). 
1. Son of Teutamus, and king of the Cretans, 
married Europa after she had been carried to 
Crete by Jupiter (Zeus), and brought up the 
three sons, Minos, Sarpedon, and Khadamanthys, 
whom she had by the father of the gods. — 2. Son 
of Cometes, Pyremus, or Priseus, by Antigone, 
daughter of Pheres, was one of the Argonauts. — 
[3. Son of Minos, slain by Theseus. — 4. A small 
river of Argolis, the god of which was father of 
Asfcraea.] 

Asteris or Asteria ('Aarsptc, 'Aarepia), a 
small island between Ithaca and Cephallenia. 

Asterium ('Aarspiov), a town in Magnesia, in 
Thessaly. 

[Asterius ('Acrepioc). 1. Son of Hyperasius, 
an Argonaut. — 2. Son of Neleus, brother of Nes- 
tor. Vid. also Asterion.] 

AsteropjEUS ('AoTeponaloc), son of Pelegon, 
leader of the Pasonians, and an ally of the Tro- 
jans, was slain by Achilles. 

[Asterope ('AoTEpoTTTj), daughter of the river- 
god Cebren, wife of ^Esacus.] 

[Asteropea ('AarepoTreia). 1. Daughter of 
Pelias. — 2. Daughter of Deius in Phocis, sister 
of Cephalus.] 

Astigi (now Eciga), a town in Hispania Baetica, 
on the River Singulis, a Roman colony with the 
surname Augusta Firma. 

[Astrabacus ('AoTpu6aKoc) a son of Irbus, 
brother of Alopecus, of the family of the Eurys- 
thenidae, an ancient Laconian hero, who had a he- 
roum in Sparta, and was worshipped as a god.] 

AstrjEA ('Aorpala) daughter of Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Themis, or, according to others, of Astrasus 
and Eos. During the Golden Age, this star- 
bright maiden lived on earth and among men, 
whom she blessed ; but when that age had passed 
away, Astrsea, who tarried longest among men, 
withdrew, and was placed among the stars, where 
6he was called Tlapdivoc or Virgo. Her sister 
A'duc, or Pudicitia, left the earth along with her 
(ad superos Astrcca recessit, hac (Pudicitia) comite, 
Juv., vi., 19.) 

Astr/Eus ('Aarpaioc), a Titan, son of Crius 
and Eurybia, husband of Eos (Aurora), and 
118 



father of the winds Zephyrus, Boreas, and ITo- 
tus, Eosphorus (the morning star), and all the 
stars of heaven. Ovid (Met, xiv., 545) calls 
the winds Astrmi (adj.) fratres, the "Astraean 
brothers." 

Astura. 1. (Now La Stura), a river in La- 
tium, rises in the Alban Mountains, and flows 
between Antium and Circeii into the Tyrrhenian 
Sea. At its mouth it formed a small island with 
a town upon it, also called Astura (now Torre 
dAstura) : here Cicero had an estate. — 2. (Now 
JSzla), a river in Hispania Tarraconensis, flowing 
into the Durius. 

Astures, a people in the northwest of Spain, 
bounded on the east by the Cantabri and Vao- 
caei, on the west by the Gallaeei, on the north by 
the Ocean, and on the south by the V ettones, thus 
inhabiting the modern Asturias and the northern 
part of Leon and Valladolid. They contained 
twenty-two tribes and two hundred and forty 
thousand freemen, and were divided into the 
Augustani and Transmontani, the former of whom 
dwelt south of the mountains as far as the Durius, 
and the latter north of the mountains down to 
the sea-coast. The country of the Astures was 
mountainous, rich in minerals, and celebrated for 
its horses : the people themselves were rude and 
warlike. Their chief town was Asturica Augusta 
(now Astorga). 

Astyages ('AaTvdyjjc), son of Cyaxares, last 
king of Media, reigned B.C. 594-559. Alarmed 
by a dream, he gave his daughter Mandane in 
marriage to Cambyses, a Persian of good family. 
Another dream induced him to seDd Harpagus 
to destroy the offspring of this marriage. The 
child, the future conqueror of the Medes, was 
given to a herdsman to expose, but he brought it 
up as his own. Years afterward, circumstances 
occurred which brought the young Cyrus under 
the notice of Astyages, who, ou inquiry, discov- 
ered his parentage. He inflicted a cruel punish- 
ment on Harpagus, who waited his time for re- 
venge. When Cyrus had grown up to man's 
estate, Harpagus induced him to instigate the 
Persians to revolt, and, having been appointed 
general of the Median forces, he deserted with 
the greater part of them to Cyrus. Astyages 
was taken prisoner, and Cyrus mounted the throne. 
He treated the captive monarch with mildness, 
but kept him in confinement till his death. This 
is the account of Herodotus, and is to be prefer- 
red to that of Xenophon, who makes Cyrus the 
grandson of Astyages, but says that Astyages 
was succeeded by his son Cyaxares II., on whose 
death Cyrus succeeded peaceably to the vacant 
throne. 

Astyanax ('AorvuvaZ), son of Hector and An- 
dromache : his proper name was Scamandrius, 
but he was called Astyanax or " lord of the city" 
by the Trojans, on account of the services of his 
father. After the taking of Troy the Greeks 
hurled him down from the walls, that he might 
not restore the kingdom of Troy. 

Astydamas ('Ao-rv/djuac), a tragic poet, son of 
Morsimus and of a sister of the poet jEsehylus, 
and a pupil of Isoerates, wrote two hundred aod 
forty tragedies, and gained the prize fifteen times. 
His first tragedy was acted 1J.C. 399. 

Astydamia ('Aarvidueia). 1. Daughter of 
Amyntor, aud mother of Tlepolemus by Hercu 
les. — 2. Wife of Acastus. 



ASTYLUS. 



ATEIUS 



[Astylus ('AaruXog), of Crotona, a distin- 
guished athlete, gained several prizes at the 
Olympic games.] 

Astynome ('AaruvofiT)), daughter of Chryses, 
better known under her patronymic Chryseis. 

[Astynous (' Aotvvooc). 1. Son of Phaethon, 
father of Sandacus. — 2. Son of Protiaon, a Tro- 
jan, slain by Neoptolemus. — 3. A Trojan, slain 
by Diomedes.] 

Astyoche or Astyochia ('Acrrvoxv or 'Acrvo- 
Xsca). 1. Daughter of Actor, by whom Mars 
(Ares) begot Ascalaphus and Ialmenus. — 2. 
Daughter of Phylas, king of Ephyra in Thes- 
protia, became by Hercules the mother of Tle- 
polemus. 

Astyoohos ('Aorvoxog), the Lacedaemonian 
admiral in B.C. 412, commanded on the coast 
of Asia Minor, where he was bribed by the 
Persians to remain inactive. 

Astypal^ea (' AaTVTTCLkaia : 'AcTviraXaLevg, 
'AarvTrahaidrTic : now Stampalia). 1. One of the 
Sporades, in the southern part of the Grecian 
archipelago, with a town of the same name, 
founded by the Megarians, which was under the 
Eomans a libera ci vitas. Astypaleia regna, i. e, 
Aslypalcea, Ov., Met, vii., 461.) The inhabit- 
ants worshipped Achilles. — [2. A point of land 
in Attica, near Sunium. — 3. A point of land in 
Caria, near Myndus. — 4. An ancient city in the 
island Cos, which the inhabitants abandoned, 
and built the city Cos instead.] 

AstJra (to. "Aarvpa), a town of Mysia, north- 
west of Adramyttium, on a marsh connected 
with the sea, with a grove sacred to Diana (Ar- 
temis), sumamed 'Aarvpivn or -7]v?j. 

Asychis ("Aovxis), an ancient king of Egypt, 
succeeded Mycerinus. 

Atabulus, the name in Apulia of the parching 
southeast wind, the Sirocco, which is at present 
ealled Alt'mo in Apulia. 

Atabyris or Atabyrium ('Ara6vpiov), the 
highest mountain in Rhodes on the southwest 
of that island, on which was a celebrated temple 
of Jupiter (Zeus) Atabyrius, said t& have been 
founded by Althasmenes, the grandson of Minos. 

[Atacinus. Vid. Atax.] 

Atagis. Vid. Athesis. 

Atalanta AraXavrr]). 1. The Arcadian Ata- 
lanta, was a daughter of Iasus (Iasion or Iasius) 
and Clymene. Her father, who had wished for 
a son, was disappointed at her birth, and ex- 
posed her on the Parthenian (virgin) hill, where 
she was suckled by a she-bear, the symbol of 
Diana (Artemis). After she had grown up she 
lived in pure maidenhood, slew the centaurs 
who pursued her, and took part in the Caly- 
donian hunt. Her father subsequently recog- 
nized her as his daughter ; and when he desired 
her to marry, she required every suitor who 
wanted to win her to contend with her first in 
the foot-race. If he conquered her, he was to 
be rewarded with her hand ; if not, he was to 
be put to death. This she did because she was 
the most swift-footed of mortals, and because 
the Delphic oracle had cautioned her against 
marriage. She conquered many suitors, but 
was at length overcome by Milanion with the 
assistance of Venus (Aphrodite). The goddess 
had given him three golden apples, and during 
the race he dropped them one after the other : 
their beauty charmed Atalanta so much that , 



she could not abstain from gathering them, and 
Milanion thus gained the goal before her. She 
accordingly became his wife. They were sub- 
sequently both metamorphosed into lions, be- 
cause they had profaned by their embraces the 
sacred grove of Jupiter (Zeus).— 2. The Boeotian 
Atalanta. The same stories are related of her 
as of the Arcadian Atalanta, except that her 
parentage and the localities are described dif- 
ferently. Thus she is said to have been a daugh- 
ter of Sehoenus, and to have been married to 
Hippomenes. Her foot-race is transferred to 
the Boeotian Onchestus, and the sanctuary which 
the newly-married couple profaned by their love 
was a temple of Cybele, who metamorphosed 
them into lions, and yoked them to her chariot. 

Atalante ('AraMvTri : 'AraAavrato^). 1. A 
small island in the Euripus, on the coast of the 
Opuntian Locri, with a small town of the same 
name. — [2. A small island on the coast of At- 
tica, near the Piraeus.] — 3. A town of Macedo- 
nia, on the Axius, in the neighborhood of Gor- 
tynia and Idomene. 

Atarantes ('ATapavTrie), a people m the east 
of Libya, described by Herodotus (iv., 1'84). 

Atarbechis. Vid. Aphroditopolis. 

Atarneus ('Arapvevg : now Dikeli), a city on 
Mount Cane, on the coast of Mysia, opposite to 
Lesbos : a colony of the Chians : the residence 
of the tyrant Hermias, with whom Aristotle re- 
sided some time : destroyed before the time of 
Pliny. 

Atauxphus, Athauxphus, Adaulphus (i. e., 
Athaulf, " sworn helper," the same name as that 
which appears in later history under the form 
of Adolf or Adolphus), brother of Alaric's wife. 
He assisted Alaric in his invasion of Italy, and 
on the death of that monarch in A.D. 410, he 
was elected king of the Visigoths. He then 
made a peace with the Eomans, married Pla- 
cidia, sister of Honorius, retired with his nation 
into the south of Gaul, and finally withdrew into 
Spain, where he was murdered at Barcelona. 

Atax (now Aude), originally called Narbo, a 
river in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in the Pyre- 
nees, and flows by Narbo Martius into the Lacus 
Rubresus or Rubrensis, which is connected with 
the sea. From this river the poet P. Teren- 
tius Varro obtained the surname Atacinus. Vid. 
Varro. 

Ate ("Arn), daughter of Eris or Jupiter (Zeus), 
was an ancient Greek divinity, who led both 
gods and men into rash and inconsiderate ac- 
tions. She once even induced Jupiter (Zeus), 
at the birth of Hercules, to take an oath by 
which Juno (Hera) was afterward enabled to 
give to Eurystheus the power which had been 
destined for Hercules. When Jupiter (Zeus) 
discovered his rashness, he hurled Ate from 
Olympus, and banished her forever from th« 
abodes 'of the gods. In the tragic writers Ate 
appears in a different light : she avenges evil 
deeds and inflicts just punishments upon the 
offenders and their posterity, so that her char- 
acter is almost the same as that of Nemesis and 
Erinnys. She appears most prominent in the 
dramas of jEschylus, and least in those of Eu- 
ripides, with whom the idea of Dike (justice) is 
more fully developed. 

Atsius, surnamed Prwtextatus and Philolo- 
gus, a celebrated grammarian at Rome, about 
119 



ATEIUS CAPITO. 



ATHENA. 



B.C. 40, and a friend of Sallust, for -whom be 
drew up an Epitome (Breviarium) of Eoman 
History. After the death of Sallust Ateius lived 
on intimate terms •with Asinius Pollio, -whom 
he assisted in his literary pursuits. 

Ateius Capito. Vid. Capito. 

Atella (Atellanus ; now Aversa), a town in 
Campania, between Capua and Neapolis, orig- 
inally inhabited by the Oscans, afterward a Ro- 
man municipium and a colony. It revolted to 
Hannibal (B.C. 216) after the battle of Cannaj, 
and the Romans, in consequence, transplanted 
its inhabitants to Calatia, and peopled the town 
by new citizens from Nuceria. Atella owes 
its celebrity to the Atellanm Fabulce or Oscan 
farces, which took their name from this town. 
( Vid. Diet, of Antiq., p. 347, second edition.) 

Aternum (now Pescara), a town in Central 
Italy, on the Adriatic, at the mouth of the River 
Aternus (now Pescara), was the common harbor 
of the Vestini, Marrucini, and Peligni. 

Ateknus. Vid. Aternum. 

Ateste (Atestinus : now Este), a Roman col- 
ony in the country of the Veneti, in Upper Italy. 

Athacus, a town in Lyncestis, in Macedonia. 

Athamania ('Adafiavia : 'Adafidv, -uvoc), a 
mountainous country in the south of Epirus, on 
the west side of Pindus, of which Argithea was 
the chief town. The Athamanes were a Thes- 
salian people, who had been driven out of Thes- 
saly by the Lapithae. They were governed by 
independent princes, the last of whom was Ahy- 

NANDER. 

Athamas ('Addfiac), son of iEolus and Ena- 
rete, and king of Orchomenus in Boeotia. At 
the command of Juno (Hera), Athamas married 
Nephele, by whom he became the father of 
Phrixus and Helle. But he was secretly in 
love with the mortal Ino, the daughter of Cad- 
mus, by whom he begot Learchus and Meli- 
certes; and Nephele, on discovering that Ino 
had a greater hold on his affections than her- 
self, disappeared in anger. Having thus incur- 
red the auger both of Juno (Hera) and of Neph- 
ele, Athamas was seized with madness, and in 
this state killed his own son, Learchus : Ino 
threw herself with Melicertes into the sea, and 
both were changed into marine deities, Ino be- 
coming Leucothea, and Melicertes Paleemon. 
Athamas, as the murderer of his son, was oblig- 
ed to flee from Boeotia, and settled in Thessaly. 
Hence we have Athamantiades, son of Athamas, 
i. e., Palasmon ; and Athamantis, daughter of 
Athamas, i. e., Helle. 

AthanagIa (now Agramunt ?), the chief town 
of the Ilergetes, in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Athanaricus, king of the Visigoths during 
their stay in Dacia. In A.D. 367-369 he carried 
on war with the Emperor Valens, with whom 
he finally concluded a peace. In 374 Athanaric 
was defeated by the Huns, and, after defending 
himself for some time in a stronghold in the 
mountains of Dacia, was compelled to fly in 
380, and take refuge in the Roman territory. 
He died in 381. 

Athanasius ('Adavdawc), St., one of the most 
celebrated of the Christian fathers, was born at 
Alexandrea about A.D. 296, and was elected 
archbishop of the city on the death of Alexan- 
der in 326. The history of his episcopate is 
full of stirring incidents and strange transitions 
120 



of fortune. He was the great champion of the 
orthodox faith, as it has been expounded at the 
Council at Nice in 352, and was therefore ex- 
posed to persecution whenever the Arians got 
the upper hand in the state. He was thrice 
driven from his see into exile through their 
machinations, and thrice recalled. He died in 
373. The Athanasian creed was not composed 
by Athanasius: its real author is unknown. 
The best edition of his works is by Montfaucoc, 
Paris, 1698, reprinted at Padua, 1777. 

Athena ('AdqvTj or 'Adrjvd). (Roman Minerva), 
one of the great divinities of the Greeks. Ho- 
mer calls her a daughter of Zeus (Jupiter), with- 
out any allusion to the manner of her birth ; but 
later traditions related that she was born from 
the head of Zeus (Jupiter), and some added that 
she sprang forth with a mighty war-shout and 
in complete armor. The most ancient tradi- 
tion, as preserved by Hesiod, stated that Metis, 
the first wife of Zeus (Jupiter), was the mother 
of Athena (Minerva), but that Metis, when preg- 
nant with her, was, on the advice of Gsea and 
Uranus, swallowed up by Zeus (Jupiter), and 
that Zeus (Jupiter) afterward gave birth him- 
self to Athena (Minerva), who sprang from his 
head. Another set of traditions regarded her 
as the daughter of Pallas, the winged giant, 
whom she afterward killed on account of his at- 
tempting to violate her chastity ; and a third set 
carried her to Libya, and called her a daughter 
of Poseidon (Neptune) and Tritonis. These va- 
rious traditions about Athena (Minerva) arose, 
as in most other cases, from local legends and 
identifications of the Greek Athena with other 
divinities. But, according to the general belief 
of the Greeks, she was the daughter of Zeus 
(Jupiter) ; and if we take Metis to have been 
her mother, we have at once the clew to the 
character which she bears in the religion of 
Greece ; for, as her father ^vas the most power- 
ful and her mother the wisest among the gods, 
so Athena was a combination of the two, a god- 
dess in who'm power and wisdom were harmo- 
niously blended. From this fundamental idea 
may be derived the various aspects under which 
she apppears in the ancient writers. She seems 
to have been a divinity of a purely ethical char- 
acter ; her power and wisdom appear in her 
being the preserver ■ of the state and of every 
thing which gives to the state strength and 
prosperity. As the protectress of agriculture, 
Athena (Minerva) is represented as inventing 
the plough and rake ; she created the olive-tree 
(vid. below), taught the people to yoke oxen to 
the plough, took care of the breeding of horses, 
and instructed men how to tame them by the 
bridle, her own invention. Allusions to this 
feature of her character are contained in the 
epithets (iovdeia, fioapfiia, ayptya, 'nz-xia, or x ^*' 
lv'ltlc. She is also represented as the patron 
of various kinds of science, industry, and art, 
and as inventing numbers, the trumpet, the 
chariot, and navigation. She was further be- 
lieved to have invented nearly every kind of 
work in which women were employed, and she 
herself was skilled in such work. Hence we 
have the tale of the Lydian maiden Arachne, 
who ventured to compete with Athena (Mi- 
nerva) in the art of weaving. Vid. Arachke. 
Athena (Minerva), is, in fact, the patroness of 



ATHENA. 

both the useful and elegant arts. Hence she 
is called tpydvrj, and later 'writers make her the 
goddess of all wisdom, knowledge, and art, and 
represent her as sitting on the right hand of her 
father Zeus (Jupiter), and supporting him with 
her counsel. She is therefore characterized by 
various epithets and surnames, expressing the 
keenness of her sight or the vigor of her intel- 
lect, such as otttiXstcc, 6(f>da?i,fj,iTic, b^vSepnijc, 
ylavKtiiuc, Tro7i.v6ov2.og, TXoXvjifirie, and /xrixavlTic. 
As the patron divinity of the state, she was at 
Athens the protectress of the phratries and 
houses which formed the basis of the state. The 
festival of the Apaturia had a direct reference 
to this particular point in the character of the 
goddess. {Vid. Diet, of Ant, art. Apaturia.) 
She also maintained the authority of the law, 
justice, and order in the courts and the assem- 
bly of the people. This notion was as ancient 
as the Homeric poems, in which she is described 
as assisting Ulysses against the lawless conduct 
of the suitors. (Od., xiii., 394.) She was be- 
lieved to have instituted the ancient court of 
the Areopagus, and in cases -where the votes of 
the judges were equally divided, she gave the 
casting one in favor of the accused. The epi- 
thets which have reference to this part of the 
goddess's character are a^wnoivoc, the avenger, 
SovXala, and ayvpata. As Athena (Minerva) 
promoted the internal prosperity of the state, 
so she also protected the state from outward en- 
emies, and thus assumes the character of a war- 
like divinity, though in a very different sense 
from Ares (Mars), Eris, or Enyo. According to 
Homer, she does not even keep arms, but bor- 
rows them from Zeus (Jupiter) ; she preserves 
men from slaughter when prudence demands it, 
and repels Ares's (Mars) savage love of war, 
and conquers him. The epithets which she de- 
rives from her warlike character are ayeXria, 
Xatppla, uXxifidxv, Xaoaaoog, and others. In 
times of war, towns, fortresses, and harbors are 
under her especial care, whence she is desig- 
nated as tpvomroXic, aXaXKOjievrfic, ttoXmc, tto- 
Xiovxoc, aKpala, uKpia, KXySovxoc, irvXaiTLe, Trpo- 
aaxopjia, and the like. In the war of Zeus (Ju- 
piter) against the giants, she assisted her father 
and Hercules with her counsel, and also took an 
active part in it, for she buried Enceladus under 
the island of Sicily) and slew Pallas. In the 
Trojan war she sided with the Greeks, though 
on their return home she visited them with 
storms, on account of the manner in which the 
Locrian Ajax had treated Cassandra in her tem- 
ple. As a goddess of war and the protectress 
of heroes, Athena (Minerva) usually appears in 
armor, with the aegis and a golden staff. The 
character of Athena (Minerva), as we have 
traced it, holds a middle place between the 
male and female, whence she is a virgin divin- 
ity, whose heart is inaccessible to the passion of 
love. Tiresias was deprived of sight for having 
seen her in the bath ; and Hephaestus (Vulcan), 
who made an attempt upon her chastity, was 
obliged to take to flight. For this reason, the 
ancient traditions always describe the goddess 
as dressed ; and when Ovid makes her appear 
naked before Paris, he abandons the genuine 
story. Athena (Minerva) was worshipped in all 
parts of Greece. Her worship was introduced 
from the ancient towns on the Lake Copais at a 



ATHENE. 
/ 

very early period into Attica, where she became 
the great national divinity of the city and the, 
country. Here she was regarded as the &ea 06- 
reipa, vy'ieia, and tratuvLa. The tale ran that in 
the reign of CecropsjDoth Poseidon (Neptune) 
and Athena (Minerva) contended for the posses- 
sion of Athens. The gods resolved that which- 
ever of them produced a gift most useful to 
mortals should have possession of the land. 
Poseidon (Neptune) struck the ground with 
his trident, and straightway a horse appeared. 
Athena (Minerva) then planted the olive. The 
gods thereupon decreed that the olive was more 
useful to man than the horse, and gave the city 
to the goddess, from whom it was called Athense. 
At Athens the magnificent festival of the Pana- 
tkencea was celebrated in honor of the goddess. 
At this festival took place the grand procession, 
which was represented on the frieze of the Par- 
thenon. ( Vid. Diet, of Ant., art. Panathen^a.) 
At Lindus, in Rhodes, her worship was likewise 
very ancient. Respecting its introduction into 
Italy, and the modifications which her character 
underwent there, vid. Mineiwa. Among the 
things sacred to her we may mention the owl, 
serpent, cock, and olive-tree, which she was 
said to have created in her contest with Posei- 
don (Neptune) about the possession of Attica. 
The sacrifices offered to her consisted of bulls, 
rams, and cows. Athena (Minerva) was fre- 
quently represented in works of art, in which 
we generally find some of the following charac- 
teristics : 1. The helmet, which she usually 
wears on her head, but in a few instances car- 
ries in her hand. It is generally ornamented 
in the most beautiful manner with griffins, 
heads of rams, horses, and sphinxes. 2. The 
aegis, which is represented on works of art, not 
as a shield, but as a goat-skin, covered with 
scales, set with the appalling Gorgon's head, and 
surrounded with tassels. ( Vid. Diet, of Ant. 
art. Mgis.) 2. The round Argolic shield, in the 
centre of which the head of Medusa likewise 
appears. 4. Objects sacred to her, such as au 
olive-branch, a serpent, an owl, a cock, and a 
lance. Her garment is usually the Spartan 
tunic without sleeves, and over it she wears 
a cloak, the peplus, or, though rarely, the 
chlamys. 

Athene ('AB^vai, also 'AdijVTi in Homer : 'Aft/- 
valoq, Tj 'kdrjvaia, Atheniensis: now Athens), the 
capital of Attica, about thirty stadia from the 
sea, on the southwest slope of Mount Lycabet- 
tus, between the small rivers Cephisus on the 
west and Ilissus on the east, the latter of which 
flowed close by the walls of the town. The 
most ancient part of it, the Acropolis, is said to 
have been built by the mythical Oecrops, but 
the city itself is said to have owed its origin to 
Theseus, who united the twelve independent 
states or townships of Attica into one state, ana 
made Athens their capital. The city was burn- 
ed by Xerxes in B.C. 480, but was soon rebuilt 
under the administration of Themistocles, and 
was adorned with public buildings by Cimon 
and especially by Pericles, in whose time (B.C. 
460-429) it reached its greatest splendor. Its 
beauty was chiefly owing to its public buildings 
for the private houses were mostly insignificant, 
and its streets badly laid out. Toward the end 
of the Peloponnesian war, it contained ten thou- 
121 



ATHENE. 

sand houses (Xen., Mem., iii., 6, § 14), which, at 
the rate of twelve inhabitants to a house, would 
give a population of one hundred and twenty 
thousand, though some writers make the in- 
habitants as many as OE^e hundred and eighty 
thousand. Under the Romans Athens continued 
to be a great and flourishing city, and retained 
many privileges and immunities when Southern 
Greece was formed into the Roman province 
of Achaia. It suffered greatly on its capture 
by Sulla, B.C. 86, and was deprived of many 
of its privileges. It was at that time, and also 
during the early centuries of the Christian era, 
one of the chief seats of learning, and the 
Romans were accustomed to send their sons to 
Athens, as to a University, for the completion 
of their education. Hadrian, who was very 
partial to Athens, and frequently resided in the 
city (A.D. 122, 128), adorned it with many new 
buildings, and his example was followed by 
Herodes Atticus, who spent large sums of mon- 
ey upon beautifying the city in the reign of M. 
Aurelius. Athens consisted of two distinct 
parts : I. The City (to uotv), properly so called, 
divided into, 1. The Upper City or Acropolis (j? 
uva tto/Uc, uupdiioXig,), and, 2. The Lower City 
(i] Hiiro iro?uc), surrounded with walls by The- 
mistocles. II. The three harbor-towns of Pi^ 
raeus, Munychia, and Phalerum, also surrounded 
with walls by Themistoeles, and connected with 
the city by means of the long walls (ra fiaicpd 
reixv), built under the administration of Per- 
icles. The long walls consisted of the wall to 
Phalerum on the east, thirty-five stadia long 
(about four miles), and of the wall to Piraeus on 
the west, forty stadia long (about four and a 
half miles) ; between these two, at a short dis- 
tance from the latter and parallel to it, another 
wall was erected, thus making two walls leading 
to the Piiceus (sometimes called rd OKeXrj), with 
a narrow passage between them. There were, 
therefore, three long walls in all ; but the name 
of Long Walls seems to have been confined to 
the two leading to the Piraeus, while the one 
leading to Phalerum was distinguished by the 
Dame of the Phalerian Wall (rd QaXnpucov ru- 
Xoc). The entire circuit of the walls was one 
hundred and seventy-four and a half stadia 
(nearly twenty-two miles), of which forty-three 
stadia (nearly five and a half miles) belonged to 
the city, seventy-five stadia (nine and a half 
miles) to the long walls, and fifty-six and a half 
stadia (seven miles) to Piraeus, Munychia, and 
Phalerum. — 1. Topography of the Acropolis 
or Upper City. The Acropolis, also called Ce- 
eropia, from its reputed founder, was a steep 
rock in the middle of the city, about one hundred 
and fifty feet high, eleven hundred and fifty feet 
long, and five hundred broad : its sides were 
naturally scarped on all sides except the west- 
ern end. It was originally surrounded by an 
ancient Cyclopian wall, said to have been built 
by the Pelasgians ; at the time of the Pelopon- 
nesian war only the northern part of this wall 
remained, and this portion was still called the 
Pelasgic Wall ; while the southern part, which 
had been rebuilt by Cimon, was called the Ci- 
monian Wall. On the western end of the Acro- 
polis, where access is alone practicable, were 
the magnificent Propyl^ea, '■ the Entrances," 
built by Pericles, before the right wing of which 
122 



ATHENE. 

was the small temple of NUtj 'Atr-epoc. Thfr 
summit of the Acropolis was covered with tern 
pies, statues of bronze and marble, and various 
other works of art. Of the temples, the grand- 
est was the Parthenon, sacred to the " Virgin" 
goddess Athena (Minerva) ; and north of the 
Parthenon was the magnificent Erechtheum, con- 
taining three separate temples, one of Athena 
Polias (XLoXidc), or the " Protectress of the State," 
the Erechtheum proper, or sanctuary of Erech- 
theus, and the Pandrosium, or sanctuary of 
Pandrosos, the daughter of Cecrops. Between 
the Parthenon and Erechtheum was the colossal 
statue of Athena Promachos (Ylpofiaxog), or the 
" Fighter in the Front," whose helmet and spea. 
was the first object on the Acropolis visible 
from the sea. — 2. Toposraphy of the Lowee 
City. The lower city was built in the plain 
round the Acropolis, but the plain also con- 
tained several hills, especially in the southwest- 
ern part. — Walls. The ancient walls embraced 
a much greater circuit than the modern ones. 
On the west they included the hill of the 
Nymphs and the Pnyx, on the south they ex- 
tended a little beyond the Ilissus, and on the 
east they crossed the Ilissus, near the Lyceum, 
which was outside the walls. — Gates. Their 
number is unknown, and the position of many of 
them is uncertain ; but the following list con- 
tains the most important. On the west side 
were, 1. Bipylum (AtTru/W, more anciently Qpia- 
ciai or KepafUKai), the most frequented gate of 
the city, leading from the inner Ceramieus to 
the outer Ceramieus, and to the Academy. — 2. 
The Sacred Gate (ai 'lepal Tlv'haL), where the sa- 
cred road to Eleusis began. — 3. The Knight's 
Gate (ai 'Inirddec ■*.), probably between the hill 
of the Nymphs and the Pnyx. — 4. The Piraean 
Gate (rj tleipaiicf/ tt.), between the Pnyx and the j 
Museum, leading to the carriage road (dfid^troc) 
between the Long Walls to the Piraeus. — 5. Tht j 
Melitian Gate (ai Meliridec tt.), so called because 
it led to the demus Melite, within the city. Ou 
the south side, going from west to east, — (5. The 
Gate of the Dead (ai 'Hpiai -jr.), in the neighbor- 
hood of the Museum, placed by many authori- 
ties on the north side. — 7. The Itonian Gate (al 
'lraviai ■nr.), near the Ilissus, where the road to , 
Phalerum began. On the east side, going from j 
south to north, — 8. The Gale of Diochares (al ! 
Aioxdpovc TV.), leading to the Lyceum. — 9. The 
Diomean Gate (}] Aw/ieia tt.), leading to Cyno- 
sarges and the demus Diomea. On the north 
side, — 10. TheAcharnian Gate(ai 'AxapviKal jr.) j 
leading to the demus Acharnaa. — Chief Dis- 
tricts. The inner Ceramieus (Kepa/ieucoc), or 
" Potter's Quarter," in the west of the city, ex- 
tending north as far as the gate Dipylum, by 
which it was separated from the outer Cerami- 
eus ; the southern part of the inner Ceramieus 
contained the Agora (dyopd), or " market-place," 
the only one in the city (for there were not two 
market-places, as some suppose), lying south- 
west of the Acropolis, and between the Acrop- 
olis, the Areopagus, the Pnyx, and the Muse- 
um. The demus Melite, south of the inner 
Ceramieus, and perhaps embracing the hill of 
the Museum. The demus Scambonida;, west 
of the inner Ceramieus, between the Pnyx and 
the Hill of the Nymphs The CoUytus, south 
of Melite. Cade, a district south of Colly tus 



ATHENE. 



ATHENiETJS. 



ana the Museum, along the Ilissus, in which 
were the graves of Cimon and Thucydides. 
Limnce, a district east of Melite and Collytus, 
between the Acropolis and the Ilissus. Diomea, 
a district in the east of the city, near the gate 
of the same name and the Cynosarges. Agree, 
a district south of Diomea. — Hills. The Areop- 
agus ('Apetov Trdyog or "Apeioc ■Kilyoq), the " Hill 
of Ares" (Mars), west of the Acropolis, which 
gave its name to the celebrated council that 
held its sittings there (vid. Diet, of Ant. s. v.), 
was accessible on the south side by a flight of 
steps cut out of the rock. The Hill of the 
Nymphs, northwest of the Areopagus. The 
Pnyx (jlvvi-), a semicircular hill, southwest of 
the Areopagus, where the assemblies of the 
people were held in earlier times, for afterward 
the people usually met in the Theatre of Diony- 
sus (Bacchus.) ( Vid. Diet, of Ant. p. 440, b, 2d 
ed.) The Museum, south of the Pnyx and the 
Areopagus, on which was the monument of 
Philopappus, and where the Macedonians built a 
fortress. — Streets. Of these we have little in- 
formation. We read of the Pircean Street, which 
led from the Piraean gate to the Agora ; of the 
Street of the Hermce, which ran along the Agora 
between the Stoa Basileos and Stoa Poecile ; of 
the Street of the Tripods, on the east of the 
Acropolis, <fee. — Public Buildings. 1. Temples. 
Of these the most important was the Olym- 
pieum ('Ohv/nrUiov), or Temple of the Olym- 
pian Zeus (Jupiter), southeast of the Acropolis, 
near the Ilissus and the fountain Callirrhoe, 
which was long unfinished, and was first com- 
pleted by Hadrian. Theseum (Q-qaelov), or Tem- 
ple of Theseus, on a hill north of the Areopagus, 
now converted into the Museum of Athens. 
The Temple of Ares (Mars), south of the Areop- 
agus and west of the Acropolis. Metroum (Mrj- 
rptiov), or temple of the mother of the gods, 
east of the Agora, and south of the Acropolis, 
near the Senate House, and the Odeum of He- 
rodes Atticus. Besides these, there was a vast 
number of other temples in all parts of the city. 
— 2. The Senate House (j3ovXevT7jpLOv), at the 
south end of the Agora. — 3. The Tholus (doXoc), 
a round building close to the Senate House, 
which served as the new Prytaneum, in which 
the Prytanes took their meals and offered their 
sacrifices. ( Vid. Diet, of Ant. s. v.) — 4. The 
Prytaneum (Jlpvraveiov), at the northeastern 
foot of the Acropolis, where the Prytanes used 
more anciently to take their meals, and where 
the laws of Solon were preserved. — 5. Stoa 
(cToai), or Halls, supported by pillars, and used 
as places of resort in the heat of the day, of 
which there were several in Athens. ( Vid. Diet, 
of Ant, p. 944, 2d ed.) In the Agora there 
were three : the Stoa Basileos (orou. fiaaD.eioc), 
the court of the King-Archon, on the west side 
of the Agora ; the Stoa Peecile (orou. TtoudXrj), so 
called because it was adorned with fresco paint- 
ings of the battle of Marathon and other achieve- 
ments by Polygnotus, Lycon, and others ; and the 
Stoa Eleutherius (aroh hXevdipioc), or Hall of Zeus 
Eleutherius, both on the south side of the Agora. — 
6. Theatres. The Theatre of Dionysus (Bacchus), 
on the southeastern slope of the Acropolis, was 
the great theatre of the state (vid. Diet, of Ant. 
p. 1120, 2d ed.); besides this there were three 
Odea (adela), for contests in vocal and instru- 



mental music (vid. Diet, of Ant, s. v.), an an 
cient one near the fountain Callirrhoe, a second 
built by Pericles, close to the theatre of Diony- 
sus (Bacchus), on the southeastern slope of the 
Acropolis, and a third built by Herodes Atticus, 
in honor of his wife Regilla, on the southwestern 
slope of the Acropolis, of which there are still 
considerable remains. — 7. Stadium (rd Urudiov), 
south of the Ilissus, in the district Agrae. — 8 
Monuments. The Monument of Andronieus, 
Cyrrhestes, formerly called the Tower of the 
Winds, an octagonal building north of the Acro- 
polis, still extant, was an horologium. ( Vid. 
Diet of Ant, p. 616, 2d ed.) The Ohoragic Mon- 
ument of Lysicrates, frequently but erroneously 
called the Lantern of Demosthenes, still extant, 
in the Street of the Tripods. The Monument of 
Harmodius and Aristoglton in the Agora, just 
before the ascent to the Aci-opolis. — Suburbs. 
The Outer Ceramicus (6 efu Kakovjievog), north- 
west of the city, was the finest suburb of Athens : 
here were buried the Athenians who had fallen 
in war, and at the further end of it was the 
Aoademia, six stadia from the city. Cynosarges 
(to Kvvoaapyec), east of the city, before the gate 
Diomea, a gymnasium sacred to Hercules, 
where Antisthenes, the founder of the Cynic 
school, taught. Lyceum (to Avkelqv), southeast 
of the Cynosarges, a gymnasium sacred to 
Apollo Lyceus, where Aristotle and the Peripa- 
tetics taught. 

Athene ('Adr/vai : now Atenali), a sea-port 
town of Pontus, named from its temple of 
Athena (Minerva). 

Athenjsum ('Adrjvaiov), in general a temple of 
Athena, or any place consecrated to the goddese 
The name was especially given to a school 
founded by the Emperor Hadrian at Rome about 
A.D. 133, for the promotion of literary and sci- 
entific studies. It was in the neighborhood 
of the Forum, and at the foot of the Aventine 
Hill : it had a staff of professors paid by the 
government, and continued in repute till the fifth 
century of our era. ( Vid. Diet of Ant, s. v.) — 
Athenaeum was also the name of a town in Ar- 
cadia, not far from Megalopolis, and of a place 
in Athamania in Epirus. 

Athen^us ('Adjjvaioc). 1. A contemporary 
of Archimedes, the author of an extant work 
Tlepl TArixavquuTuv (on warlike engines), ad- 
dressed to Marcellus (probably the conqueror of 
Syracuse) ; printed in Thevenot's Mathematici 
Veteres, Paris, 1693. — 2. A learned Greek gram- 
marian, of Naucratis in Egypt, lived about A.D. 
230, first at Alexandrea and afterward at Rome. 
His extant work is entitled the Deipnosophistm 
(AeiirvoaofyioTai), i. e., the Banquet of the Learned, 
in fifteen books, of which the first two books, 
and parts of the third, eleventh, and fifteenth, 
exist only in an Epitome. The work may be 
considered one of the earliest collections of 
what are called Ana, being an immense mass of 
anecdotes, extracts from the writings of poets 
historians, dramatists, philosophers, orators, and 
physicians,%f facts in natural history, criticisms 
and discussions on almost every conceivable sub 
ject, especially on gastronomy. Athenaeus re 
presents himself as describing to his friend Ti- 
mocrates a full account of the conversation at a 
banquet at Rome, at which Galen, the physician, 
and Ulpian, the jurist, were among the guesta 
123 



ATHENAGORAS. 

—Editions : By Casaubon, Genev., 1697 ; by 
Schweighauser, Argentorati, 1801-1807 ; and by 
W. Dindorf, Lips., 1827.— 3. A celebrated phy- 
sician, founder of the medical sect of the Pneu- 
matici, was born at Attalia in Cilicia, and prac- 
ticed at Rome about A,D. 50. 

Athenagoras ('Adr/vayopac), an Athenian phi- 
losopher, converted to the Christian religion in 
the second century of our era, is the author of 
two extant works, An Apology for Christians, 
addressed to the emperors M. Aurelius and his 
son Commodus, and a treatise in defence of the 
tenet of the resurrection. — Editions : By Pell, 
Oxon., 1682 ; Rechenberg, Lips., 1684-85; De- 
chair, Oxon., 1706. 

Athenais ('Adnvatc). Surnamed Philostor- 
ffus, wife of Ariobarzanes II., king of Cappa- 
docia, and mother of Ariobarzanes III. — 2. 
Daughter of Leontius, afterward named Eu- 

DOCIA. 

Athenion ('Adijvcov). 1. A Cilician, one of the 
commanders of the slaves in the second servile 
war in Sicily, maintained his ground for some 
time successfully, and defeated L. Licinius Lu- 
cullus, but was at length conquered and killed in 
B.C. 101 by the consul M\ Aquillius— [2. A 
comic poet of Athens, of whose plays only one 
fragment has been preserved; it is printed in 
Meineke's Fragmenta Comic. Grcec, vol. ii., p. 
^165-6, edit, minor. — 3. A painter, born at Mar- 
onea in Thrace. He was a pupil of Glaucion of 
Corinth, and gave promise of high excellence, 
but died young.] 

Athenodorus ('AdTjvodopog). 1. Of Tarsus, a 
Stoic philosopher surnamed Cordylio, was the 
keeper of the library at Pergamus, and after- 
ward removed to Rome, where he lived with M. 
Cato, at whose house he died. — 2. Of Tarsus, a 
Stoic philosopher, surnamed Cananites, from 
Cana in Cilicia, the birth-place of his father, 
whose name was Sandon. He was a pupil of 
Posidonius at Rhodes, and afterward taught at 
Apollonia in Epirus, where the young Octavius 
subsequently the Emperor Augustus) was one 
of his disciples. He accompanied the latter to 
Rome, and became one of his intimate frieuds 
and advisers. In his old age he returned to 
Tarsus, where he died at the age of eighty-two. 
He was the author of several works, which are 
not extant. — 3. A sculptor, the son and pupil of 
Agesander of Rhodes, whom he assisted in exe- 
cuting the group of Laocoon. Vid. Agesander. 

Athesis (now Adige or Etsch), rises in the 
Raetian Alps, receives the Atagis (now Eisach), 
flows through Upper Italy past Verona, and 
falls into the Adriatic by many mouths. 

Athmone ^Adfiovi'i, also 'Adfxovia and "Adfio- 
vov : 'Adfiovsvc, fern. 'Ad/iovle), an Attic demus 
belonging to the tribe Cecropis, afterward to the 
tribe Attalis. 

Athos ('A6ac, also "Aduv : 'AOotrvc : now 
Haghion Oros, Monte Santo, i. e., Holy Mountain), 
the mountainous peninsula, also called Acte, 
which projects from Chalcidice in ^Macedonia. 
At the extremity of the peninsula the mountain 
rises abruptly from the sea to a height of 6349 
feet : there is no anchorage for ships at its base, 
and the voyage around it was so dreaded by 
mariners that Xerxes had a canal cut through 
the isthmus, which connects the peninsula with | 
Hie main land, to afford a passage to his fleet. 
124 



ATLAS. 

Vid. Acanthds. The isthmus is about one ana a 
half miles across ; and there are most distinct 
traces of the canal to be seen in the present 
day ; so that we must not imitate the skepticism 
of Juvenal (x., 174), and of many modern writ- 
ers, who refused to believe that the canal was 
ever cut. The peninsula contained several flour- 
ishing cities in antiquity, and is noW studded 
with numerous monasteries, cloisters, and chapels, 
whence it derives its modern name. In these 
monasteries some valuable MSS. of ancient au- 
thors have been discovered. 

Athribis ("A6pi6tc), a city iri the Delta of 
Egypt ; capital of the Nomos Athribltes. 

[Athrulla ('A0pou/Ua : now Jathrib or Me- 
dina), a city of Arabia Pelix, conquered by 
JElius Gallus.}- 

Atia, mother of Augustus. 

Atilia or Atillia Gens, the principal mem- 
bers of which are given under their surnames, 
Calatinus, Regulus, and Serranus. 

Atilioinus, a Roman jurist, who probably 
lived about A.D. 50, is referred to in the Digest 

Atilius. 1. L., one of the earliest of the Ro- 
man jurists who gave public instruction in law, 
probably lived about B.C. 100. He wrote com- 
mentaries on the laws of the Twelve Tables. — 2. 
M., one of the early Roman poets, wrote both 
tragedies and comedies, but apparently a greater 
number of the latter than of the former. 

Atina (Atinas, -atis : now Atina), a town of 
the Volsci in Latium, afterward a Roman colony. 

Atintanes ('ArivTavec), an Epirot people in 
Illyria, on the borders of Macedonia : their coun- 
try, Atintania, was reckoned part of Macedonia. 

Atius Varus. Vid. Varus. 

Atlanticum Mare. Vid. Oceanus. 

Atlantis ('AtIovtIc, sc. vrjcoc), according to 
an ancient tradition, a great island west of the 
Pillars of Hercules in the Ocean, opposite Mount 
Atlas : it possessed a numerous population, and 
was adorned with every beauty ; its powerful 
princes invaded Africa and Europe, but were 
defeated by the Athenians and their allies : its 
inhabitants afterward became wicked and im- 
pious, and the island was in consequence swal- 
lowed up in the ocean in a day and a night 
This legend is given by Plato in the Timams 
and is said to have been related to Solon by the 
Egyptian priests. The Canary Islands, or the 
Azores, which perhaps were visited by the Phoe- 
nicians, may have given rise to the legend ; but 
some modern writers regard it as indicative of a 
vague belief in antiquity in the existence of the 
western hemisphere. 

Atlas ("Arlac), son of Iapetus and Clymene, 
and brother of Prometheus and Epimetheus. 
He made war with the other Titans upon Jupi- 
ter (Zeus), and being conquered, was condemned 
to bear heaven on his head and hands : accord- 
ing to Homer, Atlas bears the long columns 
which keep asunder heaven and earth. The 
myth seems to have arisen from the idea that 
lofty mountains support the heavens. Later 
traditions distort the original idea still more, by 
making Atlas a man who was metamorphosed 
into a mountain. Thus Ovid (Met, iv., 626, 
seq.) relates that Perseus came to Atlas and 
asked for shelter, which was refused, where- 
upon Perseus, by means of the head of Medusa, 
changed him into Mouut Atlas, on which rested 



ATLAS MOWS. 



ATROPATES. 



heaven -with all its stars. Others go still fur- 
ther, and represent Atlas as a powerful king, 
who possessed great knowledge of the courses 
of the stars, and who was the first who taught 
men that heaven had the form of a globe. 
Hence the expression that heaven rested on his 
shoulders was regarded as a merely figurative 
mode of speaking. At first, the story of Atlas 
referred to one mountain only, which was be- 
lieved to exist on the extreme boundary of the 
earth ; but, as geographical knowledge extend- 
ed, the name of Atlas was transferred to other 
places, and thus we read of a Mauretanian, Ital- 
ian, Arcadian, and even of a Caucasian Atlas. 
The common opinion, however, was, that the 
heaven-bearing Atlas was in the northwest of 
Africa. See below. Atlas was the father of 
the Pleiades by Pleione or by Hesperis ; of the 
Hyades and Hesperides by ^Ethra ; and of (Eno- 
maus and Maia by Sterope. Dione and Calyp- 
so, Hyas and Hesperus, are likewise called his 
children. Atlantiddes, a descendant of Atlas, es- 
pecially Mercury, his grandson by Maia (comp. 
Mercuri facunde nepos Atlantis, Hor., Carm., i., 
10), and Hermaphroditus, son of Mercury. At- 
lantic and Atlantis, a female descendant of At- 
las, especially the Pleiads and Hyads. 

Atlas Mons ("ArAaf : now Atlas), was the 
general name of the great mountain range 
which covers the surface of northern Africa, 
between the Mediterranean and Great Desert 
(now Sahara), on the north and south, and the 
Atlantic and the Lesser Syrtis on the west and 
east ; the mountain chains southeast of the 
Lesser Syrtis, though connected with the Atlas, 
do not properly belong to it, and were called 
by other names. The northern and southern 
ranges of this system were distinguished by the 
names of Atlas Minor and Atlas Major, and 
a distinction was made between the three re- 
gions into which they divided the country. Vid. 
Africa, p. 28, a. 

Atossa {"Arooaa), daughter of Cyrus, and wife 
successively of her brother Cambyses, of Smer- 
dis the Magian, and of Darius Hystaspis, over 
whom she possessed great influence. She bore 
Darius four sons, Xerxes, Masistes, Achaenienes, 
and Hystaspes. 

AtrjE or Hatra {"Arpai, ra "Arpa : 'Arprjvor, 
Atrenus : now Hadr, southwest of Mosul), a 
strongly-fortified city on a high mouutain in Mes- 
opotamia, inhabited by people of the Arab race. 

Sempronius, Atratinus. 1. A., consul B.C. 
49*7 and 491. — 2. L., consul 444 and censor 
443. — 3. C, consul 423, fought unsuccessfully 
against the Volscians, and was in consequence 
condemned to pay a heavy fine. — 4. L., accused 
Marcus Cselius Rufus, whom Cicero defended, 
57 B.C. 

Atrax {"ATpatj : 'ArpaKior). 1. A town in 
Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, inhabited by the Per- 
rhaebi, so called from the mythical Atrax, son of 
Peneus and Bura, and father of Hippodamla and 
Csenis. [It was famed for its green marble, 
known by the name of Atracimn Marmor. — 
2i A small river of Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, a 
tributary of the Peneus.J 

Atrebates, a people in Gallia Belgica, in the 
modern Artois, which is a corruption of their 
name. In Caesar's time (B.C. 57) they num- 
bered 15,000 warriors ; their capital was Neme- 



tooenna. Part of them crossed over to Britain, 
where they dwelt in the upper valley of the 
Thames, Oxfordshire and Berkshire. 

Atreus {'Arpevr), son of Pelops and Hippo- 
damla, graudsou of Tantalus, and brother of 
Thyestes and Nicippe. Vid. Pelops. He was 
first married to Cleola, by whom he became the 
father of Plisthenes ; then to Aerope, the widow 
of his son Plisthenes, who was the mother of 
Agamemnon, Menelaus, and Anaxibia, either by 
Plisthenes or by Atreus {vid. Agamemnon) ; and 
lastly to Pelopia, the daughter of his brother 
Thyestes. The tragic fate of the house of Tau 
talus afforded ample materials to the tragic 
poets of Greece, who relate the details in vari- 
ous ways. In consequence " of the murder of 
their half-brother Chrysippus, Atreus and Th^ 
estes were obliged to take to flight ; they were 
hospitably received at Mycenas; and, after the 
death of Eurystheus, Atreus became king of 
Mycenas. Thyestes seduced Aerope, the wife 
of Atreus, and was, in consequence, banished by 
his brother : from his place of exile he sent 
Plisthenes, the son of Atreus, whom he had 
brought up as his own child, in order to slay 
Atreus ; but Plisthenes fell by the hands of 
Atreus, who did not know that he was his own 
son. In order to take revenge, Atreus, pretend- 
ing to be reconciled to Thyestes, recalled him 
to Mycenas, killed his two sons, and placed their 
flesh before their father at a banquet, who un- 
wittingly partook of the horrid meal. Thyestes 
fled with horror, and the gods cursed Atreus 
and his house. The kingdom of Atreus was 
now visited by famine, and the oracle advised 
Atreus to call back Thyestes. Atreus, who 
went out in search of him, came to King Thes- 
protus, and as he did not find him there, he mar- 
ried his third wife, Pelopia, the daughter of Thy- 
estes, whom Atreus believed to be a daughter 
of Thesprotus. Pelopia was at the time with 
child by her own father. This child, iEgisthus, 
afterward slew Atreus, because the latter had 
commanded him to slay his own father Thy- 
estes. Vid. ^Eqisthus. The treasury of Atreus 
and his sons at Mycenae, which is mentioned by 
Pausanias, is believed by some to exist still ; 
but the ruins which remain are above ground, 
whereas Pausanias speaks of the building a» 
under ground. 

Atria. Vid. Adria. 

Atrides {'Arpe'iSnr), a descendant of Atrews, 
especially Agamemnon and Menelaus. 

Atropatene {'ArpowaTnvq), or Media Atropa- 
tia {'ArpoTraria or -or Mn6ia), the northwestern 
part of Media, adjac^tii to Armenia, named after 
Atropates, a native of the country, who, having 
been made its governor by Alexander, founded 
there a kingdom, which long remained inde- 
pendent alike of the Seleueidae, the Parthians, 
and the Romans, but was at last subdued by the 
Parthians. 

Atropates {'Arpondrnr), a Persian satrap, 
fought at the battle of Gaugamela, B.C. 331, and 
after the death of Darius was made satrap of 
Media by Alexander. His daughter was mar- 
ried to Perdiccas in 324 ; and he received from 
his father-in-law, after Alexander's death, the 
province of the Greater Media. In the north- 
west of the country, called after him, Media 
Atropatene, he established an independent king- 
125 



ATROPOS. 



ATTICUS HERODES. 



dom, which continued to exist down to the time 

of the Emperor Augustus. 
Atropos. Vid. MoiRiE. 

Atta, T. Quintius, a Roman comic poet, died 
B.C. 78. His surname Atta was given him 
from a defect in his feet, to which circumstance 
Horace probably alludes {Ep., ii., 1, 79). His 
plays were very popular, and were acted even 
in the time of Augustus. [The fragments of 
Atta are collected by Bothe, Poet. Scenic. Lat., 
vol. v., P. ii., p. 97-102; cf. "Weichert, Poet. 
Lat. Reliquiae, p 345.] 

Attaginus ('Arra-yivoc), son of Phrynon, a 
Tlieban, betrayed Thebes to Xerxes, B.C. 480. 
After the battle of Platseee (479) the other 
Greeks required Attaginus to be delivered up 
to them, but he made his escape. 

Attalia ('ArrdTieia, 'ArTaXeurnc or -arris). — 
1. A city of Lydia, formerly called Agroira 
('Aypoeipa). — 2. (Now Laara), a city on the 
coast of Pamphylia, near the month of the Riv- 
er Catarrhactes, founded by Attalus II. Phila- 
delphus, and subdued by the Romans under P. 
Servilius Isaurieus. 

Attalus ("Arra/loc). 1. A Macedonian, uncle 
of Cleopatra, whom Philip married in B.C. 337. 
At the nuptials of his niece, Attalus offered an 
insult to Alexander, and, on the accession of the 
latter, was put to death by his order in Asia 
Minor, whither Philip had previously sent him 
to secure the Greek cities to his cause. — 2. Son 
of Andromenes the Stymphsean, and one of 
Alexander's officers. After the death of Alex- 
ander (B.C. 323), he served uuder Perdiccas, 
whose sister, Atalante, he had married ; and 
after the death of Perdiccas (821), he joined Al- 
cetas, the brother of Perdiccas ; but their united 
forces were defeated in Pisidia by Antigonus 
in 320. — 3. Kings of Pergamus. — (I.) Son of 
Attalus, a brother of Philetasrus, succeeded his 
cousin, Eumenes I., and reigned B.C. 241-197. 
He took part with the Romans against Philip 
and the Achasans. He was a wise and just 
prince, and was distinguished by his patronage 
of literature. — (II.) Surnamed Philadelphia, sec- 
ond son of Attalus I, succeeded his brother Eu- 
meues II., and reigned 159-138. Like his father, 
he was an ally of the Romans, and he also en- 
couraged the arts and sciences. — (III.) Sur- 
named Philometor, sou of Eumenes II., and 
Stratonice, succeeded his uncle Attalus II, and 
reigned 138-133. He is known to us chiefly for 
the extravagance of his conduct and the murder 
of his relations and friends. In his will he 
made the Romans his heirs ; but his kingdom 
was claimed by Aristonicus. Vid. Aristoni- 
cus. — 4. Roman emperor of the West, was 
raised to the throne by Alaric, but was deposed 
by the latter, after a reign of one year (A.D. 
409, 410), on account of his acting without Ala- 
ric's advice. — 5. A Stoic philosopher in the reign 
of Tiberius, was one of the teachers of the phi- 
losopher Seneca, who speaks of him in the 
highest terms. 

Attegua, a town in Hispania Baetica, of un- 
certain site. 

Atthis or Attis ("Ardic or "Attic), daughter 
of Cranaus, from whom Attica was believed to 
have derived its name. Tbe two birds into 
which Philomele aud her sister Procne were 
metamorphosed were likewise called Attis. 
126 



Attioa (ft 'Amur/ sc. yri), a division of Greece, 
has the form of a triangle, two sides of which 
are washed by the JEge&a Sea, while the third 
is separated from Boeotia on the north by the 
mountains Cithasron and Parnes. Megaris, 
which bounds it on the northwest, was formerly 
a part of Attica. In ancient times it was called 
Acte and Actice ('Aktt/ and 'Aktikt}), or the 
" coastland" (vid. Acte), from which the later 
form Attica is said to have been derived ; but, 
according to traditions, it derived its name from 
Atthis, the daughter of the mythical king Cra- 
naus; and it is not impossible that Alt-ica may 
contain the root Att or Ath, which we find in 
Atthis and Athence. Attica is divided by many 
ancient writers into three districts. 1. The 
Highlands (r) diapnta, also opeivrj 'Attik?}), the 
northeast of the country, containing the range 
of Parnes and extending south to the Promon- 
tory Cynosura ; the only level part of this dis- 
trict was the small plain of Marathon opening 
to the sea. 2. The Plain (?) tteSiuc, to iredlov), 
the northwest of the country, included both the 
plain round Athens and the plain round Eleusis, 
and extended south to the Promontory Zoster. 
3. The Sea-coast District (?) irapaAia), the south- 
ern part of the country, terminating in the Prom- 
ontory Sunium. Besides these three divisions 
we also read of a fourth. The Midland District 
(fieo-oyaia), still called Mesogia, an undulating 
plain in the middle of the country, bounded by 
Mount Pentelicus on the north, Mount Hymet- 
tus on the west, and the sea on the east. The 
soil of Attica is not very fertile; the greater 
part of it is not adapted for growing corn ; but it 
produces olives, figs, and grapes, especially the 
two former, in great perfection. The country 
is dry ; the chief river is the Cephisus, which 
rises in Parnes and flows through the Athenian 
plain. The abundance of wild flowers in the 
country made the honey of Mount Hymettus 
very celebrated in autiquity. Excellent marble 
was obtained from the quarries of Pentelicus, 
northeast of Athens, and a considerable supply 
of silver from the mines of Laurium, near Su- 
nium. The area of Attica, including the island 
of Salamis, which belonged to it, contained be- 
tween seven hundred and eight hundred square 
miles; aud its population in its flourishing pe- 
riod was probably about five hundred thousand, 
of which nearly four fifths were slaves. Attica 
is said to have been originally inhabited by Pe- 
lasgiaus. Its most ancient political division 
was into twelve independent states, attributed 
to Cecrops, who, according to some legends, 
came from Egypt. Subsequently Ion, the grand- 
son of Hellen, divided the people into four tribes, 
Geleontes, Hopleles, Argades and JEgicores ; and 
Theseus, who united the twelve independent 
states of Attica into one political body, and 
made Athens the capital, again divided the na- 
tion into three classes, the Eupatridce, Geotnori, 
aud Demiurgi. Clisthenes (B.C. 510) abolished 
the old tribes and created ten new ones, accord- 
ing to a geographical division: these tribes 
were subdivided into one hundred and seventy- 
four demi or townships. (For details, vid. Diet, 
of Ant., art, Tribus). 

Atticus Herodes, Tiberius Clauhius, a eel- ' 
ebrated Greek rhetorician, born about A.D. 104, 
at Marathon iu Attica. He taught rhetoric both 



\ 



ATTICUS. 



AUCHETJ3. 



at Athens and at Rome, and his school was 
frequented by the most distinguished men of 
the age. The future emperors M. Aurelius and 
L. Verus were among his pupils, and Antoni- 
nus Pius raised him to the consulship in 143. 
He possessed immense wealth, a great part of 
which he spent in embellishing Athens. He 
died at the age of seventy-six, in 180. He 
wrote numerous works, none of which have 
come down to us, with the exception of an ora- 
tion, entitled ILepl irohireias, the genuineness of 
which, however, is very doubtful. It is printed 
in the collections of the Greek orators, and by 
Fiorillo, in Herodis Attici guce supersunt, Lips., 
1801. 

Atticus, T. Pomponius, a Roman eques, born 
at Rome B.C. 109. His proper name, after his 
adoption by Q. Cascilius, the brother of his moth- 
er, was Q. CcEcilius Pomponianus Atticus. His 
surname, Atticus, was giveu him on account 
of his long residence in Athens and his intimate 
acquaintance with the Greek language and lit- 
erature. He was educated along with L. Tor- 
quatus, the younger C. Harius, and M. Cicero. 
Soon after the breaking out of the civil war be- 
tween Marius and Sulla, he resolved to take no 
part in the contest, and accordingly removed to 
Athens. During the remainder of his life he 
kept aloof from all political affairs, and thus 
lived on the most intimate terms with the most 
distinguished men of all parties. He was equal- 
ly the friend of Ca?sar and Pompey, of Brutus 
and Cassius, of Antony and Augustus : but his 
most intimate friend was Cicero, whose cor- 
respondence with him, beginning in 68 and con- 
tinued down to Cicero's death, is one of the 
most valuable remains of antiquity. He pur- 
chased an estate at Buthrotum in Epirus, in 
which place, as well as at Athens and Rome, he 
spent the greater part of his time, engaged 
in literary pursuits and commercial undertak- 
ings. He died in 32, at the age of 1 1, of volun- 
tary starvation, when he found that he was at- 
tacked by an incurable illness. His wife Pilia, 
to whom he was married in 56, when he was fifty- 
three ) ears of age, bore him only one child, a 
daughter, Pomponia or Cascilia, whom Cicero 
sometimes calls Attica and Atticula. She was 
married in the life-time of her father to M. Vip- 
sanius Agrippa. The sister of Atticus, Pom- 
ponia, was married to Q. Cicero, the brother of 
the orator. The life of Atticus by Cornelius 
Nepos is to be regarded rather as a panegyric 
upon an intimate friend, than, strictly speaking, 
a biography. In philosophy Atticus belonged 
to the Epicurean sect. He was thoroughly ac- 
quainted with the whole circle of Greek and 
Roman literature. So high an opinion was en- 
tertained of his taste and critical acumen, that 
many of his friends, especially Cicero, were ac- 
customed to send him their works for revision 
and correction. None of his own writings have 
come down to us. 

Attila ('Art)?/lac or 'ArriXac;, German Etzel, 
Hungarian Ethele), king of the Huns, attaiued 
in A.D. 434, with his brother Bleda (in German 
Blodel), to the sovereignty of all the northern 
tribes between the frontier of Gaul and the fron- 
tier of China, and to the command of an army 
of at least five hundred thousand barbarians. 
He gradually concentrated upon himself the 



awe and fear of the whole ancient world, which 
ultimately expressed itself by affixing to hia 
name the well-known epithet of "the Scourge 
of God." His career divides itself into two 
parts. The first (A.D. 445-450) consists of the 
ravage of the Eastern empire between the Eux- 
iue and the Adriatic and the negotiations with 
Theodosius II., which followed upon it. They 
were ended by a treaty, which ceded to Attila a 
large territory south of the Danube and an an- 
nual tribute. The second part of his career was 
the invasion of the Western empire (450-452) 
He crossed the Rhine at Strassburg, but was 
defeated at Chalons by Aetius, and Theodoric, 
king of the Visigoths, in 451. He then cross- 
ed the Alps, and took Aquileia in 452, after a 
siege of three months, but he did not attack 
Rome, in consequence, it is said, of his inter- 
view with Pope Leo the Great. He recrossed 
the Alps toward the end of the year, and died 
in 453, on the night of his marriage with a beau- 
tiful girl, variously named Hilda, Ildico, Mycolth, 
by the bursting of a blood-vessel. In person 
Attila was, like the Mongolian race in general, a 
short, thick-set man, of stately gait, with a large 
head, dark complexion, flat nose, thin beard, and 
bald with the exception of a few white hairs, his 
eyes small, but of great brilliancy and quickness 
Attilius. Vid. Atilius. 
AttIus. Vid. Accius. 
Attius or Attus Navius. Vid. Navtus. 
Attius Tullius. Vid. Tullius. 
[Attus Clausus. Vid. "Appius Claudius.] 
Atueia ('ATovpia). Vid. Assyria. 
Aturus (now Adorn-), a river in Aquitania, 
rises in the Pyrenees, and flows through the ter- 
ritory of the Tarbelli into the ocean. 

Atymnius ('Atv/j.vioc or "Arvfivog). 1. Son of 
Jupiter (Zeus) and Cassiopea, a beautiful boy, 
beloved by Sarpedon. Others call him son of 
Phcenix. — [2. Son of the Lycian king Amisoda- 
rus, came as an ally of the Trojans to the war, 
was slain by Nestor.] 

Atys, Attys, Attes, Attis, or Attin ("Atuc, 
"Arrvg, "Arrrig, "Attis, or "Attlv). 1. Sou of 
Nana, and a beautiful shepherd of the Phrygian 
town CelaBnse. He was beloved by Cybele, but 
as he proved unfaithful to her, he was throwu 
by her into a state of madness, in which he un- 
manned himself. . Cybele thereupon changed him 
into a fir-tree, which henceforth became sacred 
to her, and she commauded that, in future, her 
priests should be eunuchs. Such is the account 
in Ovid (Fast, iv., 221), but his story is related 
differently by other writers. Atys was worship- 
ped in the temples of Cybele in common with 
this goddess. His worship appears to have been 
introduced into Greece at a comparatively late 
period. It is probable that the mythus of Atys 
represents the twofold character of nature, the 
male and female concentrated in one. — 2. Son 
of Manes, king of the Maaonians, from whose 
son Lydus, his son and successor, the Maeoni- 
ans were afterward called Lydians. — 3. A Latin 
chief, son of Alba, and father of Capys, from 
whom the Atia Gens derived its origin, and from 
whom Augustus was believed to be descended on 
his mother's side. — 4. Son of Croesus, slain by 
Adrastus. 

[Auchet/E (AvxuTai), a Scythian people at 
the sources of the Hypauis (now Bog).] 
127 



AUFIDENA 



AUGUSTTNUS. 



Aufieena (Aufidenas, -atis: now Alfidena), a 1 of Sp. Maelius in this year was appeased by Au- 



town in Samnium, on the River Sagrus. 

Aufidius. 1. On., a learned historian, cele 
brated by Cicero for the equanimity with which 



gurinus, who is said to have gone over to the 
plebs from the patricians, and to have been 
chosen by the tribunes one of their body. Au- 



he bore blindness, was qu£estor B.C. 119, tribu- j gurinus lowered the price of corn in three mark- 



nus plebis 114, and finally praetor 108. — 2 T., a 
jurist, quaestor B.C. 86, and afterward propraetor 
in Asia. — 3. Bassus. Vid. Bassus. — 4. Luaco. 
Vid. Lurco. — 5. Orestes. Vid. Orestes. 

Aufidus (now Ofanto), the principal river of ! 
Apulia, rises in the Apennines, in the territory I 
of the Hirpini in Samnium, flows at first with ! 
a rapid current (heuce violens and acer, Hor., 
Carm., iii., 30, 10 ; Sat., i., 1, 5S), and then more 
slowly (stagna Aufida, Sil. Ital., x., 171) into the 
Adriatic. Venusia, the birth-place of Horace, 
was on the Aufidus. 

AuGARUS. Vid. AcBARUS. 

Auge or Augia (kvyrj or Avyeia), daughter of 
Aleus and Neaera, was a priestess of Athena 
(Minerva), and mother by Hercules of Telephus 
She afterward married Teuthras, king of the 
Mysians. 

Augeas or Adgias (Aiyeac or Avyetac), son 
of Phorbas or Helios (the Sun), and king of the 
Epeans in Elis. He had a herd of three thou- 
sand oxen, whose stalls had not been cleansed 
for thirty years. It was one of the labors im- 
posed upon Hercules by Eurystheus to cleanse 
these stalls in one day. As a reward the hero 
was to receive the tenth part of the oxen ; but 
when he had accomplished his task by leading 
the rivers Alpheus and Peueus through the sta- 
bles, Augeas refused to keep his promise. Her- 
cules thereupon killed him and his sons, with 
the exception of Phyleus, who was placed on 
the throne of his father. Another tradition rep- 
resents Augeas as dying a natural death at an 
advanced age,' and as receiving heroic honors 
from Oxylus. 

[AuGEas (Avyeac), a Grecian comic poet of 
the middle comedy at Athens: of his plays 
only a few titles remain. For the Cyclic poet 
whose name is sometimes thus given, vid. Agi- 
as.1 

[Augia (Avyeiac), name of two cities men- 
tioned in the Iliad ; one was in Laeonia, the 
other in Locris.] 

Augila (rd. AvyiXa : now Aujilah), an oasis 
in the Great Desert of Africa, about three and 
a half degrees south of Cyrene, and ten days' 
journey west of the Oasis of Ammon, abound- 
ing in date palms, to gather the fruit of which 
a tribe of the Nasamones, called Augila? (Ai- 
ytXai), resorted to the Oasis, which at other 
times was uninhabited. 

AugurInus, Genucius. 1. T., consul B.C. 451, 
and a member of the first decemvirate in the 
fame year. — 2. M., brother of the preceding, con- 
sul 445. 

AugurInus, Minucius. 1. M., consul B.C. 
497 and 491. He took an active part in the de- 
fence of Coriolanus, who was brought to trial 
in 491, but was unable to obtain his acquittal. 
— 2. L., consul 458, carried on war against the 
/Equians, and was surrounded by the enemy on 
Mount Algidus, but was delivered by the dicta- 
tor Cineinnatus. — 3. L., was appointed prefect 
>f the corn-market (prafeclus annonee) 439, as 
ihe people were suffering from grievous famine. 
The ferment occasioned by the assassination 
128 



et days, fixiDg as the maximum an as for a mo- 
dius. The people, in their gratitude, presented 
him with an ox having its horns gilt, and erect- 
ed a statue to his honor outside the Porta Tri- 
gemina, for which every body subscribed an ounce 
of brass. 

Augusta, the name of several towns founded 
or colonized by Augustus. 1. A. Asturica, 
Vid. Astuees. — 2. A. EmerIta (now Merida), in 
Lusitania, on the Anas (now Guadiana), colo- 
nized by Augustus with the veterans (emerit) 
of the fifth and tenth legions, was a place of 
considerable importance. — 3. A. Firma. Vid. 
Astigi. — 4. A. Pretoria (now Aosta [contract- 
ed from Augusta], a town of the Salassi in Up- 
per Italy, at the foot of the Graian and Pennine 
Alps, colonized by Augustus with soldiers of 
the praetorian cohorts. The modern town still 
contains many Eoman remains, the most im- 
portant of which are the town gates and a tri- 
umphal arch. — 5. A. Rauracorum (now Augst), 
the capital of the Eauraci, colonized by Munatius 
Plancus under Augustus, was on the left of the 
Rhine near the modern Basle: the ruins of a Ro- 
man amphitheatre are still to be seen. — 6. A. Su- 
essonum (now Soissons), the capital of the Sues- 
sones in Gallia Belgica, probably the Noviodu- 
num of Caesar. — 7. A Taurinokuh (now Turin), 
more anciently called Taurasia, the capital of 
the Taurini on the Po, was an important town 
in the time of Hannibal, and was colonized by 
Augustus. — 8. A. Trevirobum. Vid. Treviri. 
— 9. Tricastinoruji (now Aouste), the capital 
of the Tricastini in Gallia Narboneusis. — 10. A. 
Vindelicorum (now Augsburg), capital of Viu- 
delicia or Raetia Secunda on the Licus (now 
Lech), colonized by Drusus under Augustus, after 
the conquest of Raetia, about B.C. 14. 

Augustinus, Aurelius, usually called St. 
Augustine, the most illustrious of the Latin 
fathers, was born A.D. 354, at Tagaste, an in- 
land town in Numidia. His mother was a sin- 
cere Christian, who exerted herself in training 
up her son in the practice of piety, but for a long 
time without effect. He studied rhetoric at 
Carthage, where he embraced the Manichaean 
heresy, to which he adhered for nine years. 
He afterward became a teacher of rhetoric at 
Carthage, but in 383 he went to Italy, and in 
Milan was led by the preachiug and conversa- 
tion of Ambrose to abandon his Manichaean er- 
rors and embrace Christianity. He was bap- 
tized by Ambrose in 387, and then returned to 
Africa, where he passed the next three years 
in seclusion, devoting liimself to religious ex- 
ercises. In 391 he was ordained a priest by 
Valerius, then bishop of Hippo, and in 395 he 
was consecrated bishop of Hippo. His history, 
from the time of his elevation to the see of Hip- 
po, is so closely implicated with the Donatistic 
and Pelagian controversy, that it would be im- 
practicable to pursue its details within our lim- 
its. He died at Hippo in 430, when the city 
was besieged by the Vandals. Of his numerous 
works the two moat interesting are, 1. His Con- 
fessions, in thirteen books, written in 397, con- 



AUG USTOBON A. 



AUGUSTUS. 



taining au .account of his early life- 2. Be Givi- 
tate Bet, in twenty-two books, commenced about 
413, and not finished before 426. The first ten 
books contain a refutation of the various sys- 
tems of false religion, the last twelve present a 
systematic view of the true religion. The best 
edition of the collected works of Augustine is 
the Benedictine, 11 vols, fol., Paris, 1679-1700: 
[this valuable edition was repi'inted at Paris, in 
II vols., imperial 8 vo., 1836-39. 

Augustobo na (now Troyes), after Aiard called 
Tricassce, the capital of the Trieasii or Trieasses, 
in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

AUGUSTODUNUM. Vld. BlBRACTE. • 
AUGUSTONEMETUM. Vld. AeVEENI. 

Augustoritum. Vid. Lemovices. 

Augustulus,Romdlus, last Boman emperor of 
the "West, was placed upon the throne by his fa- 
ther Orestes (A.D. 475), after the latter had de- 
posed the Emperor Jnlius Nepos. In 476 Ores- 
tes was defeated by Odoacer and put to death : 
Romulus Augustulus was allowed to live, but 
was deprived of the sovereignty. 

Augustus, the first Roman emperor, was born 
ou the 23d of September, B.C. 63, and was the 
son of C. Octav us by Atia, a daughter of Ju- 
lia, the sister of 0. Julius Caesar. His original 
uame was G. Octavius, and, after his adoption 
by Ms great-uncle, C. Julius Gcesar Octavianus, 
but for the sake of brevity we shall call him 
Augustus, though this was only a title given 
him by the senate and the people in B.C. 27, to 
express their veneration for him. Augustus 
lost his father at four years of age, but his edu- 
cation was conducted with great care by his 
grandmother Julia, and by his mother and step- 
father, L. Marcius Philippus, whom his mother 
married soon after his father's death. C. Julius 
Caesar, who had no male issue, also watched 
over his education with solicitude. He joined 
his uncle in Spain in 45. in the campaign against 
the sons of Pompey, and in the course of the 
same year was sent by Caesar to Apollonia in 
IUyrio.um, where some legions were stationed, 
that he might acquire a more thorough practical 
training in military affairs, and. at the same time, 
prosecute his studies. He was at Apellonia 
when the news reached him of his uncle's mur- 
der at Rome in March, 44, and he forthwith set 
out for Italy, accompanied by Agrippa and a few 
other friends. On landing near Brundisium at 
the beginning of April, he heard that Caesar had 
adopted him in his testament and made him his 
heir. He now assumed the name of Caesar, 
and was so saluted by the troops. On reaching 
Rome about the beginning of May, he demanded 
nothing but the private property which Caesar 
had left him, but declared that he was resolved 
to avenge the murder of his benefactor. The 
state of parties at Rome was most perplexing ; 
and one can not but admire the extraordinary 
tact and prudence which Augustus displayed, 
and the skill with which a youth of scarcely 
twenty contrived to blind the most experienced 
statesmen in Rome, and eventually to carry all 
his designs into effect. Augustus had to con- 
tend against the republican party as well as 
against Antony ; for the latter foresaw that Au- 
gustus would stand in the way of his views, and 
had therefore attempted, though without suc- 
cess, to prevent Augustus from accepting the 
Q 



inheritance which his uncle had left hmi. Au- 
gustus, therefore, resolved to crush Antony first 
as the more dangerous of his two enemies, ant 
accordingly made overtures to the republicaL 
party. These were so well received, especially 
when two legions went over to him, that the 
senate conferred upon him the title of prastor 
and sent him, with the two consuls of the year 
C. Vibius Pansn, and A. Hirtius, to attack An- 
tony, who was besieging D. Brutus in Mutina 
Antony was defeated and obliged to fly across 
the Alps ; and the death of the two consult 
gave Augustus the command of all their troops 
The Senate now became alarmed, and determ- 
ined to prevent Augustus from acquiring fur- 
ther power. But he soon showed that he did 
not iptend to become the senate's servant. Sup 
ported by his troops, he marched upon Rome and 
demanded the consulship, which the terrifiea 
senate was obliged to give him. He was elect 
ed to the office along with Q. Pedius, and the 
murderers of the dictator were outlawed. He 
now marched into the north of Italy, profess- 
edly against Antony, who had been joined by 
Lepidus, and who was descending from the Alps 
along with the latter at the head of seventeen 
legions. Augustus and Antony now became 
reconciled ; and it was agreed that the empire 
should be divided between Augustus, Antony, 
and Lepidus, under the title of triumviri rei 
publicce constituencies, and that this arrangement k. 
should last for the uext five years. They pub- 
lished a proscriptio, or list of all their enemies, 
whose lives were to be sacrificed and their 
property confiscated : upward of two thousand 
equips and three hundred senators were put to 
death. Among whom was Cicero. Soon after- 
ward Augustus and Antony crossed over to 
Greece, and defeated Brutus and Cassius at the 
dicisive battle of Philippi in 42, by which the 
hopes of the republican party were ruined. The 
triumvirs thereupon made a new division of the 
provinces. Lepidus obtained Africa, and Au- 
gustus returned to Italy to reward his veterans 
with the lands he had promised them. Here a 
new war awaited him (41), excited by Fulvia, 
the wife of Antony. She was supported by L 
Antonius, the consul and brother of the trium- 
vir, who threw himself into the fortified town of 
Perusia, which Augustus succeeded in taking 
in 40. Antony now made preparations for war, 
but the opportune death of Fulvia led to a rec- 
onciliation between the triumvirs, who con- 
cluded a peace at Brundisium. A new division 
of the provinces was again made : Augustus 
obtained all the parts of the empire west of the 
town of Scodra in Ulyricum, and Antony the 
eastern provinces, while Italy was to belong to 
them in common. Antony married Octavia, the 
sister of Augustus, in order to cement their al- 
liance. In 39 Augustus concluded a peice with (X 
Sextus Pompey, whose fleet gave him the com- 
mand of the sea, and enabled him to prevent 
corn from reaching Rome. But this peace was 
only transitory. As long as Pompey was inde- 
pendent, Augustus could not hope to obtain the 
dominion of the West, and he therefore eagerly 
availed himself of the pretext that Pompey al- 
lowed piracy to go on in the Mediterranean for 
the purpose of declaring war against him. In 
36 the contest came to a final issue. The fleet 
129 



AUGUSTUS. 

of Augustus, under the command of Marcus 
Agrippa, gained a decisive victory over that of 
Pompey, who abandoned Sicily and fled to Asia. 
Lepidus, who had landed in Sicily to support Au- 
gustus, was impatient of the subordinate part 
which he had hitherto played, and claimed the 
island for himself; but he was easily subdued 
by Augustus, stripped of his power, and sent to 
Rome, where he resided for the remainder of 
his life, being allowed to retain the dignity of 
pontifex maximus. In 35 and 34 Augustus was 
engaged in war with the Ulyrians and Dalma- 
tians. Meantime, Antony had repudiated Oc- 
tavia, and had alienated the min ds of the Ro- 
man people by his arbitrary and arrogant pro- 
ceedings in the East. Augustus found that the 
Romans were quite prepared to desert his rival, 
and accordingly, in 32, the senate declared war 
against Cleopatra, for Antony was looked upon 
only as her infatuated slave. The remainder 
of the year was occupied by preparations for 
war on both sides. In the spring of 31, Au- 
gustus passed over to Epirus, and in Septem- 
ber in the same year his fleet gained a bril- 
liant victory over Antony's near the promontory 
of Actium in Acarnania. In the following year 
(30) Augustus sailed to Egypt. Antony and I 
Cleopatra, who had escaped in safety from Ac- 
tium, put an end to their lives to avoid falling 
into the hands of the conqueror ; and Augustus 
now became the undisputed master of the Ro- 
man world. He returned to Rome in 29, and 
after restoring order in all parts of the govern- 
meut, he proposed in the senate to lay down his 
powers, but pretended to be prevailed upon to 
remain at the head of affairs for ten years long- 
er. This plan was afterward repeated several 
times, and he apparently allowed himself to be 
always persuaded to retain his power either for 
ten or five years more. He declined all honors 
and distinctions which were calculated to re- 
mind the Romans of kingly power ; but he ac- 
cepted in 33 the imperium proconsulate and the 
tribunitia potestas for life, by which his inviola- 
bility was legally established, while by the impe- 
rium proconsulare he became the highest au- 
thority in all the Roman provinces. On the 
death of Lepidus in 12 he became pontifex max- 
imus ; but, though he had thus united in his own 
person all the great offices of state, yet he was 
too prudent to show to the Romans by any dis- 
play of authority that he was the sole master. 
He had no ministers, in our sense of the word ; 
but on state matters, which he did not choose to 
be discussed in public, he consulted his per- 
sonal friends, C. Cilnius Maecenas, M. Vipsanius 
Agrippa, M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, and 
Asinius Pollio. The people retained their re- 
publican privileges, though they were mere 
forms : they still met in their assemblies, and 
elected consuls and other magistrates, but only 
such persons were elected as had been propos- 
ed or recommended by the emperor. The al- 
most uninterrupted festivities, games, distribu- 
tions of corn, and the like, made the people for- 
get the substance of their republican freedom, 
and obey contentedly their new ruler. The 
wars of Augustus were not aggressive, but were 
chiefly undertaken to protect the frontiers of 
the Roman dominions. Most of them were car- 
ried on by his relations and friends, but he con- 
130 



AULON. 

ducted some of them in person. Thus, in 27. 
he attacked the warlike Cantabri and Astures 
in Spain, whose subjugation, however, was not 
completed till 19, by Agrippa. In 21 Augustus 
travelled through Sicily and Greece, and. spent 
the winter following at Samos. Next year 
(20) he went to Syria, where he received from 
Phraates, the Parthian monarch, the standards 
and prisoners which had been taken from Cras- 
sus and Antony. In 16 the Romans suffered a 
defeat on the Lower Rhine by some GermaD 
tribes ; whereupon Augustus went himself to 
Gaul, and spent four years there, to regulate 
the government of that province, and to make 
the necessary preparations for defending it 
against the Germans. In 9 he again went to 
Gaul, where he received German ambassadors, 
who sued for peace ; and from this time for- 
ward, he does not appear to have again taken 
any active part in the wars that were carried 
on. Those in Germany were the most formid- 
able, and lasted longer than the reign of Augus- 
tus. He died at Nola, on the 29th of August, 
A.D. 14, at the age of seventy-six. Augustus 
was first married, though only nominally, to 
Clodia, a daughter of Clodius and Fulvia. His 
second wife, Scribonia, bore him his only daugh- 
ter, Julia. His third wife was Livia Drusilla, 
the wife of Tiberius Nero. Augustus had at 
first fixed on M. Marcellus as his successor, the 
son of his sister Octavia, who was married to 
his daughter Julia. After his death Julia was 
married to Agrippa, and her two sons, Caius 
and Lucius Caesar, were now destined by Au- 
gustus as his successors. On the death of these 
two youths, Augustus was persuaded to adopt 
Tiberius, the son of Livia, and to make him lis 
colleague and successor. Vid. Tiberius. 

Aulerci, a powerful Gallic people dwelling 
between the Sequana (now Seine) and the Liger 
(now Loire), were divided into three great tribes. 
1. A. Eburovices, near the coast, on the left 
bank of the Seine, in the modern Normandy : 
their capital was Mediolanum, afterward called 
Eburovices (now Evreux). — 2. A. CenojiXni, 
southwest of the preceding, near the Liger; 
their capital was Subdinnum (now le Mans). At 
an early period some of the Cenomani crossed 
the Alps and settled in Upper Italy. — 3. A. Bean- 
novices, east of the Cenomani, near the ^Edui, 
whose clients they were. The Diablintes men- 
tioned by Caesar are said by Ptolemy to have 
been likewise a branch of the Aulerci. 

[Aulestes, a Tyrrhenian, an ally of JEneas, 
slain by Messapus.] 

Aulis (AiiXic), a harbor in Bceotia, on the Eu- 
ripus, where the Greek fleet assembled before 
sailing against Troy : it had a temple of Artemis 
(Diana). 

Aulon (XvX6v : kv7iuv'tTi]c). 1. A district 
and town pn the borders of Elis and Messenia, 
with a temple of jEseulapius, who hence had 
the surname Aulonius. — 2. A town in Chaleid- 
ice in Macedonia, on the Strymonic Gulf — 3. 
(Now Melone), a fertile valley near Tarentum, 
celebrated for its wine (amicus Aulon fertili 
BaccJio; Hor., Carm., iL, 6, 18.) — [4. Regius 
(AvliZv 6 jiaailiKoc), a valley of Syria, not far 
from Damascus. — 5. The valley of the Jordan, 
extending from the Sea of Galilee, and includ- 
ing tha Dead Sea tha southern part of it 



AULUS GELLILTS. 



M. AURELIUS A.NTONTNTJS. 



is the fertile plain of Jericho. — 6. Cilicius, the 
strait between Cyprus and the coast of Cilicia.] 

[AULUS GrELLlUS. Vid. GeLLIUS.] 

Auranitis (kvpavlne : now Hauran), a dis- 
trict south of Damascus and east of Itursea and 
Batansea, on the eastern side of the Jordan, be- 
longing either to Palestine or to Arabia. 

Aurea Chersonesus (?) Xovo// Xepaovnaoc), 
le name given by the late geographers to the 
Malay Peninsula, [or, as others maintain, to the 
southern part of Pegu^\ They also mention an 
Aurea Regio beyond the Ganges, which is sup- 
posed to be the country round Ava. 

Aurelia, the wife of C. Julius Cassar, by whom 
she became the mother of C. Julius Caesar, the 
dictator, and of two daughters. She carefully 
watched over the education of her children, and 
always took a lively interest in the success of 
her son. She died in B.C. 54, while Caesar was 
in Gaul. 

Aurelia Gens, plebeian, of which the most 
important members are given under their family 
names, Cotta, Orestes, and Scaurus. 

Aurelia Orestilla, a beautiful but profligate 
woman, whom Catiline married. As Aurelia at 
first refused to marry him because he had a 
grown-up son by a former marriage, Catiline is 
said to have killed his own offspring in order to 
remove this impediment to their union. 

Aurelia Via, the great coast road from Rome 
to Transalpine Gaul, at first extendftl no further 
than Pisa;, but was afterward continued along 
the coast to Genua and Forum Julii in Gaul. 

Aureliani. Vid. Genabum. 

Aurelianus, Roman emperor, A.D. 270-275, 
was born about A.D. 212, at Sirmium, in Pan- 
nonia. He entered the army as a common sol- 
dier, and by his extraordinary bravery was rais- 
ed to offices of trust and honor by Valerian and 
Claudius II On the death of the latter, he was 
elected emperor by the legions at Sirmium. His 
reign presents a succession of brilliant exploits, 
which restored for a while their ancient lustre 
to the arms. of Rome. He first defeated the 
Goths and Vandals, who had crossed the Dan- 
ube, and were ravaging Pannonia. He next 
gained a great victory over the Alemauni and 
other German tribes: but they succeeded, not- 
withstanding, in crossing the Alps. Near Pla- 
eentia they defeated the Romans, but were 
eventually overcome by Aurelian in two deci- 
sive engagements in Umbria. After crushing 
a formidable conspiracy at Rome, Aurelian next 
turned his arms against Zenobia, queen of Pal- 
myra, whom he defeated, took prisoner, and 
carried with him to Rome. Vid. Zenobia. On 
his return he marched to Alexandrea and put 
Finnus to death, who had assumed the title of 
emperor. He then proceeded to the West, 
where Gaul, Britain, and Spain were still in the 
hands of Tetrieus, who had been declared em- 
peror a short time before the death of Gallienus. 
Tetrieus surrendered to Aurelian in a battle 
fought near Chalons. Vid, Tetricus. The em- 
peror now devoted his attention to domestic im- 
provements and reforms. Many works of public 
utility were commenced : the most important 
of all was the erection of a new line of strongly 
fortified walls, embracing a much more ample 
circuit than the old ones, which had long since 
fallen into ruin ; but this va3t plan was not 



completed until the reign of Probus. After a 
short residence in the city, Aurelian visited the 
provinces on the Danube. He now entirely 
abandoned Dacia, which had been first con- 
quered by Trajan, and made the southern bank 
of the Danube, as in the time of Augustus, the 
boundary of the empire. A large force was now 
collected in Thrace in preparation for an expe- 
dition against the Persians ; but while the em- 
peror was on the march between Heraclea and 
Byzantium, he was killed by some of his officers. 
They had been induced to conspire against him 
by a certain Mnestheus, the freedman of the em 
peror and his private secretary, who had betray 
ed his trust, and, fearful of punishment, had, by 
means of forged documents, organized the con- 
spiracy. 

Aurelianus, CjElius or Cojlius, a very cel- 
ebrated Latin physician, was a native of Nu- 
midia, and probably lived iu the fourth century 
after Christ. Of his writings we possess three 
books On Acute Diseases, " Celerum Passionum" 
(or " De Morbis Acutis"), and five books On 
Chronic Diseases, " Tardarum Passionum" (or 
" De Morbis Chronicis"). Edited by Amman, 
Amstel., 1709. 

Aurelius Antoninus, M., Roman emperor, 
A.D. 161-180, commonly called "the philoso- 
pher," was born at Rome on the 20th of April, 
A.D. 121. He was adopted by Antoninus Pius 
immediately after the latter had been himself 
adopted by Hadrian, received the title of Cajsar, 
and married Faustiua, the daughter of Piua 
(138). On the death of the latter in 161, he 
suceeeded to the throne, but he admitted to an 
equal share of the sovereign power L. Ceionius 
Commodus, who had been adopted by Pius at 
the same time as Marcus himself. The two 
emperors henceforward bore respectively the 
names of M. Aurelius Antoninus and L. Aure- 
lius Verus. Soon after their accession Verus 
was dispatched to the East, and for four years 
(A.D. 162-165) carried on war with great suc- 
cess against Vologeses III., king of Parthia, 
over whom his lieutenants, especially Avidius 
Cassius, gained many victories. At the con- 
clusion of the war both emperors triumphed, 
and assumed the titles of Armeniacus, Parthicus 
Maximus, and Medicus. Meantime Italy was 
threatened by the numerous tribes dwelling 
along the northern limits of the empire, from 
the sources of the Danube to the Illyrian border. 
Both emperors set out to encounter the foe ; 
and the contest with the northern nations was 
continued with varying success during the 
whole life of M. Aurelius. whose head-quarters 
were generally fixed in Pannonia. After the 
death of Verus in 169, Aurelius prosecuted the 
war against the Marcomanni with great suc- 
cess, and in consequence of his victories over 
them, he assumed in 172 the title of Germani- 
cus, which he also conferred upon his son Com- 
modus. In 174 he gained a decisive victory 
over the Quadi, mainly through a violent storm, 
which threw the barbarians into confusion. 
This storm is said to have been owing to the 
prayers of a legion chiefly composed of Chris- 
tians. It has given rise to a famous contro- 
versy among the historians of Christianity upon 
what is commonly termed the Miracle of the 
Thundering Legion. The Marcomanni and th« 
131 



AURELIUS VICTOR. 



AUTOLYOTJS. 



other northern barbarians concluded a peace 
with Aurelius in 175, who forthwith set out for 
the East, where Avidius Cassius, urged on by 
■Faustina, the unworthy wife of Aurelius, had 
risen in rebellion and proclaimed himself em- 
peror. But before Aurelius reached the East, 
Cassius had been slain by his own officers. On 
his arrival in the East, Aurelius acted with the 
greatest clemency ; none of the accomplices of 
Cassius were put to death; and to establish 
perfect confidence in all, he ordered the papers 
of Cassius to be destroyed without suffering 
them to be read. During this expedition, Faus- 
tina, who had accompanied her husband, died, 
according to some, by her own hands. Aure- 
lius returned to Rome toward the end of 176 ; 
but iu 178 he set out again for Germany, where 
the Mareomanni and their confederates had 
again renewed the war. He gained several 
victories over them, but died, in the middle of 
the war, on March 17th, 180, in Pannonia, either 
at Vindobona (now Vienna) or at Sirmium, in 
the fifty-ninth year of his age and twentieth of 
his reign. The leading feature in the charac- 
ter of M. Aurelius was his devotion to philoso- 
phy and literature. When only twelve years 
old, he adopted the dress and practiced the aus- 
terities of the Stoics, and he continued through- 
out his life a warm adherent and a bright orna- 
ment of the Stoic philosophy. We still possess 
a work by M. Aurelius, written in the Greek 
language, and entitled Ta etc kavr'ov, or Medita- 
tions, in twelve books. It is a sort of common- 
place book, in which were registered from time 
to time the thoughts and feelings of the author 
upon moral and religious topics, without an at- 
tempt at order or arrangement. No remains of 
antiquity present a nobler view of philosophical 
heathenism. The best edition of the Meditations 
is by Gataker, Cantab., 1652, and Lond., 1697. 
The chief, and perhaps the only stain upon the 
memory of Aurelius is his two persecutions of 
the Christians; in the former of which, 166, the 
martyrdom of Polycarp occurred, and in the lat- 
ter, 177, that of Irenaaus. Aurelius was succeed- 
ed by his son Commodus. 

Aurelius Victor. Vid. Victor. 

Aureolus, one of the Thirty Tyrants (A.D. 
260-267), who assumed the title of Augustus du- 
ring the feeble rule of Gallienus. Aureolus was 
proclaimed emperor by the legions of Illyria in 
267, and made himself master of Northern Italy, 
but he was defeated and slain in battle in 268, 
by Claudius II., the successor of Gallienus. 

[Aurinia, a prophetess, held in great venera- 
tion by the Germans, spoken of in connection 
with Veleda by Tacitus. ] 

Aurora. Vid. Eos. 

Auruncl Vid. Italia. 

AURUNCUXEIUS COTTA. Vid. CoTTA. 

Ausa. Vid. Ausetani. 

[Ausar (Avoap, now Serchio), a river of Etru- 
ria, which anciently joined the Amus; but at 
present they both flow into the sea by different 
channels.] 

Ausci or Auscn, a powerful people in Aquita- 
nia who possessed the Latin franchise ; their cap- 
ital was called Climberrum or Elimberrum, also 
Augusta and Ausci (now Auch). 

Ausetani, a Spanish peop'le in the modern 
Catalonia : their capital was Ausa (now Vique). 
132 



Auson (kvauv), son of Ulysses and Calypso or 
Circe, from whom the country of the Auruncans 
was believed to have been called Ausonia. 

Ausones, Ausonia. Vid. Italia. 

Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, a Roman poet, 
born at Burdigala (now Bourdeaux), about A.D 
310, taught grammar and rhetoric with such 
reputation at his native town that he was ap- 
pointed tutor of Gratian, son of the Emperor 
Valentinian, and was afterward raised to the 
highest honors of the state. He was appointed 
by Gratian prEefectus of Latium, of Libya, and 
of Gaul, and in 379 was elevated to the consul- 
ship. After the death of Gratian in 383, he 
retired from public life, and ended his days in a 
country retreat near Bourdeaux, perhaps about 
390. It is most probable that he was a Chris- 
tian and not a heathen. His extant works are, 
1. Epigrammatum Liber, a collection of one 
hundred and fifty epigrams. — 2. Ephemeris, con- 
taining an account of the business and proceed- 
ings of a day. — 3 Parentalia, a series of short 
poems, dedicated to the memory of deceased 
friends and relations, and commemorating theii 
virtues. — 4. Professores, notices of the Profes- 
sors of Bordeaux. — 5. Epitaphia Herown, epi- 
taphs on the heroes who fell in the Trojan war 
and a few others. — 6. A metrical catalogue of 
the first twelve Csesars. — 7. Tetrasticha, on the 
Cffisars from Julius to Elagabalus. — 8. Clara 
Urbes, the praises of fourteen illustrious cities. 
— 9. Ludus Septem Sapientum, the doctrines of 
the seven sages expounded by each in his own 
person. — 10. Idyllia, a collection of twenty 
poems. — 11. Eclogarium, short poems connected 
with the Calendar, Ac. — 12. Epistolaz, twenty- 
five letters, some in verse and some in prose. — 
13. Gratiarum Actio pro Consulatu, in prose, ad- 
dressed to Gratian. — 14. Periochce, short argu-" 
ments to each book of the Iliad and Odyssey. — 
15. Tres Prazfatiunculm. Of these works the 
Idyls have attracted most notice, and of them the 
most pleasing is the Mosella, or a description of 
the River Moselle. Ausonius possesses skill in 
versification, but is destitute of all the higher at- 
tributes of a poet. The best edition of his com- 
plete works is by Tollius, Amstel., 1671. 

Auster, called Notus (Notjc) by the Greeks, 
the south wind, or strictly the southwest wind, is 
personified as the god of the south wind, son of 
Astrseus and Eos (Aurora). It frequently brought 
with it fogs and rain ; but at certain seasons of 
the year it was a dry, sultry wind (hence called 
plumbeus Auster, Hor., Sat., ii., 6, 18), injurious 
both to man and to vegetation, the Sirocco of the 
modern Italians. 

Autariam: (Avrapiurai), an Iltyrian people 
in the Dalmatian mountains, extinct in Strabo'a 
time. 

Autesiodorum, -urum (now Auzerre), a town 
of the Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Autesion (AvTeotcov), son of Tisamenus, fathei 
of Theras and Argia, left Thebes at the command 
of an oracle, and joined the Dorians in Pelopon- 
nesus. 

Autochthones (avroxdovec). Vid. Aborigi- 
nes. 

Autololes, or -m (AvToZohai) a Gietulian tribe 
on the western coast of Africa, south of the Atlas 
Mountains. 

Autolycus (Avto^vkoc). 1. Son of Mercury 



AUTOMALA. 



AVIENUS, RUFUS. 



(Hermes) and Chione, father of Anticlea, arid 
thus maternal grandfather of Ulysses. He lived 
on Mount Parnassus, and "was renowned for his 
cunning and robberies. Ulysses, when staying 
with him on one occasion, was wounded by a 
boar on Parnassus, and it was by the scar of 
this wound that he was recognized by his aged 
nurse when he returned from Troy. — 2. A Thes- 
saliar, son of Deimachus, one of the Argonauts, 
and the founder of Sinope. — 3. A mathematician 
of Pitane in jEolis, lived about B.C. 340, and 
wrote two astronomical treatises, which are the 
most ancient existing specimens of the Greek 
mathematics. — 1. On the Motion of the Sphere 
(irepl KLvov/iivnc afaipac.). — 2. On the risings and 
settings of the fixed stars (jrepl etutoXuv nal 
dvaeuv). Edited by Dasypodius in his Sphceri- 
eos Doctrince Propositiones, Argent, 1572. 

Automala (rd. AvTO[ia?M), a fortified place on 
the Great Syrtis in Northern Africa. 

Automedon (Avrofieduv). 1. Son of Diores, 
the charioteer and companion of Achilles, and, 
after the death of the latter, the companion of 
his son Pyrrhus. Hence Automedon is the 
name of any skillful charioteer. ( Cic, pro Rose. 
Am^ 35 ; Juv., i., 61.) — 2. Of Cyzicus, a Greek 
poet, twelve of whose epigrams are in the Greek 
Anthology, lived in the reign of Nerva, A.D. 
96-98.^ 

Automoli (Avto/ioXoi), as a proper name, was 
applied to the Egyptian soldiers, who were said 
to have deserted from Psammetichus into jEthi- 
opia, where they founded the kingdom of Meroe. 

Autonoe (Avtovot;). 1. Daughter of Cadmus 
and Harmonia, wife of Aristasus, and mother 
of Actseon. With her sister Agave, she tore 
Pentheus to pieces in their Bacchic fury: her 
tomb was shown in the territory of Megara. — 
[2. A handmaid of Penelope, mentioned in the 
Odyssey.] 

Autrigones, a people in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, between the ocean (Bay of Biscay) and 
the upper course of the Iberus : their chief town 
was Flaviobriga. 

Autronius P^etus. Vid. Plains. 

Auxesia (Av£nma), the goddess who grants 
growth and prosperity to the fields, honored at 
Troezen and Epidaurus, was another name for 
Proserpina (Persephone). Damia, who was 
honored along with Auxesia at Epidaurus and 
Troszen, was only another name for Ceres (De- 
meter.) 

Auximum (Auximas, -atis : now Osimo), an 
important town of Picenum in Italy, and a Ro- 
man colony. 

Auxume or Ax- (Av£ovfai or 'A£<jp.n, and other 
forms : Av^ovfilrai or 'Ai.up.lrai, &o. : now Ax- 
um, ruins southwest of Adowa), the capital of a 
powerful" kingdom in ^Ethiopia, to the southwest 
of Meroe, in Habesh or Abyssinia, which either 
first arose or first became known to the Greeks 
and Romans in the early part of the second cen- 
tury of our era. It grew upon the decline of 
the kingdon of Meroe, and extended beyond the 
Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb into Arabia. Being a 
mountainous region, watered by the numerous 
upper streams of the Astaboras and Astapus, 
and intersected by the caravan routes from the 
interior of Africa to the Red Sea and the Gulf 
of Bab-el-Mandeb, the country possessed great 
internal resources and a flourishing commerce. 



Auzea, or -ia, or Audia (now Sur-Gudan oi 
Hamza, ruins), a city in the interior of Maure 
tania Ca?sariensis ; a Roman colony under Mar- 
cus Aurelius Antoninus. 

Avalites {MjaXirris : now Zeilah), an empo- 
rium in Southern ^Ethiopia, on a bay of the 
Erythraean Sea, called Avalites Sinus ('A. koA- 
7roc), probably the Gulf of Bab-el-Mandeb, or its 
innermost part, south of the Straits. A people, 
Avalltaa, are also mentioned in these parts. 

AvARicuM. Vid. Bitcriges. 

Avella. Vid. Abeixa. 

Avenio (now Avignon), a town of the Cavares, 
in Gallia Narbonensis, on the left bank of the 
Rhone. 

Aventicum (now Avenches), the chief town of ' 
the Helvetii, and subsequently a Roman colony 
with the name Pia Mavia Constans Emerita, of 
which ruins are still to be seen in the modem 
town. 

Aventinensis, Genucius. 1. L., consul B.C. 
365, and again 362, was killed in battle against 
the Hernicans in the latter of these years, and 
his army routed. — 2. Cn., consul 363. 

Aventinus, son of Hercules and the priestess 
Rhea. 

Aventinus Mons. Vid. Roma. 

Avernus Lacus (tj "Aopvog Xiuvn: now Lago 
Averno), a lake close to the promontory which 
runs out into the sea between Cumae and Pu 
teoli. This lake fills the crater of an extinct 
volcano : it is circular, about one and a half 
miles in circumference, is very deep, and is sur- 
rounded by high banks, which in antiquity were 
covered by a gloomy forest sacred to Hecate. 
From its waters mephitic vapors arose, which 
are said to have killed the birds that attempted 
to fly over it, from which circumstance its 
Greek name was supposed to be derived (from 
a, priv., and opvtc). The lake was celebrated 
in mythology on account of its connection with 
the lower world. On its banks dwelt the Cim- 
merians in constant darkness, and near it was 
the cave of the Cumaean Sibyl, through which 
JSneas descended to the lower world. Agrippa, 
in the time of Augustus, cut down the forest 
which surrounded the lake, and connected the 
latter with the Lucrine Lake ; he also caused 
a tunnel to be made from the lake to Cumas, of 
which a considerable part remains, and is known 
under the title of Grotta di Sibylla. The Lu 
crine Lake was filled up by an eruption in 1530, 
so that Avernus is again a separate lake. 

Avianus, Flavius, the author of forty-two 
jEsopic fables in Latin elegiac verse, which are 
of very little merit both as respects the matter 
and the style. The date of Avianus is uncer- 
tain; he probably lived in the third or fourth 
century of the Christian era. — Editions: By 
Cannegieter, Amstel., 1731 ; by Nodell, Amstel., 
1787 ; and by Lachmann, Berol., 1845. 

[Avidius Cassius. Vid. Cassius.] 

Avienus, Rutus Festus, a Latin poet toward 
the end of the fourth century of the Christian 
era. His poems are chiefly descriptive, and are 
some of the best specimens of the poetry of 
that age. His works are, 1. Deseriptio Orbis 
Terrce, also called Metaphrasis Periegeseos Bio- 
nysii, in 1394 hexameter lines, derived directly 
from the nepiyyijaic of Dionysius, and containing 
a succinct account of the most remarkable ob 
133 



AVIONES. 



BABYLON. 



jects in the physical and political geography of 
the known world. — 2. Ora Maritima, a fragment 
in 703 iambic trimeters, describing the shores 
of the Mediterranean from Marseilles to Cadiz. 
— 3. Aratea Phenomena and Aratea Prognostica, 
both in hexameter verse, the first containing 
1325, the second 552 lines, being a paraphrase 
of the two works of Aratus. The poems are 
edited by Wernsdorf, in his Poetce Latini Mino- 
res, vol. v., pt. iL, which, however, does not in- 
clude the Aratea : [reprinted, with the addition 
of the Aratea, by Lemaire, in the fifth volume of 
his Poetoe Latini Minores, Paris, 1824-26.] 

Aviones, a people in the north of Germany, 
whose position is uncertain. 

Avitus, Alphius, a Latin poet under Augustus 
aud Tiberius, the fragments of some of whose 
poems are preserved in the Anthologia Latina. 

Avitus, Cluentius. Vid. Cluentius. 

Avitus, M. M^ecilius, Emperor of the "West, 
was raised to the throne by the assistance of 
Theodoric II., king of the Visigoths, in A.D. 
455 ; but, after a year's reign, was deposed by 
Rieimer. 

[Axantos, another name of TJxantis (now 
Ouessant), on the northwestern coast of Gallia.] 

[AxellSdunum (now Brugh ?), a castle of the 
Brigantes in Britannia.] 

AxENUS. Vid. EUXINUS PONTDS. 

Axia (now Castell d'Asso), a fortress in the 
territory of Tarquinii in Etruria. 

Axion ('Aljtov), son of Phegeus, brother of 
Temenus, along with whom he killed Alcmseon. 

[AxionIcus ('Atjiovucoc), an Athenian poet of 
the middle comedy, of whose plays only a few 
fragments have been preserved in Athenaaus : 
these are published collectively in Meineke's 
Fragmenta Comic. Grcsc, vol. ii., p. 769-72, edit, 
minor.] 

Axiothea ('ASjiodsa), a maiden of Phlius, who 
came to Athens, and, putting on male attire, was 
for some time a hearer of Plato, and afterward 
of Speusippus. 

Axius, Q., an intimate friend of Cicero and 
Varro, one of the speakers in the third book of 
Varro's De Re Rustica. 

Axius ("Afioc : now Wardar or Vardhari), the 
chief river in 'Macedonia, rises in Mount Sear- 
dus, receives many affluents, of which the most 
important is the Erigon, and flows southeast 
through Macedonia into the Thermaic Gulf. As 
a river-god, Axius begot by Peribcea a son, Pel- 
agon, the father of Asterop^eus. 

Axona (now Aisne), a river in Gallia Belgica. 
which falls into the Isara (now Oise). 

AxBme. Vid. Auxume. 

[Axus ('A£6f), capital of a small kingdom in 
Crete.] 

[Axylus ("AljvXoc), a Thraeian prince, men- 
tioned in the Iliad, son of Teuthranus, slain by 
Uiomedes.] 

Azan ('A&v), son of Areas and the nymph 
Erato, brother of Aphidas and Elatus. The part 
of Arcadia which he received from his father 
was called Azania : it was on the borders of 
Elis. 

Azani ('A&vol : 'A^avtrrjc), a town of Phrygia, 
on the River Rhyndacus, and twenty miles south- 
west of Cotyaeium (now Kiutayah). The ruins of 
eolumns, capitals, and other architectural frag- 
ments are scattered over the ground. There 
134 



are also the remains of a splendid temple and 
of a theatre. This ancient site was discovered 
by Mr. Keppel. 

Azania or Barbaria ('A^avia, Bap6apia : now 
Ajan), the region on the eastern coast of Afri- 
ca, south of Aromata Promontorium (now Cape 
Ccuardafui), as far as Rhaptum Promontorium 
(now Cape Formosa ?). 

Azenia ('A&vta : 'A&vtevc), a demus in the 
southwest of Attica, near Sunium, belonging to 
the tribe Hippothoontis. 

Azeus ('A&vc), son of Clymenus of Orchome- 
nos, brother of Erginus, Stratius, Arrhon, and 
Pyleus, father of Actor and grandfather of As- 
tyoehe. 

[Aziris ("A£ipig in Hdt., or 'A££/Uc in Call. : 
now Temmineh), a city of Marmarica in Africa, 
opposite to the island of Platea, and founded by 
the Theraeans.] 

Azorus or Azorium {"A&poc, 'A&pwv : 'Afu- 
p'lTTjc, 'AfepiuTTjc, 'Afopeuf), a town in the north 
of Thessaly, on the western slope of Olympus, 
formed, with Doliche and Pythium, the Perrhse- 
bian Tripolis. 

Azotus ("Afurof : 'A&rioc : now AsJidod or 
Ashdoud), a city of Palestine, near the sea-coast, 
nine miles northeast of Asealon. It was one 
of the free cities of the Philistines, which were 
included within the portion of the tribe of Judah. 

B. 

Babrius (Bu6pto(), a Greek poet, probably in 
the time of Augustus, turned the fables of _<Esop 
into verse, of which only a few fragments were 
known till within the last few years, when a 
manuscript containing one hundred and twenty- 
three fables was discovered on Mount Athos. 
Edited by Lachmann, Berol., 1845; by Orelli 
and Baiter, Turic,, 1845 : by Lewis, Lond., 1847. 

Babylon (Ba6v%6v : Ba6vX6vwc, fern. BaOv- 
"kuvlc : Babel in Old Testament : ruins at and 
around Hillah), one of the oldest and greatest 
cities of the ancient world, the capital of a great 
empire, was built on both sides of the River 
Euphrates, in about 32° 28' north latitude. Its 
foundation, and the establishment of a kingdom 
by Nimrod, with the city for a capital, are 
among the first recorded facts subsequent to 
the Deluge (Gen., x., 9, 10; xi., 1-10). Secu- 
lar history ascribes its origin to Belus (i. e., 
the god Baal), and its enlargement and decora- 
tion to Ninus, or his wife Semiramis ; or, accord 
ing to another tradition, the country was sub- 
dued by Ninus, and the city was subsequently 
built by Serniramis, who made it the capital of 
the Assyrian empire. At all events, it is pretty 
clear that Babylon was subject to the Assyr- 
ian kings of Nineveh from a very early period ; 
and the time at which the governors of Babylon 
first succeeded in making themselves virtually 
independent, can not be determined with any 
certainty until we know more of the history 
of the early Assyrian dynasties. Compare Na- 
bonassar. The Babylonian empire begins with 
the reign of Nabopolassar, the father of Nebu 
chadnezzar, who, with the aid of the Median 
king Cyaxares, overthrew the Assyrian mon- 
archy, and destroyed Nineveh (B.C. 606), and 
soon afterward defended his kingdom against 
the aggressions (at first successful) of Necho 



BABYLON". 



BAUCHIADjE. 



king of Egypt, in the battle of Circesium, B.C. 
604. Under his son and successor, Nebuchad- 
nezzar (B.C. 604-562), the Babylonian empire 
reached its height, and extended from the Eu- 
phrates to Egypt, and from the mountains of 
Armenia to the deserts of Arabia. After his 
death it again declined, until it was overthrown 
by the capture of Babylon by the Medes and 
Persians under Cyrus (B.C. 538), who made the 
city one of the capitals of the Persian empire, 
the others being Susa and Ecbatana. Under 
his successors the city rapidly sank. Darius I. 
dismantled its fortifications, in consequence of a 
revolt of its inhabitants ; Xerxes carried off 
the golden statue of Belus, and the temple in 
which it stood became a ruin. After the death 
of Alexander, Babylon became a part of the 
Syrian kingdom of Seleucus Nicator, who con- 
tributed to its decline by the fou^lation of Se- 
ledcta on the Tigris, which soon eclipsed it. 
At the commencement of our era, the greater 
part of the city was in ruins ; and at the pres- 
ent day, all its visible remains consist of mounds 
of earth, ruined masses of brick walls, and a 
few scattered fragments. Its very site has 
been turned into a dreary marsh by repeated in- 
undations from the river. The city of Babylon 
had reached the summit of its magnificence in 
the reign of Nebuchadnezzar. It formed a 
square, each side of which was one hundred 
and twenty stadia (twelve geographical miles) 
in length. The walls, of burned brick, were 
two hundred cubits high and fifty thick ; in 
them were two hundred and fifty towers and 
sixty bronze gates ; and they were surrounded 
by a deep ditch. The Euphrates, which divided 
the city into two equal parts, was embanked 
with walls of brick, the openings of which, at 
the ends of the transverse streets, were closed by 
gates of bronze. A bridge, built on piers of 
hewn stone, united the two quarters of the city ; 
and at each end of it stood a royal palace : these 
erections were ascribed to Semiramis. Of two 
other public buildings of the greatest celebrity, 
the one was the temple of Belus, rising to a 
great height, and consisting of eight stories, 
gradually diminishing in width, and ascended by 
a flight of steps, which wound round the whole 
building on the outside ; in the uppermost story 
was the golden statue of Belus, with a golden 
altar and other treasures : this building also 
was ascribed to Semiramis. The other edifice 
referred to was the " hanging gardens" of 
Nebuchadnezzar, laid out upon terraces which 
were raised above one another on arches. The 
houses of the city were three or four stoi-ies in 
height, and the streets were straight, intersect- 
ing one another at right angles. The buildings 
were almost universally constructed of bricks, 
some burned, and some only sun-dried, cemented 
together with hot bitumen, and in some cases 
with mortar. The Babylonians were certainly a 
Semitic race ; but the ruling class, to which the 
kings, and priests, and the men of learning be- 
longed, were the Chaldaeans, whose origin and 
affinities are somewhat doubtful; the most 
probable opinion, however, is that they were a 
tribe of invaders, who descended from the 
mountains on the borders of Armenia, and con- 
quered the Babylonians. The religion of the 
Chaldeeans was Sabaism, or the worship of the 



heavenly bodies, not purely so, but symbolized 
in the forms of idols, besides whom they had 
other divinities, representing the powers of na 
ture. The priests formed a caste, and culti- 
vated science, especially astronomy ; in which 
they knew the apparent motions of the sun, 
moon, and five of the planets, the calculation of 
eclipses of the moon, the division of the zodiac 
into twelve constellations, and of the year into 
twelve months, and the measurement of time by 
the sun-dial. They must also have had other in- 
struments for measuring time, such as the water- 
clock, for instance ; and it is highly probable 
that the definite methods of determining such 
quantities, which the Chaldsean astronomers in- 
vented, were the origiu of the systems of 
weights and measures used by the Greeks and 
Romans. Their buildings prove their knowledge 
of mechauics ; and their remains, slight as they 
are, show considerable progress in the fine arts. 
The Babylonian government was an unlimited 
monarchy ; the king appears to have lived in 
almost total seclusion from his people, sur- 
rounded by his court ; and the provinces were 
administered by governors, like the Persian sa- 
traps, responsible only to the monarch, whose 
commands they obeyed or defied according to 
his strength or weakness. The position of the 
city on the lower course of the Euphrates, by 
which it was connected with the Persian Gulf, 
and at the meeting of natural routes between 
Eastern Asia and India on the one side, and 
Europe, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Arabia 
on the other, made it the seat of a flourish- 
ing commerce, and of immense wealth and lux- 
ury. The district around the city, bounded by 
the Tigris on the east, Mesopotamia on the 
north, the Arabian Desert ou the west, and ex 
tending to the head of the Persian Gulf on the 
south, was known in later times by the name of 
Babylonia (now Irak Arabi), sometimes also 
called Chaldffia. But compare Chald^ea. This 
district was a plain, subject to continual inunda- 
tions from the Tigris and Euphrates, which 
were regulated by canals, the chief of which 
was the Naarmalcha, i. e., Royal River or Canal 
{noTafibc Paai7.Ei.oc, dicjpvl; /3aoi?aK?j, flumen re- 
gium), which extended from the Tigris at Se- 
leucia due west to the Euphrates, aud was navi- 
gable. The country was fertile, but deficient 
in trees. 

Babylon (Ba6v?.uv : near Fostat or Old Cairo), 
a fortress in Lower Egypt, on the right bank of 
the Nile, exactly opposite to the pyramids, and 
at the beginning of the canal which connected 
the Nile with the Red Sea. Its origin was as- 
cribed by tradition to a body of Babylonian de- 
serters. It first became an important place 
under the Romans. Augustus made it the sta- 
tion of one of the three Egyptian legions. 

Babylonia. Vid. Babylon. 

Bacch^e (BaKxai), also called Mcenades and 
Thyiades. 1. The female companions of Diony- 
sus or Bacchus in his wanderings through the 
East, are represented as crowned with vine 
leaves, clothed with fawn skins, and carrying in 
their hands the thyrsus {vid. Diet, of Ant, s. v.). 
— 2. Priestesses of Bacchus (Dionysus), who, by 
wine and other exciting causes, worked them- 
selves up to phrensy at the Diouysiac festivals. 

BacchiaD/E {Ban^tudai), an Heraelid clan, de- 
1 35 



BACCHIUM. 



BAGOAS. 



rived their names from Bacehis, king of Corinth, 
and retained the supreme rule in that state, first 
under a monarchical form of government, and 
next as a close oligarchy, till their deposition by 
Cypselus, about B.C. 657. They were, for the 
most part, driven into banishment, and are said 
to have taken refuge in different parts of Greece 
and even Italy. 

[BacchIum (Banxtiov), an island in the iEgean 
Sea, lying before the harbor of the city PhocEea, 
beautifully adorned with temples and works of 
art, which were destroyed by the Romans under 
^Emilius, B.C. 190.] 

Bacchtus (BaKxelog). 1. The author of a short 
musical treatise called ricayuy?) rexvi/s uovaucys, 
printed by Meibomius, in the Antigua? Musical 
Auctores Septem, Amst., 1652. — 2. Of Tanagrain 
Boeotia, one of the earliest commentators on the 
writings of Hippocrates : his writings have per- 
ished. — 3. Of Miletus, the author of a work on 
agriculture. 

Bacchus. Vid. Dionysus. 

Bacchylides (BaKxvMSnc), one of the great ly- 
ric poets of Greece, born at Iulis in Ceos, and ne- 
phew as well as fellow-townsman of Simonides. 
He flourished about B.C. 470, and lived a long 
time at the court of Hiero in Syracuse, together 
with Simonides and Pindar. He wrote in the 
Doric dialect Hymns, Pceans, Dithyrambs, &o. ; 
but all his poems have perished, with the ex- 
ception of a few fragments, and two epigrams in 
the Greek Antho'ogy. The fragments have 
been published by jSeue, Bacchylidis Cei Frag- 
menta, Berol, 1623, and by Bergk, Poetce Lyrici 
Grceci, p. 820. 

Bacenis Silva, a forest which separated the 
Suevi from the Cherusci, probably the western 
part of the Thuringian Forest. 

Bacis (Bukic), the name of several prophets, 
of whom the most celebrated was the Boeotian 
seer, who delivered his oracles in hexameter 
verse at Heleon in Boeotia. In later times there 
existed a collection of his oracles, similar to the 
Sibylline books at Rome. 

Bactra or Zariaspa (tu BuKrpa, rd. Zapiao-a 
and Tj Zapidonr] : now Balkh), the capital of 
Bactria, appears to have been founded by the 
early Persian kings, but not to have been a con- 
siderable city till the time of Alexander, who 
settled in it his Greek mercenaries and his dis- 
abled Macedonian soldiers. It stood at the 
northern foot of the Mount Paropamisus (the 
Hindoo Koosh), on the River Bactrus (now Adir- 
siah or Delias), about twenty-five miles south of 
its junction with the Oxus. It was the centre of 
a considerable traffic. The existing ruins, twenty 
miles* in circuit, are all of the Mohammedan 
period. 

Bactria or -iana (Ba/cTpiav?/ : Bdnrpoi, -vol, 
-lavoi : now Bokhara), a province of the Persian 
empire, bounded on the south by Mount Paropa 1 
misus, which separated it from Ariana, on the 
east by the northern branch of the same range, 
which divided it from the Saeae, on the northeast 
by the Oxus, which separated it from Sogdiana, 
and on the west by Margiana. It was inhab- 
ited by a rude and warlike people, who were 
subdued by Cyrus or his next successors. It 
was included in the conquests of Alexander, 
and formed a part of the kingdom of the Seleu- 
cidse until B.C. 255, when Theodotus, its gov- 
136 



ernor, revolted from Antiochus II, and founded 
the Greek kingdom of Bactria, which lasted 
till B.C. 134 or 125, when it was overthrown 
by the Parthians, with whom, during its whole 
duration, its kings were sometimes at war, and 
sometimes in alliance against Syria. This Greek 
kingdom extended beyond the limits of the 
province of Bactria, and included at least a 
part of Sogdiana. Bactria was watered by 
the Oxus and its tributaries, and contained 
much fertile land; and much of the com- 
merce between Western Asia and India passed 
through it. 

[Bactrus (Bdicrpoc), a river of Bactria. Vid. 
Bactria.] 

[Bacuntius (now Bossuth), a river of Lower 
Pannonia, which empties into the Savus near 
Sirmium.] 9 

Baduhenn^ Lucus, a wood in "Western Fries 
land. 

Byebia Gens, plebeian, the most important 
members of which are given under their sur- 
names, Dives, Sulca, Tamphilus. 

B^ecula, a town in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
west of Castulo, in the neighborhood of silver 
mines. 

[BjElon. Vid. Belon.] 

[B^esippo (now Porto Barbato), a harbor on 
Junonis Pi-omontorium, not far from Gades, in 
Hispania Bzetica.] 

BjEterrje (now Beziers) also called Biterren- 
sis urbs, a town in Gallia Narbonensis, on the 
Obris, not far from Narbo, and a Roman colony : 
its neighborhood produced good wine. 

Bsetica. Vid. Hispania. 

Batis (now Guadalquiver), a river in South- 
ern Spain, formerly called Tartessus, aud by the 
inhabitants Certis, rises in Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, in the territory of the Oretani, flows south- 
west through Bsetica, to which it gives its name, 
past the cities of Corbuda and Hispalis, and falls 
into the Atlantic Ocean by two mouths, north of 
Gades. 

[B/Eturia (BaiTovp'ia), the northwestern part 
of Bsetica, between the Anas and Mount Ma- 
rianus.] 

Bagacum (now Bavai), the chief town of the 
Nervii in Gallia Belgica : there are many Roman 
remains in the modern town. 

Bagaud/e, a Gallic people, who revolted under 
Diocletian, and were with difficulty subdued by 
Maximian, A.D. 286. 

[Bagistanus Mons (to Bay'aravov opoc), a 
mountain range in Media, southeast of Eebat- 
ana, and made by the Greeks sacred to Jupi- 
ter : the region around was called Bagistana. 
This mountain is now more correctly termed 
the " sacred rock of Behistun." According to 
the ancients, it had the figure of Semiramis cut 
upon it, with a Syrian inscription ; but Major 
Rawlinson has shown that the inscription on 
the rock was executed by order of Daring Hys- 
taspis.] 

Bagoas (Bayuac), a eunuch, highly trusted 
and favored by Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), whom 
he poisoned B.C. 338. He was put to death by 
Darius III. Codomannus, whom he had attempted 
likewise to poison, 336. The name Bagoas fre 
quently occurs in Persian history, and is some- 
times used by Latin writers as synonymous with 
a eunuch. 



BAGRADAS. 



BARBARI. 



Bagradas {&aypd6ac : now Mejerdah), a river 
of Northern Africa, falling into the Gulf of Car- 
thage near Utica. 

Bale (Baianus), a town in Campania, on a 
small bay west of Naples, and opposite Puteoli, 
was situated in a beautiful country, which 
abounded in warm mineral springs. The baths 
of Baiaa were the most celebrated in Italy, and 
the town itself was the favorite watering-place 
of the Romans, who flocked thither in crowds 
for health and pleasure ; it was distinguished 
by licentiousness and immorality. The whole 
country was studded with the palaces of the 
Roman nobles and emperors, which covered 
the coast from Baias to Puteoli : many of these 
palaces were built out into the sea. (Hor., 
Carm., ii., 18, 20.) The site of ancient Baiae 
is now, for the most part, covered by the sea. 

[Balan^a, (Bakavala : now Banias), a city of 
Syria, on the coast, north of Aradus, by Ste- 
phanus Byzantinus assigned to Phoenicia.] 

[Balbillus, made governor of Egypt by Nero, 
and wrote an account of that province.] 

Balbinus, D. C^elius, was elected emperor 
by the senate along with M. Clodius Pupienus 
Maximus, after the murder of the two Gordians 
in Africa at the beginning of A.D. 238 ; but the 
new emperors were slain by the soldiers at 
Rome in June in the same year. 

Balbus, M'. Acilius, the name of two con- 
suls, one in B.C. 150, and the other in 114. 

Balbus, T. Ampius, tribune of the plebs B.C. 
63, was a supporter of Pompey, whom he join- 
ed in the civil war B.C. 49. He was pardoned 
by Caesar through the intercession of Cicero, 
who wrote to him on the occasion (ad Fam,, 
vi., 12). 

Balbus, M. Atius, of Aricia, married Julia, 
the sister of Julius Caesar, who bore him a 
daughter, Atia, the mother of Augustus Caesai'. 

Balbus, L. Cornelius. 1. Of Gades, served 
under Q. Metellus and Pompey against Serto- 
rius in Spain, and received from Pompey the 
Roman citizenship^ He accompanied Pompey 
on his return to Rome, B.C. 71, and was for a 
long time one of his most intimate friends. At 
the same time he gained the friendship of Caasar, 
who placed great confidence in him. As the 
friend of Caesar and Pompey, he had numerous 
enemies, who accused him in 56 of having ille- 
gally assumed the Roman citizenship; he was 
defended by Cicero, whose speech has come, 
down to us, and was acquitted. In the civil 
"war, 49, Balbus did not take any open part 
against Pompey ; but he attached himself to 
Caesar, and, in conjunction with Oppius, had 
the entire management of Caesar's affairs at 
Rome. After the death of Caesar (44) he was 
equally successful in gaining the favor of Octa- 
vianus, who raised him to the consulship in 40. 
Balbus wrote a diary (Ephemeris), which has 
not come down to us, of the most remarkable 
occurrences in Caesar's life. He took care that 
Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic war should 
be continued ; and we accordingly find the eighth 
book dedicated to bim. — 2. Nephew of the pre- 
ceding, received the Roman franchise along 
with his uucle. He served under Caesar in the 
civil war ; he was quaestor to Asinius Pollio in 
Further Spain in B.C. 43, and while there add- 
ed to his native town, Gades, a suburb ; many 



years afterward he was proconsul of Africa, and 
triumphed over the Garamantes in 19. He 
built a magnificent theatre at Rome, which was 
dedicated in 13. 

Balbus, Luoilius. 1. L., a jurist, and broth- 
er of the following. — 2. Q., a Stoic philosopher, 
and a pupil of Panaetius, is introduced by Cicero 
as one of the speakers in his Be Natura Beorum. 

Balbus, Octavius, a contemporary of Cicero, 
bore a high character as a judex; he was put 
to death by the triumvirs, B.C. 43. 

Balbus, Sp. Thorius, tribune of the plebs 
about B.C. Ill, proposed an agrarian law. Vid, 
Bid, of Ant., art. Lex Tporia. 

Baleares (BaXeapidec, BaTuapidec), also call 
ed GymnesLe (Tv/ivvaiai) by the Greeks, two 
islands in the Mediterranean, off the coast of 
Spain, distinguished by the epithets Major and 
Minor, whence their modern names Majorca and 
Minorca. They were early known to the Car- 
thaginians, who established settlements there 
for the purposes of trade ; they afterward re- 
ceived colonies from Rhodes ; and their popula- 
tion was at a later time of a very mixed kind. 
Their inhabitants, also called Baleares, were 
celebrated as slingers, and were employed as 
such in the armies of the Carthaginians and 
Romans. Iu consequence of their piracies they 
provoked the hostility of the Romans, and were 
finally subdued, B.C. 123, by Q. Metellus, who 
assumed, accordingly, the surname Balearicus. 

Balista, prefect of the praetorians under Va- 
lerian, whom he accompanied to the East. Aft- 
er the defeat and capture of that emperor (A. 
D. 260), he rallied a body of Roman troops and 
defeated the Persians in Cilicia. His subse- 
quent career is obscure ; he is mentioned as 
one of the thirty tyrants, and was probably put 
to death, about 264, by Odenathus. 

[Balius (BaXtoc), one of the horses of Achil- 
les, offspring of Zephyrus and the harpy Po- 
darge.] 

[Balsa and Balsa Felix (now Taviva), a city 
of Lusitania. 

Bambalio, M. Fulvius, father of Fulvia, the 
wife of M. Antonius, the triumvir, received the 
nickname of Bambalio, on account of a hesitancy 
in his speech. 

BAMBYCJj, Vid. Hierapolis. 

Banasa (now Mamora ? ruins), a city of Mau- 
retania Tingitana, on the River Subur (now 
Sebou), near the western coast: a colony un- 
der Augustus, Valentia Banasa. 
■ BandusIvE Fons (now Bambuco), a fountaiu in 
Apulia, six miles from Venusia. (Hor., Carm., 
iii, 13.) ^ 

Bantia (Bantinus : now Banzi or Vanzi), a 
town in Apulia, near Venusia, in a woody dis- 
trict (sallus Bantini, Hor. Carm., iii., 4, 15) : 
[near this place Marcellus fell a victim to the 
well-laid plans of Hannibal.] 

[Baphyras (Ba<pvpac), a river of Pieria, in 
Macedonia, empties into the Thermaic Gulf] 

Barbana (now Bojana), a river in Ulyria, 
flows through the Palus Labeatis. 

Barbari (Bupdapoi), the name given by the 
Greeks to all foreigners whose language was 
not Greek, and who were therefore regarded by 
the Greeks as an inferior race. The Romans 
applied the name to all people who spoke neither 
Greek nor Latin. 

137 



BARB ARIA. 



BASSUS. 



Barbaria. Vid. Azania. 

[Barbarium Promontorium (no^\ Cabo de Es- 
pic/iel), a promontory of Lusitania, just below 
the mouth of the Tagus.] 

Barbatio, commander of the household troops 
under Gallus, whom he arrested by command of 
Constantius, A.D. 354. In 355 he was made 
general of the infantry, and sent into Gaul to 
assist Julian against the Alemanni. He was 
put to death by Constantius in 359. 

Barbatds, M. Horatius, consul B.C. 449 with 
Valerius Publicola after the overthrow of the 
decemvirs. Vid. Publicola. 

Barlesula, a city and river (now Guadiaro) 
in Hispania Bsetica, on the coast, north of Calpe ] 

Barbosthenes, a mountain east of Sparta. 

Barbula, ^Ehilius. 1. Q., consul B.C. 311, 
when he subdued Apulia, and consul again in 
311, when he fought against the Etruscans. — 2. 
L., consul in 281, carried on war against the Ta- 
rentiues, Samnites, and Sallentines. — 3. M., consul 
in 230, carried on war against the Ligurians. 

Baroa, the surname of Hamilcar, the father 
of Hannibal, is probably the same as the Hebrew 
Barak, which signifies lightning. His family 
was distinguished subsequently as the " Barcine 
family," and the democratieal party, which sup- 
ported this family, as the " Barcine party." 

Baroa or -e {BdpKn : BapKirnc, Bapnaioc, Bar- 
caeus). 1. (Now Merjeh, ruins), the second city 
of Cyrenaica, in northern Africa, one hundred 
stadia (ten geographical miles) from the sea, 
appears to have been at first a settlement of a 
Libyan tribe, the Bareasi, but about B.C. 560 
was colonized by the Greek seeeders from Cy- 
rene, and became so powerful as to make the 
western part of Cyrenaica virtually independent 
of the mother city. In B.C. 510 it was taken 
by the Persians, who removed most of its inhab- 
itants to Bactria, and under the Ptolemies its 
ruin was completed by the erection of its port 
into a new city, which was named Ptolemais, 
and which took the place of Barca as one of the 
cities of the Cyrena'ic Peutanolis. — 2. A town in 
Bactria, peopled by the removed inhabitants of 
the Cyrenaic Barca. 

Barcino (now Barcelona), a town of the Lale- 
tani, in Hispania Tarraconensis, afterward a 
Roman colony : the town was not hirge, but it 
possessed an excellent harbor. 

Bardanes. Vid. Arsaoes XXI. 

Bardylis or Bardyllis {Bdp5vlie, BdpSvX?uc), 
an Illyrian chieftain, carried on frequent wars 
with the Macedonians, but was at length de^ 
leated and slain in battle by Philip, the father 
of Alexander the Great, B.C. 359. 

Barea Soranus, consul suffectus in A.D. 52 
under Claudius, and afterward proconsul of Asia, 
was a man of justice aud integrity. He was 
accused of treason in the reign of Nero and was 
condemed to death, together with his daughter 
Servilia. The chief witness against him was 
P. Egnatius Celer, a Stoic philosopher, and the 
teacher of Soranus. ( Vid. Juv., iii., 116.) 

Bargusii, a people in the northeast of Spain, 
between the Pyrenees and the Iberus. 

[Bargylia or Bargylle (Bapyvfoa, rd ; Bap- 
yvkidrnc, BapyvlinriKoc), a city of Caria, lying 
on the gulf, named from it, Bargylieticus Sinus, 
and named by the Carians Andanus ("Avdavoc) ; 
famed for a statue of Diana.] 
138 



Barium (Barinus : now Bari), a town in A pu- 
lia, on the Adriatic, a municipium, and celebrated 
for its fisheries {Barium piscosum, ~H.o\\ Sat., L, 
5, 97). 

Baesaentes {Bapaaev-ne) or Barzaentus (Bap- 
fuEirof), satrap of the Arachoti and Draugae, 
took part in the murder of Darius III., and after- 
ward fled to India, where he was seized by the 
inhabitants and delivered up to Alexander, who 
put him to death. 

Barsine (BapGivrj). 1. Daughter of Artaba- 
zus, and wife of Memnon the Rhodian, subse- 
quently married Alexander the Great, to whom 
she bore a son, Hercules. She and her son were 
put to death by Polysperchon in 309. — 2. Also 
called Statira, elder daughter of Darius III, 
whom Alexander married at Susa, B.C. 324. 
Shortly after Alexander's death she was mur- 
dered by Roxana. 

[Barygaza (Bapvya^a, now Baroatsch), a city 
of India, on the eastern side of the River 
Nomadus, possessing an active aud extensive 
land and sea trade with Bactria, Arabia, and 
Africa.] 

[Barzaentes (Bap&evTTjc). Vid. Barsaentes,] 

Basanitis. Vid. Batan^ea. 

Basilia (now Basel or Bale), a town on the 
Rhine, in the neighborhood of which Valentiniac 
built a fortress. — [2. An island. Vid. Abalus.] 

Basilina, the mother of Julian the apostate, 
being the second wife of Julius Constantius, bro- 
ther of Constantine the Great. 

Basilius (Baoi?^eioc), commonly called Basil 
the Great, was born A.D. 329, at Caasarea. He 
studied at Antioch or Constantinople under Li- 
banius, and subsequently continued his studies 
for four years (351-355) at Athens, chiefly under 
the sophists Himerius and Proasresius. Among 
his fellow-students were the Emperor Julian 
and Gregory Nazianzen, the latter of whom be- 
came his most intimate friend. After acquiring 
the greatest reputation as a student for his 
knowledge of rhetoric, philosophy, and science, 
he returned to Caasarea, where he began to 
plead causes, but soon abandoned his profes- 
sion and devoted himself to a religious life. He 
now led an ascetic life for many years ; he 
was elected Bishop of Caasarea in 3*70 in place 
of Eusebius; he died in 379. The best edition 
of his works is by Garnier, Paris, 1721-1730, 
3 vols, folio. 

BasIlus, L. Minucius, served under Caesar in 
Gaul, and commanded part of Caesar's fleet in 
the civil war. He was one of Caesar's assassins 
(B.C. 44), and in the following year was mur- 
dered by his own slaves. 

[Bassania, a city of Illyria, not far from Lis- 
sus.] 

Bassareus (BacoapEvc), a surname of Bacchus 
(Dionysus), probably derived from fiaaaapic, a 
fox skin, worn by the god himself aud the 
Masnads in Thrace. 

Bassus, Aufidius, an orator and historian 
under Augustus and Tiberius, wrote an account 
of the Roman wars in Germany, and a work 
upon Roman history of a more general character, 
which was continued in thirty -one books by the 
elder Pliny. 

Bassus, Q. Caecuuus, a Roman eques, aud an 
adherent of Pompey, fled to Tyre after the bat- 
tle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48. Shortly afterward he 



BASSUS, CJ3SIUS. 



BATTIADjE. 



obtained possession of Tyre, and was joined by 
most of tbe troops of Sextus Caesar, the govern- 
or of Syria, who had been killed by his own sol- 
diers at the instigation of Bassus. He subse- 
quently settled down in Apamea, where he main- 
tained himself for three years (46-43) against 
0. Antistius Vetus, and afterward against Sta- 
tius Murcus and Marcius Crispus. On the ar- 
rival of Cassius in Syria in 43, the troops of 
Bassus went :ver to Cassius. 

Bassus, Cjjsius, a Roman lyric poet, and a 
friend of Persius, who addresses his sixth satire 
to him, was destroyed, along with his villa, in 
A.D. 79, by the eruption of Vesuvius which 
overwhelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii. 

Bassus, Saleius, a Roman epic poet of con- 
siderable merit, contemporary with Vespasian. 

Bastarn^e or Basternjs, a warlike German 
people, who migrated to the country near the 
mouth of the Danube. They are first mentioned 
in the wars of Philip and Perseus against the 
Romans, and at a later period they frequently 
devastated Thrace, and were engaged in wars 
with the Roman governors of the province of 
Macedonia. In B.C. 30 they were defeated by 
Marcus Crassus, and driven across the Danube ; 
and we find them, at a later time, partly settled 
between the Tyras (now Dniester) and Borys- 
theues (now Dnieper), and partly at the mouth 
of the Danube, under the name of Peucini, from 
their inhabiting the island of Peuce, at the 
mouth of this river. 

[Basti (now Baza), a city of the Bastitani.] 

Bastixani (also Bastetani, Bastuli), a peo- 
ple in Hispauia Baetica. on the coast. 

[Bata (Bard, tu), a city and port of Sarmatia 
Asiatica. on the Euxiue, opposite Sinope.] 

Batan^sa or Basanitis (Baravala, Baaavlnr : 
in the Old Testament, Bashan, Basan), a district 
of Palestine, east of the Jordan, extending from 
the river Jabbok on the south to Mount Her- 
mon, in the Antilibanus chain, on the north. 
The s and t are mere dialectic varieties. 

Batavi or Batavi (Lucan., i., 431), a Celtic 
people who abandoned their homes in conse- 
quence of civil dissensions before the time of 
Julius Caesar, and settled in the island formed 
by the Rhine, the Waal, and the Maas, which 
island was called after them, Insula Batavorum. 
They were for a long time allies of the Romans 
in their wars against the Germans, and were of 
great service to the former by their excellent 
cavalry ; but at length, exasperated by the op- 
pressions of the Roman officers, they rose in 
revolt under Claudius Civilis in A.D. 69, and 
were with great difficulty subdued. On their 
subjugation they were treated by the Romans 
with mildness, and were exempt from taxation. 
Their country, which also extended beyond the 
island south of the Maas and the "Waal, was 
called at a later time, Batavia. Their chief 
towns were Lugdunum (now Lcyden) and Ba- 
taoodurum (now Wyk-Durstad ?), between the 
Maas and the Waal. The Caninefates or Can- 
ninefates were a branch of the Batavi, and 
dwelt in the west of the island. 
Batavodurum. Vid. Batavi. 
[Batea (Bdrua). 1. A Naiad, mother by Qiba- 
lus of Tyndareus, Hippocoon, and Icarion. — 2. 
Daughter of Teucer, wife of Dardanus, mother 
of Ilus and Erichthonius.] 



BATirycLEs (BadvuXric), a celebrated artist ot 
Magnesia on the Maeander, constructed for the 
Lacedaemonians the colossal throne of the Amy- 
claean Apollo. He probably flourished about the 
time of Solon, or a little later. 

Bathyllus. 1. Of Samos, a beautiful ycuth 
beloved by Anacreon. — 2. Of Alexandrea, the 
freedman and favorite of Maecenas, brought to 
perfection, together with Pylades of Cilicia, the 
imitative dance or ballet called Pantomimus. 
Bathyllus excelled in comic, and Pylades in 
tragic personifications. 

[Bathts Portus (BaBvg Xifiyv), the large deep 
harbor of Aulis, in which the Grecian fleet as- 
sembled before sailing to Troy.] 

Batn^e (Bdrvai : Barvaloc). L (Now Saruj), 
a city of Osroene in Mesopotamia, east of the 
Euphrates, and southwest of Edessa, at about 
equal distances ; founded by the Macedonians, 
and taken by Trajan ; celebrated for its an- 
nual fair of Indian and Syrian merchandise. — 
2. (Now Dahal), a city of Cyrrhestice, in Syria, 
between Bercea and Hierapolis. 

Bato (Butuv). 1. The charioteer of Amphi- 
araus, was swallowed up by the earth along 
with Amphiaraus. — 2. The name of two leaders 
of the Pannonians and Dalmatians in their in- 
surrection of the reign of Augustus, A.D. 6. 
Tiberius and Germanicus were both sent against 
them, and obtained some advantages over them, 
in consequence of which the Pannonians and 
Dalmatians concluded a' peace with the Romans 
in A.D. 8. But the peace was of short dura- 
tion. The Dalmatian Bato put his namesake 
to death, and renewed the war. Tiberius now 
finally subdued Dalmatia ; Bato surrendered to 
him in A.D. 9, upon promise of pardon ; he ac- 
companied Tiberius to Italy, and his life was 
spared. 

Battiadje (BaTTid&ai), kings of Cyrene dur- 
ing eight generations. 1. Battus I., of Thera, 
led a colony to Africa at the command of the 
Delphic oracle, and founded Cyrene about B.C. 
631. He was the first king of Cyrene ; his gov- 
ernment was gentle and just, and after his death 
in 599 he was worshipped as a hero. — 2. Arces- 
ilaus I, son of No. 1, reigned B.C. 599-583. 
— 3. Battus II, surnamed " the Happy," eon 
of No. 2, reigned B.C. 583-560 ? In his reign 
Cyrene received a great number of colonists 
from various parts of Greece ; and in conse- 
quence of the increased strength of his king- 
dom, Battus was able to subdue the neighboring 
Libyan tribes, and to defeat Apries, king of 
Egypt (570), who had espoused the cause of the 
Libyans. — 4. Arcesilaus IL, son of No. 3, sur- 
named " the Oppressive," reigned about B C. 
560-550. In consequence of dissensions be- 
tween himself and his brothers, the latter with- 
drew from Cyrene and founded Barca. He 
was strangled by his brother or friend Learchus. 
— 5. Battus III., or " the Lame," son of No. 
4, reigned about B.C. 550-530. In his time, 
Demonax, a Mantinean, gave a new constitu- 
tion to the city, whereby the royal power was 
reduced within very narrow limits. — 6. Arces- 
ilaus III., son of No. 5, reigned about B.C. 
530-514, was driven from Cyrene in an attempt 
to recover the ancient royal privileges, but re- 
covered his kingdom with the aid of Samian 
auxiliaries. He endeavored to strengthen hinn 
139 



BATTIADES. 



BELLEROPHON. 



aelf by making submission to Cambyses in 525. 
He -was, however, again obliged to leave Cy- 
''ene; be fled to Alazir, king of Barca, whose 
daughter he had married, and was there slain 
by the Bareaeans and some Cyrenaean exiles. 
— 1. Bauds IV., probably son of No. 6, of 
whose life we have no accounts. — 8. Arcesi- 
laus IV"., probably son of No. V, whose victory 
in the chariot-race at the Pythian games, B.C. 
466, is celebrated by Pindar in his fourtb and 
fifth Pythian odes. At bis death, about 450, a 
popular' government was established. 

[Battiades, a patronymic of Callimachus, from 
bis father Battus.J 

Battus (Bdrroc), a shepherd whom Mercury 
(Hermes) turned into a stone because he broke a 
promise which he made to the god. 

Batulum, a town in Campania of uncertain 
site. 

Baucis. Vid. Philemon. 

Badli (now Bacolo), a collection of villas rather 
than a town, between Misenum and Baiae, in 
Campania. 

[Bautis, Bautes, or Bautisus, (now Hoangho), 
a river of Serica.] 

Bavios and M^Evrus, two malevolent poe- 
tasters, who attacked the poetry of Virgil and 
Horace. 

Baziea or BezIra (Bu&pa : Ba&pot : now Ba- 
jour, northwest of Peshawur), a city in the Pa- 
ropamisus, taken by Alexander on his march into 
India. 

Bebryces (BsBpvicec). 1. A mythical people in 
Bithynia, said to be of Thracian origin, whose 
king, Amycus, was slain by Pollux (p. 90, b.) — 
2. An ancient Iberian people on the coast of the 
Mediterranean, north and south of the Pyrenees : 
they possessed numerous herds of cattle. 

Bedriacum, a small place in Cisalpine Gaul, 
between Cremona and Verona, celebrated for the 
defeat both of Otho and of the Vitellian troops, 
AD. 69. 

Belbina (BiX6iva : BeMivirnc). 1. (Now St. 
George d' Arbori), an island in the jEgaean Sea, 
off the south coast of Attica. — 2. Vid. Bele- 
mina. 

Belemina (BeTiefiiva, now Belemia), also called 
Belmina and Belbina, a town in the northwest 
of Laconia, on the borders of Arcadia, The sur- 
rounding district was called Behninatis and Bel- 
binatis. 

Belesis or Belests (BeXsuic , BeXeavg), a Chal- 
dean priest at Babylon, who is said, in conjunc- 
tion with Arbaces the Mede, to have overthrown 
the old Assyrian empire. Vid. Arbaces. Bele- 
sis afterward received the satrapy of Babylon 
from Arbaces. 

BelgjE, one of the three great people into 
which Caesar divides the population of Gaul. 
They were bounded on the north by the Rhine, 
on the west by the ocean, on the south by the 
Sequana (now Seine) and Matrona (now Marne), 
and on the east by the territory of the Treviri. 
They were of German origin, and had settled in 
the country, expelling or reducing to subjection 
the former inhabitants. They were the bravest 
of the inhabitants of Gaul, were subdued by 
Caesar after a courageous resistance, and were the 
first Gallic people who threw off the Roman do- 
minion. The Belga? were subdivided into the 
tribes of the Nervii, Bellovaci, Remi, Sues- 
14(T 



siones, Morini, Menapii, Aduatici, and others 
and the collective forces of the whole nation 
were more than a milli on 

Belgica. Vid. Gallia. 

Belgium, the name generally applied to the 
territory of the Bellovaci, and of the tribes de- 
pendent upon the latter, namely, the Atrebates, 
Ambiani, Velliocasses, Aulerci, and CaletL Bel- 
gium did not include the whole country inhab- 
ited by the Belgae, for we find the Nervii, Remi, 
&o., expressly excluded from it. (Caes., B. G n v. 
24.) 

[Belgius or Bolgius (BoXywc), a leader of the 
Gauls, who invaded Macedonia and Illyria in 
B.C. 280. He defeated the Macedonians in a 
great battle, in which their king, Ptolemy Cerau- 
nus, was slain.] 

[Belides, patronymic of Palamedes, as de- 
scended from Belus.] 

Belisarius, the greatest general of Justinian, 
was a native of Illyria, and of mean extraction 
In A.D. 534 he overthrew the Vandal kingdom 
in Africa, which had been established by Gen- 
seric about one hundred years previously, and 
took prisoner the Vandal king Gelimer, whom 
he led in triumph to Constantinople. In 535- 
540, Belisarius carried on war against the Goths 
in Italy, and conquered Sicily, but he was re- 
called by the jealousy of Justinian. In 541-544 
he again carried on war against the Goths in 
Italy, but was again recalled by Justinian, leav- 
ing his victories to be completed by his rival, 
Narses, in the complete overthrow of the Gothic 
kingdom, and the establishment of the exarchate 
of Ravenna. The last victory of Belisarius was 
gained in repelling an inroad of the Bulgarians, 
559. In 563,' he was accused of a conspiracy 
against the life of Justinian ; according to a 
popular tradition, he was deprived of his pro- 
perty, his eyes were put out, and he wandered 
as a beggar through Constantinople ; but ac- 
cording to the more authentic account, he was 
merely imprisoned for a year in his own palace, 
and then restored to his honors. He died in 
565. 

Bellerophon or Bellerophontes (BsXkepo- 
<j)iov or Be'Alepo<!>6vT7]c), son of the Corinthian 
king Glaucus and Eurymede, and grandson of 
Sisyphus, was originally called Hipponous, and 
received the name Bellerophon from slaying the 
Corinthian Bellerus. To be purified from the 
murder he fled to Proetus, whose wife Antea fell 
in love with the young hero; but as her offers 
were rejected by him, she accused him to her 
husband of having made improper proposals to 
her. Proetus, unwillipg to Mil him with his 
own hands, sent him to his father-in-law, Io- 
bates, king of Lycia, with a letter, in which the 
latter was requested to put the young man to 
death. Iobates accordingly sent him to kill the 
monster Chimaara, th inkin g that he was sure 
to perish in the contest. After obtaining pos- 
session of the winged horse, Pegasus, Beller- 
ophon rose with him in the air, and killed the 
Chimaera with his arrows. Iobates, thus dis- 
appointed, sent Bellerophon against the Soly- 
mi, and next against the Amazons. In these 
contests he was also victorious; and on his re- 
turn to Lycia, being attacked by the bravest 
Lycians, whom Iobates had placed in ambush 
for the purpose, Bellerophon slew them alb Io- 



BELLERUS. 



BERENICE. 



bates, now seeing that it was hopeless to kill 
the hero, gave him his daughter (Philonoe, An- 
tielea, or Cassandra) in marriage, and made him 
his successor on the throDe. Bellerophon be- 
came the father of Isander, Hippolochus, and 
Laodamla. At last Bellerophon drew upon him- 
self the hatred of the gods, and, consumed by 
grief, wandered lonely through the Ale'ian field, 
avoiding the paths of men. This is all that 
Homer says respecting Bellerophon's later fate : 
some traditions related that he attempted to fly 
to heaven upon Pegasus, but that Jupiter (Zeus) 
sent a gad-fly to sting the horse, which threw 
off the rider upon the earth, who became lame 
or blind in consequence. (Horace, Carm., iv., 
11, 26.) 

[Bellerus, a Corinthian. Vid. Bellero- 
phon.] 

Belli, a Celtiberian people in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis. 

[Bellienus, L. 1. Uncle of Catiline, proprae- 
tor in Africa B.C. 104. — 2. Originally a slave of 
Demetrius, was the occasion of an insurrection 
in Intemelium during the civil war between 
Caesar and Pompey.] 

Bellona, the Roman goddess of war, was 
probably a Sabine divinity. She is frequently 
mentioned by the Roman poets as the compan- 
ion of Mars, or even as his sister or his wife, 
and is described as armed with a bloody scourge. 
(Virg., JEn., viii., 703.) During the Samnite 
wars in B.C. 296, Appius Claudius Cascus vowed 
a temple to her, which was erected in the Cam- 
pus Martius. Her priests, called Bellonarii, 
wounded their own arms or legs when they 
offered sacrifices to her. 

Bellovaci, the most powerful of the Belgas, 
dwelt in the modern Beauvais, between the 
Seine, Oise, Somme, and Bresle. In Caesar's 
time they could bring one hundred thousand 
men into the field, but they were subdued by 
Caesar with the other Belgae. 

Belon or B^elon (Be\6v, Bai\6v, near Bolo- 
nia, ruins), a sea-port town in Hispania Bsetica, 
on a river of the same name, (now Barbate), the 
usual place for crossing over to Tingis in Mau- 
retania. 

Belus (B^Aof), son of Neptune (Poseidon) 
and Libya or Euryuome, twin brother of Age- 
nor, and father of iEgyptus and Danaus. He 
was believed to be the ancestral hero and na- 
tional divinity of several Eastern nations, from 
whom the legends about him were transplanted 
to Greece, and there became mixed up with 
Greek myths. 

Belus (Brj'koc : now Nahr Namari), a river of 
Phoenicia, rising at the foot of Mount Carmel, 
and falling into the sea close to the south of 
Ptolemais (now Acre), celebrated for the tradi- 
tion that its fine sand first led the Phoenicians 
to the invention of glass. 

Benacus Lacus (now Lago di Garda), a lake 
in the north of Italy (Gallia Transpadana), out 
of which the Mineius flows. 

Beneventum (now Benevento), a town in Sam- 
nium, on the Appia Via, at the junction of the 
two valleys through which the Sabatus and 
Calor flow, formerly called Maleventum on ac- 
count, it is said, of its bad air. It was one of 
the most ancient towns in Italy, having been 
founded, according to tradition, by Diomede. 



In the Samnite wars it was subdued by the Ro- 
mans, who sent a colony thither in B.C, 268, 
and changed its name Maleventum into Bene 
ventum. It was colonized a second time by Au 
gustus, and was hence called Golonia Julia CW 
cordia Augusta Felix. The modern town has 
several Roman remains, among others a tri- 
umphal arch of Trajan. 

Berecyntia (BeptKvvTia), a surname of Cyb- 
ele, which she derived from Mount Berecyn- 
tus where she was worshipped. 

[Berectntus Mons (BepsKwroc), a mount- 
ain in Phrygia, sacred to Cybele. Vid. the 
foregoing.] 

Berenice (BepEv'ucrj), a Macedonic form of 
Phereriice (§epevcK7j), i. e., " Bringing Victory." 
1. First the wife of [Philip, son of Amyntas, a 
Macedonian officer], and afterward of Ptolemy 
I. Soter, who fell in love with her when she 
came to Egypt in attendance on his bride Eu- 
rydice, Antipater's daughter. She was cele- 
brated for her beauty and virtue, and was the 
mother of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. — 2. Daugh 
ter of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, and wife of An 
tiochus Theos, king of Syria, who divorced La 
odice in order to marry her, B.C. 249. On the 
death of Ptolemy, B.C. 247, Antiochus recalled 
Laodice, who, notwithstanding, caused him to 
be poisoned, and murdered Berenice and her 
son. — 3. Daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, 
and wife of Ptolemy III. Euergetes. She was 
put to death by her son Ptolemy IV. Philopator 
on his accession to the throne, 221. The fa- 
mous hair of Berenice, which she dedicated for 
her husband's safe return from his Syrian ex- 
pedition in the temple of Arsinoe at Zephyrium, 
was said to have become a constellation. It 
was celebrated by Callimachus in a poem, of 
which we have a translation by Catullus. — 4. 
Otherwise called Cleopatra, daughter of Ptole- 
my VIII. Lathyrus, succeeded her father on the 
throne B.C. 81, and married Ptolemy X. (Alex- 
ander II), but was murdered by her husband 
nineteen days after her marriage. — 5. Daughter 
of Ptolemy XI. Auletes, and eldest sister of the 
famous Cleopatra, was placed on the throne by 
the Alexandrines when they drove cut her fa- 
ther, B.C. 58. She afterward married Archelaus, 
but was put to death, with her husband, when 
Gabinius restored Auletes, 55. — 6. Sister of Her- 
od the Great, married Aristobulus, who was put 
to death B.C. 6. She afterward went to Rome, 
where she spent the remainder of her life. She 
was the mother of Agrippa I. — 7. Daughter of 
Agrippa I, married her uncle Herod, king of 
Chalcis, by whom she had two sons. After the 
death of Herod, A.D. 48, Berenice, then twenty 
years old, lived with her brother Agrippa II., not 
without suspicion of an incestuous commerce 
with him. She gained the love of Titus, who 
was only withheld from making her his wife by 
fear of offending the Romans by such a step. — 
[8. Wife of Mithradates the Great, put to death 
by him with his other wives, to prevent their 
falling alive into the hands of the Romans.] 

Berenice (BepeviKi] : BepeviKevc), the name 
of several cities of the period of the Ptolemies. 
1. Formerly Eziongeber (ruins near Akabah), in 
Arabia, at the head of the Sinus ^Elanites, or 
eastern branch of the Red Sea. — 2. In Upper 
Egypt (for so it was considered, though it lay 
141 



BERGISTANI. 



BIBACULUS. 



a little south of the parallel of Syene), on the 
coast of the Red Sea, on a gulf called Sinus 
Immundus (amdaprog noXnog, now Foul Bay), 
where its ruins are still visible. It "was named 
after the mother of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, 
who built it, and made a*road hence to Coptos, 
so that it became a chief emporium for the com- 
merce of Egypt with Arabia and India. Under 
the Romans it was the residence of a praafectus. 
— 3. B. Panchrysos (B. H&yxpvGog or Kara 
Sufiar), on the Red Sea coast in ^Ethiopia, con- 
siderably south of the above. — 4 B. Epidires 
(B. kni Aetpqg), on the Promontory Dira, on the 
western side of the entrance to the Red Sea 
(now Straits of Bab-el- Mandeb). — 5. (Now Ben 
Ghazi, ruins), in Cyrenaica, formerly Hesperis 
('Eo-Kepcc), the fabled site of the Gardens of the 
Hesperides. It took its later name from the 
wife of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, and was the 
westernmost of the five cities of the Libyan 
Pentapolis. There were other cities of the 
name. 

Bergistani, a people in the northeast of Spain, 
between the Iberus and the Pyrenees, whose 
capital was Bergium. 

[Bergium (now Bamberg ?). 1. A place in the 
country of the Hermunduri, in Germania Magna. 
— 2. Vid. Bergistani.] 

Bergomum (Bergomas, -atis : now Bergamo), 
a town of the Orobii in Gallia Cisalpina. be- 
tween Comum and Brixia, afterward a muni- 
cipium. 

[Bermius Mons (Bepfiiov bpog : now Xero Li- 
vadho), a mountain of Macedonia, a continuation 
of the great range of Olympus.] 

Beroe {Bsporj). 1. A Trojan woman, wife of 
Doryclus, one of the companions of iEneas, 
whose form Iris assumed when she persuaded 
the women to set fire to the ships of jEneas in 
Sicily. — [2. The nurse of Semele, whose form 
Juno (Hera) assumed for the purpose of per- 
suading Semele to request Jupiter to visit her 
in all his divine majesty. — 3. One of the ocean 
nymphs.] 

Bercsa (Bepoia, also B'ep'p'oia, Bepor) : Bepoievg, 
Bepoialog). 1. (Now Verria), one of the most 
ancient towns of Macedonia, on one of the low- 
er ranges of Mount Bermius, and on the As- 
trseus, a tributary of the Haliacmon, southwest 
of Pella, and about twenty miles from the sea. 
— 2. (Now Beria), a town in the interior of 
Thrace, was under the later Roman empire, 
together with Philippopolis, one of the most 
important military posts. — 3. (Now Aleppo or 
Haleb), a town in Syria near Antioch, enlarged 
by Seleucus Nicator, who gave it the Macedo- 
nian name of Bercea. It is called Hclbon or 
Ghelbon in Ezekiel (xxvii., 18), and Chalep in 
the Byzantine writers, a name still retained in 
the modern Haleb, for which Europeans have 
substituted Aleppo. 

Berosus (Bypuaoc, or Bripuaaog), a priest of 
Belus at Babylon, lived in the reign of Antio- 
chus II. (B.C. 261-246), and wrote in Greek a 
history of Babylonia, in nine books (called Ba- 
6vXuvik&, and sometimes XaMaiKa or loropiai 
XaXdainai). It embraced the earliest traditions 
about the human race, a description of Babylo- 
nia and its population, and a chronological list 
of its kings down to the time of the great Cyrus. 
Berosus says that he derived the materials for 
142 



his work from the archives in the temple of 
Belus. The work itself is lost, but considerable 
fragments of it are preserved in Josephus, 
Eusebius, Syncellus, and the Christian fathers . 
the best editions of the fragments are by Rich- 
ter, Lips., 1825, and in Didot's Fragmenta Histor- 
icorum Grcecorum, vol. ii., Paris, 1848. 

Berytus (BripvToc : Bripvrwg : now Beirut, 
ruins), one of the .oldest sea-ports of Phoenicia 
stood on a promontory near the mouth of the 
River Magoras (now JSfahr Beirut), half way be- 
tween Byblus and Sidon. It was destroyed by 
the Syrian king Tryphon (B.C. 140), and restored 
by Agrippa under Augustus, who made it a col- 
ony. It afterward became a celebrated seat of 
learning. 

Besa. Vid. Antinoopolis. 

Bessi, a fierce and powerful Thracian people, 
who dwelt along the whole of Mount Hasmus as 
far as the Euxine. After the conquest of Mace 
donia by the Romans (B.C. 168), the Bessi were 
attacked by the latter, and subdued after a se 
vere struggle. 

Bessus (B?/a<70f), satrap of Bactria under Da 
rius III., seized Darius soon after the battle of 
Arbela, B.C. 331. Pursued by Alexander in the 
following year, Bessus put Darius to death, and 
fled to Bactria, where he assumed the title of 
king. He was betrayed by two of his followers 
to Alexander, who put him to death. 

Bestia, Calpurnius. 1. L., tribune of the 
plebs B.C. 121, and consul 111, when he carried 
on war against Jugurtha, but, having received 
large bribes, he concluded a peace with the Nu 
midian. On his return to Rome, he was, in con- 
sequence, accused and condemned. — 2. L., one of 
the Catilinarian conspirators, B.C. 63, was at 
the time tribune of the plebs designatus, and 
not actually tribune, as Sallust says. In 59 he 
was asdile, and in 5v was an unsuccessful candi- 
date for the praetorship, notwithstanding his bri- 
bery, for which offence he was brought to trial 
in the following year, and condemned, although 
he was defended by Cicero. 

Betasii, a people in Gallia Belgica, between 
the Tungri and Nervii, in the neighborhood of 
Beetz in Brabant. 

[Bevus (B«5oc), a river of Macedonia, an af- 
fluent of the Erigon.] 

Bezira. Vid. Bazira. 

Bianor. 1. Also called Ocnus or Aucnus, 
son of Tiberis and Manto, is said to have built 
the town of Mantua, and to have called it after 
his mother. — 2. A Bithynian, the author of 
twenty-one epigrams in the Greek Anthology, 
lived under Augustus and Tiberius. 

BiAs(Bt'af.) 1. Son of Amy thaon, and brother 
of the seer Melampus. He married Pero, 
daughter of Neleus, whom her father had re- 
fused to give to any one unless he brought him 
the oxen of Iphiclus. These Melampus obtained 
by his courage and skill, and so won the princess 
for his brother. Melampus also gained for Bias 
a third of the kingdom of Argos, in consequence 
of his curing the daughters of Prcetus aud the 
other Argive women of their madness. — 2. Of 
Priene in Ionia, one of the seven sages of Greece, 
flourished about B.C. 550. 

Bibaculus, M. Furius, a Roman poet, born 
at Cremona B.C. 103, wrote' iambics, epigrams, 
and a poem on Ctesar's Gaulish wars ■ the open- 



BIBRACTE. 



BITHYNIA. 



ing line in the latter p«-em is parodied by Horace 
(Furius hibernas cana nive conspuet Alpes, Sat,, 
ii., 5, 41). It is probable that Bibaculus also 
wrote a poem entitled jEthiopis, containing an 
account of the death of Memnon by Achilles, 
and that the turgidus Alpinus of Horace (Sat., 
i., 10, 36) is no other than Bibaculus. The at- 
tacks of Horace against Bibaculus may probably 
be owing to the fact that the poems of Bibaculus 
contained insults against the Caesars. (Tac, Ann., 
iv., 34.) 

Bibracte (now Autun), the chief town of the 
iEdui in Gallia Lugdunensis, afterward Augus- 
todunum. 

Bibrax (now Bievre), a town of the Remi in 
Gallia Belgica, not far from, the Aisne. 

Bibdlus Calpurnius. 1. L., curule asdile B. 
C. 65, praetor 62, and consul 59, in each of which 
years he had C. Julius Caesar as his colleague. 
He was a stanch adherent of the aristocratical 
party, but was unable in his consulship to re- 
sist the powerful combination of Cassar, Pom- 
pey, and Crassus. After an ineffectual attempt 
to oppose Caesar's agrarian law, he withdrew 
from the popular assemblies altogether ; whence 
it was said in joke that it was the consulship 
of Julius and Caesar. In 51 Bibulus was pro- 
consul of Syria ; and in the civil war he com- 
manded Pompey's fleet in the Adriatic, and 
died (48) while holding this command off Cor- 
eyra. He married Porcia, the daughter of Cato 
IJticensis, by whom he had three sons, two of 
whom were murdered by the soldiers of Gabin- 
ius, in Egypt, 50. — 2. L., son of No. 1, was a 
youth at his father's death, and was brought up 
by M. Brutus, who married his mother Porcia. 
He fought with Brutus at the battle of Philippi 
iu 42, but he was afterward pardoned by Anto- 
ny, and was intrusted by the latter with im- 
portant commands. He died shortly before the 
battle of Actium. 

[Bicurdium (now Erfurt ?), a city of the Che- 
rusci in Germany.] 

Bidis (Bidinus, Bidensis), a small town in Si- 
cily, west of Syracuse. 

Bigerra (now Becerra ?), a town of the Ore- 
laui in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Bigerriones or Bigerri, a people in Aquita- 
nia, near the Pyrenees. 

Bilbilis (now Baubola), a town of the Celti- 
beri in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a munici- 
pium with the surname Augusta, 6n the River 
Salo, also called Bilbilis (now Xalon), was the 
birth-place of the poet Martial, and was cele- 
brated for its manufactories in iron and gold. 

Bill^eus (Bi2.%aloc : now Filbas), a river of 
Bithynia, rising in the Hypii Montes, and falling 
into the Pontus Euxinus twenty stadia (two 
geographical miles) east of Tium. Some made 
it the boundary between Bithynia and Paphla- 
gonia. 

Bingium (now Bingen), a town on the Rhine, 
in Gallia Belgica. 

Bion (Bluv). 1. Of Smyrna, a bucolic poet, 
flourished about B.C. 280, and spent the last 
years of his life iu Sicily, where he was poison- 
ed. He was older than Moschus, who laments 
his untimely death, and calls himself the pupil 
of Bion; (Mosch., Id., iii.) The style of Bion 
is refined, and his versification fluent and ele- 
gant, but he is inferior to Theocritus in strength 



and depth of feeling. — Editions, including Mo8' 
chus, by Jacobs, Gotha, 1795; Wakefield, Lon> 
don, 1795 ; and Manso, Leipzig, 1807— 2. Of 
Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dnieper, 
flourished about B.C. 250. He was sold as a 
slave, when young, ano> received his liberty from 
his master, a rhetorician. He studied at Athens, 
and embraced the later Cyrenaic philosophy, 
as expounded by Theodorus, the Atheist. He 
lived a considerable time at the court of Antig 
onus Gonatas, king of Macedonia. Bion was 
noted for his sharp sayings, whence Horace 
speaks of persons delighting Bioneis sermonibus 
et sale nigro. (Epist., ii., 2, 60.) — [3. Of Soli in 
Cilicia, author of a work on ^Ethiopia (kWio- 
•kiku), of which a few fragments remain ; he 
wrote also a treatise on agriculture. — 4. A math 
ematician of Abdera, the first who maintained 
that there were certain regions where the night 
lasted six months, and the day the other six 
months of the year.] 

[Birtha (ruins at Biradsjik), a city of Osrho- 
ene, on the Euphrates.] 

[BisaltvE (BujakraL). Vid. Bisaltia.] 
Bisaltia (BiaaXr'ia : BiadXTTj^), a district in 
Macedonia, on the western bank of the Stry- 
mon. The Bisaltae were Thracians, and at the 
invasion of Greece by Xerxes (B.C. 480) they 
were ruled by a Thracian prince, who was in- 
dependent of Macedonia ; but at the time of 
the Peloponnesian war we find them subject to 
Macedonia. 

[Bisaltis, female patronymic from Bisaltes, L 
e., Theophane.] 

Bisanthe (Bicdvdri : BiaavdrjVOQ : now Ro- 
dosto), subsequently Rhcedestum or Rhcedestus, a 
town in Thrace on the Propontis, with a good 
harbor, was founded by the Samians, and was 
in later times one of the great bulwarks of the 
neighboring Byzantium. 

Sistones (BioTOvec;), a Thracian people be- 
tween Mount Rbodope and the iEgean Sea, on 
the Lake Bistonis, in the neighborhood of Ab- 
dera, through whose land Xerxes marched on 
his invasion of Greece (B.C. 480). From the 
worship of Bacchus (Dionysus) in Thrace the 
Bacchic women are called Bistomdes. (Hor., 
Carm., ii., 19, 20.) 

Bithynia (Bidvvia : Bcdvvoc), a district of Asia 
Minor, bounded on the west by Mysia, on the 
north by the Pontus Euxinus, on the east by 
Paphlagonia, and on the south by Phrygia Epic- 
tetus, was possessed at an early period by Thra- 
cian tribes from the neighborhood of the Stry- 
mon, called Thyni (Qvvoc) and Bithyni (Bidvvoi), 
of whom the former dwelt on the coast, the 
latter in the interior. The earlier inhabitants 
were the Bebryces, Caucones, and Mygdones. 
and the northeastern part of the district was 
possessed by the Mariandyni. The country 
was subdued by the Lydians, and afterward be- 
came a part of the Persian empire under Cyrus, 
and was governed by the satraps of Phrygia. 
During the decline of the Persian empire, the 
northern part of the country became independ- 
ent, under native princes called inapxm, who 
resisted Alexander and his successors, and es 
tablished a kingdom, which is usually cousidei 
ed to begin with Zipoetes (about B.C. 287 ) or his 
son Nicomedes I. (B.C. 278), and which lasted 
till the death of Nicomedes III. (B.C. 74), who 
143 



BITHYNIUM. 



BODIOCASSES 



bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. By 
them it was first attached to the province of 
Asia, afterward to that of Pontus, and, under 
Augustus, it was made a proconsular province. 
Several changes were made in its boundaries 
under the later emper#rs. It was a fertile 
country, intersected with wooded mountains, the 
highest of which was the Mysian Olympus, on 
its southern border. Its chief rivers were the 
Sangarius and the Bill/Eus. 

Bithynium (Bidvvwv), afterward Claudiopo- 
lis, an inland city of Bithynia, the birth-place of 
Hadrian's favorite Antinoiis. 

Biton (Bctuv). 1. A mathematician, the au- 
thor of an extant work on Military Machines (/ca- 
Taansval TzoXe/MMCdv opydvav nal icaraTreXTiKuv), 
whose history is unknown. The work is printed 
in Vet. Mathem. Op., Paris, 1693, p. 105, seq. — 
[2. A friend of Xenophon, who, with Euclides, 
showed him kindness, and relieved his wants at 
Ophrynium, on his return from Babylonia.] 

Biton and Cleobis (KteoSic), sons of Cyclippe, 
a priestess of Juno (Hera) at Argos. They were 
celebrated for their affection to their mother, 
whose chariot they once dragged during a fes- 
tival to the temple of Juno (Hera), a distance 
of forty-five stadia. The priestess prayed to 
the goddess to grant them what was best for 
mortals ; and during the night they both died 
while asleep in the temple. 

BrruiTus, in inscriptions Betultus, king of 
the Arverni in Gaul, joined the Allobroges in 
their war against the Romans. Both the Ar- 
verni and Allobroges were defeated B.C. 121, at 
the confluence of the Rhone and the Isara, by 
Q. Fabius Maximus. Bituitus was subsequently 
taken prisoner and sent to Rome. 

Bituriges, a numerous and powerful Celtic 
people in Gallia Aquitanica, had in early times 
the supremacy over the other Celts in Gaul. 
(Liv., v., 34.) They were divided into, 1. Bit. 
Cubi, separated from the Carnutes and iEdui 
by the Liger, and bounded on the south by the 
Lemovices, in the country of the modern Bour- 
ges : their capital was Avaeioum. 2. Bit. Vi- 
visci or Ubisoi on the Garumna : their capital 
was Burdigala. 

Bladus, Blandus, or Blaudus {Bid-, BXdv-, 
BlavSog : Blavdrjvoc : Blaudesius), a city of 
Phrygia, near the borders of Mysia and Lydia. 

BljEsus, C. Sempronius, consul with Cn. Ser- 
vilius Caepio, B.C. 253, in the first Punic war. 
The two consuls sailed to the coast of Africa, 
and on their return were overtaken off Cape 
Palinurus by a tremendous storm, in which one 
hundred and fifty ships perished. 

Bl>esus, Junius, governor of Pannonia at the 
death of Augustus, A.D. 14, when the formid- 
able insurrection of the legions broke out in 
that province. He obtained the government of 
Africa in 21, where he gained a victory over 
Tacfarinas. On the fall of his uncle Sejanus in 
31, he was deprived of the priestly offices which 
he held, and in 36 put an end to his own life, to 
avoid falling by the hand of the executioner. 

Blanda. 1. (Now Blafios), a town of the 
Laeetani in Hispania Tarraconensis. — 2. (Now 
St. Biasio), a town in Lucania. 

[Blandusia Fons. Vid. Bandusia.] 

Blascon (now Brescou), a small island in the 
Gallicus Sinus, off the town of Agatha. 
144 



Blasio, M. Heights, praetor B.C. 19V, defeated 
the Celtiberi in Spain, and took Illiturgi. 

[Blaudus (BlavSog). Vid. Bladus.] 

BlavIa (now Blaye), a town of the Santoneb 
in Gallia Aquitanica, on the Garumna. 

Blemyes (BM/livcc, BAs/xfiVEs), an ^Ethiopian 
people on the borders of Upper Egypt, to which 
their predatory incursions were very troublesome 
in the times of the Roman emperors. 

[Blendium (now Santander ?), a port of the 
Cantabri in Hispania Tarraconensis.] 

Bleea (Bleranus : now Bieda), a town in 
Etruria, on the Via Clodia, between Forum 
Clodii and Tuscania : there are many remains of 
the ancient town at Bieda. 

Blosius or Blossius, the name of a noble 
family in Campania. One of this family, C. 
Blosius of Cumee, was a philosopher, a disciple 
of Antipater of Tarsus, and a friend of Tiberius 
Gracchus. After the death of Gracchus (B.C. 
133) he fled to Aristonicus, king of Pergamus, 
and on the conquest of Aristonicus by the Ro- 
mans, Blosius put an end to his own life for fear 
of falling into the hands of the Romans. 

Boadicea, queen of the Iceni in Britain, hav 
ing been shamefully treated by the Romans, 
who even ravished her two daughters, excited 
an insurrection of the Britons against then 1 op- 
pressors during the absence of Suetonius Pau- 
linus, the Roman governor, on an expedition to 
the island of Mona. She took the Roman colo- 
nies of Camalodunum, Londinium, and other 
places, and slew nearly seventy thousand Ro- 
mans and their allies. She was at length de- 
feated with great loss by Suetonius Paulinus, and 
put an end to her own fife, A.D. 61. 

[Bo^e or Bavo (now Bua), an island on the 
coast of Dalmatia, used by the later Roman em- 
perors as a place of exile for state criminals.] 

Boagrius (Bodypcoc, now Terremotto), a river 
in Locris, also called Manes, flows past Thro- 
nium into the Sinus Maliacus. 

[Bobium (now Bobbio), a castrum of the Li- 
gurians, on the Trebia.] 

[Bocohar. 1. A brave king of the Mauri in 
Africa, a contemporary of Masinissa. — 2. An 
officer of King Syphax, who fought against 
Masinissa.] 

Bocchus (Bokxoc). 1. King of Mauretania, 
and father-in-law of Jugurtha, with whom at 
first he made war against the Romans, but 
whom he afterward delivered up to Sulla, the 
quaestor of Marius, B.C. 106. — 2. Son of the 
preceding, -reigned along with his brother Bo- 
gud over Mauretania. Bocchus and Bogud as- 
sisted Caesar in his war against the Pompeians 
in Africa, B.C. 46 ; and in 45 Bogud joined 
Caesar in his war in Spain. After the murder 
of Cassar, Bocchus sided with Octaviauus, and 
Bogud with Antony. When Bogud was in 
Spain in 38, Bocchus usurped the sole govern- 
ment of Mauretania, iu which he was confirmed 
by Octavianus. He died about 33, whereupon 
his kingdom became a Roman province. Bogud 
had previously betaken himself to Antony, and 
was killed on the capture of Methone by Agrip- 
pa in 31. 

[Boderia (Bodepia flf^iwf, Ptol). Vid. Bo- 
dotria.] 

Bodencus or Bodincus. Vid. Padus. 
Bodiocasses, a people in Gallia Lugdunen 



BODOTRIA. 



BOIL 



sis their capital was Augustodurum (now 
Baycux). 

Bodotria or Bodiria jEstuarium (now Firth 
of Forth), an {estuary on the eastern coast of 
Scotland. 

[Boduognatus, leader of the Nervii in Gallia 
in the time of Julius Caesar.] 

BcE^fi (Boial : Botanic : now Vatka), a town 
in the south of Laconica, near Cape Malea. 

[Bceaticus Sinus, to the east, or, rather, the 
eastern part, of the Laconicus Sinus, so called 
from the town of Bceae, and now Gulf of Vatka.'] 

BoiBE (Bo/6r) : Boifievc), a town in Pelasgio- 
tis in Thessaly, on the western shore of the 
Lake Bosbeis (BotSricc, now Bio), into which 
several rivers of Thessaly flow. 

Boedromius (Borjdpofuoc), " the helper in dis- 
tress," a surname of Apollo at Athens, because 
he had assisted the Athenians. Vid. Diet, of 
Ant, art. Boedrojiia. 

[Bceo (B016), a Grecian poetess of Delphi, 
composed a hymn, of which Pausanias has pre- 
served a few lines.] 

Bceotia (Boiuria : Boiutoc : part of Livadia), 
a district of Greece, bounded north by Opun- 
tian Locris, east by the Eubcean Sea, south by 
Attica, Megaris, and the Corinthian Gulf, and 
west by Phocis. It is nearly surrounded by 
mountains, namely, Helicon and Parnassus on 
the west, Cithaeron and Parnes on the south, 
the Opuntian mountains on the north, and a 
range of mountains along the whole sea-coast 
on the east. The country contains several 
fertile plains, of which the two most important 
were the valley of the Asopus in the south, the 
inhabitants of which were called Parasopii, and 
the valley of the Cephisus in the north (the 
upper part of which, however, belonged to Pho- 
cis), the inhabitants of which were called Epi- 
cephisii. In the former valley the chief towns 
were Theb^e, Tanagra, Thesple, and Pla- 
imm ; in the latter the chief towns were Or- 
choiieots, Chjeronea, Coronea, Lebadea, and 
Haliartus ; the latter valley included the Lake 
Copais. The surface of Bceotia is said to be 
one thousand and eighty square miles. The at- 
mosphere was damp and thick, to which cir- 
cumstance some of the ancients attributed the 
dullness of the Boeotian intellect, with which 
the Athenians frequently made merry ; but the 
deficiency of the Boeotians in this respect was 
more probably owing, as has been well re- 
marked, to the extraordinary fertility of their 
country, which probably depressed their intel- 
lectual and moral energies. In the earliest 
times Bceotia was inhabited by various tribes, 
the Aones (whence the country was called 
Aonia), Temmices, Hyantes, Thracians, Lele- 
ges, <fce. Orchomenus was inhabited by the 
powerful tribe of the Minyans, and Thebes by 
the Cadmeans, the reputed descendants of Cad- 
mus. The Boeotians were an iEolian people, 
who originally occupied Arne in Thessaly, from 
which they were expelled by the Thessalians 
sixty years after the Trojan war, and migrated 
into the country called after them Bceotia, partly 
expelling and partly incorporating with them- 
selves the ancient inhabitants of the land. 
Boeotia was then divided into fourteen inde- 
pendent states,, which formed a league, with 
Thebes at its head. The chief magistrates of 
10 



the confederacy were the Boeotarchs, elected 
annually, two by Thebes and one by each of 
the other states ; but as the number of states 
was different at different times, that of the 
Boeotarchs also varied. The government in 
most states was an .aristocracy. Vid. Diet, of 
Ant., art. Bceotarches. 

Boethius, whose full name was Anictus Man- 
mus Severinus Boethius, a Roman statesman 
and author, was born between A.D. 470 and 475. 
He was famous for his general learning, and es- 
pecially for his knowledge of Greel philosophy, 
which, according to a common account (though 
of doubtful authority), he studied under Proems 
at Athens. He was consul in 510, and was 
treated with great distinction by Theodoric the 
Great ; but having incurred the suspicions of 
the latter by advocating the cause of the Ital- 
ians against the oppressions of the Goths, he 
was put to death by Theodoric about 524. Du- 
ring his imprisonment he wrote his celebrated 
work De Consolatione Philosophim, in five books, 
which is composed alternately in prose and 
verse. The diction is pure and elegant, and 
the sentiments are noble and exalted, showing 
that the author had a real belief in prayer and 
Providence, though he makes no reference to 
Christianity. Boethius was the last Roman of 
any note who understood the language and 
studied the literature of Greece. He translated 
many of the works of the Greek philosophers, 
especially of Aristotle, and wrote commenta 
ries upon them, several of which have come 
down to us. He also wrote a commentary, in 
six books, upon the Topica of Cicero, which is 
also extant. In the ignorance of Greek writers 
which prevailed from the sixth to the four 
teenth century, Boethius was looked upon as 
the head and type of all philosophers, as Au- 
gustin was of all theology, and Virgil of all lit- 
erature ; but after the introduction of the works 
of Aristotle into Europe in the thirteenth cen- 
tury, Boethius's fame gradually died away. 
The best edition of his collective works was 
printed at Basel, 1570; the last edition of his 
De Consolatione is by Obbarius, Jenae, 1843. 

Boethus (Bondoc). 1. A Stoic philosopher of 
uncertain date, wrote several works, from ons 
of which Cicero quotes. — 2. A Peripatetic phi 
losopher, was a native of Sidon in Phoenicia, a 
disciple of Andronicus of Rhodes, and an in 
structor of the philosopher Strabo. He there 
fore flourished about B.C. 30. He wrote sev 
eral works, all of which are now lost. — [3. A 
native of Tarsus, who gained the favor of An 
tony by celebrating in verse the defeat of Brutus 
and Cassius at Philippi.] 

Boeum (Boiov, Boiov, Bolov : BotaTTjc), an an- 
cient town of the Dorian Tetrapolis. 

Bogud. Vid. Bocchus, No. 2. 

Bon, one of the most powerful of the Celtic 
tribes, said to have dwelt originally in Gaul 
(Transalpina), but in what part of the country 
is uncertain. At an early time they migrated 
in two great swarms, one of which crossed the 
Alps and settled in the country between the Po 
and the Apennines ; the other crossed the Rhine 
and settled in the part of Germany called Boi- 
hemum (now Bohemia) after them, and between 
the Danube and the Tyrol. The Boii in Italy 
long carried on a fierce struggle with the Ro 
145 



BOIODURUM. 



BOEEUS MONS. 



mans, tut they were at length subdued by the 
consul P. Scipio in B.C. 191, and -were subse- 
quently incorporated in the province of Gallia 
Cisalpina, Ihe Boii in Germany maintained 
their power longer, but were at length subdued 
by the Marcomauni, and expelled from the coun- 
try. We find 32,000 Boii taking part in the 
Helvetian migration ; and after the defeat of 
the Helvetians (B.C. 58), Csesar allowed these 
Boii to dwell among the jEdui. 

[Boiodurum, (now Innstadt), a town of Vin- 
delicia, at the junction of the ^Enus (now Inn) 
and the Danube.] 

Boiokix. 1. A chieftain of the Boii, fought 
against the Romans in Cisalpine Gaul, B.C. 
T94. — [2. King of the Cimbri, fought against the 
Romans under Marius, and fell in battle near 
Verona, B.C. 1C1.] 

Bola, Bol^e, or Vol^e (Bolanus), an ancient 
town of the iEqui, belonging to the Latin league, 
not mentioned in later times. 

Bolanus, Vettius, governor of Britain in 
A.D. 69, is praised by Statius in the poem (Silv., 
v., 2) addressed to Crispinus, the son of Bo- 
lanus. 

Bolbe (B6X6n : now JBeshek), a lake in Mace- 
donia, empties itself by a short river into the 
Strymonic Gulf near Bromiseus and Aulon : the 
lake is now about twelve miles in length, and 
six or eight in breadth. There was a town of 
the same name upon the lake. 

Bolbitine (Bo?Xltiv7j : BoASirivqrne : now 
Rosetta), a city of Lower Egypt, near the mouth 
of a branch of the Nile (the westernmost but 
one), which was called the Bolbitine mouth (to 
Bo'a6'ltlvov aTofia). 

[Bolerium Promontorium, the southwest 
point of Britannia, now Land's End, in Corn- 
wall.] 

Boline (BoaIvtj : BoXivaloc), a town in Achaia, 
the inhabitants of which Augustus transplanted 
to Patrse. 

Bolissus (Bomoooc : Boa'iogwc, now Volisso), 
a town on the western coast of Chios. 

Bomilcar (BofiiAnap, BoafilXKap). 1. Com- 
mander, with Hanno, of the Carthaginians 
against Agathocles, when the latter invaded 
Africa, B.C. 310. In 3G8 he attempted to seize 
the government of Carthage, but failed, and was 
crucified. — 2. Commander of the Carthaginian 
supplies sent to Hannibal after the battle of 
Cannae, 216. He afterward attempted to re- 
lieve Syracuse when besieged by Marcellus, 
but was unable to accomplish any thing. — 3. A 
Numidian, deep in the confidence of Jugurtha. 
When Jugurtha was at Rome, 109, Bomilcar 
effected for him the assassination of Massiva. 
In 107 he plotted against Jugurtha. 

Bomius Mons, (Bufiioc and oi Bu/xoi), the west- 
ern part of Mount (Eta in ./Etolia, inhabited by 
the Bomienses (Bu/iteif). 

Bona Dea, a Roman divinity, is described as 
the sister, wife, or daughter of Fauuus, and was 
herself called Fauna, Falua, or Oma. She was 
worshipped at Rome as a chaste and prophetic 
divinity; she revealed her oracles only to fe- 
males, as Faunus did only to males. Her festi- 
val was celebrated every year on the first of 
May, in the house of the consul or praetor, as 
the sacrifices on that occasion were offered on 
behalf of the whole Roman people. The eo- 
146 



lemnities were conducted by the Vestals, and 
no male person was allowed to be in the house 
at one of the festivals. P. Clodius profaned the 
sacred ceremonies by entering the house of 
Caesar in the disguise of a woman, B.C. 62. 

Bonifacius, a Roman general, governor of 
Africa under Valentinian III. Believing that 
the Empress Placidia meditated his destruction, 
he revolted against the emperor, and invited 
Genseric, king of the Vandals, to settle in Afri- 
ca, In 430 he was reconciled to Placidia, and 
attempted to drive the Vandals out of Africa, 
but without success. He quitted Africa in 431, 
and in 432 he died of a wound received in com- 
bat with his rival Aetius. 

Bonna (now Bonn), a town on the left bank 
of the Rhine, in Lower Germany, and in the ter- 
ritory of the Ubii, was a strong fortress of the 
Romans and the regular quarters of a Roman 
legion. Here Drusus constructed a bridge 
across the Rhine. 

Bononia (Bononiensis). 1. (Now Bologna), 
a town in Gallia Cispadana, originally called 
Felsina, was in ancient times an Etruscan city, 
and the capital of northern Etruria. It after- 
ward fell into the hands of the Boii, but it was 
colonized by the Romans on the conquest of the 
Boii, B.C. 191, and its name of Felsina was then 
changed into Bononia. It fell into decay in the 
civil wars, but it was enlarged and adorned by 
Augustus, 32. — 2. (Now Boulogne), a town in the 
north of Gaul. Vid. Gesoriacus. — 3. (Now Ba- 
nostor ?), a town of Pannonia, on the Danube. 

Bonosds, a Spaniard by birth, served with dis- 
tinction under Aurelian, and usurped the imperi- 
al title in Gaul in the reign of Probus. He was 
defeated and slain by Probus, A.D. 280 or 281. 

Bootes. Vid. Arcturus. 

Borbetom a gus (now Worms), also called Van- 
giones, at a later time Wormatia, a town of the 
Vangiones, on the left bank of the Rhine, in Up- 
per Germany. 

Boreas (Boptac or Bopdc), the north wind, or, 
more strictly, the wind from the north-north- 
east, was, in mythology, a son of Astraeus and 
Eos, and brother of Hesperus, Zephyrus, and 
Notus. He dwelt in a cave of Mount Haemus, 
in Thrace. He carried off Orithyia, daughtei 
of Ereehtheus, king of Attica, by whom he begot 
Zetes, Calais, and Cleopatra, wife of Phineus 
who are therefore called Boreadm. In the Per 
sian war, Boreas showed his friendly disposition 
toward the Athenians by destroying the ships 
of the barbarians. According to an Homerk 
tradition (II., xx., 223), Boreas begot twelve 
horses by the mares of Erichthonius, which is 
commonly explained as a figurative mode of 
expressing the extraordinary swiftness of those 
horses. Boreas was worshipped at Athens, 
where a festival, Boreasmi, was celebrated in 
his honor. 

Boreum (Bopewv). 1. (Now Malin Head), tho 
northern promontory of Hibernia (now Ireland). 
— 2. (Now Has Teyonas), a promontory on the 
western coast of Cyrenaica, forming the eastern 
headland of the Great Syrtis. — 3. The northern 
extremity of the island of Taprobane (now 
Ceylon). 

Boreus Mons (Bopeiov opoc), a mountmn in 
Arcadia, on the borders of Laconia, containing 
the sources of the rivers Alpheus and Eurotas. 



BOREUS PORTTJS. 



BRANCHIDjE. 



Boreus Portus (Bopewc Aifa'/v), a harbor in 
the island of Tenedos, at the mouth of a river of 
the same name. 

Borsippa (ra Bopcnirira : Bopaixirnvoc : now 
Boursa), a city of Babylonia,- on the -western 
bank of the Euphrates, a little south of Babylon, 
celebrated for its manufactures of linen, and as 
the chief residence of the Chaldean astrologers. 
The Greeks held it sacred to Apollo and Diana 
(Artemis). 

Borysthenes (Bopvadevnc : now Dnieper), af- 
terward Danapris, a river of European Sarma- 
tia, flows into the Euxine"; but its sources were 
unknown to the ancients. Near its mouth, and 
at its junction with the Hypanis, lay the town 
Borysthenes, or Borysthenis (now Kudak), 
also called Olbia, Olbiopolis, and Miletopolis, 
a colony of Miletus, and the most important 
Greek city on the north of the Euxine. (Eth- 
nic, Bopvadev'iTTjg, 'OMioiroXirnc.) 

Bosporus (Boo-iropoc), i. e., Ox-ford, the name 
of any straits among the Greeks, but especially 
applied to the two following: 1. The Thraci- 
an Bosporus, (now Channel of Constantinople), 
unites the Propontis, or Sea of Marmara, with 
the Euxine, or Black Sea. According to the 
legend, it was called Bosporus from Io, who 
crossed it in the form of a heifer. At the en- 
trance of the Bosporus were the celebrated 
Symplegades. Darius constructed a bridge 
across the Bosporus when he invaded Scythia. 
— 2. The Cimmerian Bosporus (now Straits of 
Kaffa) unites the Palus Mseotis, or Sea of Azof, 
with the Euxine or Black Sea. It formed, with 
the Tanais (now Don), the boundary between 
Asia and Europe, and it derived its name from 
the Cimmerii, who were supposed to have dwelt 
in the neighborhood. On the European side of 
the Bosporus, the modern Crimea, the Milesians 
founded the town of Pantieap<eum, also called 
Bosporus, and the inhabitants of Panticapaeum 
subsequently founded the town of Phanagoria 
on the Asiatic side of the Straits. These cities, 
being favorably situated for commerce, soon be- 
came places of considerable importance ; and a 
kingdom gradually arose, of which Panticapae- 
um was the capital, and which eventually in- 
cluded the whole of the Crimea. The first 
kings we read of were the Arehaenactidae, who 
reigned forty-two years, from B.C. 480 to 438. 
They were succeeded by Spartacus I. and his 
descendants. Several of these kings were in 
close alliance with the Athenians, who obtained 
annually a large supply of corn from the Bos- 
porus. The last of these kings was Paerisades, 
who, being hard pressed by the Scythians, vol- 
untarily ceded his dominions to Mithradates the 
Great. On the death of Mithradates, his son 
Pharnaces was allowed by Pompey to succeed 
to the dominion of Bosporus ; and we subse- 
quently find a series of kings, who reigned in 
the country till a late period, under the protec- 
tion of the Roman emperors. 

Bostar (Buarup, Baarapoc). 1. A Cartha- 
ginian general, who, with Hamilcar and Has- 
drubal, the son of Hanno, fought against M. 
Atilius Regulus, in Africa, B.C. 256, but was 
defeated, taken prisoner, and sent to Rome, 
where he is said to have perished in consequence 
of the barbarous treatment which he received 
from the sons of Regulus. — 2. A Carthaginian 



general, under Hasdrubal, in Spain, set at lib- 
erty the Spanish hostages kept at Saguntum, 
hoping thereby to secure the affections of the 
Spaniards. 

Bostra (ra Bocrpa, Old Testament Bozrah : 
BooTnvoc and -aloe : now Busrah, ruins), a city 
of Arabia, in an Oasis of the Syrian Desert, a 
little more than ten degrees south of Damascus. 
It was enlarged and beautified by Trajan, who 
made it a colony. Under the later emperors it 
was the seat of an archbishopric. 

Bottia, BottIjEA, Botti^eis (BoTTia, Botti- 
ata, Bottmuc : Bornaloc), a district in Macedo- 
nia, on the right bank of the River Axius, ex 
tended in the time of Thucydides to Pieria on 
the west. It contained the towns of Pella and 
Ichnae near the sea. The Bottiaei were a Thra- 
cian people, who, being driven out of the coun- 
try by the Macedonians, settled in that part of 
the Macedonian Chalcidice, north of Olynthus, 
which was called Bottice (Bottlkt}). 

Bottice. Vid. Bottia. 

[Bovenna (now Cabrera), a small island at 
the northern extremity of Sardinia.] 

Bovianum (Bovianius : now Bojano), the chief 
town of the Pentri in Samnium, was taken by 
the Romans in the Samnite wars, and was col 
onized by Augustus with veterans. 

Bovill^e (Bovillensis), an ancient town in 
Latium, at the foot of the Alban Mountain, on 
the Appian Way, about ten miles from Rome. 
Near it Clodius was killed by Milo (B.C. 52) ; 
and here was the saerarium of the Julia gens. 

Braoara Augusta (now Braga), the chief 
towu of the Callaici Bracarii, in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis : at Braga there are the ruins . of an 
amphitheatre, aqueduct, &a. 

Brachman^e or -I (Bpaxfiavec), is a name used 
by the ancient geographers, sometimes for a 
caste of priests in India (the Brahmins), some- 
times, apparently, for all the people whose re- 
ligion was Brahminism, and sometimes for a 
particular tribe. 

Brachodes or Caput Vada {Bpaxudnc uupa . 
now Ras Kapoudiah), a promontory on the coast 
of Byzacena, in Northern Africa, forming the 
northern headland of the Lesser Syrtis. 

Brachylles or Braohyllas {BpaxvTikrjc, Bpa- 
XvTikac), a Boeotian, supported the Macedonian 
interests in the reigns of Antigonus Doson and 
Philip V. At the battle of Cyuoseephalae, B.C. 
197, he commanded the Boeotian troops in Phil- 
ip's army, and was murdered in 196 at Thebes 
by the Roman party in that city. 

[Bradanus (now Brandano), a river of Lu- 
cania, which falls iito the Sinus Tarentinus : it 
forms the boundary between Lucania and Apu- 

BRANCHin^E (at Bpayx'<- <u> '■ now Jeronda, 
ruins) afterward Didyma or -I (ra Aldv/ua, oi 
Alovfioi), a place on the sea-coast of Ionia, a 
little south of Miletus, celebrated for its temple 
and oracle of Apollo, surnamed Didymeus (At- 
dvfievc). This oracle, which the Ionians held 
in the highest esteem, was said to have been 
founded by Branchus, son of Apollo or Smicrus 
of Delphi, and a Milesian woman. The reputed 
descendants of this Branchus, the Branchida; 

I (oi Bpayx'tSai), were the hereditary ministers of 
this oracle. They delivered up the treasures 

I of the temple to Darius or Xerxes ; and, when 
147 



BRANCHUS. 



BRITANNIA. 



Xerxes returned from Greece, the Branehidae, 
fearing the revenge of the Greeks, begged him 
to remove them to a distant part of his empire. 
They were accordingly settled in Bactria or 
Sogdiana, where their descendants are said to 
have been punished by the army of Alexander 
for the treason of their forefathers. The tem- 
ple, called Didymaeum, which was destroyed by 
Xerxes, was rebuilt, and its ruins contain some 
beautiful specimens of the Ionic order of archi- 
tecture. 

Bbanohus (Bpdyxoc). Vid. Branchida 

Brannovices. Vid. Auxerci. 

[Branodunum (now Brancaster), a city of the 
Iceni or Simeni in Britannia Romana.] 

[Branogenium (now Worcester) or Branoni- 
i;m, a town of the Boduni in Britannia Romana.] 

Brasidas (Bpaotdac), son of Tellis, the most 
distingushed Spartan in the first part of the Pel- 
oponnesian war. In B.C. 424, at the head of 
a small force, he effected a dexterous march 
through the hostile country of Thessaly, and 
joined Perdiccas of Macedonia, who had prom- 
ised co-operation against the Athenians. By 
his military skill, and the confidence which his 
character inspired, he gained possession of 
many of the cities in Macedonia subject to 
Athens ; his greatest acquisition was Amphip- 
olis. In 422 he gained a brilliant victory over 
Cleon, who had been sent, with an Athenian 
force, to recover Amphipolis, but he was slain 
in the battle. He was buried within the city, 
and the inhabitants honored him as a hero by 
yearly sacrifices ,and by games. Vid. Diet, of 
Ant., art. Brasideia. 

BratuspantJum (now Bratuspante, near Bre- 
teuil), the chief town of the Bellovaci in Gallia 
Belgica. 

Brauron (Bpavpuv : Bpavpuvioc : now Vrao- 
na or Vrana), a demus in Attica, on the eastern 
coast, on the River Erasinus, with a celebrated 
temple of Diana (Artemis), who was hence 
called Brauronia, and in whose honor the fes- 
tival Brauronia was celebrated in this place. 
Vid. Diet, of Ant., s. v. 

Bregetio (near Szony, ruins, east of Co- 
morn), a Roman municipium in Lower Panno- 
nia on the Danube, where Valentinian L died. 

Brennus. 1. The leader of the Senonian 
Gauls, who, in B.C. 390, crossed the Apennines, 
defeated the Romans at the Allia, and took 
Rome. After besieging the Capitol for six 
months, he quitted the city upon receiving one 
thousand pounds of gold as a ransom for the 
Capitol, and returned home safe with his booty. 
But it was subsequently related in the popular 
legends that Camillus and a Roman army ap- 
peared at the moment the gold was being 
weighed, that Brennus was defeated by Camil- 
lus, and that he himself and his whole army 
were slain to a man. — 2. The chief leader of 
the Gauls who invaded Macedonia and Greece, 
B.C. 280, 2*79. In 280 Ptolemy Ceraunus was 
defeated by the Gauls under Belgius, and slain 
in battle ; and Brennus in the following year 
penetrated into the south of Greece, but he was 
defeated near Delphi, most of his men were 
slain, and he himself put an end to his own life. 

Breuci, a powerful people of Pannonia, near 
the confluence of the Savus and the Danube, 
took an active part in the insurrection of the 
148 



Pannonians and Dalmatians against the Ro- 
mans, A.D. 6. 

Breuni, a Raetian people, dwelt in the Tyrol 
near the Brenner. (Hor., Garm., iv., 14, 11.) 

Briareus. Vid. ^Eg^on. 

BriuinnLe (BpiKivv'iai), a place in Sicily not 
far from Leontiui. 

Brigantes, the most powerful of the British 
tribes, inhabited the whole of the north of the 
island from the Abus (now Humber) to the Ro- 
man wall, with the exception of the southeast 
corner of Yorkshire, which was inhabited by the 
Parisii. The Brigantes consequently inhabited 
the greater part of Yorkshire, and the whole of 
Lancashire, Durham, Westmoreland, and Cum- 
berland. Their capital was Eboracum. They 
were conquered by Petilius Cerealis in the reign 
of Vespasian. There was also a tribe of Bri- 
gantes in the south of Ireland, between the riv- 
ers Birgus (now Barrow) and Dabrona (now 
Blaekwater), in the counties of Waterford and 
Tipperary. 

Brigantii, a tribe in Viudelicia, on the Lake 
Brigantinus, noted for their robberies. 

Brigantinus Lacus (now Bodem.ee or Lake 
of Constance), also called Venetvs and Acro- 
nius, through which the Rhine flows, was in- 
habited by the Helvetii on the south, by the 
Raetii on the southeast, and by the Viudelici on 
the north. Near an island on it, probably Jtei- 
chenau, Tiberius defeated the Vindehci in a 
naval engagement. 

Brigantium. 1. (Now Briancon), a town of 
the Segusiani in Gaul, at the foot of the Cottian 
Alps. — 2. (Now Corunna), a sea-port town of 
the Lueeuses, in Gallaacia in Spain, with a light- 
house, which is still used for the same purpose, 
having been repaired in 1791, and which is now 
called La Torre de Hercules. — 3. (Now Bregenz), 
a town of the Brigantini Vindehci, on the Lake 
of Constance. 

Brilessus (BpiXtjacoc), a mountain in Attica, 
northeast of Athens. 

Brimo (Bpifiu), " the angry or the terrifying," 
a surname of Hecate and Proserpina (Perseph- 
one.) 

Briniates, a people in Liguria, south of the 
Po, near the modern Brignolo. 

Briseis (BpLOTjig), daughter of Brises of Lyr- 
nessus, fell into the hands of Achilles, but was 
seized by Agamemnon. Hence arose the dire 
feud between the two heroes. Vid. Achilles. 
Her proper name was Hippodamia. 

Britannia (?/ BpeTTavmij or BpsraviKTi, sc. 
vrjaoc, ri Bperravia or Bperavta : Bperravoi, Bpe 
ravoi, Britanni, Brittones), the island of England 
and Scotland, which was also called Albion 
("A^fiiov, 'Ahoviijv, Insida Albiomim). Hibernia 
or Ireland is usually spoken of as a separate 
island, but it is sometimes included under the gen- 
eral name of the Insula Britannic.* Bpera- 
viKal vi/aoi), which also comprehended the small- 
er islands around the coast of Great Britain. The 
etymology of the word Britannia is uncertain, 
but it is derived by most writers from the Celtic 
word brith or brit, " painted," with reference to 
the custom of the inhabitants of staining their 
bodies with a blue color: whatever may be the 
etymology of the word, it is certain that it was 
used by the inhabitants themselves, since in the 
Gaelic the inhabitants are called Brython, and 



BRITANNIA. 

their language Brythoneg. The name Albion is 
probably" derived from the white cliffs of the 
island [for the more correct derivation, vid. Al- 
bion] ; but writers who derived the names of 
all lands and people from a mythical ancestor, 
connected the name with one Albion, the son 
of Neptune. The Britons were Celts, belong- 
ing to that branch of the race called Cymry, 
and were apparently the aboriginal inhabitants 
of the country. Their manners and customs 
were in general the same as the Gauls ; but, 
separated more than the Gauls from intercourse 
with civilized nations, they preserved the Celtic 
religion in a purer state than in Gaul, and hence 
Druidism, according to Cassar, was transplanted 
from Gaul to Britain. The Britons also retained 
many of the barbarous Celtic customs, which 
the more civilized Gauls had laid aside. They 
painted their bodies with a blue color extracted 
from woad, in order to appear more terrible in 
battle, and they had wives in common. At a 
lator time the Belgae crossed over from Gaul, and 
settled on the southern and eastern coasts, driv- 
ing the Britons into the interior of the island. 
It was not till a late period that the Greeks and 
Romans obtained any knowledge of Britain. In 
early times the Phoenicians visited the Scilly 
Islands and the coast of Cornwall for the pur- 
pose of obtaining tin ; but whatever knowledge 
they acquired of the country they jealously kept 
secret, and it only transpired that there were 
Cassiterides, or Tin Islands, in the northern 
parts of the ocean. The first certain know- 
ledge which the Greeks obtained of Britain was 
from the merchants of Massilia, about the time 
of Alexander the Great, and especially from the 
voyages of Pytheas, who sailed round a great 
part of Britain. From this time it was gener- 
ally believed that the island was in the form of 
a triangle, an error which continued to prevail 
even at a later period. Another important mis- 
take, which likewise prevailed for a long time, 
was the position of Britain in relation to Gaul 
and Spain. As the northwestern coast of Spain 
was supposed to extend too far to the north, and 
the western coast of Gaul to run northeast, the 
lower part of Britain was believed to lie between 
Spain and Gaul. The Romans first became per- 
sonally acquainted with the island by Caesar's 
invasion. He twice landed in Britain (B.C. 
55, 54), and though on the second occasion he 
conquered the greater part of the southeast 
of the island, yet he did not take permanent 
possession of any portion of the country, and 
after his departure the Britons continued as in- 
dependent as before. The Romans made no 
further attempts to conquer the island for nearly 
one hundred years. In the reign of Claudius 
(A.D. 43), they again landed in Britain, and per- 
manently subdued the country south of the 
Thames. They now began to extend their con- 
quests over the other parts of the island ; and the 
great victory (61) of Suetonius Paulinus over 
the Britons who had revolted under Boadioea, 
still further consolidated the Romai dominions. 
In the reign of Vespasian, Petilius Cerealis and 
Julius Frontiuus made several successful expe- 
ditions against the Silures and the Bkigantes ; 
and the conquest of South Britain was at length 
finally completed by Agricola, who in seven 
campaigns (78-84) subdued the whole of the 



BRITANNIA. 

island as far north as the Frith' of Forth and the 
Clyde, between which he erected a series of 
forts to protect the Roman dominions from the 
incursions of the barbarians in the north of 
Scotland. The Roman part of Britain was now 
called Britannia Romana, and the northern part, 
inhabited by the Caledonians, Britannia Barbara 
or Caledonia. The Romans, however, gave up 
the northern conquests of Agricola in the reign 
of Hadrian, and made a rampart of turf from 
the ^Estuarium Ituna (now Solway Frith) to the 
German Ocean, which formed the northern 
boundary of their dominions. In the reign of 
Antoninus Pius the Romans again extended their 
boundary, as far as the conquests of Agricola, 
and erected a rampart connecting the Forth and 
the Clyde, the remains of which are now called 
Grimes Dike, Grime in the Celtic language sig- 
nifying great or powerful. The Caledonians 
afterward broke through this wall ; and in con- 
sequence of their repeated devastations of the 
Roman dominions, the Emperor Severus went 
to Britain in 208, in order to conduct the war 
against them in person. He died in the island 
at Eboracum (now York) in 211, after erecting 
a solid stone wall from the Solway to the mouth 
of the Tyne, a little north of the rampart of 
Hadrian. After the death of Severus, the Ro- 
mans relinquished forever all their conquests 
north of this wall. In 287 Carausius assumed 
the purple in Britain, and reigned as emperor, 
independent of Diocletian and Maximian, til] 
his assassination by Allectus in 293. Allectue 
reigned three years, and Britain was recovered 
for the emperors in 296. Upon the resignation 
of the empire by Diocletian and Maximian (305), 
Britain fell to the share of Constantius, who 
died at Eboracum in 306, and his son Constan- 
tine assumed iu the island the title of Caesar. 
Shortly afterward, the Caledonians, who now 
appear under the names of Picts and Scots, 
broke through the wall of Severus, and the 
Saxons ravaged the coasts of Britain ; and the 
declining power of the Roman empire was un- 
able to afford the province any effectual assist- 
ance. In the reign of Valentinian I., Theodo- 
sius, the father of the emperor of that name, 
defeated the Picts and Scots (367) ; but in the 
reign of Honorius, Constantine, who had been 
proclaimed emperor in Britain (407), withdrew 
all the Roman troops from the island, in order 
to make himself master of Gaul. The Britons 
were thus left exposed to the ravages of the 
Picts and Scots, and at length, in 447, they 
called in the assistance of the Saxons, who be- 
came the masters of Britain. The Roman do- 
minions of Britain formed a single province till 
the time of Severus, and were governed by a 
legatus of the emperor. Severus divided the 
country into two provinces, Britannia Superior 
and Inferior, of which the latter contained the 
earliest conquests of the Romans in the south 
of the island, and the former the later conquests 
in the north, the territories of the Silures, Bri 
gantes, <fec. Upon the new division of the prov 
inces in the reign of Diocletian, Britain was 
governed by a vicarins, subject to the prcefecius 
pratorio of Gaul, and was divided into four prov- 
inces: (1.) Britannia Prima, the country south 
of the Thames; (2.) Britannia Secunda, Wales; 
(3.) Maxima. Coisariensis, the country between 
149 



BRITANNICUS. 



BRUTUS. 



the Thames and the Humber ; (4.) Flavia Ccesar- 
iensis, the country between the Humber and the 
Roman wall. Besides these, there was also a 
fifth province, Valentia, which existed for a short 
time, including the conquests of Theodosius be- 
yond the Roman wall. 

Britannicus, son of the Emperor Claudius 
and Messalina, was born A.D. 42. Agrippina, 
the second wife of Claudius, induced the em- 
peror to adopt her own son, and give him pre- 
cedence over Britannicus. This son, the Emper- 
or Nero, ascended the throne in 54, and caused 
Britannicus to be poisoned in the following year. 

[Bkitomaeis, a leader of the Galli Senones, 
who caused the Roman ambassadors to be put 
to death, and their bodies to be mangled with 
every possible indignity : this act brought upon 
him and his people the vengeance of the Ro- 
mans.] 

Beitomartis (Bpirofiapric, usually derived 
from Ppirvg, sweet or blessing, and ftdpric, a 
maiden), was a Cretan nymph, daughter of Jupi- 
ter (Zeus) and Carme, and beloved by Minos, who 
pursued her nine months, till at length she 
leaped into the sea and was changed by Diana 
(Artemis) into a goddess. She seems to have 
been originally a Cretan divinity who presided 
over the sports of the chase; on the introduc- 
tion of the worship of Diana (Artemis) into 
Crete she was naturally placed in some relation 
with the latter goddess ; and at length the two 
divinities became identified, and Britomartis is 
called in one legend the daughter of Latona (Le- 
to). At iEgina Britomartis was worshipped un- 
der the name of Aphaea. 

[Britones. Vid. Britannia.] 

[Brivates Portus (now Bay de Pinnebe ; ac- 
cording to D'Anville, Brest), a harbor of the 
Namnetes in Gallia Lugdunensis.] 

Brixellum (Brixellanus : now Bregella or 
Brescella), a town on the right bank of the Po, in 
Gallia. Cisalpina, where the Emperor Otho put 
himself to death, A.D. 69. 

Brixia (Brixianus : now Brescia), a town in 
Gallia Cisalpina, on the road from Comum to 
Aquileia, through which the River Mella flowed 
(Jlavus quam molli percurrit flumine Mella, Ca- 
tnll., lxvii., 33). It was probably founded by 
the Etruscans, was afterward a town of the 
Libui and then of the Cenomani, and finally 
became a Roman municipium with the rights of 
a colony, 

BRomlus (Bpofiiog), a surname of Bacchus 
(Dionysus), i. e., the noisy god, from the noise of 
the Bacchic revelries (from Bpe/iu). 

Brontes. Vid. Cyclopes. 

BruchIum. Vid. Alexandrea. 

Bructeri, a people of Germany, dwelt on each 
side of the Amisia (now Ems), and extended 
south as far as the Luppia (now Lippe). The 
Bructeri joined the Batavi in their revolt against 
the Romans in A.D. 69, and the prophetic virgin, 
Veleda, who had so much influence among the 
German tribes, was a native of their country. 
A few years afterward the Bructeri were almost 
annihilated by the Chamavi and Angrivarii. 
(Tac., Germ., 33.) 

Brundusium or Brundisium (Bpevrrioiov, Bpev- 
riaiov : Brundusinus : now Brindisi), a town in 
Calabria, on a small bay of the Adriatic, form- j 
ing an excellent harbor, to which the place owed 
. 150 



its importance, fhe Appia Via terminated at 
Brundisium, and it was the usual place of em- 
barkation for Greece and the East. It was an 
ancient town, and probably not of Greek origin, 
although its foundation is ascribed by some 
writers to the Cretans, and by others to Diome- 
des. It was at first governed by kings of its 
own, but was conquered and colonized by the 
Romans, B.C. 245. The poet Pacuvius was born 
at this town, and Virgil died here on his return 
from Greece, B.C. 19. 

Brutidius Niger. Vid. Niger.] 
Bruttianus Lustricus. Vid. Ldstricds.] 
Bruttius. 1. A Roman knight, for whom Ci- 
cero wrote a letter of introduction to M\ Acilius 
Glabrio, proconsul in Sicily in B.C. 46. — 2. A 
philosopher, with whom M. Cicero the younger 
studied at Athens in B.C. 44.] 
[Bruttius Sura. Vid. Sura.] 
Bruttiuji, Bruttius, and Bruttiorum Ages 
(Bperria: Bruttius), more usually called Brut- 
TLij after the inhabitants, the southern extremi- 
ty of Italy, separated from Lucania by a line 
drawn from the mouth of the Laus to Thurii, 
and surrounded on the other three sides by the 
sea. It was the country called in ancient times 
(Enotria and Italia. The country is mountain- 
ous, as the Apennines run through it down to 
the Sicilian Straits ; it contained excellent pas- 
turage for cattle, and the valley produced good 
corn, olives, and fruit. The earliest inhabitants 
of the country were GCnotrians. Subsequently 
some Lucanians, who had revolted from their 
countrymen in Lucania, took possession of the 
country, and were hence called Bruttii or Bret- 
tii, which word is said to mean " rebels" in the 
language of the Lucanians. This people, how 
ever, inhabited ODly the interior of the land ; 
the coast was almost entirely in the possession of 
the Greek colonies. At the close of the second 
Punic war, in which the Bruttii had been the 
allies of Hannibal, they lost their independence, 
and were treated by the Romans with great se- 
verity. They were declared to be public slaves, 
and were employed as lictors and servants of the 
magistrates. 

Brutus, Junius. 1. L., son of M, Junius and 
of Tarquinia, the sister of Tarquinius Superbus, 
His elder brother was murdered by Tarquinius, 
and Lucius escaped his brother's fate only by 
feigning idiocy, whence he received the sur- 
name of Brutus. After Lucretia had stabbed 
herself, Brutus roused the Romans to expel the 
Tarquins ; and upon the banishment of the lat- 
ter, he was elected first consul with Tarquinius 
Collatinus. He loved his country better than 
his children, and put to death his two sons, who 
had attempted to restore the Tarquins. He fell 
in battle the same year, fighting against Aruns, 
the son of Tarquinius. Brutus was the great 
hero in the legends about the expulsion of the 
Tarquins, but we have no means of determin- 
ing what part of the account is historical. — 2. 
D., surnamed Sosva, magister equitum to the 
dictator Q...Publilius Philo, B.C. 339, and consul 
in 325, when he fought against the Vestini. — 
3. D., surnamed Sc^eva, consul 292, conquered 
the Faliscans. — i. M., tribune of the plebs ] 95, 
praetor 191, when he dedicated the temple of 
the Great Idaeau Mother, one of the ambassa- 
dors sent into Asia 189, and cousul 178, when 



BRUTUS. 



BUCEPHALA. 



he f ubdued the Istri. He was again one of the 
ambassadors sent into Asia in 171. — 5. P., trib- 
une of the plebs 195, eurule aedile 192, praetor 
190, propraetor in Further Spain 189. — 6. D., 
surnamed GaiXjEcus (Call^ecus) or Callaicus, 
consul 138, commanded in Further Spain, and 
conquered a great part of Lusitania. From his 
victory over the Gallaaei he obtained his sur- 
name. He was a patron of the poet L. Accius, 
and well versed in Greek and Roman literature. 
— 7. D., son of No. 6, consul 77, and husband 
of Sempronia, who carried on an intrigue with 
Catiline. — 8. D., adopted by A. Postumius Al- 
bums, consul 99, and hence called Brutus Albi- 
nus. He served under Caesar in Gaul and in 
the civil war. He commanded Caesar's fleet at 
the siege of Massilia, 49, and was afterward 
placed over Further GauL On his return to 
Rome Brutus was promised the praetorship and 
the government of Cisalpine Gaul for 44. Nev- 
ertheless, he joined the conspiracy against Cae- 
sar. After the death of the latter (44) he went 
into Cisalpine Gaul, which he refused to sur- 
render to Antony, who had obtained this prov- 
ince from the people. Antony made war against 
him, and kept him besieged in Mutina, till the 
siege was raised in April, 43, by the consuls 
Hirtius and Pansa, and Octavianus. But Bru- 
tus only obtained a short respite. Antony was 
preparing to march against him from the north 
with a large army, and Octavianus, who had 
deserted the senate, was marching against him 
from the south. His only resource was flight, 
but he was betrayed by Camillus, a Gaulish 
chief, and was put to death by Antony, 43. — 9. 
M., praetor 88, belonged to the party of Marius, 
and put an end to his own life in 82, that he 
might not fall into the hands of Pompey, who 
commanded Sulla's fleet. — 10. L., also called 
Damasippus, praetor 82, when the younger Ma- 
rius was blockaded at Prasneste, put to death 
•at Rome by order of Marius several of the most 
eminent senators of the opposite party. — 11. M., 
married Servilia, the half-sister of Cato of 
Utica. He was tribune of the plebs 83, and in 
77 he espoused the cause of Lepidus, and was 
placed in command of the forces in Cisalpine 
Gaul, where he was slain by command of Pom- 
pey. — 12. M., the so-called tyrannicide, son of 
No. 11 and Servilia. He lost his father when he 
was only eight years old, and was trained by his 
uncle Cato in the principles of the aristocratical 
party. Accordingly, on the breaking out of the 
civil war, 49, he joined Pompey, although he 
was the murderer of his father. After the bat- 
tle of Pharsalia, 48, he was not only pardoned 
by Caesar, but received from him the greatest 
marks of confidence and favor. Cassar made 
him governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 46, and prae- 
tor in 44, and also promised him the govern- 
ment of Macedonia. But, notwithstanding all 
the obligations he was under to Caesar, he was 
persuaded by Cassius to murder his benefactor 
under the delusive idea of again establishing the 
republic. Vid. C^esae. After the murder of 
Caesar Brutus spent a short time in Italy, and 
then took possession of the province of Mace- 
donia. He was joined by Cassius, who com- 
manded in Syria, and their united forces were 
opposed to those of Octavianus and Antony. 
Two battles werp fought in the neighborhood 



of Philippi (42), in the former of which Brutus 
was victorious, though Cassius was defeated, 
but in the latter Brutus also was defeated and 
put an end to his own life. Brutus's wife was 
Porcia, the daughter of Cato. Brutus was an 
ardent student of literature and philosophy, but 
he appears to have been deficient in judgment 
and original power. He wrote several works, 
all of which have perished. He was a literary 
friend of Cicero, who dedicated to him his Tim- 
culaiue Disputationes, De Finibus, and Orator, 
and who has given the name of Brutus to his 
dialogue on illustrious orators. 

Beyaxis (Bpva^Lg), an Athenian statuary in 
stone and metal, lived B.C. 372-312, [one of 
the artists engaged in adorning the tomb of 
Mausolus with bas reliefs.] 

Beygi or Beyges (Bpvyoi, Bpiyec), a barbar- 
ous people in the north of Macedonia, probably 
of IUyrian or Thracian origin, who were still in 
Macedonia at the time of the Persian war. The 
Phrygians were believed by the ancients to have 
been a portion of this people, who emigrated to 
Asia in early times. Vid. Pheygia. 

[Beyse2e (Bpvaeai), a city of Laconia, south- 
west from Amyclas, on the Eurotas, contained 
a temple of Bacchus (Dionysus). It had been 
destroyed before the time of Pausanias.] 

[Bubaees (BovddpTjc), son of Megabazus, sent 
as a special messenger to Macedonia, but al- 
lowed himself to be bribed to neglect his duty. 
In conjunction with Artachaees, Bubares super- 
intended the construction of the canal which 
Xerxes made across the isthmus of Athos. Vid. 
Athos.] 

Bubassus (BvSaaaoc), an ancient city of Caria, 
east of Cnidus, which gave name to the bay 
(Bubassius Sinus) and the peninsula (?/ Xepao- 
vrjaoe i] Bv6aoa'iij) on which it stood. Ovid 
speaks of Bubusldes nurus (Met., ix., 643.) 

Bubastis (BoMaaTLc), daughter of Osiris and 
Isis, an Egyptian divinity, whom the Greeks 
identified with Diana (Artemis), since she was 
the goddess of the moon. The cat was sacred 
to her, and she was represented in the form of 
a cat, or of a female with the head of a cat. 

Bubastis or -us (BovGaoric or -oc ; Bov6aori- 
Tijg : ruins at Tel Basta), the capital of the No- 
mos Bubastltes in Lower Egypt, stood on the 
eastern bank of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, 
and was the chief seat of the worship of Bubas- 
tis, whose annual festival was kept here. Un- 
der the Persians the city was dismantled, and 
lost much of its importance. 

Bubulcus, C. Junils, consul B.C. 317, a sec- 
ond time in 313, and a third time in 311 ; in the 
last of these years he carried on the war against 
the Samnites with great success. He was cen- 
sor in 309, and dictator in 302, when he defeat- 
ed the iEquians ; in his dictatorship he dedi- 
cated the temple of Safety which he had vowed 
in his third consulship. The walls of this tem- 
ple were adorned with paintings by C. Fabius 
Pictor. 

Bucephala or -ia (BovKetpaXa or -dXeia : [now 
probably Mung, near] Jheluni), a city on the Hy- 
claspes (now Jhelum), in Northern India (the 
Punjab), built by Alexander after liis battle with 
Porus, in memory of his favorite charger Bu- 
cephalus, whom he buried here. It 6tood at 
the place where Alexander crossed the river 
151 



BUCEPHALUS. 



BUTES. 



tnd where General Gilbert crossed it (February 
1849) after the battle of Goojerat. 

Bucephalus (Bovaeipaloc ), the celebrated horse 
of Alexander the Great, -which Philip purchased 
for thirteen talents, and which no one -was able 
to break in except the youthful Alexander. 
This horse carried Alexander through his Asi- 
atic campaigns, and died in India B.C. 327. 
Vid Bucephala. 

[Buoilianus, called Bucolianus by Appian, 
one of the friends of Caesar -who after-ward con- 
spired against him : he "was one of Caesar's mur- 
derers.] 

[Bucolicum Ostium, one of the mouths of the 
Nile, the same as the Phatnetieum Ostium. 
Vid. Nilus.] 

[Bucolion (BovkoVluv). 1. A son of Laome- 
don and the nymph Calybe. — 2. A prince of Ar- 
cadia, son of Lycaon, grandson of Cypselus.] 

[Bucolion (BovkoViuv, ij), a small city of Ar- 
cadia.] 

Budalla, a town in Lo-wer Pannonia, near Sir- 
mi um, the birth-place of the Emperor Decius. 

Budini (Bovdivoi), a Scytliian people, -who 
d-welt north of the Sauromatae, in the steppes of 
Southern Russia. Herodotus (iv., 108) calls the 
nation yXavaov ts nal irvp'p'ov, -which some inter- 
pret " -with blue eyes and red hair," and others 
" painted blue and r'ed." [In their territory -was 
a mountain called Budinus, near the sources of 
the Borysthenes.] 

Budoron (BovSopov), a foi'tress in Salamis, on 
a promontory of the same name, opposite Me- 
gara. 

Bulis (Boiihic) and Speethias (Zirepdiric), t-wo 
Spartans, voluntarily -went to Xerxes and offer- 
ed themselves for punishment to atone for the 
murder of the heralds "whom Darius had sent to 
Sparta ; but they -were dismissed uninjured by 
the king. 

Bulis (Bov?uc : BoQuoc), a town in Phocis, on 
the Corinthian Gulf, and on the borders of 
Boeotia. 

Bullis (Bullinus, Bullio, -onis, Bulliensis), a 
town of Illyria, on the coast, south of Apollonia, 
capital of the Bulliones. 

Bupalus and his brother Athenis, sculptors 
of Chios, lived about B.C. 500, and are said to 
have made cai'icatures of the poet Hipponax, 
■which the poet requited by the bitterest satires. 

[Buphagium (Bov<b(iyiov), a small town of Ar- 
cadia, on the Buphagus, -which flows between 
the territories of Megalopolis and Heraea.] 

[Buphras (Bovippue), a mountain in Messenia, 
near Pylos. 

[BoporthjMus (BovnopBjxoc), a mountain in Ar- 
golis, between Hermione and Trcezene: on it 
was a temple of Ceres and Proserpina, and one 
of Bacchus.] 

Buprasium (Bovrrpuaiov : -aievc, -aiuv, -aiSrjg), 
an ancient town in Elis, mentioned in the Iliad, 
which had disappeared in the time of Strabo. 

Bura (Bovpa : Bovpaioc, Bovpioc : ruins near 
Kalavrytra), one of the twelve cities of Achaia, 
destroyed by an earthquake, together with He- 
lice, but subsequently rebuilt. 

Burdigala (Bovp<5'iya?t,a : now Bordeaux), the 
capital of the Bituriges Vivisci in Aquitania, on 
the left bank of the Garumua (uow Garonne), 
was a place of great commercial importance, 
and at a later time one of the chief seats of lit- 
152 



erature aud learning. It was the birth-place of 
the poet Ausonius. 

Burgundiones or Burgundii, a powerful na- 
tion of Germany, dwelt originally between the 
Viadus (now Oder) and the Vistula, and were of 
the same race as the Vandals or Goths. They 
pretended, however, to be descendants of the 
Romans, whom Drusus and Tiberius had left in 
Germany as garrisons, but this descent was evi- 
dently invented by them to obtain more easi- 
ly from the Romans a settlement west of the 
Rhine. They were driven out of their original 
abodes between the Oder and the Vistula by 
the Gepidae, and the greater part of them mi- 
grated west and settled in the country on the 
Main, where they carried on frequent wars with 
their neighbors the Alemanni. In the fifth cen- 
tury they settled west of the Alps in Gaul, 
where they founded the powerful kingdom of 
Burgundy. Their chief towns were Geneva 
and Lyons. 

Burii, a people of Germany, dwelt near the 
sources of the Viadus (now Oder) and Vistula, 
and joined the Marcomanni in their war against 
the Romans iu the reign of Marcus Aurelius. 

Burrus, Afranius, was appointed by Clau- 
dius praefectus prastorio A.D. 52, and, in con- 
junction with Seneca, conducted the education 
of Nero. He opposed Nero's tyrannical acts, 
and was at length poisoned by command of the 
emperor, 63. 

Bursa. Vid. Plancus. 

Bursao (Bursaoeusis, Bursavolensis), a town 
of the Autrigonas in Hispania Tarraeonensis. 

Busiris (Bovcipie), king of Egypt, son of Nep- 
tune (Poseidon) and Lysianassa, is said to have 
sacrificed all foreigners that visited Egypt, 
Hercules, on his arrival in Egypt, was likewise 
seized and led to the altar, but he broke bis 
chains and slew Busiris. This myth seems to 
point out a time when the Egyptians were ac- 
customed to offer human sacrifices to their 
deities. 

Busiris {Bovaipic : BovcripirTjc). 1. (Now 
Abousir, ruins), the capital of the Nomos Busi- 
rites in Lower Egypt, stood just in the middle 
of the Delta, on the western bank of the Nile, 
and had a great temple of Isis, the remains of 
which are still standing. — 2. (Now Abousir, near 
Jizeh), a small town a little northwest of 
Memphis. 

[Butas (Bovrac), a Greek poet of uncertain 
age, who wrote in elegiac verse an account of 
early Roman history. Some hues on the fabu- 
lous origin of the Lupercalia are preserved in 
Plutarch's Life of Romulus.] 

Buteo, Fabii's. 1. N„ consul B.C. 247, in 
the first Punic war, was employed in the siege 
of Drepanum. — 2. M., consul 245, also in the 
first Punic war. In 216 he was appointed die 
tator to fill up the vacancies in the senate oc- 
casioned by the battle of Cannae. — 3. Q., praetor 
181, with the province of Cisalpiue Gaul. In 
179 he was one of the triumvirs for founding a 
Latin colony in the territory of the Pisani. 

Butes (Bovrnc). 1. Son of either Teleon, or 
Pandion, or Amycus, and Zeuxippe. He was 
one of the Argonauts, aud priest of Minerva 
(Athena) and of the Ereehthean Neptune (Po- 
seidon). The Attic family of the Butadas or 
Eteobutadae derived their origiu from him ; and 



\ 



BUTHROTUM. 

in the Erechtheum on the Acropolis there was 
an altar dedicated to Butes. — [2. An Argive, 
who went with TIepolemus, son of Hercules, 
to Rhodes : when the latter sailed for Troy, 
' he gave over the island to Butes. — 3. Armor- 
bearer of Anchises, afterward given as a com- 
panion to lulus by his father jEneas. Apollo 
assumed his form to dissuade lulus from con- 
tinuing the fight. — 4. A Trojan companion of 
iEneas, slain by Camilla.] 

Buthrotum ( Bovdpurov : Bovdp6rtog : now Bu- 
trinto), a town of Epirus, on a small peninsula 
opposite Coreyra, was a flourishing sea-port, and 
was colonized by the Romans. 

Buto (Bovtu), an Egyptian divinity, worship- 
ped principally in the town of Buto. She was 
the nurse of Horus and Bubastis, the children of 
Osiris and Isis, and she saved them from the 
persecutions of Typhon by concealing them in 
the floating island of Chemmis. The Greeks 
identified her with Leto, and represented her 
as the goddess of night. The shrew-mouse 
(fivya?v?j) and the hawk were sacred to her. 

Buto (Bovru, Bovrn, or Bo-Croc : Bovroirrig : 
now Baltim ? ruins), the chief city of the Nomos 
Chemmites in Lower Egypt, stood near the Se- 
bennytic branch of the Nile, on the Lake of 
Buto (Bovtikt/ Xifivt], also ~2,e6evvvTiKTj), and was 
celebrated for its oracle of the goddess Buto, in 
honor of whom a festival was held at the city 
every year. 

Buxentum (Buxentinus, Buxentius : now Po- 
licastro), originally Pyxus (Tlv^ovg), a town on 
the west coast of Lucania and on the River 
Buxentius, was founded by Mieythus, tyrant 
of Messana, B.C. 4/71, and was afterward a Ro- 
man colony. 

Bvblini Montes (t& BvUXivd opt]), the mount- 
ains whence the Nile is said to flow in the myth- 
ical geography of iEschylus (Prom., 811). 

Byblis (BvSAig), daughter of Miletus and Ido- 
thea, was in love with her brother Caunus, 
whom she pursued through various lands, till at 
length, worn out with sorrow, she was changed 
into a fountain. 

Byblus (BilfiAoc : Bv6awc : now Jebeil), a very 
ancient city on the coast of Phoenicia, between 
Berytus and Tripolis, a little north of the River 
Adonis. It was the chief seat of the worship of 
Adonis. It was governed by a succession of 
petty princes, the last of whom was deposed by 
Pompey. 

Bylazora (BnAdfupa : now Bilias), a town in 
Paeonia, in Macedonia, on the River Astycus. 

Byrsa (Bvpaa), the citadel of Carthago. 

Byzacium or Byzacena Regio (Bv&klov, Bv- 
CflKlc; x&pa : southern part of Tunis), the south- 
ern portion of the Roman province of Africa. 
Vid. Africa, p. 28, b. 

Byzantini Scriptores, the general name of 
the historians who have given an account of 
the Eastern or Byzantine empire from the time 
of Coustantine the Great, A.D. 325, to the de- 
struction of the empire, 1453. They all wrote 
in Greek, and may be divided into different 
classes. 1. The historians whose collected 
works form an uninterrupted history of the By- 
zantine empire, and whose writings are there- 
fore called Corpus Historic Byzantince. They 
are, (1.) Zonaras, who begins with the creation 
of the world, and brings his liistory down to I 



CABILLONUM. 

1188. (2.) Nicephorus Acominatus, whose ht» 
tory extends from 1188 to 1206. (3.) Nicepho- 
rus Gregoras, whose history extends from 
1204 to 1331. (4.) Laonictjs Chalcondyles, 
whose history extends from 1297 to 1402: his 
work is continued by an anonymous writer to 
1565. — 2. The chronographers, who give a brief 
chronological summary of universal history from 
the creation of the world to their own times. 
These writers are very numerous : the most 
important of them are Georgius Syncellus, 
Theophanes, Nicephorus, Cedrenus, Simeon 
Metaphrastes, Michael Glycas, the authors 
of the Chronicon Pasclwle, &c. — 3. The writers 
who have treated of separate portions of Byzan- 
tine history, such as Zosimus, Procopius, Aga- 
thias, Anna Comnena, <fcc. — 4. The writers who 
have treated of the constitution, antiquities, 
<fec, of the empire, such as Laurentius Lydus, 
Constantinus VI. Porphyrogennetus. A col - 
lection of the Byzantine writers was published 
at Paris by command of Louis XIV., in 36 vols, 
fol., 1645-1711. A reprint of this edition, with 
additions, was published at Venice, in 23 vols, 
fol., 1727-1733. A new edition of the Byzantine 
writers was commenced by Niebuhr, Bonn, 1828, 
8vo, and is still in course of publication. 

Byzantium (Bv&vrtov : Bv&vtioq, Byzantius : 
now Constantinople), a town on the Thraciau 
Bosporus, founded by the Megarians, B.C. 658, 
is said to have derived its name from Byzas, 
the leader of the colony and the son of Neptune 
(Poseidon). It was situated on two hills, was 
forty stadia in circumference, and its acropolis 
stood on the site of the present seraglio. Its 
favorable position, commanding as it did the 
entrance to the Euxine, soon rendered it a place 
of great commercial importance. It was taken 
by Pausanias after the battle of Platasaj, B.C. 
479 ; and it was alternately in the possession 
of the Atheniaus and Lacedaemonians during 
the Peloponnesian war. The Lacedaemonians 
were expelled from Byzantium by Thrasybulus 
in 390, and the city remained independent for 
some years. Afterward it became subject in 
succession to the Macedonians and the Romans. 
In the civil war between Pescennius Niger and 
Severus, it espoused the cause of the former : 
it was taken by Severus A.D. 196, after a siege 
of three years, and a considerable part of it de- 
stroyed. A new city was built by its side (330) 
by Constantine, who made it the capital of the 
empire, and changed its name into Constanti- 
nopolis. 

[Byzas (Bt£ac), mythic founder of Byzanti- 
um, q. w.] 

"''^ - c. 

Cabalia or -is (KaGaAia, Ka6aXic : KaSaAev^, 
Kafiu/Uoc), a small district of Asia Minor, be- 
tween Lyeia and Pamphylia, with a town of the 
same name. 

Cabasa or -us (Kafiatror : Ka6aacT7]^), the chief 
city of the Nomos Cabasltes, in Lower Egypt. 

Cabillonum [or Caballinum (Ka6aA'Aivov : 
nowj Chdlons-sur-Saone), a town of the ^Edui, 
on the Arar (now Saone), in Gallia Lugdunen 
sis, was a place of some commercial activity 
when Caesar was in Gaul (B.C. 53). At a later 
time the Romans kept a small fleet here. 

153 



CABIRA. 



CADYTTS. 



Cabira (tu Ka6t:ipa : now Sivas), a place in 
Pontus, on the borders of Armenia, near Mount 
Paryadres : a frequent residence of Mithradates, 
who was defeated here by Lucullus, B.C. 71. 
Poinpey made it a city, and named it Diospolis. 
Under Augustus it was called Sebaste. 

Cabiri (Kudeipoi), mystic divinities who oc- 
cur in various parts of the ancient world. The 
meaning of their name, their character and na- 
ture, are quite uncertain. They were chiefly 
worshipped at Samothrace, Lemnos, and Im- 
bros, and their mysteries at Samothrace were 
solemnized with great splendor. Vid. Diet, of 
Ant, art. Cabeikia. They were also worship- 
ped at Thebes, Anthedon, Pergamus, and else- 
where. Most of the early writers appear to 
have regarded them as the children of Vulcan 
(Hephaestus), and as inferior divinities dwelling 
in Samothrace, Lemnos, and Imbros. Later 
writers identify them with Ceres (Demeter), 
Proserpina (Persephone), and Rhea, and regard 
their mysteries as solemnized in honor of one 
of these goddesses. Other writers identify the 
Cabiri with the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), 
and others, again, with the Roman penates ; but 
the latter notion seems to have arisen with those 
writers who traced every ancient Roman institu- 
tion to Troy, and thence to Samothrace. 

Cabyle (KaOvXn : KadvXvvoc : now Golowitza), 
a town in the interior of Thrace, conquered by 
M. Lucullus, probably the Goloe of the Byzan- 
tine writers. 

Cacus, son of Vulcan, was a huge giant, who 
inhabited a cave on Mount Aventine, and plun- 
dered the surrounding country. When Her- 
cules came to Italy with the oxen which he had 
taken from Gei-yon in Spain, Cacus stole part 
of the cattle while the hero slept ; and, as he 
dragged the animals into his cave by their tails, 
it was impossible to discover their traces. But 
wben the remaining oxen passed by the cave, 
those ( within began to bellow, and were thus 
discovered, whereupon Cacus was slain by Her- 
cules. In honor of his victory, Hercules dedi- 
cated the ara maxima, which continued to exist 
ages afterward in Rome. 

Cacyparis (KaavwapLc or KaicoTrapic : now 
Cassibili), a river in Sicily, south of Syracuse. 

Cadena (rd, Kddrjva), a strong city of Cappa- 
docia, the residence of the last king, Archelaiis. 

Cadi (Ktidot : Kadr/voe : now Kodits), a city 
of Phrygia Epietetus, on the borders of Lydia. 

Cadmea. Vid. Theb^e. 

Cadmus (Kdd/xoc). 1. Son of Agenor, king of 
Phoenicia, and of Telephassa, and brother of 
Europa. Another legend makes him a native 
of Thebes in Egypt. When Europa was car- 
ried off by Jupiter (Zeus) to Crete, Agenor sent 
Cadmus in search of his sister, enjoining him 
not to return without her. Unable to find her, 
Cadmus settled in Thrace, but, having consult- 
ed the oracle at Delphi, he was commanded by 
the god to follow a cow of a certain kind, and 
to build a town on the spot where the cow 
should sink down with fatigue. Cadmus found 
the cow in Phocis, and followed her into Bceotia, 
where she sank down on the spot on which Cad- 
mus built Cadmea, afterward the citadel of 
Thebes. Intending to scrifice the cow to Mi- 
nerva (Athena), he sent some persons to the 
neighboring well of Mars (Ares) to fetch water. 
154 



This well was guarded by a dragon, a son of 
Mars (Ares), who killed the men sent by Cad- 
mus. Thereupon Cadmus slew the dragon, 
and, on the advice of Minerva (Athena), sowed 
the teeth of the monster, out of which armed 
men grew up, called Sparti or the Sown, who 
killed each other, with the exception of five, 
who were the ancestors of the Thebans. Mi- 
nerva (Athena) assigned to Cadmus the govern- 
ment of Thebes, and Jupiter (Zeus) gave him 
Harmonia for his wife. The marriage solem- 
nity was honored by the presence of all the 
Olympian gods in the Cadmea. Cadmus gave 
to Harmonia the famous peplus and necklace 
which he had received from Vulcan (Hephaes- 
tus) or from Europa, and he became by her the 
father of Autonoe, Ino, Semele, Agave, and 
Polydorus. Subsequently Cadmus and Har- 
monia quitted Thebes, and went to the Enche- 
lians : this people chose Cadmus as their king, 
and with his assistance they conquered the II- 
lyrians. After this Cadmus had another son, 
whom he called Ulyrius. In the end, Cadmus 
and Harmonia were changed into serpents, and 
were removed by Jupiter (Zeus) to Elysium. 
Cadmus is said to have introduced into Greece, 
from Phoenicia or Egypt, an alphabet of sixteen 
letters, and to have been the first who worked 
the mines of Mount Pangseon in Thrace. The 
story of Cadmus seems to suggest the immigra- 
tion of a Phoenician or Egyptian colony into 
Greece, by meaDs of which the alphabet, the 
art of mining, and civilization, came into the 
country. But many modern writers deny the 
existence of any such Phoenician or Egyptian 
colony, and regard Cadmus as a Pelasgian di- 
vinity. — 2. Of Miletus, a son of Pandion, th* 
earliest Greek historian or logographer, lived 
about B.C. 540. He wrote a work on the foun- 
dation of Miletus and the earliest history of 
Ionia generally, in foul - books, but the work ex- 
tant in antiquity under the latter name was con- 
sidered a forgery. 

Cadmus (Kdd/zof). 1. (Now Mount Baba), a 
mountain in Caria, on the borders of Phrygia, 
containing the sources of the rivers Cadmus 
and Lycus. — 2. A small river of Phrygia, flowing 
north into the Lycus. 

Cadurci, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, in the 
country now called' Qaerci (a corruption of Ca- 
durci), were celebrated for their manufactories ol 
linen, coverlets, &o. Their capital was Divona, 
afterward Civitas Cadukcorum, now Cahors, 
where are the remains of a Roman amphitheatre 
and of an aqueduct. A part of the town still 
bears the name les Cadurcas. 

CadCsh (Kadovoiot) or Gel.e (TT/?.ai), a pow- 
erful Scythian tribe in the mountains southwest 
of the Caspian, on the borders of Media Atro- 
patene. Under the Medo-Persian empire they 
were troublesome neighbors, but the Syrian 
kings appear to have reduced them to tributary 
auxiliaries. 

Cadytis (KudvTic), according to Herodotus, a 
great city of the Syrians of Palestine, not much 
smaller than Sardis, was taken by Necho, king 
of Egypt, after his defeat of the Syrians" at 
Magdolus. It is now pretty well established 
that by Cadytis is meant Jerusalem, and that 
the battle mentioned by Herodotus is that in 
which Necho defeated and slew King Josiah at 



C^ECILIA. 



ODIOUS. 



Megidd-i, B.C. 608. (Compare Herod., ii., 159 ; 
iii., 5, with 2 Kings, xxiii., and 2 Ohron., xxxv., 
xxxvi.1. 

Cecilia. 1. Caia, the Roman name of Tan- 
aquil, wife of Tarquinius Priscus. — [2. Me- 
tella, daughter of Q. Cascilius Metellus Mace- 
donicus, consul B.C. 143, married C. Servilius 
Vatia, and was by him mother of P. Servili- 
us Vatia Isauricus, consul B.C. 79; a second 
daughter married P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica, 
consul B.C. 111. — 3. Daughter of L. Caecilius 
Metellus Calvus, married to L. Lioinius Lucul- 
lus, and by him mother of the celebrated Lucul- 
lus, the conqueror of Mithradates. — 4. Daugh- 
ter of Q. Csecilius Metellus Balearicus, consul 
B.C. 123, was wife of Ap. Claudius Pulcher.] — 
5. Metella, daughter, of. L. Metellus Dalmati- 
cus, consul B.C. 119, was first married to ^Emil- 
ius Scaurus, consul in 115, aud afterward to 
the dictator Sulla. She fell ill in 81, duriDg the 
celebration of Sulla's triumphal feast ; and, as 
her recovery was hopeless, Sulla, for some re- 
ligious reasons, sent her a bill of divorce, aud 
had her removed from his house, but honored 
her memory with a splendid funeral. — 6. Daugh- 
ter of T. Pompouius Atticus, called Caeeilia, 
because her father took the name of his uncle, 
Q. Caecilius, by whom he was adopted. She 
was married to M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Vid. 
Atticus. 

Cecilia Gens, plebeian, claimed descent 
from C^eculus, the founder of Praeneste, or 
Caecas, the companion of ^Eueas. Most of the 
Caecilii are mentioned under their cognomens, 
Bass:;s, Meiellus, Rufus : for others, see be- 
low. 

C/ecilius. 1. Q., a wealthy Roman eques, 
who adopted his nephew Atticus in his will, and 
left the latter a fortune of ten millions of ses- 
terces. — 2. CiEciLius Calactinus, a Greek rhet- 
orician at Rome in the time of Augustus, was 
a native of Cale Acte in Sicily (whence his 
name Calactinus). He wrote a great number 
of works on rhetoric, grammar, and historical 
subjects. All these works are now lost ; but 
they were in great repute with the rhetori- 
cians and critics of the imperial period. — 3. CjE- 
cilius Statius, a Roman comic poet, the im- 
mediate predecessor of Terence, was by birth an 
Iusubrian Gaul, and a native of Milan. Being a 
slave, he bore the servile appellation of Statius, 
which was afterward, probably when he receiv- 
ed his freedom, converted into a sort of cogno 
men, and he became known as Csecilius Sta- 
tius. He died B.C. 168. We have the titles 
of forty of his dramas, but only a few fragments 
of them are preserved. They appear to have 
belonged to the class of Palliatce, that is, were 
free translations or adaptations of the works of 
Greek writers of the new comedy. The Ro- 
mans placed Csecilius in the first rank of comic 

f oets, classing him with Plautus and Terence. 
The best edition of the fragments is by Spen- 
gel, Monachii, 1829, 4to ; they are given also 
in Bothe's Poetce Scenici Latini, vol. v., p. 128, 
segq.] 

Caecina, the name of a family of the Etrus- 
can city of Volaterraj, probably derived from the 
River Caecina, which flows by the town. 1. A. 
C*oina, whom Cicero defended in a law-suit, 
B.C. 69. — 2. A. Cecina, son of the preceding, 



published a libillous work against Caesar, and 
was, in consequence, sent into exile after the 
battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48. He afterward 
joined the Pompeians in Africa, and upon the 
defeat of the latter in 46, he surrendered to 
Caesar, who spared his life. Cicero wrote sev- 
eral letters to Caecina, and speaks of him as a 
mau of ability. Cseeina was the author of a 
work on the Etrusca Disci plina. — 3. A. Caecina 
Severus, a distinguished general in the reigus 
of Augustus aud Tiberius. He was governor 
of Mcesia in A.D. 6, when he fought against the 
two Batos in the neighboring provinces of Dal- 
matia and Pannouia. Vid. Bato. In 15 he 
fought as the legate of Germanicus against 
Arminius, and, in consequence of his success, 
received the insignia of a triumph. — 4. Gecina 
Tuscus, son of Nero's nurse, appointed govern- 
or of Egypt by Nero, but banished for making 
use of the baths which had been erected in an- 
ticipation of the emperor's arrival in Egypt. He 
returned from banishment on the death, of JNero, 
A.D. 68. — 5. A. Caecina Alienus, was quaes- 
tor in Baetica in Spain at Nero's death, and was 
one of the foremost in joining the party of Gal- 
ba. He was rewarded by Galba with the com- 
mand of a legion in Upper Germany ; but being 
detected ia embezzling some of the public mon- 
ey, the emperor ordered him to be prosecuted. 
Caeciua, in revenge, joined Vitellius, and was 
sent by the latter into Italy with an army of 
thirty thousand men toward the end of 68. 
After ravaging the country of the Helvetii, he 
crossed the Alps by the pass of the Great St. 
Bernard, and laid siege to Placeutia, from which 
he was repulsed by the troops of Otho, who had 
succeeded Galba. Subsequently he was joined 
by Fabius Valens, another general of Vitellius, 
and their united forces gained a victory over 
Otho's army at Bedriacum. Vitellius having 
thus gained the throne, Caecina was made con- 
sul on the first of September, 69, and was short- 
ly afterward sent against Antoninus Primus, the 
general of Vespasian. But he again proved a 
traitor, and espoused the cause of Vespasian. 
Some years afterward (79) he conspired against 
Vespasian, aud was slain by order of Titus. — 
6. Decius Albinus Caecina, a Roman satirist 
in the time of Arcadius and Honorius. 

C^ecinus (Kaucivoc or Kainivoc), a river in 
Bruttium, flowing into the Sinus Scylacius by 
the town C^ecinum. 

Gecubus Ager, a marshy district in Latium, 
bordering on the Gulf of Amyclae, close to Fundi, 
celebrated for its wine (Ccecubum) in the age of 
Horace. In the time of Pliny the reputation 
of this wine was entirely gone. Vid. Diet, of 
Ant., p. 1207, a, second edition. 

C/eculus, an ancient Italian hero, son of Vul 
can, is said to have founded Praeueste. 

[Cameras, M. 1. A Roman centurion, was 
elected commander by the Romans that had fled 
to Veii after the destruction of the city by the 
Gauls, B.C. 390 : he is said to have carried to 
Camillus the decree of the senate appointing 
him to the command. — 2. C, one of the legates 
of the consul L. Papirius Cursor, commanded 
the cavalry in the great battle with the Sam- 
nites, B.C. 293.] 

[Copious, two mythical personages men- 
tioned in the ^Eneid of Virgil.] 

155 



CELES. 



CAESAR. 



Celes or C^lius Vibenna, the leader of an 
Etruscan army, is said to have come to Rome 
in the reign either of Romulus or of Tarquinius 
Priseus, and to have settled 'with his troops on 
the hill called after him the Caelian. 

C^elius or Ccelius. 1. Antipater. Vid. 

AnTIPATER. 2. AuRELIANUS. Vid. AuEELIA- 

nus. — 3. Caldus. Vid. Caldus. — i. Rufus. Vid. 
Rufus. 

C^elIus or CcslIus Mons. Vid. Roma. 

C^en'e (KaLva'i: now Senn), a city of Meso- 
potamia, on the west bank of the Tigris, oppo- 
site the mouth of the Lycus. 

Gene, CLenefolis, or Neapolis {Kaivi) koKiq, 
fieri nolle; : now Keneh), a city of Upper Egypt, 
on the right bank of the Nile, a little below Cop- 
tos, and opposite to Tentyra. 

Ceneus (Kaivevc), one of the Lapithae, son 
of Elatus or Coronus, was originally a maiden 
named C^enis, who was beloved by Neptune 
(Poseidon), and was by this god changed into a 
man, and rendered invulnerable. As a man, 
he took part in the Argonautic expedition and 
the Calydonian hunt. In the battle between 
the Lapithae and the Centaurs at the marriage 
of Pirithous, he was buried by the Centaurs 
under a mass of trees, as they were unable to 
kill him, but he was changed into a bird. In 
the lower world Caeneus recovered his female 
form. (Virg. jEn., vi., 448.) 

Cjsni or C^enIci, a Thracian people between 
the Black Sea and the Panysus. 

Genina (Caeninensis), a town of the Sabines 
in Latium, whose king, Acron, is said to have 
carried on the first war against Rome. After 
their defeat, most of the inhabitants removed to 
Rome. 

Cmms. Vid. CjEneus. 

Cjenys (Kalvvg : now Capo di Cavallo or Coda 
di Volpe), a promontory of Bruttium opposite 
Sicily. 

CjEparius, M., of Tarracina, one of Catiline's 
conspirators, was to. induce the shepherds in 
Apulia to rise: he escaped from the city, but 
was overtaken in his flight, and was executed 
with the other conspirators, B.C. 63. 

C^epio, Servilius. 1. Cn., consul B.C. 253, 
in the first Punic war, sailed with his colleague, 
C. Sempronius Blaesus, to the coast of Africa. — 
2. Cn., curule sedile 207, praetor 205, and con- 
sul 203, when he fought against Hannibal near 
Croton, in the south of Italy. He died in the 
pestilence in 174. — 3. Cn., son of No. 2. curule 
eedile 179, pi'3etor 174, with Spain as his pro- 
vince, and consul in 169. — 4. Q., son of No. 3, 
consul 142, was adopted by Q. Fabius Maximus. 
Vid. Maximus. — 5. Cn., son of No. 3, consul 141, 
and censor 125. — 6. Cn., son of No. 3, consul 
140, carried on war against Viriathus in Lusi- 
tania, and induced two of the friends of Viria- 
thus to murder the latter — 7. Q., son of No. 6, 
was consul 106, when he proposed a law for 
restoring the judicia to the senators, of which 
they had been deprived by the Sempronia lex 
of C. Gracchus. He was afterward sent into 
Gallia Narbonensis to oppose the Cimbri, and 
was in 105 defeated by the Cimbri, along with 
the consul Cn. Mallius or Manlius, on which oc- 
casion eighty thousand soldiers and forty thou- 
sand camp-followers are said to have perished. 
Caapio survived the battle, but ten years after- 
156 



ward (95) he was brought to trial by the "tribune 
C. Norbanus on account of his misconduct in 
this war. He was condemned and cast into 
prison, where, according to one account, he 
died, but it was more generally stated that he 
escaped from prison and lived in exile at Smyr- 
na. — 8. Q., quaestor urbanus 100, opposed the 
lex frumentaria of Saturninus. In 91 he op- 
posed the measures of Drusus, and accused two 
of the most distinguished senators, M. Scaurns 
and L. Philippus. He fell in battle in the Social 
War, 90. 

C^epio, Fannius, conspired with Murena against 
Augustus B.C. 22, and was put to death. 

C^ere (Caerites, Caeretes, Caeretani : now Cer- 
velri), called by the Greeks Agtlla ("AyvTiTia : 
poet. Agyllina urbs, Virg., u£n., vii. 652), a city 
in Etruria, situated on a small river (Casritis 
amnis), west of Veii, and fifty stadia from the 
coast. It was an ancient Pelasgic city, the 
capital of the cruel Mezentius, and was after- 
ward one of the twelve Etruscan cities, with a 
territory extending apparently as far as the 
Tiber. In early times Caere was closely allied 
with Rome ; and when the latter city was taken 
by the Gauls, B.C. 390, Caere gave refuge to the 
Vestal virgins. It was from this event that the 
Romans traced the origin of their word ccerimo- 
nia. The Romans, out of gratitude, are said to 
have conferred upon the Caerites the Roman 
franchise without the suffragium,* though it is 
not improbable that the Casrites enjoyed this 
honor previously. In 353, however, Caere join- 
ed Tarquinii in making war against Rome, but 
was obliged to purchase a truce with Rome for 
one hundred years by the forfeiture of half of 
its territory. From this time Caere gradually 
sunk in importance, and was probably destroy- 
ed in the wars of Marius and Sulla. It was re- 
stored by Drusus, who made it a municipium ; 
and it continued to exist till the thirteenth cen 
tury, when part of the inhabitants removed to 
a site about three miles off, on which they be- 
stowed the same name' (now Ceri), while the 
old town was distinguished by the title of Vetus 
or Ccere Vetere, corrupted into Cervetri which is 
a small village, with one hundred or two hund- 
red inhabitants. Here have been discovered, 
within the last few years, the tombs of the an 
cient Caere, many of them in a state of complete 
preservation. The country round Caere pro 
duced wine and a great quantity of corn, and in 
its neighborhood were warm baths, which were 
much frequented. Caere used as its sea-port the 
town of Pyrgi. 

Cjsrellia, a Roman lady frequently mention- 
ed in the correspondence of Cicero as distin 
guished for her acquirements and her love of 
philosophy. 

[Caerites. Vid. Cere.] 
Caesar, the name of a patrician family of the 
Julia gens, which traced its origin to lulus, the 
son of ^Eneas. Vid. Julia Gens. Various ety- 
mologies of the name are given by the ancient 
writers; but it is probably connected with tho 

* The Crerites appear to have been the first body of 
Roman citizens who did not enjoy the suffrage. Thus, 
when a Roman citizen was struck out of his tribe by the 
censors and made an agrarian, he was said to become 
one of the Caerites, since he had lost the suffrage : henco 
we find the expressions in tabulas Caritum referre and 
ararium facerc used as synonymous. 



CESAR, JULIUS. 



CAESAR, JULIUS. 



Latin word cces-ar-ies, and the Sanscrit kesa, 
" hair," for it is in accordance with the Roman 
custom for a surname to be given to an indi- 
vidual from some peculiarity in his personal ap- 
pearance. The name was assumed by Augus- 
tus as the adopted son of the dictator 0. Julius 
Caesar, and was by Augustus handed down to 
his adopted son Tiberius. It continued to be 
used by Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, as mem- 
bers either by adoption or female descent of 
Caesar's family ; but, though the family became 
extinct with Nero, succeeding emperors still 
retained the name as part' of their titles, and it 
was the practice to prefix it to their own name, 
as, for instance, Imperator Cwsar Domitiauus Au- 
gustus. When Hadrian adopted iElius Verus, 
he allowed the latter to take the title of Caesar ; 
and from this time, though the title of Augustus 
continued to be confined to the reigning prince, 
that of Ccesar was also granted to the second 
person in the state and the heir presumptive to 
the throne. 

Cesar, Julius. 1. Sex., praetor B.C. 208. 
with Sicily as his province. — 2. Sex., curule 
aedile 165, when the Hecyra of Terence was 
exhibited at the Megalesian games, and consul 
157. — 3. L., consul 90, fought against the Socii, 
and in the course of the same year proposed the 
Lex Julia de Civitate, which granted the citizen- 
ship to the Latins and the Socii who had re- 
mained faithful to Rome. Caesar was censor 
in 89 ; he belonged to the aristoeratical party, 
and was put to death by Marius in 87. — 4. C, 
surnanied Strabo Vopiscus, brother of No. 3, 
was curule aedile 90, was a candidate for the 
consulship in 88, and was slain along with his 
brother by Marius in 87. He was one of the 
chief orators and poets of his age, and is one of 
the speakers in Cicero's dialogue De Oratore. 
Wit was the chief characteristic of his oratory ; 
but he was deficient in power and energy. The 
names of two of his tragedies are preserved, the 
Adrastus and Tecmessa. — 5. L., son of No. 3, 
and uncle by his sister Julia of M. Antony the 
triumvir. He was consul 64, and belonged, like 
his father, to the aristoeratical party. He ap- 
pears to have deserted this party afterward: 
we find him in Gaul in 52 as one of the legates 
of C. Caesar, and he continued in Italy during 
the civil war. After Caesar's death (44) he 
sided with the senate in opposition to his nephew 
Antony, and was, in consequence, proscribed by 
the latter in 43, but obtained his pardon through 
the influence of his sister Julia. — 6. L., son of 
No. 5, usually distinguished from his father by 
the addition to his name of filius or adolescens. 
He joined Pompey on the breaking out of the 
csivil war in 49, and was sent by Pompey to 
Caesar with proposals of peace. In the course 
of the same year he crossed over to Africa, 
where the command of Clupea was intrusted to 
him. In 46 he served as proquaestor to Cato in 
Utica, and after the death of Cato he surren- 
dered to the dictator Caesar, and was shortly 
afterward put to death, but probably not by the 
dictator's orders. — 7. C, the father of the dic- 
tator, was praetor, but in what year is uncertain, 
and died suddenly at Pisae in 84. — 8. Sex., 
brother of No. 7, was consul 91. — 9. 0, the Dic- 
tator, son of No. 7 and of Aurelia, was born on 
the 12th of July, 100, in the consulship of C. I 



Marius (VI.) and L. Valerius Flaccus, and was 
consequently six years younger than Pompey 
and Cicero. He had nearly completed his fifty- 
sixth year at the time of his murder, on the 15th 
of March, 44. Caesar was closely connected 
with the jjopular party by the marriage of his 
aunt Julia with the great Marius ; and in 83, 
though only seventeen years of age, he married 
Cornelia, the daughter of L. Cinna, the chief 
leader of the Marian party. Sulla commanded 
him to put away his wife, but he refused to 
obey him, and was consequently proscribed. 
He concealed himself for some time in the 
country of the Sabines, till his friends obtained 
his pardon from Sulla, who is said to have ob- 
served, when they pleaded his youth, " that that 
boy would some day or other be the ruiu of the 
aristocracy, for that there were many Mariuses 
in him." Seeing that he was not safe at Rome, 
he went to Asia, where he served his first cam- 
paign under M. Minucius Thermus, and, at the 
capture of Mytilene (80), was rewarded with a 
civic crown for saving the life of a fellow-sol- 
dier. On the death of Sulla in 78, he returned 
to Rome, and in the following year gained great 
renown as an orator, though he was only twen- 
ty-two years of age, by his prosecution of Cn. 
Dolabella on account of extortion in his prov- 
ince of Macedonia. To perfect himself in ora- 
tory, he resolved to study in Rhodes under 
Apollonius Molo, but on his voyage thither he 
was captured by pirates, and only obtained his 
liberty by a ransom of fifty talents. At Mile- 
tus he manned some vessels, overpowered the 
pirates, and conducted them as prisoners to 
Pergamus, where he crucified them, a punish- 
ment with which he had frequently threatened 
them in sport when he was their prisoner. He 
then repaired to Rhodes, where he studied un- 
der Apollonius, and shortly afterward returned 
to Rome. He now devoted all his energies 
to acquire the favor of the people. His lib- 
erality was unbounded, and as his private for- 
tune was not large, he soon contracted enor- 
mous debts. But he gained his object, and 
became the favorite of the peeple, and was 
raised by them in succession to the high offices 
of the state. He was quaestor in 68, and aedile 
in 65, when he spent enormous sums upon the 
public games and buildings. He was said by 
many to have been privy to Catiline's con- 
spiracy in 63, but there is no satisfactory evi 
dence of his guilt, and it is improbable that he 
would have embarked in such a rash scheme. In 
the debate in the senate on the punishment of 
the conspirators, he opposed their execution in a 
very able speech, which made such an impres- 
sion, that their lives would have been spared but 
for the speech of Cato in reply. In the course 
of this year (63), Caesar was elected Pon- 
tifex Maximus, defeating the other candidates, 
Q. Catulus and Servilius Isauricus, who had 
both been consuls, and were two of the most, 
illustrious men in the state. In 62 Caesar 
was praetor, and took an active part in support- 
ing the tribune Metellus in opposition to his col- 
league Cato; in consequence of the tumults 
that ensued, the senate suspended both Caesar 
and Metellus from their offices, but were obliged 
to reinstate him in his dignity after a few days, 
In the following yeai (61) Caesar went as jire- 



CAESAR, JULIUS. 

praetor into Further Spam, where he gained 
great victories over the Lusitauians. On his 
return to Rome he became a candidate for the 
consulship, and was elected, notwithstanding 
the strenuous opposition of the aristocracy, who 
succeeded, however, in carrying the election of 
Bibulus as his colleague, who was one of the 
warmest supporters of the aristocracy. After ' 
his election, but before he entered upon the 
consulship, he formed that coalition with Pom- 
pey and M. Crassus, usually known by the name 
of the first triumvirate. Pompey had become 
estranged from the aristocracy since the senate 
had opposed the ratification of his acts in Asia 
and an assignment of lands which he had prom- 
ised to his veterans. Crassus, in consequence 
of his immense wealth, was one of the most 
powerful men at Rome, but was a personal ene- 
my of Pompey. They were reconciled by 
means of Caesar, and the three entered into an 
agreement to support one another, and to divide 
the power in the state between them. In 59 
Caesar was consul, and being supported by Pom- 
pey and Crassus, he was able to carry all his 
measures. Bibulus, from whom the senate had 
expected so much, could offer no effectual oppo- 
sition, and, after making a vain attempt to 
resii^jCaesar, shut himself up in his own house, 
and -^id not appear again in rjublic till the ex- j 
piraljon of his consulship. Caesar's first meas- I 
ure %vas an agrarian law, by which the rich 
Campanian plain was divided among the poorer 
citizens. He next gained the favor of the equi- 
tes by relieving them from one third of the 
sum which they had agreed to pay for the farm- 
ing of the taxes in Asia. He then obtained the 
confirmation of Pompey's acts. Having thus 
gratified the people, the equites, and Pompey, 
he was easily able to obtain lor himself the prov- 
inces which he wished. By a vote of the peo- 
ple, proposed by the tribune Vatinius, the prov- 
inces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum were 
granted to Caesar, with three legions, for five 
years ; and the senate added to his government 
the province of Transalpine Gaul, with another 
legion, for five years also, as they saw that a 
bill would be proposed to the people for that 
purpose if they did not grant the province them- 
selves. Caesar foresaw that the struggle be- 
tween the different parties at Rome must event- 
ually be terminated by the sword, and he had 
therefore resolved to obtain an army, which he 
might attach to himself by victories and re- 
wards. In the course of the same year Caesar 
united himself more closely to Pompey by giving 
him his daughter Julia in marriage. During the 
next nine years Caesar was occupied with the 
subjugation of Gaul. He conquered the whole 
of Transalpine Gaul, which had hitherto been 
independent of the Romans, with the exception 
of the southeastern part called Provincia; he 
twice crossed the Rhine, and twice landed in 
Britain, which had bt in previously unknown to 
the Romans. In his first campaign (58) Caesar 
conquered the Helvetii, who had emigrated 
from Switzerland with the intention of settling 
in Gaul. He next defeated Ariovistus, a Ger- 
man king, who had taken possession of part of 
the territories of the ^Edui and Sequaui, and 
pursued him as far as the Rhine. At the con- 
clusion of the campaign Caesar went into Cisal- 
J58 



CAESAR, JULIUS. 

pine Gaul to attend to the civil duties of hia 
province, and to keep up his communication 
with the various parties at Rome. During the 
whole of his campaigns in Gaul, he spent the 
greater part of the winter in Cisalpine Gaul 
In his second campaign (57) Caesar carried on 
war with the Belgse, who dwelt in the northeast 
of Gaul, between the Sequana (now Heine) and 
the Rhine, and after a severe struggle completely 
subdued them. Caesar's third campaign in Gaul 
(56) did not commence till late in the year. He 
was detained some months in the north of 
Italy by the state of affairs at Rome. At Luca 
(now Lucca) he had interviews with most of the 
leading men at Rome, among others with Pom- 
pey and Crassus, who visited him in April. He 
made arrangements with them for the contin- 
uance of their power : it was agreed between 
them that Crassus and Pompey should be the con- 
suls for the following year ; that Crassus should 
have the province of Syria, Pompey the two 
Spains; and that Caesar's government, which 
would expire at the end of 54, should be prolong- 
ed for five years after that date. After making 
these arrangements he crossed the Alps, and car- 
ried on war with the Veneti and the other states 
in the northwest of Gaul, who had submitted to 
Crassus, Caesar's legate, in the preceding year, 
but who had now risen in arms against the Ro- 
mans. They were defeated and obliged to sub- 
mit to Caesar, and during the same time Crassus 
conquered Aquitania, Thus, in three cam- 
paigns, Caesar subdued the whole of Gaul ; but 
the people made several attempts to recover 
their independence ; and it was not till their re- 
volts had been again and again put down by Cae- 
sar, and the flower of the uation had perished in 
battle, that they learned to submit to the Ro- 
man yoke. In his fourth campaign (55) Caesar 
crossed the Rhine in order to strike terror into 
the Germans, but he only remained eighteen 
days on the further side of the river. Late in 
the summer he invaded Britain, but more with 
the view of obtaining some knowledge of the 
island from personal observation than with the 
intention of permanent conquest at present. He 
sailed from the port Itius (probably Witsand, 
between Calais and Boulogne), and effected a 
landing somewhere near the South Foreland, 
after a severe struggle with the natives. The 
late period of the year compelled him to return 
to Gaul after remaining only a short time in the 
island. In this year, according to his arrange- 
ment with Pompey and Crassus, who were now 
consuls, his government of the Gauls and Illyri- 
cum was prolonged for five years, namely, 
from the first of January, 53, to the end of De- 
cember, 49. Caesar's fifth campaign (54) was 
chiefly occupied with his second invasion of 
Britain. He landed in Britain at the same place 
as in the former year, defeated the Britons in a 
series of engagements, and crossed the Tamesis 
(now Thames). The Britons submitted, and 
promised to pay au annual tribute; but their 
subjection was only nominal, for Caesar left no 
garrisons or military establishments behind him, 
and Britain remained nearly one hundred years, 
longer independent of the Romans. During the 
winter, one of the Roman legions, which had 
been stationed, under the command of T. Tituri- 
us Sabiuus and L. Aliruneuleius Cotta, in the 



CAESAR, JULIUS. 



CJDSAR, JULIUS. 



country of the Eburones, was cut to pieces by 
Ambiorix and the Eburones. Ambiorix then 
proceeded to attack the camp of Q. Cicero, the 
brother of the orator, -who was stationed with 
a legion among the Nervii; but Cicero defend- 
ed himself with bravery, and was at length re- 
lieved by Caasar in person. In September of 
this year, Julia, Caesar's only daughter and Pom- 
pey's wife, died in childbirth. In Caesar's sixth 
campaign (53) several of the Gallic nations re- 
volted, but Caasar soon compelled them to re- 
turn to obedience. The Treviri, who had re- 
volted, had been supported by the Germans, and 
Caasar accordingly again crossed the Rhine, but 
made no permanent conquests on the further 
side of the river. Caesar's seventh campaign 
(52) was the most arduous of all. Almost all 
the nations of Gaul rose simultaneously in re- 
volt, and the supreme command was given to 
Vercingetorix, by far the ablest general that 
Caesar had yet encountered. After a most se- 
vere struggle, in which Caesar's military genius 
triumphed over every obstacle, the war was 
brought to a conclusion by the defeat of the 
Gauls before Alesia and the surrender of this 
city. The eighth and ninth campaigns (51, 50) 
were employed in the final subjugation of Gaul, 
which had entirely submitted to Caasar by the 
middle of 50 Meanwhile, an estrangement had 
taken place between Caesar and Pompey. Cae- 
sar's brilliant victories had gained him fresh 
popularity and influence, and Pompey saw with 
ili-disguised mortification that he was becoming 
the second person in the state. He was thus 
led to join agaiu the aristocratical party, by the 
assistance of which he could alone hope to re- 
tain his position as the chief man in the Roman 
state. The great object of this party was to de- 
prive Caasar of his command, and to compel him 
to come to Rome as a private man to sue for 
the consulship. They would then have formal- 
ly accused him, and as Pompey was in the neigh- 
borhood of the city at the head of an army, the 
trial would have been a mockery, and his con- 
demnation would have been certain. Caesar of- 
fered to resign his command if Pompey would do 
the same ; but the senate would not listen to any 
compromise. Accordingly, on the 1st of Janua- 
ry, 49, the senate passed a resolution that Caasar 
should disband his army at a certain day, and 
that if he did not do so, he should be regarded 
as an enemy of the state. Two of the tribunes, 
M. Antonius and Q. Cassius, put their veto 
upon this resolution, but their opposition was set 
at naught, and they fled for refuge to Caesar's 
camp. Under the plea of protecting the tribunes, 
Caesar crossed the Rubicon, which separated 
his province from Italy, and marched toward 
Rome. Pompey, who had beeu intrusted by 
the senate with the conduct of the war, soon 
discovered how greatly he had overrated his 
own popularity and influence. His own troops 
deserted to his rival in crowds ; town after town 
in Italy opened its gates to Caesar, whose march 
was like a triumphal progress. The only town 
which offered Caesar any resistance was Cor- 
finium, into which L. Domitius Alienobarbus had 
thrown himself with a strong force ; but even 
this place was obliged to surrender at the eud 
of a few days. Meantime, Pompey, with the 
magistrates and senators, had fled from Rome to 



Capua, and now, despairing of opposing Caesai 
in Italy, he marched from Capua to Brundisium, 
and on the 17th of March embarked for Greece. 
Caesar pursued Pompey to Brundisium, but he 
was unable to follow him to Greece for want of 
ships. He therefore marched back from Brun- 
disium, and repaired to Rome, having thus in 
three months become master of the whole of 
Italy. After remaining a short time in Rome, 
he set out for Spain, where Pompey's legates, 
Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, commanded pow- 
erful armies. After defeating Afranius and Pe- 
treius, and receiving the submission of Varro, 
Caesar returned to Rome, where he had mean- 
time been appointed dictator by the praator M. 
Lepidus. He resigned the dictatorship at the 
end of eleven days, after holding the consular 
comitia, in which he himself aud P. Servilius 
Vatia Isauricus were elected consuls for the 
next year. At the beginning of January, 48, 
Caasar crossed over to Greece, where Pompey 
had collected a formidable army. At first the 
campaign was in Pompey's favor ; Caesar was 
repulsed before Dyrrhacbium with considerable 
loss, aud was obliged to retreat toward Thes- 
saly. In this country, on the plains of Pharsalus 
or Pharsalia, a decisive battle was fought be- 
tween the two armies on the 9th of August, 
48, in which Pompey was completely defeated. 
Pompey fled to Egypt, pursued by Caesar, but 
he was murdered before Caesar arrived in the 
country. Vid. Pompeius. His head was brought 
to Caesar, who turned away from the sight, shed 
tears at the untimely death of his rival, aud put 
his murderers to death. When the news of the 
battle of Pharsalia reached Rome, various hon- 
ors were conferred upon Caesar. He was ap- 
pointed dictator for a whole year and consul for 
five years, and the tribunician power was con- 
ferred upon him for life. He declined the con- 
sulship, but entered upon the dictatorship iu 
September in this year (48), and appointed M. 
Antony his master of the horse. On his arrival 
in Egypt, Caesar became involved in a wai\ 
which gave the remains of the Pompeian party 
time to rally. This war, usually called the Alex- 
andrine war, arose from the determination of 
Caasar that Cleopatra, whose fascinations had 
won his heart, should reign in common with her 
brother Ptolemy ; but this decision was opposed 
by the guardians of the young king, and the war 
which thus broke out was not brought to a close 
till the latter end of March, 47. It was soon af- 
ter this that Cleopatra had a sou by Caesar. Vid. 
Clarion. Caesar returned to Rome through 
Syria and Asia Minor, and on his march through 
Pontus attacked Pharnaces, the son of Mithra- 
dates the Great, who had assisted Pompey. He 
defeated Pharnaces near Zela with such ease, 
that he informed the senate of his victory by 
the words Veni, vidi, vici. He reached Rome 
in September (47), was appointed consul for the 
following year, and before the end of September 
set sail for Africa, where Scipio and Cato had 
collected a large army. The war was termina- 
ted by the defeat of the Pompeian army at the 
battle of Thapsus, on the 6th of April, 46. Cato, 
unable to defend Utica, put an end to his own 
life. Caesar returned to Rome iu the latter end 
of July. He was now the undisputed mastei 
of the Roman world, but he used his victory 
159 



CAESAR, JULIUS. 

with the greatest moderation. Unlike other 
ponauerors in civil wars, he freely forgave all 
<T£mi nad borne arms against him, and declared 
„uat he would make no difference between Pom- 
peians and Caesariaus. His clemency was one 
of the brightest features of his character. At 
Rome all parties seemed to vie iu paying him 
honor : the dictatorship was bestowed on him 
for ten years, and the censorship, under the new 
title of Prmfectus Morum, for three years. He 
celebrated his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, 
and Africa by four magnificent triumphs. Caesar 
now proceeded to correct the various evils which 
had crept into the state, and to obtain the en- 
actment of several laws suitable to the altered 
condition of the commonwealth. The most im- 
portant of his measures this year (46) was the 
reformation of the calendar. As the Roman 
year was now three months iu advance of the 
real time, Caesar added ninety days to this year, 
and thus made the whole year consist of four 
hundred and forty-five days ; and he guarded 
against a repetition of similar errors for the 
future by adapting the year to the sun's course. 
Vid. Diet, of Ant., art. Calendarium. Mean- 
time the two sons of Pompey, Sextus and Cneius, 
had collected a new army in Spain. Caesar set 
out for Spain toward the end of the year, and 
brought the war to a close by the battle of 
Munda, on the 17th of March, 45, in which the 
enemy were only defeated after a most obsti- 
nate resistance. Cn. Pompey was killed shortly 
afterward, but Sextus made good his escape. 
Caesar reached Rome in September, and entered 
the city in triumph. Fresh honors awaited him. 
His portrait was to be struck on coins ; the 
month of Quintilis was to receive the name of 
Julius in his honor ; he received the title of im- 
perator for life ; and the whole senate took an 
oath to watch over his safety. To reward his 
followers, Caesar increased the number of sen- 
ators and of the public magistrates, so that there 
were to be sixteen praetors, forty quaestors, and 
six aediles. He began to revolve vast schemes 
for the benefit of the Roman world. Among 
his plans of internal improvement, he proposed 
to frame a digest of all the Roman laws, to es- 
tablish public libraries, to drain the Pomptine 
marshes, to enlarge the harbor of Ostia, and to 
dig a canal through the isthmus of Corinth. To 
protect the boundaries of the Roman empire, he 
meditated expeditions against the Parthians and 
the barbarous tribes on the Danube, and had 
already begun to make preparations for his de- 
parture to the East. Possessing royal power, 
he now wished to obtain the title of king, and 
Antony accordingly offered him the diadem in 
public on the festival of the Lupercalia (the loth 
of February) ; but, seeing that the proposition 
was not favorably received by the people, he 
declined it for the present. But Caesar's power 
was not witnessed without envy. The Roman 
aristocracy, who had been so long accustomed 
to rule the Roman world and to pillage it at 
their pleasure, could ill brook a master, and re- 
solved to remove him by assassination. The 
conspiracy against Caesar's life had been set 
afoot by Cassius, a personal enemy of Caesar's, 
and there were more than sixty persons privy 
to it. Many of these persons had been raised 
hy Caesar to wealth and honor ; and some of 
160 



CAESAR, C. AND L. 

them, such as M. Brutus, lived with him on 
terms of the most intimate frieudsliip. It has 
been the practice of rhetoricians to speak of the 
murder of Caesar as a glorious deed, and to rep- 
resent Brutus and Cassius as patriots ; but the 
mask ought to be stripped off these false pa- 
triots ; they cared not for the republic, but only 
for themselves ; and their object in murdering 
Caesar was to gain power for themselves and 
their party. Caesar had many warnings of his 
approaching fate, but he disregarded them all, 
and fell by the daggers of his assassins on the 
Ides or loth of March, 44. At an appointed 
signal the conspirators surrounded him ; Casca 
dealt the first blow, and the others quickly drew 
their swords and attacked him ; Caesar at first 
defended himself, but when he saw that Brutus, 
his friend and favorite, had also drawn his sword, 
he exclaimed Tu quoque Brute ! pulled his toga 
over his face, and sunk pierced with wounds at 
the foot of Pompey's statue. Julius Caesar was 
the greatest man of antiquity. He was gifted 
by nature with the most various talents, and 
was distinguished by the most extraordinary at- 
tainments in the most diversified pursuits. He 
was at one and the same time a general, a states- 
man, a lawgiver, a jurist, an orator, a poet, a 
historian, a philologer, a mathematician, and an 
architect. He was equally fitted to excel in all, 
and has given proofs that he would have sur- 
passed almost all other men in any subject to 
which he devoted the energies of his extraordi 
nary mind. During the whole of his busy life 
he found time for literary pursuits, and was the 
author of many works, the majority of whicL 
has been lost. The purity of his Latin and th6 
clearness of his style were celebrated by th* 
ancients themselves, and are conspicuous in his 
Commentarii, which are his only works that havi 
come down to us. They relate the histoiy of 
the first seven years of the Gallic war in seven 
books, and the history of the Civil war down to 
the commencement of the Alexandrine in three 
books. Neither of these works completed the 
history of the Gallic and Civil wars. The his- 
tory of the former was completed in an eighth 
book, which is usually ascribed to Hirtius, and 
the history of the Alexandrine, African, and 
Spanish wars were written in three separate 
books, which are also ascribed to Hirtius, but 
their authorship is uncertain. The lost works 
of Caesar are, 1. Anticato, in reply to Cicero's 
Cato, which Cicero wrote in praise of Cato after 
the death of the latter in 46. 2. Dc Analoyia, 
or, as Cicero explains it, De Ratione Latine lo- 
quendi, dedicated to Cicero, contained investi- 
gations on the Latin language, and were writ- 
ten by Caesar while he was crossing the Alps. 
3. Libri Atispiciorum, or Auguralia. 4. De Astris. 
5. Apophthegmata, or Dicta collectanea, a collec 
tion of good sayings. 6. Pocmata. Two of 
these, written iu his youth, Laudes 'Herculis and 
CEdipus, were suppressed by Augustus. Of the 
numergus editions of Caesar's Commentaries, the 
best are by Oudendorp, Lugd. Bat., 1737, Stutt 
gard, 1822 ; by Morns, Lips., 1780 ; by Oberliu 
Lips., 1805, 1819 ; [and by, Herzog, Lips., 1881- 
34, 2 vols.; and of the Gallic War separately 
by Nipperdey, Lips., 1849.] 

C. CjEsar and L. Caesar, the sons of M, Vipsa- 
nius Agripjja and Julia, and the grandson of Au 



' CJESARAUGUSTA. 



CALAMUS. 



gustus. L. Cassar died at Massilia, on Lis waj 
to Spain, A.D. 2, and C. Caesar in Lycia, A.D. 4, 
of a wound which he had received in Armenia. 

Cesaraugusta (now Zaragoza or iSaragossa), 
more anciently Salduba, a town of the Edetani, 
on the Iberus, in Hispauia Tarraconensis, was 
colonized by Augustus B.C. 27, and was the 
seat of a Conveutus Juridicus. It was the birth- 
place of the pd?t Prudentius. 

C^esarea (Kaiadpeta : YLawapivq : Csssarien- 
sis), a name given to several cities of the Ro- 
man empire in honor of one or other of the Cae- 
sars. 1. Cesarea ad Arg^eum, formerly Ma- 
zaca, also Eusedia (K. 7] wpdc r<p 'Apyaiu, ra 
Mufa/ta, Evae6eta : now Kesarieli, ruins), one of 
the oldest cities of Asia Minor, stood upon 
Mount Argasus, about the centre of Cappadocia, 
in the district (prasfectura) called Cilicia. It 
was the capital of Cappadocia, and when that 
country was made a Roman province by Tibe- 
rius (A.D. 18), it received the name of Cassarea. 
It was ultimately destroyed by an earthquake. — 
2. C. Philippi or Paneas (K. r/ $i\hrirov, New 
Testament; K. llaveidc: now Banias), a city of 
Palestine at the southern foot of Mount Hermon, 
on the Jordan, just below its source (vid. Pa- 
Nrnii), built by Philip the tetrarcb, B.C. 3 : King 
Agrippa called it Neronias, but it soon lost this 
name. — 3. C. PaljEstin^e, formerly Stratonis 
Turris (XTpdruvog irvpyog : now Kaisariyeh, 
ruins), an important city of Palestine, on the 
sea-coast, just above the boundary line between 
Samaria and Galilee. It was surrounded with 
a wall and decorated with splendid buildings by 
Herod the Great (B.C. 13), who called it Cass- 
area, iu honor of Augustus. He also made a 
splendid harbor for the city. Under the Ro- 
mans it was the capital of Palestine and the 
residence of the procurator. Vespasian made 
it a colony, and Titus conferred additional fa- 
vors upon it; hence it was called Oolonia Fla- 
via. — 4. C. Mauretanle, formerly Iol ('ldX 
Kaioupeia : now Zerskell, ruins), a Phoenician 
city on the north coast of Africa, with a harbor, 
the residence of King Juba, who named it Cass- 
area, in honor of Augustus. When Claudius 
erected Mauretauia into a Roman province, he 
made Cassarea a colony, and the capital of the 
middle division of the province, which was 
thence called Mauretauia Caesariensis.. — 5. C. 
ajo Anazarbum. Vid. Anazarbus. There are 
several others, which are better known by other 
names, and several which are not important 
enough to be mentioned here. 

C^esarion, son of 0. Julius Cassar and Cleo- 
patra, originally called Ptolemasus as an Egyp- 
tian prince, was born B.C. 47. In 42 the tri- 
umvirs allowed him to receive the title of King 
of Egypt, and in 34 Antony conferred upon him 
the title of king of kings. After the death of 
his mother in 30, he was executed by order of 
Augustus. 

C^esarodunum (now Tours), chief town of 
the Turones or Turoni, subsequently called Tu- 
roni, on the Liger (now Loire), in Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis. 

C^esauomagos. 1. (Now Beauvais), chief 
town of the Bellovaci in Gallia Belgica. — 2. 
(Now Chelmsford), a town of the Trinobantes 
in Britain. 

CjEsExa (Caesenas, -atis : now Cesena), a town 
11 



in Gallia Cispadana, on the Via ^Emilia, not far 
from the Rubicon. 

Cesennius Lento. Vid. Lento. 

C^ESENNIUS P^ETUS. Vid. P^ETUS. 

Cjesetius Flavus. Vid. Flavus. 

Gesia, a surname of Minerva, a translation 
of the Greek y^avKUKig. 

C^esIa Silva (now Hasernwald), a forest in 
Germany between the Lippe and the Yssel. 

Cesonia, first the mistress and afterward 
the wife of the Emperor Caligula, was a woman 
of the greatest licentiousness, and was put u 
death with Caligula, together with her daughter, 
A.D. 41. 

Gesonius, M., a judex at the trial of Oppi- 
anieus for the murder of Cluentius, B.C. 74, and 
asdile with Cicero in 69. 

Caicus (Kainoc : now Aksou or Bahir), a river 
of Mysia, rising in Mount Temnus, and flowing 
past Pergamus into the Cumasan Gulf. 

[Caicus. 1. Son of Oceanus and Tethys 
god of the Mysian river. — 2. A companion of 
uEneas in his voyage from Troy to Italy.] 

Caieta (Caietanus : now G-aeta), a town in 
Latium, on the borders of Campania, forty stadia 
south of Formias, situated on a promontory of 
the same name, and on a bay of the sea called 
after it Sinus Caietanus. It possessed an ex 
cellent harbor (Cic, pro Leg. Man., 12), and was 
said to have derived its name from Caieta, the 
nurse of ^Eueas, who, according to some tradi 
tions, was buried at this place. 

Caius, the jurist. Vid. Gaius. 

Caius Caesar. Vid. Caligula. 

Calaber. Vid. Quintus Smyrn^eus. 

Calabria (Calabri), the peninsula in the 
southeast of Italy, extending from Tarentum 
to the Promontorium Iapygium, formed part 
of Apulia, q. v. 

Calacta (KaXr) 'Aktt} : ~K.a\anTlvo<; : ruins 
near Caronia), a town on the northern coast of 
Sicily, founded by Ducetius, a chief of the Siceli, 
about B.C. 447. Calacta was, as its name im- 
ports, originally the name of the coast. (He- 
rod., vi., 22.) 

Calactinus. Vid. CjEcilius Calactinus. 

[Calagorris (now Cazeres),a small town of 
the Convenas in Aquitania, southwest of Tolosa.] 

Calagurris (Oalagurritanus : now Calahor- 
ra), a town of the Vascones and a Roman mu- 
nicipium in Hispania Tarraconensis, near the 
Iberus, memorable for its adherence to Serto- 
rius and for its siege by Pompey and his gen- 
erals, in the course of which mothers killed and 
salted their children, B.C. 71. (Juv., xv., 93.) 
It was the birth-place of Quintilian. 

Calais, brother of Zetes. Vid. Zetes. 

Calama. 1. (Now Kalma, ruins), an import 
aut town iu Numidia, between Cirta and Hippo 
Regius, on the eastern bank of the Rubricatus 
(now Seibous). — 2. (Now Kalat-al- Wad) a town 
in the west of Mauretauia Caesariensis, on the 
eastern bank of the Malva, near its mouth. 

Calamine, in Lydia, a lake with floating 
islands, sacred to the nymphs. 

Calamis (KuXa/xig), a statuary and embosser 
at Athens, of great celebrity, was a contempo- 
rary of Phidias, and flourished B.C. 467-429. 

Calamus (KaAa/iOf : now El-Kuhnon), a towc 
on the coast of Phoenicia, a little south of Trip 
olis. 

161 



CALANUS. 



CALIGULA. 



Calanus (KuPitzi'Of), an Indian gymnosophist, 
followed Alexander the Great from India, and 
having been taken ill, burned himself alive in 
the presence of the Macedonians, three months 
before the death of Alexander (B.C. 323), to 
whom he had predicted his approaching end. 

Calasiries (Ka/Mc'ipiec), one of the -two di- 
visions (the other being the Hermotybii) of the 
warrior-caste of Egypt. Their greatest strength 
was two hundred and fifty thousand men, and 
their chief abode in the western part of the 
Delta. They formed the king's body guard. 

Calatia (Calatlnus : now Cajazzo), a town 
in Samnium, on the Appia Via, between Capua 
aud Beneventum, was conquered by the Romans 
B.C. 313, and was colonized by Julius Caesar 
with his veterans. 

Calatinus, A. Atilius, consul B.C. 258, in 
the first Punic war, carried on the war with 
success in Sicily. He was consul a second 
time, 254, when he took Panormus; aud was 
dictator, 249, when he again carried on the war 
in Sicily, which was the first instance of a dic- 
tator commanding an army out of Italy. 

Calaukea, -ia (Ka?Mvpeia, \ia\avpia : Ka/iav- 
pu~7)c : now Poro), a small island in the Saronic 
Gulf, off the coast of Argolis, and opposite Troe- 
zen, possessed a celebrated temple of Nep- 
tune (Poseidon), which was regarded as an in- 
violable asylum. Hither Demosthenes fled to 
escape Antipater, and here he took poison, B.C. 
322. This temple was the place of meeting of 
an ancient Amphictyonia. Vid. Diet of Ant., 
p. 19, b, second edition. 

CalavIus, the name of a distinguished family 
at Capua, the most celebrated member of which 
was Pacuvius Calavius, who induced his fellow- 
citizens to espouse the cause of Hannibal after 
the battle of Cannae, B.C. 216. 

Calbis (6 Ku?i6ic), also Indus (now Quingui 
or I'anas), a considerable river of Caria, which 
rises in Mount Cadmus, above Cibyra, and after 
receiving (according to Pliny) sixty small rivers 
and one hundred mountaiu torrents, falls into 
the sea west of Caunus and opposite to Rhodes. 

Calchas (Ku?ixac), son of Tbestor of Mycena? 
or Megara, the wisest soothsayer among the 
Greeks at Troy, foretold the length of the Tro- 
jan war, explained the cause of the pestilence 
which raged in the Greek army, and advised 
the Greeks to build the wooden horse. An or- 
acle had declared that Calchas should die if he 
met with a soothsayer superior to himself; and 
this came to pass at Claros, near Colophon, for 
here Calchas met the soothsayer Mopsus, who 
predicted things which Calchas could not. 
Thereupon Calchas died of grief. After his 
death he had an oracle in Daunia. 

C aldus, C. C^elIus. 1. Rose from obscurity 
by his oratory, was tribune of the plebs B.C. 
107, when he proposed a lex tabellaria, aud con- 
sul 94. In the civil war between Sulla and the 
party of Marius, he fought on the side of the 
latter, 83. — 2. Grandson of the preceding, was 
Cicero's quaestor in Cilieia, 50. 

Cale (now Oporto), a port-town of the Cal- 
laeei in Hispauia Tarraconensis, at the mouth 
of the Durius. From Porto Cale the name of 
the country Portugal is supposed to have come. 

Caledonia Vid. Britannia. 

Calentuii, a town probably of the Caleuses 
162 



Emaniei ^n Hispania Baetiea, celebrated for its 
manufacture of bricks so Light as to swim upoc 
water. 

Calenus, Q. PCfius, tribune of the plebs B.C 
61, when he succeeded in saving P. Clodius 
from condemnation for his violation of the mys- 
teries of the Bona Dea. In 59 he was praetor, 
and from this time appears as an active partisan 
of Cassar. In 51 he was legate of Csesar iD 
Gaul, and served under Caesar in the civil war 
In 49 he joined Cassar at Brundisium and ac- 
companied him to Spain, and in 48 he was sent 
by Caesar from Epirus to bring over the re- 
mainder of the troops from Italy, but most of 
his ships were taken by Bibulus. After the 
battle of Pharsalia (4S) Calenus took many cities 
in Greece. In 47 he was made consul by Cae- 
sar. After Caesar's death (44) Calenus joined 
M. Antony, and subsequently had the command 
of Antony's legions in the north of Italy. At 
the termination of the Perusiuian war (41) Ca- 
lenus died, and Oetavianus was thus enabled to 
obtain possession of his army. 

Cales or -ex (Kd?.i]c or : now Halabli), a 
river of Bithyuia, southwest of Heraclea Pon 
tica. (Thuc., iv., 75.) 

Cales (-is, usually PI. Cales, -ium : Calenus : 
now Calvi), chief town of the Caleni, an Auso- 
nian people in Campania, on the Via Latina, said 
to have been founded by Calais, son of Boreas, 
and therefore called Thre'icia by the poets. Ca- 
les was taken aud colonized by the Romans, 
B.C. 335. It was celebrated for its excellent 
wine. 

Caletes or -i, a people in Belgic Gaul, near 
the mouth of the Seine: their capital was Ju 
liobona. 

Caletor (Ka7j/-up), son of Clytius, slain at 
Troy by the Telamouian Ajax. 

Calidius. 1. Q., tribune of the plebs B.C. 
99, carried a law for the recall of Q. Metellus 
Numidieus from bauishmeut. He was praetor 
79, and had the government of one of the Spaius, 
and on his return was accused by Q. Lollius, 
and condemned. — 2. M., son of the preceding, 
distinguished as an orator. In 57 he was prae- 
tor, and supported the recall of Cicero from ban- 
ishment. In 51 he was an unsuccessful can- 
didate for the consulship, and on the breaking 
out of the civil war, 49, he joined Caesar, who 
placed him over Gallia Togata, where he died 
in 48. 

Caligula, Roman emperor, A.D. 37-41, son 
of Germauicus aud Agrippiua, was born A.D. 
12, and was brought up among the legions in 
Germany. His real name was Cains Ctesar, 
and he was always called Cuius by his contem- 
poraries : Caligula was a surname given him 
by the soldiers from his wearing in his boyhood 
small ealiga:, or soldiers' boots. Having es- 
caped the fate of his mother and brother, he 
gained the favor of Tiberius, who raised him to 
offices of houor, and held out to him hopes of 
the succession. On the death of Tiberius (37), 
which was either caused or accelerated by Ca- 
ligula, the latter succeeded to the throne. He 
was saluted by the people with the greatest en- 
thusiasm as the sou of Germauicus. His first 
acts gave promise of a just and beneficent reign. 
He pardoned all the persons who had appeared 
as witnesses or accusers against his family ; he 



CALINGJE. 



CALLIAS. 



released all the state-prisoners of Tiberius ; he 
restored to the magistrates full power of juris- 
diction, -without appeal to his person, and prom- 
ised the senate to govern according to the laws. 
Toward foreign princes he behaved with great 
generosity. He restored Agrippa, the grand- 
son of Herod, to his kingdom of Judaea, and 
Antiochus IV. to his Idngdom of Commagene. 
But at the end of eight months the conduct of 
Caligula became suddenly changed. After a 
serious illness, which probably weakened his 
mental powers, he appears as a sanguinary and 
licentious madman. He put to death Tiberius, 
the grandson of his predecessor, compelled his 
grandmother Antonia and other members of 
his family to make away with themselves, often 
caused persons of both sexes and of all ages to 
be lortured to death for his amusement while 
taking liis meals, and on one occasion, during 
the exhibition of the games in the circus, he 
ordered a great number of the spectators to be 
seized and to be thrown before the wild beasts. 
Such was his love of blood that he wished the 
Roman people had only one head, that he might 
cut it off with a blow. His licentiousness was 
as great as his cruelty. His marriages were 
disgracefully contracted and speedily dissolved ; 
and the only woman who exercised a permanent 
influence over him was his last wife Csesonia. 
In his madness he considered himself a god ; 
he even built a temple to himself as Jupiter La- 
tiaris, and appointed priests to attend to his 
worship. He sometimes officiated as his own 
priest, making his horse Incitatus, which he 
afterward raised to the consulship, his' col- 
league. His monstrous extravagances soon 
exhausted the coffers of the state. One in- 
stance may show the senseless way in which he 
spent his money. He constructed a bridge of 
boats between Baia? and Puteoli, a distance 
of about three miles, and after covering it with 
earth, he built houses upon it. When it was 
finished, he gave a splendid banquet in the mid- 
dle of the bridge, and concluded the entertain- 
ment by throwing numbers of the guests into 
the sea. To replenish the treasury, he exhaust- 
ed Italy and Rome by his extortions, aud then 
marched into Gaul in 40, which he plundered in 
all directions. With his troops he advanced to 
the ocean, as if intending to cross over into 
Britain ; he drew them up in battle array, aud 
then gave them the signal — to collect shells, 
which he called the spoils of conquered Ocean. 
The Roman world at length grew tired of such 
a mad tyrant. Four months after his return to 
the city, on the 24th of January, 41, he was 
murdered by Cassius Choerea, tribune of a prae- 
torian cohort, Cornelius Sabinus, and others. 
His wife Caasonia and his daughter were like- 
wise put to death. 

CalinGj-e, a numerous people of India intra 
Gangem, on the eastern coast, below the mouths 
of the Ganges. 

Calinipaxa (now Canonge ? a little above 2*7° 
north latitude), a city on the Ganges, north of 
its confluence with the Jomanes (now Jumna), 
said to have been the furthest point in India 
reached by Seleucus Nicator. 

Callaici, Calljjci. Vid. Gall>eci. 

[Callas (Ku.7i2.ac), a river of Euboea, flowing 
from Mount Telethrius into the sea near Oreus.] 



Callatis {YLuXharic, Kdlaric : Ka?Mnavoc '. 
now Kollat, Kollati), a town of Moesia, on the 
Black Sea, originally a colony of Miletus, and 
afterward of Heraclea. 

[Calliades (Ka9i?,id6nc), archon eponymus 
at Athens at the time of the second Persian in- 
vasion, B.C. 480.] 

[Callianassa {KaXKidvaaaa), one of the 
daughters of Nereus, mentioned in the Iliad.] 

Calliarus (KaXXiapo^), a town in Locris, 
mentioned by Homer. 

Callias and Hipponicus (KaAAiaf, 'Innovi- 
koc), a noble Athenian family, celebrated foi 
their wealth. They enjoyed the hereditary dig- 
nity of torch-bearer at the Eleusiniau myste- 
ries, and claimed descent from Triptolemus. 

I. Hipponicus I., acquired a large fortune by 
fraudulently making use of the information he 
had received from Solon respecting the intro- 
duction of his aeiadxdcia, B.C. 594. (Plut., 
Sol., 15.) — 2. Callias I., son of Phaanippus, an 
opponent of Pisistratus, and a conqueror at the 
Olympic and Pythian games. — 3. Hipponicus II., 
surnamed Ammon, son of No. 2.-4. Callias 

II, son of No. 3, fought at the battle of Mara- 
thon, 490. He was afterward ambassador from 
Athens to Artaxerxes, and, according to some 
accounts, negotiated a peace with Persia, 449, 
on terms most humiliating to the latter. On 
his return to Athens he was accused of having 
taken bribes, and was condemned to a fine of 
fifty talents. — 5. Hipponicus III., son of No. 4, 
one of the Athenian generals in their incursion 
into the territory of Tanagra, 426, also com- 
manded at the battle of Delium, 424, where he 
was killed. It was his divorced wife, and not 
his widow, whom Pericles married. His daugh- 
ter Hipparete was married to Alcibiades, with 
a dowry of ten talents : another daughter was 
married to Theodorus, and became the mother 
of Isocrates the orator. — 6. Callias III., son of 
No. 5, by the lady who married Pericles, dissi 
pated all his ancestral wealth on sophists, flat- 
terers, aud women. The scene of Xenophon's 
Banquet, and also that of Plato's Protagoras, is 
laid at his house. He is said to have ultimately 
reduced himself to absolute beggary. In 400 he 
was engaged in the attempt to crush Andocides. 
In 392 he commanded the Athenian heavy-arm- 
ed troops, when Iphicrates defeated the Spar- 
tans ; and in 37 1 he was one of the envoys em- 
powered to negotiate peace with Sparta. 

Callias. 1. A wealthy Athenian, who, on 
condition of marrying Cimon's sister, Elpinice, 
paid for' him the fine of fifty talents which had 
been imposed on Miltiades. He appears to have 
been unconnected with the nobler family of 
Callias and Hipponicus. — 2. Tyrant of Chalcis 
in Eubcea, and the rival of Plutarchus, tyrant of 
Eretria. He was defeated by the Athenians 
under Phocion, B.C. 350, and thereupon betook 
himself to the Macedonian court; but as he 
could not obtain aid from Philip, he formed an 
alliance with the Athenians, and by their means 
obtained the supremacy in the island. — 3. A 
poet of the old comedy, flourished B.C. 412 ; the 
names of six of his comedies are preserved 
[The fragments of his plays are given in Mei- 
neke's Fragm, Comic. Qrmc, vol. i., p. 417- 
421, edit, minor.] — 4. Of Syracuse, a Greek his- 
torian, was a contemporary of Agathocles, and 
163 



CALLIBIUS. 



CALLIOPIUS. 



wrote a history of Sicily in twenty-two books, 
embracing the reign of Agathocles, B.C. 317- 
289. [A few fragments remain, which have 
been collected by Miiller in his Fragm. Hist. 
Grcec, vol. ii., p. 382-3.] 

[Callibius (KaXX'idwc). 1. The commander 
of the Spartan garrison at Athens in the time of 
the thirty tyrants, B.C. 404. He allowed the 
tyrants to make free use of his soldiers in car- 
rying out their abitrary measures in return for 
the deference paid him by those tyrants. — 2. One 
of the leaders of the democratic party at Tegea, ' 
B.C. 370, failiug, in a peaceable attempt, to 
unite the Arcadian towns into one body, had re- 
course to arms ; though at first defeated by the 
oligarchical party, he afterward triumphed over 
them, and put the most obnoxious to death.] 

Callicrates (KaXXiKpdrnc). 1. An Achaean, 
exerted all his influence in favor of the Romans. 
On the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 
S.C. 168, Callicrates pointed out one thousand 
Achasans as having favored the cause of Per- 
seus, who were taken to Rome, and among 
them was the historian Polybius. Callicrates 
died at Rhodes, 149. — [2. Name given by Nepos 
t.o the murderer of Dion, called Callippus by 
Diodorus and Plutarch. Vid. Callippus.] — 3. 
One of the architects of the Parthenon on 
'be Acropolis of Athens, — 4. A Lacedasmonian 
iculptor, made ants and other animals ont of 
ivory, so small that one could not distinguish 
the different limbs. — [5. A Greek historian in 
the time of the Emperor Aurelian, a native of 
Tyre. He wrote the history of Aurelian, and 
is called by Vopiscus the most learned Greek 
writer of his time.] 

Callicratidas (KaXXLKpaTiSac), a Spartan, 
succeeded Lysander as admiral of the Lacedae- 
monian fleet, B.C. 406, took Methymna, and shut 
up Conon in Mytilene ; but the Athenians sent 
out a fleet of one hundred and fifty sail, and de- 
feated Callicratidas off the Arginusae. Calli- 
cratidas fell in the battle. Callicratidas was a 
plain, blunt Spartan of the old school. Witness 
his answer, when asked what sort of men the 
Ionians were : " Bad freemen, but excellent 
slaves." 

Callidromus or -um (KalXidpo/ioc), part of the 
range of Mount (Eta, near Thermopylae. 

Callif^e (Callifauus : now Calvisi), a town 
in Samnium, perhaps in the territory of Allifas. 

Callimachus (KaXkifiaxoc). 1. The Athenian 
polemarch, commanded the right wing at Mara- 
thon, where he was slain, after behaving with 
much gallantry, B.C. 490. This is the last re- 
corded instance of the polemarch performing 
the military duties which his name implies. — 
2. A celebrated Alexandrine grammarian and 
poet, was a native of Cyrene in Africa, and a 
descendant of the Battiadae, whence he is some- 
times called Battiades. He lived at Alexandrea 
in the reigns of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Eu- 
ergetes, and was chief librarian of the famous 
library of Alexandrea from about B.C. 260 until 
his death about 240. He founded a celebrated 
grammatical school at Alexandrea, and among 
fai^ pupils were Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of 
Byzantium, and Apollonius Rhodius. We have 
no other particulars of the life of Callimachus 
except his enmity with his former pupil Apollo- 
'us Rhodius, which is related elsewhere. Vi i. 
164 



Apollonius, No. 6. He is said to have written 
eight hundred works, in prose and in verse, on 
an infinite variety of subjects, but of these we 
possess only some of his poems, which are char- 
acterized rather by labor and learning than by 
real poetical genius. Hence Ovid (Am., i., 15, 
14) says of Callimachus, Quamvis ingenio non 
valet, arte valet. The extant works of Callima- 
chus are six Hymns in hexameter verse, five in 
the Ionic dialect, and one, on the bath of Pal- 
las, in the Doric dialect, and seventy-two Epi- 
grams, which belong to the best specimens of 
this kind of poetry, and were incorporated in 
the Greek Anthology at an early time. We 
have only a few fragments of his elegies, which 
enjoyed great celebrity, and were imitated by 
the Roman poets, the most celebrated of whose 
imitations is the Be Coma Berenices of Catullus. 
Of the lost poems of Callimachus the most im- 
portant were, Alria, Causes, an epic poem in 
four books, on the causes of the various myth- 
ical stories, <fec, and an epie poem entitled Hc- 
cale, the name of an aged woman who received 
Tiieseus hospitably when he went out to fight 
against the Marathonian bull. — Editions: By 
Spanheim, Ultraj, 1697, re-edited by Ernesti, 
Lugd. Batav., 1761, 2 vols. 8vo; by Blomfield, 
Lond., 1815 ; by Volger, Lips., 1817. — 3. An ar- 
chitect and statuary, of uncertain country, who 
is said to have invented the Corinthian column, 
and who must have lived before B.C. 396. He 
was so anxious to give his works the last touch 
of perfection that he lost the grand and sublime, 
whence Dionysius compares him to the orator 
Lysias. Callimachus was never satisfied with 
himself, and therefore received the ephithct ko- 
ki£6t£x voc , which Pliny interprets as calumniator 
sui, [where Sillig conjectures, after some MSS., 
that KaraTn^'iT£x voc must be read instead of na- 
KL^orexvoc, but the latter seems to be supported 
by the translation in Pliny. — i. One of the gen- 
erals of Mithradates, who, by his skill in engi- 
neering, defended the town of Amisus, in Pon- 
tus, for a considerable time against the Romans 
in B.C. 71, and when unable to defend it longer, 
set it on fire : he afterward fell into the hands 
of Lucullus at the capture of Kisibis, and was 
put to death by him in revenge for the burning 
of Amisus.] 

Callimedon (KaXXi/iiduv), one of the orators 
at Athens in the Macedonian interest, and a 
friend of Phocion, was condemned to death by 
the Athenians in his absence, B.C. 317. 

Callinious Seleucus. Vid. Seleucus. 

Callixus (Ka?.?uvoc), of Ephesus, the earliest 
Greek elegiac poet, probably flourished <ibout 
B.C. 700. Only one of his elegies is extant, 
consisting of twenty-one lines, in which he ex- 
horts his countrymen to courage and persever- 
ance against their enemies. Printed in Bergk'8 
Poeta) Lyrici Grceci, p. 303. 

Calliope. Vid. MusiE. 

Calliope (KoA/Uott;/), a considerable city in 
the west of Partbia, founded, or else enlarged, 
by Seleucus Nicator. 

[Calliopius, a grammarian, probably of tho 
ninth century, who is thought to have revised 
and corrected the text of the plays of Terence • 
it has been maintained by some writers that 
the name is a mere epithet, and does not denote- 
any individual.] 



CALLIPHON. 



C ALLIUM. 



Calliphon (Ka?i?u(j>dv), a Greek philosopher, 
and probably a disciple of Epicurus, is condemn- 
ed by Cicero as making the chief good of man 
to consist in a union of virtue {honestas) and 
bodily pleasure {rjdovri, voluptas). 

Callipolis (Ka/l/lt5roAtf : KalXinoXirt]^). 1. 
(Now Gxllipoli), a Greek town on the Tarentine 
Gulf in Calabria. — 2. A town on the eastern 
coast of Sicily, not far from ^Etna. — 3. (Now 
Gallipoli), a town in the Thracian Chersonese, 
opposite Lampsacus. — 4. A town in iEtolia. 
Vid. Calmum. 

[Callippid^e (KaXlnrmdat), a nation sprung 
from a uuiou of Greeks and Scythians, dwelling 
on the Hypanis, in the vicinity of Olbia.] 

Callippides (KaXXntntdijc), of Athens, a cele- 
brated tragic actor, a contemporary of Alcibiades, 
and Agesilaus. 

Callippus (Ku^/Uttttoc). 1. An Athenian, ac- 
companied Dion to Syracuse, "where he mur- 
dered the latter, B.C. 353. Callippus now usurp- 
ed the government of Syracuse, but was ex- 
pelled the city at the end of thirteen months, 
and, after wandering about Sicily with his mer- 
cenaries, was at length put to death by his own 
friends. — 2. An astronomer of Cyzicus, came to 
Athens, where he assisted Aristotle in rectify- 
ing and completing the discoveries of Eudoxus. 
Callippus invented the period or cycle of sev- 
enty-six years, called after him the Callippic, 
■which' commenced B.C. 330. 

Callirehoe (Ka/Ui/5/56)?). 1. Daughter of 
Oceanus, wife of Chrysaor, and mother of Ge- 
ryoues and Echidna. — 2. Daughter of Achelous 
and wife of Alcmseon, induced her husband to 
procure her the peplus and necklace of Harmo- 
uia, by which she caused his death. Vid. Alc- 
mseon. — 3. Daughter of Scamander, wife of 
Tros, and mother of Ilus and Ganymedes. 

Callieehoe (KaXXifipori). 1. Afterward call- 
ed Enneaceunus (Evvednpovvog), or the "Nine 
Springs," because its water was distributed by 
nine pipes, was the most celebrated well in 
Athens, and still retains its ancient name Cal- 
lirrhoe. It was situated in the southeastern ex- 
tremity of the city, between the Olympieum and 
the Ilissus. — [2. A fountain and bathing-place in 
Peraea, on the east side of the Dead Sea, with 
warm springs, which were accounted healthy.] 

[Calliste (JtLakViGrrj), one of the Sporades 
Islands, the later Thera.] 

Callisthenes (KalXiodevris), of Olynthus, a 
relation and a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied 
Alexander the Great to Asia. In his intercourse 
with Alexander he was arrogant and bold, and 
took every opportunity of exhibiting his inde- 
pendence. He expressed his indignation at 
Alexander's adoption of Oriental customs, and 
especially at the requirement of the ceremony 
of adoration. He thus rendered himself so ob- 
noxious to the king, that he was accused of 
being privy to the plot of Hermolaus to assassin- 
ate Alexander ; and, after being kept in chains 
for seven months, was either put to death or 
died of disease. Callisthenes wrote an account 
of Alexander's expedition ; a history of Greece, 
in ten books, from the peace of Antalcidas to 
the seizure of the Delphic temple by Philome- 
lus (B.C. 38'7-357) ; and other works, all of 
which have perished. 

Callisto (YLaXhLCTu), an Arcadian nymph, \ 



heuee called Nonacrina virgo (Ov, Met, ii., 409) 
from Nonaeris, a mountain in Arcadia, was 
daughter either of Lycaon, or of Nycteus, or of 
Ceteus, and a companion of Diana (Artemis) in 
the chase. She was beloved by Jupiter (Zeus), 
who metamorphosed her into a she-bear that 
Juno (Hera) might not become acquainted with 
the amour. But Juno (Hera) learned the truth, 
and caused Diana (Artemis) to slay Callisto dur 
ing the chase. Jupiter (Zeus) placed Callisto 
among the stars under the name of Arctos, or 
the Bear. Aecas was her son by Jupiter (Zeus). 
According to Ovid, Jupiter (Zeus) overcame the 
virtue of Callisto by assuming the form of Diana 
(Artemis); Juno (Hera) then metamorphosed 
Callisto into a bear ; and when Areas, during the 
chase, was on the point of killing his mother, 
Jupiter placed both among the stars. Vid. Arc- 
tos. According to K. O. Miiller, Callisto is 
merely another form of Calliste, a surname of 
Diana (Artemis), and she is therefore the same 
as this goddess. The she-bear was the symbol 
of the Arcadian Diana (Artemis). 

Callisteatia (¥LaXkiaTpaTia), a town in Paph- 
lagonia, on the coast of the Euxine, near the 
Promontorium Carambis. 

Callistratus (KaXTiidTparog). 1. An Athe- 
nian orator, son of Callicrates of Aphidna. His 
oratory was greatly admired by Demosthenes, 
and his speech on the affair of Oropus, B.C. 366, 
is said to have excited the emulation of De- 
mosthenes, and to have caused the latter to de- 
vote himself to oratory. After taking an active 
part in public affairs, generally in favor of Spar- 
ta, Callistratus was condemned to death by the 
Athenians in 361, and went into banishment to 
Methone in Macedonia. He ultimately returned 
to Athens, and was put to death. During his 
exile he is said to have founded the city of 
Datum, afterward Philippi. — [2. Son of Empe- 
dus, commander of a body of Athenian cavalry 
in Sicily during the expedition of Nicias. After 
cutting his way through the enemy's forces, he 
was finally slain in an attack on those who were 
plundering the Athenian camp. — 3. One of the 
body of knights under the command of Lysima- 
ehus, who were employed by the government of 
the ten to keep in check the exiles under Thra- 
sybulus in the Pirseus ; but he was taken by the 
latter and put to death in revenge for the out- 
rages committed by Lysimachus.] — 4. A Greek 
grammarian, and a disciple of Aristophanes of 
Byzantium, [who lived about the middle of the 
second century before Christ. He appears to 
have devoted himself principally to the study 
of the great poets of Greece, such as Homer, 
Pindar, the tragedians, Aristophanes, and some 
others ; and the results of his studies were em- 
bodied in commentaries upon those poets, which 
are now lost.] — 5. A Boman jurist, frequently 
cited in the Digest, "wrote at least as late as the 
reign (A.D. 198-211) of Severus and Antoninus 
(i. e., Septimius Severus and Caracalla). 

Callistus, C. Julius, a freedman of Caligula, 
possessed great influence in the reigns of Calig- 
ula and Claudius, and is the person to whom 
the physician Scribonius Largus dedicates his 
work. 

Callium (KdWiov : Kahluvs), called Callipo- 
lis by Livy (xxxvi., 30), a town in ^Etolia, in the 
valley of the Spercheus, southwest of Hypata 
165 



CALL1XENUS. 



CAMARINA. 



Callixenus (KaX?l£evoc), the leader in the 
prosecution of the Athenian generals who had 
conquered at the Arginusaa, B.C. 406. Not long 
after the execution of the generals, the Athe- 
nians repented of their unjust sentence, and 
decreed the institution of criminal accusations 
against Callixenus, but he escaped from Athens. 
On the restoration of democracy, 403, Callixenus 
took advantage of the general amnesty, and re- 
turned to Athens, but no man would give him 
either water or light for his fire, and he perished 
miserably of hunger. 

Callon (KuTiluv). 1. An artist of ^Egina, 
flourished B.C. 516.— 2. An artist of Elis, jived 
before B.C. 436. 

Calor. 1. A river in Samnium, flows past 
Beneventum, and falls into the Vulturnus. — 2. 
(Now Calore), a river in Lucauia, falls into the 
Silarus. 

Calpe (KuAtt^ : now Gibraltar), a mountain 
in the south of Spain, on the Straits, between the 
Atlantic and Mediterranean. This and Mount 
Abyla, opposite to it, on the African coast, were 
called the Columns of Hercules. Vid. Abyla. 

Calpe (KuXttj] : now Kirpeli), a river, prom- 
ontory, and town on the coast of Bithynia, be- 
tween the rivers Psilis and Sangarius. 

Calpurnia, daughter of L. Calpurnius Piso, 
consul B.C. 58, and last wife of the dictator 
Caesar, to whom she was married in 59. The 
reports respecting the conspiracy against Cas- 
sar's life filled Calpurnia with the liveliest ap- 
prehensions ; she in vain entreated her husband 
not to leave home on the Ides of March, 44. 

Calpurnia Gens, plebeian, pretended to be 
descended from Calpus, a son of Numa. It was 
divided into the families of Bestia, Bibulus, 
Flamma, and Piso. 

Calfurnius, T. Siculus, the author of eleven 
Eclogues in Latin verse, which are close imita- 
tions of Virgil, perhaps lived about A.D. 290. — 
Editions : ]n the Poetce Latini Minores of Werns- 
dorff ; and by Glaeser, Gotting., 1842. 

[Calus, more correctly Caus, (Kaovc), a city 
of Arcadia, on the River Ladon. containing a 
temple of iEsculapius.] 

Calva, a surname of Venus at Rome, prob- 
ably in honor of the Roman women, who are 
said, during the war with the Gauls, to have 
cut off their hair for the purpose of making 
bow-strings. 

Calventius, an Insubrian Gaul, of the town 
of Placentia, whose daughter married L. Piso, 
the father of L. Piso Caasoninus, consul B.C. 
58. In his speech against the latter, Cicero up- 
braids him with the low origin of his mother, and 
calls him Ccesoninus Semiplacentinus Calventius. 

Calvinus, DomMus. 1. Cn., curule sedile 
B.C. 299, consul" 283, and dictator and censor 
280. In his consulship he, together with his 
colleague Dolabella, defeated the Gauls and 
Etruscans, and hence received the surname 
Maximus. — 2. Cn., tribune of the plebs, 59, 
when he supported Bibulus against Caesar, 
praetor 56, and consul 53, through the influence 
of Pompey. In the civil war he joined Caesar. 
In 49 he fought under Curio in Africa ; and in 
48 he fought under Caesar in Greece, and com- 
manded the centre of Caesar's army at the bat- 
tle of Pharsalia. In 4*7 he had the command of 
Asia, and in 46 he fought in Africa against the 
166 



Pompeian party. After Caesar's death (44) he 
fought under Octavianus and Antony against the 
republicans. In 40 he was consul a second 
time, and in 39 went as proconsul to Spain, 
where he defeated the revolted Cerretani. 

Calvinus, L. Sextius, consul B.C. 124, de- 
feated the Salluvii and other people in Transal- 
pine Gaul, and in 123 founded the colony of 
Aquas Sextise (now Aix). 

Calvinus, T. Veturius, twice consul, B.C. 
334 and 321. In his second consulship he and 
his colleague Sp. Postumius Albiuus were de- 
feated by the Sabiues at Claudium. For details, 
vid. Albinus, No, 3. 

Calvisius Sabinus. Vid. Sabinus. 

Calvus, Licinius. Vid. Licinius. 

[Calybe, a priestess of .Juno, whose form 
Allecto assumed when she excited Turnus to 
war against ./Eneas.] 

Calycadnus (KaXvicadvoc. 1. (Now G-hiuk 
Sooyoo), a considerable river of Cilicia Tracheia, 
navigable as far up as Seleucia. — 2. The prom- 
ontory of this name, mentioned by Polybius 
(xxii., 26) and Livy (xxxviii., 38), appears to 
be the same as Anemurium. 

Calydn^e (Kalvdvai vT/aoi). 1. Two small 
islands off the coast of Troas, between Tenedos 
and the Promontorium Lectum. — 2. A group of 
islands off the coast of Caria, northwest of 
Cos, belonging to the Sporades. The largest 
of them was called Calydna, and afterward Ca- 
lymna (now Kalimno). 

Calydon (KaXvdav : Kahvduvioc), an ancient ' 
town of jEtolia, on the Evenus, in the land of 
the Curetes, said to have been founded by Mto- 
lus or his son Calydon. The surrounding coun- 
try produced wine, oil, and corn ; and in the 
mountains in the neighborhood the celebrated 
hunt of the Calydonian boar took place. The 
inhabitants were removed by Augustus to Ni- 

COPOLIS. 

Calymna. Vid. Calydnjs, No. 2. 

Calynda (KdTivvSa : KaXvvSevc), a city of 
Caria, east of Caunus, and sixty stadia (six 
geographical miles) from the sea. The Calyn- 
dians formed a part of the fleet of Xerxes, un- 
der their king Damasithymus : afterward they 
were subject to the Caunians; and both cities 
were added by the Romans to the territory of 
Rhodes. 

Calypso (KaXv^u), daughter of Oceauus and 
Tethys, or of Nereus, or, according to Homer, 
of Atlas, was a nymph inhabiting the island of 
Ogygia, on which Ulysses was shipwrecked. 
Calypso loved the unfortunate hero, and prom- 
ised him immortality if he would remain wif» 
her. Ulysses refused, and after she had detain- 
ed him seven years, the gods compelled her to 
allow him to continue his journey homeward. 

Camalodunum (now Colchester), the capital 
of the Trinobantes in Britain, and the first Ro- 
man colony in the island, founded by the Em- 
peror Claudius, A.D. 43. 

Camarina (Ka/xdptva : Hajxapivaloc : now Ca- 
merina), a town on the southern coast of Sicily, 
at the mouth of the Hipparis, founded by Syra- 
cuse, B.C. 599. It was several times destroy- 
ed by Syracuse; aud in the first Punic war it 
was taken by the Romans, and most of the in- 
habitants sold as slaves. Scarcely any vestiges 
of the ancient town remain. In the neighbor 



CAMBUN1 MONTES. 



C AMIS A. 



hood was a marsh, which the inhabitants drain- 
ed contrary to the command of an oracle, and 
thus opened a way to their enemies to take the 
town : hence arose the proverb fir) idvei Kafiapi- 
vav, ne moveas Cainarinam. 

Cambuni Monies (now Bolutza), the mount- 
ains which separate Macedonia and Thessaly. 

Cambysene (Kau6vorjvij), a district of Armenia 
Major, on the borders of Iberia and Colchis. 

Cambyses (lia/ibvc-ric). 1. Father of Cykus 
the Great. — 2. Second king of Persia, succeed- 
ed his father Cyrus, and reigned B.C. 529-522. 
In 525 he conquered Egypt; but an army which 
he sent against the Ammonians perished in the 
sands, and the forces, which he led in person 
against the ^Ethiopians south of Egypt, were 
compelled by failure of provisions to return. On 
his return to Memphis he treated the Egyptians 
with great cruelty ; he insulted their religion, 
and slew their god Apis with his own hands. 
He also acted tyrannically toward his own fam- 
ily and the Persians in general. He caused his 
own brother Smerdis to be murdered ; but a 
Magian personated the deceased prince, and set 
up a claim to the throne. Vid. Smerdis. Cam- 
byses forthwith set out from Egypt against this 
pretender, but died in Syria, at a place named 
Eebatana, of an accidental wound in the thigh, 
522. 

Cambyses (KafiSvarjc). 1. (Now lord), a river 
of Iberia and Albania, which, after uniting with 
the Alazon (now Alasari), falls into the Cyrus. 
— 2. A small river of Media, falling into the 
Caspian between the Araxes and the Amardus. 

Camen^e (not Camcence), also called Oasmence, 
Carmence. The name is connected with carmen, 
a " prophecy." The Cameua? accordingly were 

Erophetic nymphs, and they belonged to the re- 
gion of ancient Italy, although later traditions 
represent their worship as introduced into Italy 
from Arcadia, and some accounts identify them 
with the Muses. The most important of these 
goddesses was Carmenta or Carmentis, who 
bad a temple at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, 
and altars near the porta Carmentalis. Re- 
specting festivals, vid. Diet, of Ant, art. Car- 
mentalia. The traditions which assigned a 
Greek origin to her worship state that her orig- 
inal name was Nicostrate, and that she was by 
Mercury (Hermes) the mother of Evander, with 
whom she fled to Italy. 

Cambria (Camerinus), an ancient town of 
Latium, conquered by Tarquinius Priscus. 

Camerinum or Camarinum, more anciently 
Camers (Camertes : now Canierino), a town in 
Umbria, on the borders of Picenum, an ally of 
the Romans against the Etruscans, B.C. 308, 
and also an ally of the Romans in the second 
Punic war, subsequently a Roman colony. 

Camerinus, the name of a patrician family 
of the Sulpicia gens, the members of which fre- 
quently held the consulship in the early times 
of the republic (B.C. 500, 490, 461, 393, 345). 
After B.C. 345 the Camerini disappear from his- 
tory for 400 years, but they are mentioned again 
as one of the noblest Roman families in the 
early times of the empire. 

Camerinus, a Roman poet, contemporary with 
Ovid, wrote a poem on the capture of Troy by 
Hercules. 

Camious (Ha/unoe : KafiiKioc), an ancient town 



of the Sicani, on the southern coast of Sicily, on 
a river of the same name, occupied the site of 
the citadel of Agrigentum. 

Camilla, daughter of King Metabus, of the 
Volscian town of Privernum, was one of the 
swift-footed servants of Diana, accustomed to 
the chase and to war. She assisted Turnus 
against uEueas, and, after slaying numbers of 
the Trojans, was at length killed by Aruns. 

Camillus, Furius. 1. M., one of the great 
heroes of the Roman republic. He was censor 
B.C. 403, in which year Livy erroneously places 
his first consular tribunate. He was consular 
tribune for the first time in 401, and for the sec- 
ond time in 398. In 396 he was dictator, when 
he gained a glorious victory over the Faliscans 
and Fidenates, took Veii, and entered Rome in 
triumph, riding in a chariot drawn by white 
horses. In 894 he was consular tribune for the 
third time, and reduced the Faliscans. The 
story of the schoolmaster who attempted to be- 
tray the town of Falerii to Camillus belongs to 
this campaign. In 391 Camillus was accused 
of having made an unfair distribution of the 
booty of Veii, and went voluntarily into exile 
to Ardea. Next year (390) the Gauls took 
Rome, and laid siege to Ardea. The Romans 
in the Capitol recalled Camillus, and appointed 
him dictator in his absence. Camillus hastily 
collected an army, attacked the Gauls, and de- 
feated them completely. Vid. Brennus. His 
fellow-citizens saluted him as the second Rom- 
ulus. In 389 Camillus was dictator a third 
time, and defeated the Volscians, iEquians, 
and other nations. In 386 he was consular 
tribune for the fourth, in 384 for the fifth, and 
in 381 for the sixth time. Iu 368 he was ap 
pointed dictator a fourth time to resist the roga- 
tions of C. Licinius Stolo. Next year, 367, he 
was dictator a fifth time, and, though eighty 
years of age, he completely defeated the Gauls. 
He died of the pestilence, 365. Camillus was 
the great general of his age, and the resolute 
champion of the patrician order. His history 
has received much legendary and traditional 
fables, and requires a careful critical sifting. — 
2. Sp., son of No. 1, first pra?tor 367. — 3. L., 
also son of No. 1, was dictator 350, in order to 
hold the comitia, and consul 349, when he de- 
feated the Gauls. — 4. L., son of No. 2, consul 
338, when he took Tibur, and, in conjunction 
with his colleague Maenius, completed the sub- 
jugation of Latium. In 325 he was consul a 
second time. — 5. M., proconsul of Africa in the 
reign of Tiberius, defeated the Numidian Tac- 
farinas, AD. 17. — 6. M., surnamed Scriboni- 
anus, consul A.D. 32, under Tiberius. At the 
beginning of the reign of Claudius he was le- 
gate of Dalmatia, where he revolted, but was 
conquered, 42, sent into exile, and died 53. 

Camirus (Kufietpoc : Ka/ieipevc), a Dorian 
town on the western coast of the island of 
Rhodes, said to have been founded by Camirus, 
son of Cercaphus and Cydippe, and the princi- 
pal town in the island before the foundation of 
Rhodes. It was the birth-place of the poet Pi- 
sander. 

Camisa (Kd/iiaa), a fortress in Cappadocia 
twenty-three Roman miles east of Sebaste, [de- 
stroyed in the time of Strabo, but rebuilt at a 
later period.] 

16* 



CAMISSARES. 



CAK<E. 



[Camissaees, a Carian, father of the cele- 
brated Datames, was made satrap of part of 
Cilicia bordering on Cappadocia by Artaxerxes 
Mnemon : he fell in the war of Artaxerxes 
against the Cadusii, B.C. 385.] 

Camosn^e. Vid. CamenjE. 

Campania (Canipanus : now Terra di Lavoro), 

district of Italy, the name of which is proba- 
bly derived from campus, " a plain," was bound- 
ed on the northwest by Latium, north and east by 
Samnium, southeast by Lucania, and south and 
southwest by the Tyrrhenian Sea. It was sep- 
arated from Latium by the River Liris, and from 
Lucania at a later time by the River Silarus, 
though in the time of Augustus it did not ex- 
tend further south than the promontory of Mi- 
nerva. In still earlier times the Ager Campa- 
nus included only the country round Capua, 
The country along the coast from the Liris to 
the Promontory of Minerva is a plain inclosed 
by the Apennines, which sweep round it in the 
form of a semicircle. Campania is a volcanic 
country, to which circumstance it was mainly 
indebted for its extraordinary fertility, for which 
it was celebrated in antiquity above all other 
lands. It produced corn, wine, oil, and every 
kind of fruit in the greatest abundance, and in 
many parts crops could be gathered three times 
in the year. The fertility of the soil, the beauty 
of the scenery, and the softness of the climate, 
the heat of which was tempered by the delicious 
breezes of the sea, procured for Campania the 
epithet Felix, a name which it justly deserved. 
It was the favorite retreat in summer of the Ro- 
man nobles, whose villas studded a considerable 
part of its coast, especially in the neighborhood 
of Bale. The principal river was the Vultur- 
nus: the minor rivers were the Liris, Savo, 
Clanius, Sebethus, Sarnus, and Silarus. The 
chief lakes were Lucrinus, Aoherusia, Aver- 
nus, and Literna, most of them craters of ex- 
tinct volcanoes. The earliest inhabitants of the 
country were the Ausones and Osoi or Onci. 
They were subsequently conquered by the Etrus- 
cans, who became the masters of almost all the 
country. In the time of the Romans we find 
three distinct people, besides the Greek popula- 
tion of CuM.fi: 1. The Campani, properly so call- 
ed, a mixed race, consisting of Etruscans and 
the original inhabitants of the country, dwell- 
ing along the coast from Sinuessa to Psestum. 
They were the ruling race : their history is 
given under Capua, their chief city. 2. Sidi- 
oini, an Ausonian people, in the northwest of 
the country, on the borders of Samnium. 3. Pi- 
centini, in the southeast-of the country. 

[Campanus, one of the leaders of the Tungri 
in the war of Civilis against the Romans in A. 
D. "71.] 

Camfe (Kufixn), a monster which guarded the 
Cyclopes in Tartarus, was killed by Jupiter 
(Zeus) when he wanted the assistance of the 
Cyclopes against the Titans. 

[Campi Canini, a tract of country in the land 
of the Ra?ti, corresponding to the moderm Tessin 
valley.] 

[Campi Diomedei or Diomedis, a district of 
Apulia. Vid. Diomedes and Canusium.] 

Campi Lapidei (irediov Xtdddec : now la Crau), 
" Plain of Stones" in the south of Gaul, east of 
the Rhone, near the Mediterranean, and on the 
168 



road from Aries to Marseilles. These stones 
were probably deposited by the Rhone and the 
Drueutia (now Durance) when their course was 
different from what it is at present. This sin- 
gular plain was known even to jEschylus, who 
says that Jujriter (Zeus) rained down these 
stones from heaven to assist Hercules in his 
fight with the Ligurians, after the hero had shot 
away all his arrows. A sweet herbage grows 
underneath and between the stones, and con 
sequently, in ancient as well as in modern times, 
flocks of sheep were pastured on this plain. 

Campi Maori (Maicpol Kufinoi), the " Long 
Plains," a tract of country between Parma and 
Modena, celebrated for the wool of its sheep. 
There appears to. have been a place of the same 
name, where annual meetings of the neighbor- 
ing people were held even in the time of Strabo. 

[Campi Phlegr^ei, a volcanic district of Cam- 
pania, extending from Puteoli to Curnre, and 
containing Mount Vesuvius.] 

Campi Raudii, a plain in the north of Italy, 
near Verona, where Marius and Catulus defeat- 
ed the Cimbri, B.C. 101. 

[Campodunum (KafiTzodovvov : now Kempten), 
a city of ancient Raatia.] 

Campus Martius, the " Plain of Mars," fre- 
quently called the Campus simply, was, in its 
widest signification, the open plain at Rome 
outside the city walls, lying between the Tiber 
and the hills Capitolinus, Quirinal, and Pincius ; 
but it was more usually used to signify the 
northwest portion of the plain lying in the bend 
of the Tiber, which nearly surrounded it on 
three sides. The southern portion of the plain, 
in the neighborhood of the Circus Flarninius, 
was called Circus Flaminius, or Campus Fla- 
minius, or Prata Flamtnia. The Campus Mar- 
tius is said to have belonged originally to the 
Tarquins, and to have become the property of 
the state, and to have been consecrated to Mars 
upon the expulsion of the kings. Here the Ro- 
man youths were accustomed to perform their 
gymnastic and warlike exercises, and here the 
comitia of the centuries were held. At a later 
time it was surrounded by porticoes, temples, and 
other public buildings. It was included within 
the city walls by Aurelian. Some modern writ- 
ers make three divisions of the Campus Mar- 
tius, and suppose that there was a portion of 
the plain lying between the Campus Martius 
proper and the Circus Flaminius, called Cam- 
pus Tiberinus or Campus Minor, but this sup- 
position does not rest on sufficient evidence. 
The Campus Minor mentioned by Catullus (lv., 
3) probably refers to another Campus altogether. 
Respecting the other Campi, vid. Roma. 

Canace (KuvaKn), daughter of ^Eolus and 
Enarete, bore several children to Neptune (Po- 
seidon). 

Canaohus (Kdvaxoc). 1. A Sicyonian artist, 
flourished B.C. 540-508, and executed, among 
other works, a colossal statue of Apollo Philc- 
sius at Miletus, which was carried to Eebatana 
by Xerxes, 479. — 2. A Sicyonian artist, proba- 
bly grandson of the former, from whom he is 
not distinguished by the ancients. He and Pa- 
trocles cast the statues of two Spartans, who 
had fought in the battle of iEgospotamos, B.C. 
405. 

Can^e (Kdvai : now Kanot-Kiii), a sea-port 



CANASTRUM. 



OAPANEUS. 



of iEolis, ia Asia Minor, opposite to Lesbos. 
[Near this was the Promontory Canae, the term- 
ination of a range of mountains called by this 
same name ; also named Herod. uEga] 

Canasteum or Canaste^eum (Kdvaarpov, Ka- 
vaorpaiov, sc. aKpar^piov, y Kavaarpain uicpn : 
now Cape Paillari), the southeastern extremity 
of the peninsula Pallene in Macedonia. 

Oandace (YLavduarj), a queen of the Ethio- 
pians of Meroe, invaded Egypt B.C. 22, but was 
driven back and defeated by Petronius, the Ro- 
man governor of Egypt. Her name seems to 
have been common to all the queens of Ethio- 
pia. 

Candaules (JLavSavXnc), also called Myrsilus, 
last Heraclid king of Lydia. His wife compel- 
led Gyges to put her husband to death, in con- 
sequence of personal exposure. Gyges then 
married the queen and mounted the throne, B. 
C. 716. 

Candavia, Candavii Montes (now Crasta), 
the mountains separating Elyricum from Mace- 
donia, across which the Via Egnatia ran. 

Candidum Peomontobium (now Ras-el-Abiad, 
Cape Bianco), northwest of Hippo Zaritus, on the 
northern coast of Zeugitana, in Africa, forms 
the western headland of the Sinus Hipponensis. 

[Canens, daughter of Janus, married Picus, 
king of Latium in Italy. Vid. Picus.] 

CaniculA. Vid. Canis. 

Canidia, whose real name was G-ratidia, was 
a Neapolitan female, held up by Horace to con- 
tempt as an old sorceress. (Epod., 5, 11 ; Sat, 
I, 8.) • *» f>» >* *»* » **» f.WWj 

Caninius Gallus. Vid. Gallus. 

Caninius Rebilus. Vid. Rebilus. 

Canis (Kvov), the constellation of the Cheat 
Dog. The most important star in this constel- 
lation was specially named Canis or Ganicula, 
and also Sirius. About B.C. 400 the heliacal 
rising of Sirius at Athens, corresponding with 
the entrance of the sun into the sign Leo, mark- 
ed the hottest season of the year, and this ob- 
servation being taken on trust by the Romans, 
without considering whether it suited their age 
and country, the Canes Caniculares became pro- 
verbial among them, as the Dog Days are among 
ourselves. The constellation of the Little Dog 
was called Procyon (Tlponvuv), literally trans- 
lated Ante canem, Antecanis, because in Greece 
this constellation rises heliacally before the 
Great Dog. When Bootes was regarded as 
Icarius (vid. Aectos), Procyon became Maera, 
the dog of Icarius. 

Cannae (Cannensis : now Canne), a village in 
Apulia, northeast of Canusium, situated in an 
extensive plain east of the Aufidus and north of 
the small river Vergellus, memorable for the 
defeat of the Romans by Hannibal, B.C. 216. 

Canninefates. Vid. Batavt. 

Canobus or Canopus (KdvuCoc or Kuvuttoc), 
according to Grecian story, the helmsman of 
Menelaus, who, on his return from Troy, died 
in Egypt, and was buried on the site of the town 
of Caaobus, which derived its name from him. 

Canobus or Canopus (Kdvo6oc, Kdvu-oc : Ka- 
ouljirrjc : ruins west of Abouhir), an important 
city on the coast of Lower Egypt, near the west- 
ernmost mouth of the Nile, which was hence 
called the Canopic Mouth (to Kavw6iKdv oro/xa). 
It was one hundred and twenty stadia (twelve 



geographical miles) east of Alexandrea, and 
was (at least at one time) the capital of the 
Nomos Menelaites. It had a great temple of 
Serapis, and a considerable commerce ; and its 
inhabitants were proverbial for their luxury 
(KavuCio-fioc). After the establishment of Chris- 
tianity, the city rapidly declined. 

Cantabei, a people in the north of Spam, 
The Romans originally gave this name to all 
the people on the northern coast of Spain ; but 
when they became better acquainted with the 
country, the name was restricted to the people 
bounded on the east by the Astures and on the 
west by the Autrigones. The Cantabri were a 
fierce and warlike people, and were only sub- 
dued by Augustus after a struggle 'of several 
years (B.C. 25-19). 

Canthaeus (Kdvdapoc). 1. A statuary and 
embosser of Sicyon, flourished about B.C. 268. — 
[2. Canthaeus. a <v>mic poet of Athens, proba- 
bly of the old comedy, of whom a few frag- 
ments are extant, collected in Meineke's Fragm. 
Comic. Grcec, vol., i., p. 462-3.] 

[Canthaeus (Kdvdapoc), one of the three sub- 
divisions of the Piraeus, the harbor of Athens, 
so called from its resemblance to a Kdvdapoc.] 

Canthus (Kdvdoc), an Argonaut, son of Cane- 
thus or of Abas of Euboea, was slain in Libya 
by Cephalion or Caphaurus. 

Cantium (Cantii : now Kent), a district of 
Britain nearly the same as the modern Kent, 
but included Londinium : [the eastern extremity 
of this district formed the Cantium Promontori- 
um, now North Foreland.'] 

Canuleius, C, tribune of the plebs B.C. 445, 
proposed the law establishing connubium, or the 
right of intermarriage, between the patricians 
and plebs. He also proposed that the people 
should have the right of choosing the consuls 
from either the patricians or the plebs ; but this 
proposal was not carried, and it was resolved 
instead, that military tribunes, with consular 
power, should be elected from either order in 
place of the consuls. 

Canusium (Canusinus: now Canosa), a town 
in Apulia, on the Aufidus, and on the high road 
from Rome to Brundisium, founded, according 
to tradition, by Diomede, whence the surround- 
ing country was called Campus Diomedis. It 
was, at all events, a Greek colony, and both 
Greek and Oscan were spoken there in the time 
of Horace. (Canusini more bilinguis,Hor., Sat., 
i., 10, 30.) Canusium was a town of consid- 
erable importance, but suffered greatly, like 
most of the other towns in the south of Italy, 
during the second Punic war. Here the re- 
mains of the Roman army took refuge after 
their defeat at Cannaa, B.C. 216. It was cele- 
brated for its mules and its woollen manufac- 
tures, but it had a deficient supply of water. 
(Hor., Sat, i., 5, 91.) There are still ruins of 
the ancient town near Canosa. 

Canutius or Cannutius. 1. P., a distin 
guished orator, frequently mentioned in Ciee 
ro's oration for Cluentius. — 2. Ti, tribune of 
the plebs B.C. 44, a violent opponent of Antony 
and, after the establishment of the triumvirate, 
of Octavianus also. He was taken prisoner at 
the capture of Perusia, and was put to death by 
Octavianus, 40. 

Capaneus (KaTravcvc), son of Hipponous and 
169 



CAPAEA. 



CAPITOLIUM. 



A. stynome or Laodice, and father of Sthenelus, 
was one of the seven heroes who marched from 
Argos against Thebes. He was struck by Ju- 
piter (Zeus) with lightning, as he was scaling 
the walls of Thebes, because he had dared to 
defy the god. While his body was burning, his 
wife, Evadne, leaped into the flames and de- 
stroyed herself. 

[Oapara (now las Veritas da Caparra), a city 
of Lusitania, in the territory of the Vettones.] 

Capella, the star. Vid. Capua. 

Capella, Martianus Mineus Felix, a native 
of Carthage, probably flourished toward the 
close of the fifth century of our era. He is the 
author of a work in nine books, composed in a 
medley of, prose and various kinds of verse, after 
the fashion of the Satyra Menippea of Varro. 
It is a sort of encyclopaedia, and was much es- 
teemed in the Middle Ages. The first two 
books, which are au introduction to the rest, 
consist of an allegory, entitled the Nuptials of 
Philology and Mercury, while in the remaining 
seven are expounded the principles of the seven 
liberal arts, Grammar, Dialectics, Khetoric, Ge- 
ometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music, in- 
cluding Poetry. — Editions : By Hugo Grotius, 
Lugd. Eat., 1599 ; and by Kopp, Francf., 1836. 

Oapena (Capenas, -atis: now Civitucola, an 
uninhabited hill), an ancient Etruscan town 
founded by and dependent on Veii, submitted 
to the Eomans B.C. 395, the year after the con- 
quest of Veil, and subsequently became a Eo- 
man municipium. In its territory was the cel- 
ebrated grove and temple of Feronia, on the 
small river Capenas. Vid. Feronia. 

Capena Porta Vid. Eoma. 

[Capenas (now Taglia Fosso), a small river 
of Etruria. Vid. Capena.] 

Caper, Flavius, a Eoman grammarian of un- 
certain date, whose works are quoted repeat- 
edly by Priseian, and of whom we have two 
short treatises extant: printed by Putschius, 
Grammat. Latin. Auct. Antiqu., p. 2239-2248, 
Hanov., 1605. 

[Capernaum (KaTrepvaovu, now Tell-Hum), a 
place in Galilee, on the northern shore of Lake 
Tiberias.] 

Capetus Silvius. Vid. Silvius. 

Caphareus (Kafoipsve. : now Capo d'Oro), a 
rocky and dangerous promontory on the south- 
east of Euboea, where the Greek fleet is said to 
have been wrecked on its return from Troy. 

[Caphaurus (Kuipavpoc), son of Amphithemis 
and the nymph Tritonis, slew the Argonaut 
Canthus.] 

[Capiiira (Kd<j>eipa), daughter of Oceanus, is 
said to have reared Neptune (Poseidon) in 
Ehodes.] 

Caphy^e (Katj>vai : KaQvevc, Ka<j>vdrnc), a 
town in Arcadia, northwest of Orchomenus. 
Capito, C. Ateius. 1. Tribune of the plebs 

B. C. 55, when he opposed the triumvirs. — 2. 
Son of No. 1, an eminent Eoman jurist, was ap- 
pointed Curator aquarum pvblicarmn'm A.D. 13, 
and held this office till his death, 22. He gained 
the favor of both Augustus and Tiberius by 
flattery and obsequiousness. He wrote numer- 
ous legal works, which are cited in the Digest 
and elsewhere. Capito and his contemporary 
Labeo were reckoned the highest legal author- 
ities of their dav, and were the founders of two 

170 



legal sohools, to which most of the great jurists 
belonged. The schools took their respective 
names from distinguished disciples of those ju- 
rists. The followers of Capito were called 
from Masurius Sabiuus, Sabiniani ; and after- 
ward from Cassius Longinus Cassiani. The 
followers of Labeo took from Proculus the name 
Proculeiani. 

Capito, C. Fonteius. 1. A friend of M. Anto- 
ny, accompanied Maecenas to Brundisium, B.C. 
37, when the latter was sent to effect a reconcil- 
iation between Oetavianus and Antony. (Hor. 
Sat., i., 5, 32.) Capito remained with Antony, 
and went with him to the East. — [2. C. Fon- 
teius, son of No. 1, was consul in A.D. 12, to- 
gether with Germanicus, and afterward had, as 
proconsul, the administration of the province 
of Asia ; he was accused subsequently on ac- 
count of his conduct in Asia, but was acquitted.] 

CapitolInus, Julius, one of the Scriptores 
Histories Augusta?, lived in the reign of Diocle- 
tian (A.D. 284-305), and wrote the lives of nine 
emperors: 1. Antoninus Pius; 2. M. Aurelius ; 
3. L. Verus ; 4. Pertinax ; 5. Clodius Albiuus ; 
6. Opilius Macrinus ; 7. The two Maximini ; 8. 
The three Gordiani ; 9. Maximus and Baibinus. 
The best editions of the Scriptores Historian Au- 
gusta are by Sahnasius, Par., 1620 ; Sehreve- 
lius, Lugd. Bat, 1671. 

CapitolInus, Manlius. Vid. Manlius. 

Capitolinus Mons. Vid. Capitolium, Eoma. 

CapitolInus, Petillius, was, according to 
the Scholiast on Horace (Sat, i., 4, 94), intrust- 
ed with the care of the temple of Jupiter on the 
Capitol (whence he was called Capitolinus), and 
was accused of having stolen the crown of Ju 
piter, but was acquitted by the judges in conse- 
quence of his being a friend of Augustus. The 
surname Capitolinus appears, however, to have 
been a regular family-name of the gens. 

Capitolinus, Quintius. Vid. Quintius. 

Capitolium, the temple of Jupiter Optimus 
Maximus at Bome, was situated on the Mons 
Capitolinus, which derived its name from the 
temple. This hill is in figure an irregular ob- 
long, with two more elevated summits at the 
northern and southern ends. The northern 
summit, which is somewhat higher and steeper, 
was the Arx or citadel of Eome, and is now 
occupied by the church of Ara Celt ; while the 
southern summit, which is now covered in part 
by the Palazzo Caffarelli, was the site of the 
Capitolium. The temple is said to have been 
called the Capitolium, because a human head 
[caput) was discovered in digging the founda- 
tions. The building of it was commenced by 
Tarquinius Priscus, and it was finished by Tar- 
quinius Superbus, but was not dedicated till the 
third year of the republic, B.C. 507, by the con 
sul M. Horatius. It was burned down in the 
civil wars, 83, but was rebuilt by Sulla, and was 
dedicated by Q. Catulus, 69. It was burned 
clown a second time by the soldiers of Vitellius, 
A.D. 69, and was rebuilt bv Vespasiau ; but it 
was burned down a third time in the reign of 
Titus, 80, and was again rebuilt by Domitiau 
with greater splendor than before. The O&pi 
tol contained three cells under the same roof 
the middle cell was the temple of Jupiter, heuct 
described as " media qui sedet aide Deus" (Ov. 
ex Pont, iv., 9, 32), and on either side were 



CAPPADOCIA. 



CAPSA. 



the cells of his attendant deities, Juno and Mi- 
nerva. The Capitol was one of the most im- 
posing buildings at Rome, and was adorned as 
befitted the majesty of the king of the gods. It 
was in the form of a square, namely, two hund- 
red feet on each side, and was approached by 
a flight of one hundred steps. The gates were 
of bronze, and the ceilings and tiles gilt. The 
gilding alone cost Domitian twelve thousand 
talents. In the Capitol were kept the Sibylline 
books. Here the consuls, upon entering on their 
office, offered sacrifices and took their vows ; 
and hither the victorious general, who entered 
the city in triumph, was carried in his triumphal 
car, to return thanks to the father of the gods. 
Although the words Arx Capitoliumque are prop- 
erly used to signify the whole hill, yet we some- 
times find the term Arx applied alone to the 
whole hill, since the hill itself constituted a nat- 
ural citadel to the city, and sometimes the term 
Capitolium to the whole hill, on account of the 
importance and reverence attaching to the tem- 
ple. Moreover, as the Capitol was nearly as 
defensible as the Arx, it is sometimes called 
Arx Tarpeia or Capitolina, but the epithet Tar- 
peia or Capitolina is applied to distinguish it 
from the Arx properly so called. 

Cappadocia {KaTTTradoKia : Ktnrnudo!;, Cappa- 
dox), a district of Asia Minor, to which different 
boundaries were assigned at different times. 
Under the Persian empire it included the whole 
country inhabited by a people of Syrian origin, 
who were called (from their complexion) White 
Syrians (Aevicoavpoi), and also Cappadoces, 
which appears to have been a word of Persian 
origin. Their country seems to have embraced 
the whole northeastern part of Asia Minor east 
of the Halys and north of the Taurus. After- 
ward (but whether under the Persians or after 
the Macedonian conquest, is a disputed point) 
the country was divided into two parts, which 
were named respectively from their proximity 
to the Euxine and to the Taurus, the northern 
part being called Cappadocia ad Pontum, and 
then simply Pontus, the southern part Cappa- 
docia ad Taurum, and then simply Cappadocia : 
the former was also called Cappadocia Minor, 
and the latter Cappadocia Major. Under the 
Persian Empire, the whole country was govern- 
ed by a line of hereditary satraps, who traced 
their descent from Anaphas, an Achaamenid, one 
of the seven chieftains that slew the pseudo- 
Smerdis, and who soon raised themselves to the 
position of tributary kings. After a temporary 
suspension of their power during the wars be- 
tween the successors of Alexander, when Aria- 
rathes I. was defeated and slain by Perdiccas 
(B.C. 322), the kings of southern Cappadocia (re- 
specting the other part, vid. Fontus) recovered 
their independence under Ariarathes II, whose 
history and that of his successors will be found 
under Auiarathes and Ariobarzanes. In A.D. 
17, Archelaiis, the last king, died at Rome, and 
Tiberius made Cappadocia a Roman province. 
Vid. Arohelaus, No. 6. Soon afterward the 
districts of Cataonia and Melitene, which had 
before belonged to Cilicia, were added to Cap- 
padocia, and the province then comprised the 
ten praefecturae of Melitene, Cataonia, Cilicia, 
Tyanitis, Garsauritis, Laviniasene, Sargarau- 
sene, Sarauravene, Chamanene, and Morimene, 



There were other divisions under the later em- 
perors. Cappadocia was a rough and generally 
sterile mountain region, bordered by the chains 
of the Paryadres on the north, the Scydisses 
on the east, and the Taurus on the south, and 
intersected by that of the Anti-Taurus, on the 
side of whose central mountain, Arg.eus, stood 
the capital Mazaea, afterward C^esarea ad Ar- 
g^eum. Its chief rivers were the Halys and the 
Melas. Its fine pastures supported abundance 
of good horses and mules. 

Cappadox (KaTTirddol; : now Konax), a tribu- 
tary of the Halys, rising in Mount Lithrus, in 
the chain of Paryadres, and forming the north- 
western boundary of Cappadocia, on the side of 
Galatia. 

Capra or Capella (Aif), the brightest star 
in the constellation of the Auriga or Charioteer, 
is sometimes called Olenia Capella, because it 
rested on the shoulder {M rf/c uMvns) of the 
Auriga. This star was said to have been orig- 
inally the nymph or goat who nursed the infant 
Jupiter (Zeus) in Crete. Vid. Mga, Amalthea. 
Its heliacal rising took place soon before the 
winter solstice, and thus it was termed sigivum 
pluviale, 

Capraria or Caprasia. 1. (Now Capraja), a 
small island off the coast of Etruria, between 
Populouia and the northern extremity of Cor- 
sica, inhabited only by wild goats, whence its 
name : called by the Greeks Klyikov. — 2. (Now 
Cabrera), a small island off the south of the Ba- 
learis Major (now Majorca), dangerous to ships. 
— 3. Vid. jEgates. — 4. Vid. Fortunate Insula 

OapriLe (now Capri), a small island, nine 
miles in circumference, off Campania, at the 
southern entrance of the Gulf of Puteoli, and 
two and a half miles from the Promontory of 
Minerva, from which the island had been sepa- 
rated by an earthquake. It is composed of cal- 
careous rocks, which rise to two summits, the 
highest of which is between one thousand six 
hundred and one thousand seven hundred feet 
above the sea. The scenery is beautiful, and 
the climate soft and genial. According to tra- 
dition, it was originally inhabited by the Tele- 
boaa, but afterward belonged to (he inhabitants 
of Neapolis, from whom Augustus either pur- 
chased it or obtained it in exchange for the 
island Pithecusa. Here Tiberius lived the last 
ten years of his reign, indulging in secret de- 
bauchery, and accessible only to his creatures. 
He erected many magnificent buildings on the 
island, the chief of which was the villa Jovis, 
and the 'ruins of which are still to be seen. 

Capria (Kairpia), a large salt lake in Pam- 
phylia, near the coast, between Perge and As- 
pendus. 

Capricornus (MyoKEpuc), the Goat, a sign of 
the zodiac, between the Archer and the Water- 
man, is said to have fought with Jupiter against 
the Titans. 

. Caprus (Kuirpoc). 1. (Now Little Zab), a 
river of Assyria, rising in Mount Zagros (now 
Mountains of Kurdistan), and flowing southwest 
into the Tigris, opposite to Caenae. — 2. A little 
river of Phrygia, rising at the foot of Mount 
Cadmus, and flowing north into the Lyeus. 

Capsa (Capsetanus : now Ghafsah), a strong 
and ancient city in the southwest of Byzacena, in 
Northern Africa, in a fertile oasis, surrounded bv 
171 3 



CAPUA. 



CARAUSIUS. 



a sandy desert abounding in serpents. Its foun- 
dation was ascribed by tradition to the Libyan 
Hercules. In the -war with Jugurtha, who used 
it as a treasure-city, it was destroyed by Marius ; 
but it was afterward rebuilt and erected into a 
colony. 

Capua (Capuauus, Capuensis, but more com- 
monly Campanus : now Capua), originally call- 
ed Vulturnum, the chief city of Campania after 
the fall of Cuttx, is said to have derived its 
name from Oapys. Vid. Capts, No. 2. Capua 
was cither founded or colonized by the Etrus- 
cans, according to some, fifty years before the 
foundation of Rome, and it became at an early 
period the most prosperous, wealthy, and luxu- 
rious city in the south of Italy. In B.C. 420 it 
was conquered by the warlike Samnites ; and 
the population, which had always been of a 
mixed nature, now consisted of Ausonians, Os- 
cans, Etruscans, and Samnites. At a later time, 
Capua, again attacked by the Samnites, placed 
itself under the protection of Rome, 343. It 
revolted to Hannibal after the battle of Cannas, 
216, but was taken by the Romans in 211, was 
fearfully puuished, and never recovered its for- 
mer prosperity. It was now governed by a 
prsefeetus, who was sent annually to the city 
from Rome. It received a Roman colony by 
the lex agraria of Julius Caesar, 59, and under 
Nero a colony of veterans was settled there. 
It was subsequently destroyed by the barbarians 
who invaded Italy. The modern town of Capua 
is built about three miles from the ancient one, 
'.he site of which is indicated by the ruins of an 
amphitheatre. 

Caput Vada Promontorium. Vid. Bracho- 

DES. 

Capys (Kdnvc). 1. Son of Assaracus and 
Hieromnemone, and father of Anchises. — 2. A 
companion of iEneas, from whom Capua was 
said to have derived its name. 

Capys Silvius. Yid. Silvius. 

Capytium or Capitium (now Capizzi), called 
by Cicero Capitina Civilas, a town in Sicily 
near Mount J2tna. 

Car (Kdp), son of Phoroneus, and king of 
Megara, from whom the acropolis of this town 
was called Caria. 

[Cara (now Cares, near Puente la Reyna), a 
city of the Vascones in Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis.] 

Caracalla, emperor of Rome A.D. 211— 21*7, 
was son of Septimius Severus and his second 
wife Julia Domna, and was born at Lyqns A.D. 
188. He was originally called Bassianus after 
his maternal grandfather, but afterward Marcus 
Aurelius Antoninus, which became his legal 
name, and appears on medals and inscriptions. 
Caracalla was a nickname derived from a long- 
tunic worn by the Gauls, which he adopted as 
his favorite dress after he became emperor. In 
198, Caracalla, when ten years old, was declar- 
ed Augustus, and in the same year accompanied 
his father Severus in the expedition against the 
Parthians. He returned with Severus to Rome 
in 202, and married Plautilla, daughter of Plau- 
tianus, the praatorian prefect. In 208 he went 
with Severus to Britain ; and on the death of 
the latter at York, 211, Caracalla and his brother 
Geta succeeded to the throne, according to their 
father's arrangements. Caracalla's first object j 
172 



was to obtain the sole government by the mur- 
der of his brother ; and after making several 
unsuccessful attempts upon the life of Geta, he 
at length pretended to be reconciled with him, 
and having thus thrown him off his guard, he 
caused him to be murdered in the arms of his 
mother, 212. The assassination of Geta was 
followed by the execution of many of the most 
distinguished men of the state, whom Caracalla 
suspected of favoring his brother's cause : the 
celebrated jurist Papinian was one of his vic- 
tims. His cruelties and extravagances knew 
no bounds ; and after exhausting Italy by his 
extortions, he resolved to visit the different 
provinces of the empire, which became the 
scenes of fresh atrocities. In 214 he visited 
Gaul, Germany, Dacia, and Thrace ; and, in con- 
sequence of a campaign agaiust the Alemanni, 
he assumed the surname Alemannicus. In 215 
he went to Syria and Egypt ; his sojourn at 
Alexandrea was marked by a general slaughtei 
of the inhabitants, in order to avenge certain 
sarcastic pleasantries in which they had indul- 
ged against himself and his mother. In 216 he 
crossed the Euphrates, laid waste Mesopotamia, 
and returned to Edessa, where he wintered. 
Next year he again took the field, intending to 
cross the Tigris, but was murdered near Edessa 
by Macrinus, the praatorian prsefect. Caracalla 
gave to all free inhabitants of the empire the. 
name and privileges of Roman citizens. 

Caraotacus, king of the Silures in Britain, 
bravely defended his country against the Ro- 
mans, in the reign of Claudius. He was at 
length defeated by the Romans, and fled for pro- 
tection to Cartismandua, queen of the Brigan- 
tes ; but she betrayed him to the Romans, who 
carried him to Rome, A.D. 51. When brought 
before Claudius, he addressed the emperor in so 
noble a manner that the latter pardoned him 
and his friends. 

Caralis or Carales (Caralitanus : now Cag- 
liari), the chief town of Sardinia, with an excel- 
lent harbor, situated on the Sinus Caralita- 
nus and on a promontory of the same name 
(now Capo S. JElia). It was founded by the 
Carthaginians ; under the Romans it was the 
residence of the praetor, and at a later period 
enjoyed the Roman franchise. 

Carambis (Kapa/iGic uupa : now Kerempe), a 
promontory, with a city of the same name, on 
the coast of Paphlagonia, almost exactly oppo- 
site the Kriu Metopon, or southern promontory 
of the Chersouesus Taurica (now Crimea). An 
imaginary line joining these two headlands 
would make an almost equal division of the 
Euxine, which was hence called dtdvfiTj ddXaaoa. 
(Soph., Antig., 978.) 

Caranus (Kupavoc). 1. Of Argos, a descend- 
ant of Hercules, aud a brother of Phidon, is said 
to have settled at Edessa in Macedonia with an 
Argive colony about B.C. 750, aud to have be 
come the founder of the dynasty of Macedonian 
kings. — 2 Son of Philip aud half-brother of Al- 
exander the Great. — 3. A general of Alexander 
the Great 

Carausius, born among the Menapii in Gaul, 
was intrusted by Maximian with the command 
of the fleet which was to protect the coasts of 
Gaul against the ravages of the Franks. But 
Maximian, having become dissatisfied with the 



CARBO, PAPIRIUS. 



CARIA. 



conduct of Carausius in this command, gave 
orders for the execution of the latter. Carau- 
sius forthwith crossed over to Britain, where 
he assumed the title of Augustus, A.D. 287. Af- 
ter several ineffectual attempts to subdue him, 
Diocletian and Maximian acknowledged him as 
then - colleague in the empire, and he continued to 
reign in Britain till 293, when he was murdered 
by his chief officer, Allectus. 

Carbo, Papirius. 1. C, a distinguished ora- 
tor, and a man of great talents, but of no prin- 
ciple. He commenced public life as one of the 
three commissioners or triumvirs for carrying 
into effect the agrarian law of Tiberius Grac- 
chus. His tribuneship of the plebs, B.C. 131, 
was characterized by the most vehement oppo- 
sition to the aristocracy ; and he was thought 
even to have murdered Scipio Africanus, the 
champion of the aristocratical party, 129. But 
after the death of C. Gracchus (121), he sud- 
denly deserted the popular party, and in his con- 
sulship (120) actually undertook the defence 
of Opimius, who had murdered C. Gracchus. 
In 119 Carbo was accused by L. Licinius Cras- 
sus, who brought a charge against him, and as 
he foresaw his condemnation, he put an end to 
his life. — 2. On, consul 113, "was defeated by 
the Cinibri near Noreia, and being afterward ac- 
cused by Marcus Antonius, he put an end to his 
own life. — 3. 0, with the surname Arvina, son 
of No. 1, was a supporter of the aristocracy. 
In his tribuneship (90), Carbo and his colleague, 
Marcus Plautius Silvanus, carried a law (Lex 
Papiria Plautia), giving the Roman franchise to 
the citizens of the federate towns. Carbo was 
murdered in 82, by the prastor Brutus Damasip- 
pus, at the command of the younger Marius. Vid. 
Brutus, No. 10. — 4. On, son of No. 2, was one 
of the leaders of the Marian party. He was 
thrice consul, namely, in 85, 84, and 82. In 82 
he carried on war against Sulla and his generals, 
but was at length obliged to abandon Italy : he 
fled to Sicily, where he was taken prisoner, and 
put to death by Pompey at Lilybaeum in the 
course of the same year. 

Carcaso (now Oarcassone), a town of the Tec- 
tosag es in Gallia Narbonensis, [possessing the Jus 
Latii, used by Ciesar in his Gallic wars as a 
place of arms.] 

Carcathiooerta (KapKadwKepra : now Kart- 
purt or Diarbekr), the capital of the district of 
Sophene in Armenia Major. 

Carcinus (KapKlvoc). 1. A tragic poet and a 
contemporary of Aristophanes (Nub., 1263; Pax, 
794). — 2. A younger tragic poet, lived about 
B.C. 380 ; [Suidas attributed to him one hun- 
dred and sixty tragedies, but we possess the titles 
and fragments of nine only, and some fragments 
of uncertain dramas : all that remains of this 
poeD has been collected and published in Wag- 
ner's Tragic. Grate. Fragm. (Didot's Bibliotheca), 
p. 84-88.] 

Cardamyle (Kapda/xvlri : Kapda[iv/\.tT7ic.) 1. 
A town in Messenia, one of the seven towns prom- 
ised by Agamemnon to Achilles. — 2. An island 
□ear, or perhaps a town in, Chios. 

Cardea, a Roman divinity protecting the 
hinges of doors (cardo), was a nymph beloved 
by Janus, who rewarded her for her favors by 
giving her the protection of the hinges of doors, 
and the power of preventing evil demons from 



entering houses. Ovid (Fast., vi, 101, seq.) con- 
founds this goddess with Carna. 

Cardia (iLapSia ; Kapdiavoc), a town on the 
western side of the Thracian Chersonese, on the 
Gulf of Melas, founded by Miletus and Clazom- 
en£e, and subsequently colonized by the Athe- 
nians under Miltiades. It was destroyed by Ly- 
simachus, who built the town of Lysimachia in 
its immediate neighborhood. Cardia was the 
birth-place of Eumenes and of the historian 
Hieronymus. 

Carduchi (KapSovxoi), a powerful and warlike 
people in the southeast of Greater Armenia, on 
the northeastern margin of the Tigris valley, 
probably the same as the TopSvaloi and VopSvrjvoi 
of the late geographers and the Kurds of mod- 
em times. They dwelt in the mountains which 
divided Assyria on the northeast from Armenia 
(Mountains af Kurdistan), and were never thor- 
oughly subdued by the Persians, Greeks, or Ro- 
mans. 

Caresus (KdpTjaoc), a town of the Troad, on a 
river of the same name flowing into the iEsepus : 
destroyed before the time of Strabo : [the sur- 
rounding district was called Caresene.] 

[Carfulenus, D, called Carsuleius by Ap- 
pian, served under Julius Cassar in the Alexan- 
drine war, B.C. 47, in which he is spoken of as a 
man of great military skill. He subsequently 
took an active part in the war against Antony, 
and fell in the battle of Mutina.] 

Caria (Kapla : Kdp, pi. oi Kdpsc), a district of 
Asia Minor, in its southwestern corner, bound- 
ed on the north and northeast by the mountains 
Messogis and Cadmus, which divided it from 
Lydia and Phrygia, and adjacent to Phrygia and 
Lycia on the east and southeast. It is inter- 
sected by low mountain chains running out far 
into the sea in long promontories, the northern- 
most of which was called Mycale or Trogilium 
(opposite to Samos) ; the next Posidium (on 
which stood Miletus and Branchidas) ; the next 
is the long tongue of land terminated by the two 
headlands of Zephyrium and Termerium (with 
Halicarnassus ou its southern side) ; next the 
Cnidian Chersonesus, terminated by the Cape 
Triopium and the city of Cnidus ; then the Rho- 
dian Chersonesus, the southern point of which 
was called Cynossema, opposite to Rhodes ; and, 
lastly, Pedabum or Artemisium, forming the 
western headland of the Bay of Glaucus. The 
chief gulfs formed by these promontories were 
the Maeaudrian, between Trogilium and Posidi- 
um ; the Iassian, between Posidium and Zephy- 
rium ; and the Ceraunian or Dorian, between 
Termerium and Triopium. The valleys between 
these mountain chains were well watered and 
fertile. The chief river was the Mseander, be- 
tween the chains of Messogis and Latmus, to the 
south of which the country was watered by its 
tributaries, the Marsyas, Harpasus, and Mosy- 
nus, besides some streams flowing west and 
south into the sea, the most considerable of 
which was the Calbis. Vid. the articles. The 
chief products of the country were corn, wine, 
oil, and figs ; for the last of which, Caunus, on 
the southern coast, was very famous. An ex- 
tensive commerce was carried on by the Greek 
colonies on the coast. Even before the great 
colonization of the coasts of Asia Minor, Dorian 
settlements existed on the Triopian and Cnidian 
173 



CARINA. 



CARNUTES. 



promontories, and this part of Caria, with the 
adjacent islands, received at that time other 
Dorian colonies, and obtained the name of Do- 
ris ; while to the north of the Iassian Gulf the 
coast was occupied by Ionian colonies, and thus 
formed the southern part of Ionia. The inhab- 
itants of the rest of the country were Cariaus 
(Kdpef) a wide-spread race of the Indo-Ger- 
manic stock, nearly allied to the Lydians and 
Mysians, which appears, in the earliest times 
of which we know any thing, to have occupied 
the greater part of the western coast of Asia 
Minor and several islands of the iEgean, in eon- 
junction with the Leleges, from whom the Ca- 
rians are not easily distinguishable. The con- 
nection between the Cariaus, Lydians, and My- 
sians is attested by their common worship of 
Zeus Carios at Mylasa : the Carians had also a 
common sanctuary of Zeus Chrysaoreus. Their 
language was reckoned by the Greeks as a bar- 
barian tongue (i. a, unintelligible), though it 
early received an intermixture of Greek. The 
people were considered mean and stupid, even 
for slaves. The country was governed by a 
race of native princes, who fixed their abode at 
Haliearnassus after its exclusion from the Do- 
rian confederacy. Vid. Halioarnassus. These 
princes were subject allies of Lydia and Persia, 
and some of them rose to great distinction in 
war and peace. Vid. Artemisia, Mausobus, 
and Ada. After the Macedonian conquest, the 
southern portion of the country became subject 
to Rhodes (vid. Rhodus), and the northern part 
to the kings of Pergamus. Under the Romans, 
Caria formed a part of the province of Asia. 
Oaeinje. Vid. Roma. 

C \r1nus, M. Aurelius, the elder of the two 
sous of Cams, was associated with his father 
in the government, A.D 283, and remained in 
the west, while his father and brother Numeri- 
arms proceeded to the east to carry on war 
against the Persians. On the death of his father, 
in the course of the same year, Carinus and 
Numerianus succeeded to the empire. In 284 
Numerianus was slain, and Carinus marched 
iuto Mcesia to oppose Diocletian, who had been 
proclaimed emperor. A decisive battle was 
fought near Margum, in which Carinus gained 
the victory, but, in the moment of triumph, he 
was slain by some of his own officers, whose 
wives he had seduced, 285. Carinus was one 
of the most profligate and cruel of the Roman 
emperors. 

Oarmana (Kup/iava : now Kerman, ruins), the 
capital of Carmania Propria, 3° longitude east 
of Persepolis. 

Carmania (Kap/iavia: Kapfj.dvLoc,Kap/j.avLT7jc : 
now Kirman), a province of the ancient Persian 
empire bounded on the west by Persis, on the 
north by Parthia, on the east by Gedrosia, and 
on the south by the Indian Ocean. It was di- 
vided iuto two parts, C. Propria and C. Deserta, 
the former of which was well watered by sev- 
eral small streams, and abounded in corn, wine, 
and cattle. The country also yielded gold, silver, 
copper, salt, and cinnabar. The people were akin 
to the Persians. 

Caumanor (Kappdvup), a Cretan, said to have 
purified Apollo and Diana (Artemis) after slay- 
ing the monster Python. 

Ouimelus and -um (Kup/iri?Mc : now Jcbel- 
174 



Elyas), a range of mountains in Palestine, 
branching off, on the northern border of Sama- 
ria, from the central chain (which extends south 
and north between the Jordan and the Mediter- 
ranean), and running north and northwest through 
the southwest part of Galilee, till it terminates in 
the promontory of the same name (now Cape 
Carmel), the height of which is twelve hundred 
feet above the Mediterranean. 

Carmenta, Carmentis. Vid. Camen^s. 

Carmo (now Carmona), a fortified town in 
Hispania Bsetica, northeast of Hispalis. 

Carna, a Roman divinity, whose name is 
probably connected with caro, flesh, for she was 
regarded as the protector of the physical well- 
being of man. Her festival was celebrated on the 
first of June, and was believed to have been in- 
stituted by Brutus in the first year of the repub- 
lic. Ovid confounds this goddess with Oardea. 

Carneades (Kapveudnc), a celebrated philoso- 
pher, born at Cyrene about B.C. 213, was the 
founder of the Third or New Academy at Athens. 
In 155 he was sent to Rome, with Diogenes and 
Critolaus, by the Athenians, to deprecate the 
fine of five hundred talents which had been im- 
posed on the Athenians for the destruction of 
Oropus. At Rome he attracted great notice 
from his eloquent declamations on philosophical 
subjects, and it was here that he first delivered 
his famous orations on Justice. The first ora- 
tion was in commendation of the virtue, and the 
next day the second answered all the arguments 
of the first, and showed that justice was not a 
virtue, but a matter of compact for the mainte- 
nance of civil society. Thereupon Cato moved 
the senate to send the philosopher home to his 
school, and save the Roman youth from his de- 
moralizing doctrines. Carneades died in 129, at 
the age of eighty-five. He was a strenuous op- 
ponent of the Stoics, and maintained that neither 
our senses nor our understanding supply us with 
a sure criterion of truth. 

Carneus (Kapveioc), a surname of Apollo, un- 
der which he was worshipped by the Dorians, 
is derived by some from Carnus, a son of Jupi- 
ter (Zeus) and Latona (Leto), and by others from 
Carnus, an Aearnanian soothsayer. The latter 
was murdered by Hippotes, and it was to pro- 
pitiate Apollo that the Dorians introduced his 
worship under the surname of Carneus. The fes- 
tival of the CarnSa, in honor of Apollo, was one 
of the great national festivals of the Spartans. 
Vid. Diet, of Ant., s. v. 

Carni, a Celtic people, dwelling north of the 
Veneti iu the Alpes Carn'ca?. Vid. p. 48, b. 

Carnuntum (Kapvovc, -ovvrog : ruins between 
Deutsch-Altenburg and Petronell), an ancient 
Celtic town in Upper Pannonia on the Danube, 
east of Vindobona (now Vienna), and subsequent- 
ly a Roman municipium or a colony. It was one 
of the chief fortresses of the Romans on the Dan- 
ube, and was the residence of the Emperor Mar- 
cus Aurelius during his wars with the Marcomau- 
ni and Quadi. It was the station of the Roman 
fleet on the Danube and the regular quarters of 
the fourteenth legion. It was destroyed by the 
Germans iu the fourth century, but was rebuilt, 
and was finally destroyed by the Hungarians in 
the Middle Ages. 

Carnus. Vid. Carneus. 

Carnutes or -i, a powerful people in Gallir 



CARP ASIA. 

Lugduuensis, between the Liger and Sequana : 
their capital was Genabum. 

Carpasia (Kap-ntzaia : now Karpass), a town 
in the southeast of Cyprus. 

Carpates, also called Alpes Bastarnioe (now 
Carpathian Mountains), the mountains separat- 
ing Dacia from Sarmatia. 

Carpathus (KupTradoc : now Scarpanto), an 
island between Crete and Rhodes, in the sea 
named after it Mare Carpathium : its chief towns 
svere Posidium and Nisyrus. 

[Carpentoracte (now Carpentras, with many 
Roman remains), a city of 1he Memiui in Gallia 
N'arbouensis, at a late period also called Colonia 
Julia Mcminorum.J 

Carpetani, a powerful people in Hispania 
Tarraeoneusis, with a fertile territory on the riv- 
ers Anas and Tagus, iu the modern Castille and 
Estremadura : their capital was Toletum. 

Carpi or Carpiani, a German people between 
the Carpathian Mountains and the Danube. 

[Carpis (Ku'pTrif), a tributary of the Ister, on 
the southern side.] 

Carr.e or Carrhjs (Kdp'p'ai : Haran or Charran 
of Scripture : now Harran), a city of Osroene in 
Mesopotamia, not far from Edessa, It was here 
that Crassus met his death after his defeat by 
the Parthians, B.C. 53. 

Careinas or Carinas. 1. C, one of the com- 
manders of the Marian party, fought B.C. 83 
against Pompey, and in 82 against Sulla and his 
generals. After the battle at the Colline gate 
at Rome, in which the Marian army was defeat- 
ed, Cavrinas took to flight, but was seized and 
put to death. — 2. C„ son of No. 1, was sent by 
Cassar, in 45, into Spain against Sextus Pom- 
peius, but he did not accomplish any thing. In 
43 he was consul, and afterward served as one 
of the generals of Oetavianus against Sextus 
Pompeius iu Sicily iu 36, and as proconsul in 
Gaul iu 31.— 3. Secundus, a rhetorician, expelled 
by Caligula from Rome because he had, by way 
of exercise, declaimed against tyrants in his 
school. 

[Carruca, a town of Hispania Bsetica, north- 
ward from Munda.] 

Carseoli (Carseolanus : now Carsoli), a town 
of the ./Equi in Latium, colonized by the Romans 
at an early period. 

Carsul^e (Carsulauus: now Monte Castrilli), 
a town in Umbria, originally of considerable im- 
portance, but afterward declined. 

[Cartalo. Vid. Carthalo.] 

Carteia (also called Carthffia, Carpia, Car- 
pessus, Kapryta : now C'rantia), more anciently 
Tartessus, a celebrated town and harbor iu the 
south of Spain, at the head of the gulf of which 
Mount Calpe forms one side, founded by the 
Phoenicians, and colonized B.C. 170 by four thou- 
sand Roman soldiers, whose mothers were Span- 
ish womeu. 

Cartenna or Cartinna (now Tcnnez), a colony 
on the coast of Mauretauia Cajsariensis in north- 
ern Afi'ica, founded by Augustus. 

Carth^ea (Kapda'ia : now Poles, ruins), a town 
on the south side of the island of Ceos, where 
considerable ruins are found at the present day. 

Carthago, Magna Carthago (Kapxydo'iv : 
KapxyiuvLor, Carthaginiensis, Poeuus : ruins 
near ElMarsd, northeast of Tunis), one of the 
most celebrated cities of the ancient world, 



CARTHAGO. 

stood in the recess of a large bay (Sinus Car- 
thaginiensis), inclosed by the headlands Apolli- 
nis and Mercurii (now Cape Farina aud Cape 
Bon), in the middle and northernmost part of 
the north coast of Africa, iu latitude about 36° 
55' • north, and longitude about 10° 20' east 
The coast of this part of Africa has been much 
altered by the deposits of the River Bagradaa 
and the sand which is driven seaward by the 
northwest winds. In ancient times Carthage 
stood upon a peninsula surrounded by the sea 
on all sides except the west ; but now the whole 
space between the northern side of this penin- 
sula aud the southern side of the Apollinis Prom- 
ontorium (now Cape Farina) is rilled up and 
converted into a marsh ; Utica, which was on 
the sea-shore, being left some miles inland ; and 
the course of the Bagradas itself being turned 
considerably north of its original channel, so 
that, instead of flowing about half way between 
Utica and Carthage, it now runs close to the 
ruins of Utica, aud falls into the sea just under 
Cape Farina. The northeastern and southeast- 
em sides of the peninsula are still open to the 
sea, which has, indeed, rather encroached here, 
for ruins are fouud under water. The southern 
side of the peninsula was formed by an inclosed 
bay, connected with the sea only by a narrow 
opening (now called the Goletta, or, in Arabic, 
Haket-el- Wad, i. e., Tliroat of the River), which 
still forms the port of Tunis (ancient Tunes), 
which stands at its furthest end ; but it is nearly 
choked up with the deposit of the sewers of the 
city. The circuit of the old peninsula may be 
estimated at about thirty miles ; the width ol 
the isthmus is three miles. The greatest cir- 
cumference of the city itself was probably about 
fifteen miles. The original city appears to have 
stood on the northeastern part of the peninsula, 
between Has Ghammart and Has Bousaid (now 
Cape Carthage), where the remains of cisterns 
ai'e seen under water : these, and the aqueduct, 
whose ruins may be traced for fifty-two milc9 
to Zaghwan, are the only remains of the olo 
city. Its port, called Cothon, was on the north 
west side of the peninsula, where a little village 
(now inland) still retains the name of El-Marsa, 
i. e., the Port. The Roman city, which was 
built after the destructinn of the original Car- 
thage, lay to the south of it. The Tyrian col- 
ony of Carthage was founded, according to tra- 
dition, about one hundred years before the build- 
ing of Rome, that is, about B.C 853. There 
were several more ancient Phoenician colonies 
along the same coast, between two of which, 
Utica and' Tuues, the new settlement was fixed, 
about twenty-seven miles (Roman) from the 
former, and ten from the latter. The mythical 
accouut of its foundation is given under DiDO. 
The part of the city first built was called, in the 
Phceuician language, Betzura or Bosra, i. e., 
a castle, which was corrupted by the Greeks into 
Byrsa (Bvpo-a), i. e., a hide, and hence probably 
arose the story of the way in which the natives 
were cheated out of the ground. As the city 
grew, the Byrsa formed the citadel : it stood on 
a low hill ; but its site can no longer be identi- 
fied, as there are several such hills within the 
circuit of the ancient city. The Cothon, or Port, 
is said to have been excavated, aud the quarter 
of the city adjoining to it built forty years later, 
W> , ' ITS 



CARTHAGO. 

B.C. 813. This Cothon -was the inner harbor, 
and was used for ships of war: the outer har- 
bor, divided from it by a tongue of land three 
hundred feet wide, was the station for the mer- 
chant ship3. The fortifications of the city con- 
sisted of a single wall on the side toward the 
sea, where the steep shore formed a natural de- 
fence, and a triple wall of great height, with bat- 
tlements and towers, on the land side ; on this 
side were barracks for forty thousand soldiers, 
and stables for three hundred elephants and 
four thousand horses. Beyond the fortifica- 
tions was a large suburb, called Magara or Ma- 
galia, containing many beautiful gardens and 
villas. The aqueduct already mentioned is 
supposed, on good grounds, to have been built 
at an early period of the existence of the city. 
The most remarkable buildings mentioned with- 
in the city were the temple of the god whom 
the Greeks and Romans identified with iEsflu- 
lapiua, and that of Apollo (Baal or the Sun) in 
the market-place. The population of Carthage, 
at the time of the third Punic war, is stated at 
seven hundred thousand. The constitution of 
Carthage was a municipal oligarchy, somewhat 
resembling that of Venice. The two chief mag- 
istrates, called Suffetes (probably the same word 
as the Hebrew Shophetim, i. e., Judges) appear 
to have been elected for life; the Greek and 
Roman writers call them kings. The generals 
and foreign governors were usually quite dis- 
tinct from the suffetes, but the two offices were 
sometimes united in the same person. The 
governing body was a senate, partly hereditary 
and partly elective, within which there was a 
select body of one hundred or one hundred and 
four, called Gerusia, whose chief office was 
to control the magistrates, and especially the 
generals returning from foriegn service, who 
might be suspected of attempts to establish a 
tyranny. The Gerusia was first formed about 
B.C. 400, when the power of the house of Mago 
excited suspicion ; and its efficacy was shown 
in the defeat of the attempts made by Hanno 
(B.C. 340) and Hamilcar (B.C. 306) to seize 
the supreme power. Its members are said by 
Aristotle to have been elected by the pentar- 
chies, bodies of which we have very little infor- 
mation, but which appear to have been commit- 
tees of five, chosen from the most eminent 
members of the senate, and intrusted with the 
control of the various departments of the gov- 
ernment. Important questions, especially those 
on which the senate and the suffetes disagreed, 
were referred to a general assembly of the cit- 
izens ; but concerning the mode of proceeding 
in this assembly, and the extent of its powers, 
we know very little. It seems to have elected 
the magistrates, the senate having either the 
power of previous nomination or of a veto, it is 
not clear which. The generals were chosen by 
the gerusia, and approved by the assembly of 
the citizens. The general tone of social mo- 
rality at Carthage appears to have been high, 
at least during its earlier history : there was a 
censorship of public morals, under the care of 
the gerusia; and all the magistrates were re- 
quired, during their term of office, to abstain 
from wine : the magistrates were also unpaid. 
Their punishments were very severe, and the 
usual mode of inflictiug death was bv crucifix- 
176 



CARTHAGO. 

ion. The religion of Caithage was that of the 
mother country : especial mention is made of 
the cruel rites of their tutelar deity Melearth 
(i. e., king of the city, no doubt the same as Mo- 
loch), which were abolished by the treaty with 
Gelon of Syracuse, B.C. 480; and also of the 
worship of Ashtaroth and Astarte, and jEscu- 
lapius. The chief occupations of the people 
were commerce and agriculture : in the ibrmei 
they rivalled the mother city, Tyre ; and the 
latter they pursued with such success that the 
country around the city was one of the best 
cultivated districts in the ancient world, smd a 
great work on agriculture, in twenty-eight 
books, was composed by Mago, a suffete. The 
revenues of the state were derived from the 
subject provinces ; and its army was composed 
of mercenaries from the neighboring country, 
among whom the Numidian cavalry were espe- 
cially distinguished. Of the History of Carthage 
a brief sketch will suffice, as the most import- 
ant portions of it are related in the ordinary his- 
tories of Rome. The first colonists preserved 
the characters of peaceful traders, and main- 
tained friendly relations with the natives of the 
country, to whom they long continued to pay a 
rent or tribute for the ground on which the city 
was built. Gradually, however, as their com- 
merce brought them power and wealth, they 
were enabled to reduce the natives of the dis- 
trict round the city, first to the condition of al- 
lies, and then to that of tributaries. Mean- 
while, they undertook military expeditions at 
sea, and possessed themselves, first of the small 
islands near their own coast, and afterward of 
Malta, and the Lipari and Balearic Islands : they 
also sent aid to Tyre, when it was besieged by 
Nebuchadnezzar (B.C. 600), and took part in 
wars between the Etruscans and the Phocasan 
colonies. On the coast of Africa they founded 
numerous colonies, from the Pillars of Hercules 
to the bottom of the Great Syrtis, where they 
met the Greek colonists of Cyrenaica: tha 
people of these colonies became intermixed 
with the Libyans around them, forming a pop- 
ulation who are called Libyo-Phcenicians. In 
connection with their commercial enterprises, 
they no doubt sent forth various expeditious 
of maritime discovery, among which we have 
mention of two, which were undertaken during 
the long peace which followed the war with 
Gelon in B.C. 4S0, to explore the western coasts 
of Europe and Africa respectively. The record 
of the latter expedition, under Hanno, is still 
preserved to us iu a Greek translation, (vid. 
Hanno), from which we learn that it reached 
probably as far south as 10° north latitude, if 
not further. The relations of the Carthaginians 
with the interior of Northern Africa appear to 
have been very extensive, but the country actu 
ally subject to them, and which formed the true 
Carthaginiau territory, was limited to the dis- 
trict contained between the River Tusca (now 
Zain) on the west, and the lake and river 'Pri- 
on, at the bottom of the Lesser Syrtis, on the 
south, corresponding very nearly to the modern 
regency of Tunis; aud even within this ter- 
ritory there were some aucieut Phceuiciau col- 
onies, which, though in alliance with Caithage, 
preserved their independent municipal govern- 
ment, such as Hippo Zaritus, Utica, Hadrume- 



CARTHAGO. 



CARUS, M. AURELIUS. 



turn, and Leptis. "The first great development 
of the power of Carthage for foreign conquest 
was made by Mago (about B.C. 550-500), who 
is said to have first established a sound disci- 
pline in the armies of the republic, and to have 
freed the city from the tribute which it still 
paid to the Libyans. His sons, Hasdrubal and 
Hamilcar, reduced a part of the island of Sar- 
dinia, where the Carthaginians founded the 
colonies of Caralis and Sulci ; and by this time 
the fame of Carthage had spread so far, that 
Darius is said to have sent to ask her aid 
against the Greeks, which, however, was re- 
fused. The Carthaginians, however, took ad- 
vantage of the Persian war to attempt the con- 
quest of Sicily, whither Hamilcar was sent with 
a great force, in B.C. 480, but his army was de- 
stroyed and himself killed in a great battle un- 
der the walls of Himera, in which the Sicilian 
Greeks were commanded by Gelon, the tyrant 
of Syracuse, and which was said to have been 
fought on the same day as the battle of Salamis. 
Their next attempt upon Sicily, in B.C. 410, led 
to a protracted war, which resulted in a treaty 
between the Syrac'usans, under Timoleon, and 
the Carthaginians, by which the latter were 
confirmed iu the possession of the western part 
of the island, as far as the River Halicus. From 
B.C. 310-307 there was another war between 
Syracuse and the Carthaginians, which was 
chiefly remarkable for the bold step taken by 
Agathocles, who invaded the Carthaginian ter- 
ritory in Africa, and thus, though unable to 
maintain himself there, set an example which 
was followed a century later by Scipio, with 
fatal results to Carthage. Passing over the 
wars with Pyrrhus and Hiero, we come to the 
long struggle between Rome and Carthage, 
known as the Punic Wars, which are fully re- 
lated in the histories of Rome. Vid. also Ha- 
milcar.. The first lasted from B.C. 265-242, 
and resulted in the loss to Carthage of Sicily 
and the Lipari Islands. It was followed by a 
fierce contest of some years between Carthage 
and her disbanded mercenaries, which is called 
the Libyan War, and which was terminated by 
Hamilcar Bareas. After a hollow peace, during 
which the Romans openly violated the last 
treaty, and the Carthaginians conquered Spain 
as far as the Iberus (now JEbro), the Second Pu- 
nic War, the decisive contest between the two 
rival states, which were too powerful to co- 
exist, began with the siege of Saguntum (B.C. 
218), and terminated (B.C. 201) with a peace by 
which Carthage was stripped of all her power. 
Vid. Hannibal, Scipio. Her destruction was 
now only a question of time, and, though she 
scrupulously observed the terms of the last 
peace for fifty years, in spite of every provoca- 
tion from the Romans and their ally Masinissa, 
the king of Numidia, a pretext was at length 
found for a new war (B.C. 149), which lasted 
only three years, during which the Carthagini- 
ans, driven to despair by the terms proposed to 
them, sustained a siege so destructive, that out 
of seven hundred thousand persons who were 
living in the city at its commencement, only fifty 
thousand surrendered to the Romans. The city 
was razed to the ground, and remained in ruins 
for thirty years. At the end of that time a col- 
on}' was established on the old site by the Grac- 
13 



chi, which remained in a feeble condition till the 
times of Julius and Augustus, under whom a 
new city was built south of the former, on the 
southeastern side of the peninsula, with the 
name of Colonia Carthago. It soon grew so 
much as to cover a great part (if not the whole) 
of the site of the ancient Tyrian city : it became 
the first city of Africa, and occupied an import- 
ant place in eccleiiastical as well as in civil 
history. It was taken by the Vandals in A.D. 
439, retaken by Belisarius in A.D. 533, and de- 
stroyed by the Arab conquerors in A.D. 698. 
Respecting the territory of Carthage under the 
Romans, vid. Africa, No. 2. 

Carthago Nova {Kapxno'tZv t] via : now Car- 
thagena), a town on the eastern coast of His- 
pania Tarraconensis, founded by the Cartha- 
ginians under Hasdrubal, B.C. 243, and subse- 
quently conquered and colonized by the Romans, 
from which time its full name was Colonia Vic- 
trix Julia Nova Carthago. It is situated on a 
promontory running out into the sea, and pos- 
sesses one of the finest harbors in the world : 
at the entrance of the harbor, was a small island 
called Scombearia, from the great number of 
scombri or mackerel caught here, from which 
such famous pickle was made. In ancient times 
Carthago Nova was one of the most important 
cities in all Spain ; its population was numer- 
ous, its trade flourishing, and its temples and 
other public buildings handsome and imposing. 
It was, together with Tarraco, the residence of 
the Roman governor of the province. In the 
neighborhood were valuable silver mines ; and 
the country produced an immense quantity of 
Spartum or broom, whence the town bore the 
surname Spartaria, aud the country was called 
Campus Spartarius. 

[Carthalo. 1. Commander of the Cartha 
ginian fleet in the first Punic war. — 2. The Car 
thaginian commander of the cavalry in the army 
of Hannibal. He was slain by a Roman soldier 
after laying down his arms at the capture of 
Tarentum by the Romans.] 

[Cartismandua or Cartimandua, queen of the 
Brigantes in Britannia, betrayed to the Romans 
Caractacus, who had fled to her for protection 
when defeated by the proprastor Ostorius, A.D 
50. She afterward repudiated her husband 
Venutius, and gave her hand and kingdom to 
his armor-bearer, Vellocatus. Venutius, sup- 
ported by a great portion of the Brigantes, took 
up arms, and finally succeeded in regaining the 
sovereignty, though Cartismandua was rescued 
and protected by the Romans.] 

Carura (ra Kapovpd : now Sarikivi), a Phry- 
gian city, in the territory of Caria, on the left 
bank of the Marauder, celebrated for its hot 
springs and its temple of Men Carus. 

Caeus, M. Aurelius, Roman emperor A.D 
282-283, probably born at Narbo in Gaul, wa* 
praefectus prsetorio under Probus, and on the 
murder of the latter was elected emperor 
After defeating the Sarmatians, Carus invaded 
the Persian dominions, took Seleuoia and Ctes- 
iphon, and was preparing to push his conqueste 
beyond the Tigris, when he was struck dead by 
lightning, toward the close of 283. He was 
succeeded by his sons Carintjs and Numeria 
nos. Carus was a victorious general and abli 
ruler. 

177 



CARUSA 



CASPII MONIES. 



Carusa (fi Kapovaa : now Kerzeh), a city on 
the coast of Paphlagonia, south of Sinope. 

Carventum, a town of the Volsci, to which 
the Carventana Arx, mentioned by Livy, be- 
longed ; a town of the Volsci, between Signia 
aud the sources of the Trerus. 

Carvilius Maximus. 1. Sp., twice consul, 

B. C. 293 and 273, both times with L. Papirius 
Cursor. In their first consulship they gained 
brilliant victories over the Samnites, and in 
their second they brought the Samnite war to a 
close. — 2. Sp., son of the preceding, twice con- 
sul, 234 and 228, was alive at the battle of Can- 
nae, 216, after which he proposed to fill up the 
vacaucies in the senate from the Latins. This 
Carvilius is said to have been the first person 
at Rome who divorced his wife. 

Cary^e (Kapvai : Kapvurrjc, fern. Kapvdric), a 
town in Laconia, near the borders of Arcadia, 
originally belonged to the territory of Tegea in 
Arcadia. It possessed a temple of Artemis 
(Diana) Caryatis, and an annual festival in hon- 
or of this goddess was celebrated here by the 
Lacedaemonian maidens with national dances. 
Respecting the female figures in architecture 
called Caryatides, via 1 . Diet, of Ant., s. v. 

Caryanda (rd Kapvavda : Kapvavdevc : now 
Karakoyan), a city of Caria, on a little island, 
once probably united with the main land, at the 
northwestern extremity of the peninsula on 
which Haliearnassus stood. It once belonged 
to the Ionian league ; and it was the birth-place 
of the geographer Scylax. 

Caryatis. Vid. Cary.s. 

Carystius (Kapvorioc), a Greek grammarian 
of Pergamus, lived about B.C. 120, and wrote 
numerous works, all of which are lost. 

Carystus (Kupvoroe : Kapvorioc : now Karysto 
or Castel .Rosso), a town on the southern coast 
of Eubcea. at the foot of Mount Oche, founded 
by Dryopes ; called, according to tradition, after 
Carystus, son of Chiron. In the neighborhood 
was excellent marble, which ivas exported in 
large quantities, and the mineral called Asbes- 
tos was also found here. 

Casca, P. ServilIus, tribune of the plebs, B. 

C. 44, was one of the conspirators against Cae- 
sar, and aimed the first stroke at his assassina- 
tion. , He fought in the battle of Philippi (42), 
aud died shortly afterward. C. Casca, the broth- 
er of the preceding, was also one of the con- 
spirators against Caesar. 

[Cascantum (now Caseante), a municipium 
of the Vascones in Hispania Tarraeonensis.] 

Cascellius, A., an eminent Roman jurist 
(Hor., Ar. Poet., 371), contemporary with Cae- 
sar aud Augustus, was a man of stern repub- 
lican principles, and spoke freely against the 
proscriptions of the triumvirs. 

Casilinum (Casilinas, -atis), a town in Cam- 
pania, on the Vulturnus, and on the same site as 
the modern Capua, celebrated for its heroic de- 
fence against Hannibal B.C. 216. It received 
Roman colonists by the Lex Julia, but had 
greatly declined in the time of Pliny. 

CasInum (Casinas, -litis : now St. Germano), 
a town iu Latium, on the River Casinus, and 
on the Via Latina, .near the borders of Cam- 
pania; colonized by the Romans 'n the Samnite 
wars ; subsequently a municipium : its citadel, 
sontaiuinga temple of Apollo, occupied the same 
178 



site as the celebrated convent Monte Cassmo 
the ruins of an amphitheatre are found at St 

Germano. 

[Casinus, a small river on the borders of La- 
tium and Campania, emptying into the Liris. 1 , 
Casioiis. Vid. Casius. 

Casius. 1. (Now Ras Kasaroun), a mountain 
on the coast of Egypt, east of Pelusium, with a 
temple of Jupiter on its summit. Here also was 
the grave of Pompey. At the foot of the mount- 
ain, on the land side, on the high road from Egypt 
to Syria, stood the town of Casium (now Ka- 
tieli). The surrounding district was called Ca- 
siotis. — 2. (Now Jebel Okrah), a mountain on the 
coast of Syria, south of Antiooh and the Orontes, 
five thousand three hundred aud eighteen feet 
above the level of the sea. The name of Casio- 
tis was applied to the district on the coast south 
of Casius, as far as the northern border of 
Phoenicia, 

Casmena, -je (Kaa/ievn, Herod. : Kau/ievac, 
Thuc. : Kaa/xsvaioc), a town in Sicily, founded 
by Syracuse about B.C. 643. 

CasperIa or Casperula, a town of the Sa- 
bines, northwest of Cures, on the River Himella 
(now Aspra). 

CaspLe Port.e or Pyle (Kdomat irvXai, i. e., 
the Caspian Gates), the principal pass from Me- 
dia into Parthia and Hyrcania, through the Cas- 
pii Montes, was a deep ravine, made practica- 
ble by art, but still so narrow that there was 
only room for a single wagon to pass between 
the lofty overhanging walls of rock, from the 
sides of which a constant drip of salt water fell 
upon the road. The Persians erected iron gates 
aeross the narrowest part of the pass, aud main- 
tained a guard for its defence. This pass was 
near the ancient Rhagae or Arsacia ; but there 
were other passes through the mountains round 
the Caspian, which are called by the same name, 
especially that on the western shore of the Cas- 
pian, through the Caucasus, near Derbent, which 
was usually called Albanioe or Caucasia? PorUe. 
The Caspian Gates, being the most important 
pass from "Western to Central Asia, were re- 
garded by many of the ancients as a sort of cen- 
tral point, common to the boundaries between 
"Western aud Eastern Asia, and Northern and 
Southern Asia ; and distances were reckoned 
from them. 

Caspii (KdcTTtot), the name of certain Scythi- 
an tribes near the Caspian Sea, is used rather 
loosely by the ancient geographers. The Cas- 
pii of Strabo are on the west side of the sea, 
and then - eountry, Caspiane, forms a part of 
Albania. Those of Herodotus aud Ptolemy are 
in the east of Media, on the borders of Parthia, 
in the neighborhood of the CAsri^E Pyl^e. 
Probably it would not be far wrong to apply the 
name generally to the people round the south 
western aud southern shores of the Caspian in 
and about the Caspii Montes. 

Caspii Montes (rd Kdcrua bpi] : now Elburz 
Mountains) or Casfius Mons, is a name applied 
generally to the whole range of mountains 
which surround the Caspian Sea, on the south 
and southwest, at the distance of from fifteen 
to thirty miles from its shore, on the borders of 
Armenia, Media, Hyrcania, and Parthia ; aud 
more specifically to that part of this range south 
of the Caspian, ir which was the pass called 



OASPIRI. 



CASSANDREA. 



* 



Oasfle Pyl^e. The term was also loosely ap- 
plied to other mountains near the Caspian, espe- 
cially, by Strabo, to the eastern part of the Cau- 
casus, between Colchis and the Caspian. 

Caspiri or CaspiRjEi (KuaTteipoi, YLaoiupaloi), 
a people of India, whose exact position is doubt- 
ful : they are generally placed in Cashmeer and 
Nepaul. 

Caspium Mare (Ji Kauma ■d-uAaooa, the Cas- 
pian Sea), also called Hyrcanum, Albanum, and 
Scythicum, all names derived from the people 
who lived on its shores, is a great salt-water 
lake in Asia, according to the ancient division 
of the continents, but now on the boundary be- 
tween Europe and Asia. Its average width 
from east to west is about two hundred and ten 
miles, and its length from north to south, in a 
straight line, is about seven hundred and forty 
miles ; but as its northern part makes a great 
bend to the east, its true length, measured along 
a curve drawn through its middle, is about nine 
hundred miles ; its area is about one hundred 
and eighty thousand square miles. The notions 
of the ancients about the Caspian varied very 
much; and it is curious that two of the erro- 
neous opinions of the later Greek and Roman 
geographers, namely, that it was united both 
with the Sea of Aral and with the Arctic Ocean, 
expressed what, at some remote period, were 
probably real facts. Their other error, that its 
greatest length lay west and east, very likely 
arose from its supposed union with the Sea of 
Aral. Another consequence of this error was 
the supposition that the rivers Oxus and Jax- 
artes flowed into the Caspian. That the former 
really did so at some time subsequent to the 
separation of the two lakes (supposing that they 
were once united) is pretty well established ; 
but whether this has been the case within the 
historical period can not be determined (vid. 
Oxus). The country between the two lakes 
has evidently been greatly changed, and the 
sand-hills which cover it have doubtless been 
accumulated by the force of the east winds 
bringing down sand from the steppes of Tar- 
tary. Both lakes have their surface considera- 
bly below that of the Black Sea, the Caspian 
being nearly three hundred and fifty feet, and 
the Aral about two hundred feet, lower than the 
level of the Black Sea, and both are still sink- 
ing by evaporation. Moreover, the whole coun- 
try between and around them for a considera- 
ble distance is a depression, surrounded by lofty 
mountains on every side, except where the val- 
ley of the Irtish and Obi stretches away to the 
Arctic Ocean. Besides a number of smaller 
streams, two great rivers flow into the Cas- 
pian ; the Rha (now Volga) on the north, and 
the united Cyrus and Araxes (now Kour) on 
the west ; but it loses more by evaporation than 
it receives from these rivers. 

[Caspius Mons (to KdoiTiov opog). Vid. Cas- 

PII MoNTES.] 

Cassandane (KaooavdavTi), wife of Cyrus the 
Great and mother of Cambyses. 

Cassander ( KdaaavSpoc ), sou of Antipater. 
His father, on his death-bed (B.C. 319), appoint- 
ed Polysperchon regent, and conferred upon 
Cassander only the secondary dignity of chili- 
arch. Being dissatisfied with this arrange- 
ment, Cassander strengthened himself by an 



alliance with Ptolemy and Antigonus, and en- 
tered into war with Polysperchon. In 318 Cas- 
sander obtained possession of Athens and most 
of the cities in the south of Greece. In 31*7 he 
was recalled to Macedonia to oppose Olympias. 
He kept her besieged in Pydna throughout the 
winter of 317, and on her surrender in the spring 
of the ensuing year he put her to death. The 
way now seemed open to him to the throne of 
Macedon. He placed Roxana and her young 
son, Alexander ./Egus, in custody at Amphipo- 
lis, not thinking it safe as yet to murder them ; 
and he connected himself with the regal family 
by a marriage with Thessalonica, half-sister to 
Alexander the Great. In 315 Cassander joined 
Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus in their 
war against Antigonus, of whose power they 
had all become jealous. This war was, upon 
the whole, unfavorable to Cassander, who lost 
most of the cities in Greece. By the general 
peace of 311, it was provided that Cassander 
was to retain his authority in Europe till Alexan- 
der ./Egus should be grown to manhood. Cas- 
sander thereupon put to death the young king 
and his mother Roxana. In 310 the war was 
reuewed, and Hercules, the son of Alexander 
by Barsine, was brought forward by Polysper- 
chon as a claimant to the Macedonian throne ; 
but Cassander bribed Polysperchon to murder 
the young prince and his mother, 309. In 30fi 
Cassander took the title of king, when it was 
assumed by Antigonus, Lysimachus, and Ptole- 
my. In the following years, Demetrius Polior- 
cetes, the son of Antigonus, carried on the war 
in Greece with great success against Cassan- 
der ; but in 302 Demetrius was obliged to pass 
into Asia, to support his father ; and next year, 
301, the decisive battle of Ipsus was fought, in 
which Antigonus and Demetrius were defeated, 
and the former slain, and which gave to Cas- 
sander Macedonia and Greece. Cassander died 
of dropsy in 297, and was succeeded by his son 
Philip. 

Cassandra (KaaadvSpa), daughter of Priam 
and Hecuba, and twin-sister of Helenus. She 
and her brother, when young, were left asleep 
in the sanctuary of Apollo, when their ears were 
purified by serpents, so that they could under- 
stand the divine sounds of nature and the voices 
of birds. Cassandra sometimes used to sleep 
afterward in the same temple ; and when she 
grew up, her beauty won the love of Apollo, 
The god conferred upon her the gift of prophecy, 
upon her promising to comply with his desires; 
but when she had become possessed of the pro- 
phetic art, she refused to fulfill her promise. 
Thereupon the god, in anger, ordained that no 
one should believe her prophecies. She pre- 
dicted to the Trojans the ruin that threatened 
them, but no one believed her ; she was looked 
upon as a mad woman, and according to a late 
account, was shut up and guarded. On the 
capture of Troy she fled into the sanctuary of 
Minerva (Athena), but was torn away from the 
statue of the goddess by Ajax, son of Oileus, 
and, according to some accounts, was even 
ravished by him in the sanctuary. On the di- 
vision of the booty, Cassandra fell to the lot of 
Agamemnon, who took her with him to My- 
cenae. Here she was killed by Clytaemnestra. 

CassaniiSa v id. Potid^ea. 

179 



CASSIA GENS. 



CASSIUS. 



Cassia Gens. Vid. Cassius. 

Cassiepea, Cassiopea, or Cassiope (YLaome- 
Teia, Kaoaib-KEia, Kaacuojn?), wife of Cepheus in 
/Ethiopia, and mother of Andromeda, -whose 
beauty she extolled above that of the Nereids. 
Vid. Andromeda. She was afterward placed 
among the stars. 

Cassiodorus, Magnus Auremus, a distin- 
guished statesman, and one of the few men of 
learning at the downfall of the Western Em- 
pire, was born about A.D. 468, at Scylacium in 
JBruttium, of an ancient and wealthy Roman 
family. He enjoyed the full confidence of The- 
odorie the Great and his successors, and under 
a variety of different titles he conducted for a 
long series of years the government of the Os- 
trogothic kingdom. At the age of seventy he 
retired to the monastery of Viviers, which he 
had founded in his native province, and there 
passed the last thirty years of his life. His 
time was devoted to study and to the composi- 
tion of elementary treatises on history, meta- 
physics, the several liberal arts, and divinity, 
while his leisure hours were employed in the 
construction of philosophical toys, such as sun- 
dials, water-clocks, &o. Of his numerous writ- 
iugs the most important is his Variarum (Epis- 
tolarum) Libri XII., an assemblage of state 
papers drawn up by Cassiodorus in accordance 
with the instructions of Theodoric and his suc- 
cessors. The other works of Cassiodorus are 
of less value to us. The principal are, 1. Cliro- 
■vicon, a summary of Universal History ; 2. De 
Orthographia Liber ; 3. De Arte Grammatica ad 
Donati Mentem ; 4. De Artibus ae Disciplines 
Libcralium Litcrarum, much read in the Middle 
Ages ; 5. De Anima ; 6. Libri XII. De Rebus 
Gestis Gothorum, known to us only through the 
abridgment of Jornandes - s 7. De Institutione 
Divinarwn Literarum, an introduction to the 
profitable study of the Scriptures. There are 
also several other ecclesiastical works of Cas- 
siodorus extant. The best edition of his collected 
works is by D. Garet, Eouen, 1679, 2 vols, fol., 
reprinted at Venice, 1729. 

Cassiope {Kaaaimi]), a town in Corcyra, on a 
promontory of the same name, with a good har- 
bor and a temple of Jupiter (Zeus). 

Cassiopea. Vid. Cassiepea. 

Oassiterides. Vid. Britannia, p. 149, a. 

Cassius, the name of one of the most dis- 
tinguished of the Roman gentes, originally pa- 
trician, afterwards plebeian. 1. Sp. Cassius Vis- 
cellinus, thrice consul : first, B.C. 502, when he 
conquered the Sabines ; again, 493, when he 
made a league with the Latins ; and, lastly, 
486, when he made a league with the Herni- 
cans, and carried his celebrated agrarian law, 
the first which was proposed at Rome. It prob- 
ably enacted that the portion of the patricians 
in the public land should be strictly defined, and 
that the remainder should be divided among the 
plebeians. In the following year he was ac- 
cused of aiming at regal power, and was put to 
death. The manner of his death is related dif- 
ferently, but it is most probable that he was ac- 
cused before the comitia curiata by the quass- 
tores parricidii, and was sentenced to death by 
his fellow-patricians. His house was razed to the 
ground, and his property confiscated. His guilt 
is doubtful ; he had made himself hateful to the 
180 



patricians by his .agrarian law, and it is most 
likely that the accusation was invented for the 
purpose of getting rid of a dangerous oppo- 
nent. He left three, sons ; but, as all the subse- 
quent Cassii are plebeians, his sons were per- 
haps expelled from the patrician order, or may 
have voluntarily passed over to the plebeians, on 
account of the murder of their father. — 2. C. 
Cass. Longinus, consul 17 1, obtained as his pro- 
vince Italy and Cisalpine Gaul, and without the 
authority of the senate attempted to march 
into Macedonia through Illyricum, but was 
obliged to return to Italy. In 154 he was cen- 
sor with M. Messala ; and a theatre, which these 
censors had built, was pulled down by order of 
the senate, at the suggestion of P. Seipio Na- 
sica, as injurious to public morals.— 3. Q. Cass. 
Longinus, praetor urbanus B.C. 167, and consul 
164, died in his consulship. — 4. L. Cass. Lon- 
ginus Ravilla, tribune of the plebs, 137, when 
he proposed a law for voting by ballot (tabella- 
ria lex); consul 127, and censor 125. He was 
very severe and just as a judex. — 5. L. Cass. 
Longinus, praetor 111, when he brought Jugur- 
tha to Rome ; consul 107, with C. Marius, and 
received as his province Gallia Narbonensis, in 
order to oppose the Cimbri, but was defeated 
and killed by the Tigurini. — 6. L. Cass. Longi- 
nus, tribune of the plebs 104, brought forward 
many laws to diminish the power of the aris- 
tocracy. — 7. C. Cass. Longinus Varus, consul 
73, brought forward with his colleague M. Te- 
rentius, a law {lex Terentia Cassia), by which 
corn was to be purchased and then sold in Rome 
at a small price. In 72 he was defeated by 
Spartacus near Mutina ; in 66 he supported the 
Manilian law for giving the command of the 
Mithradatie war to Pompey ; and in his old age 
was proscribed by the triumvirs and killed, 43. 
— 8. C. Cass. Longinus, the murderer of Julius 
Csesar. In 53 he was qutestor of Crassus in his 
campaign against the Parthians, in which he 
greatly distinguished himself by his prudence 
and military skill. After the death of Crassus, 
he collected the remains of the Roman army, 
and made preparations to defend Syria against 
the Parthians. In 52 he defeated the Parthians, 
who had crossed the Euphrates, and in 51 he 
again gained a still more important victory over 
them. Soon afterward he returned to Rome. 
In 49 he was tribune of the plebs, joined the 
aristoeratical party in the civil war, and fled 
with Pompey from Rome. In 48 he commanded 
the Pompeiau fleet ; after the battle of Pharsalia 
he went to the Hellespont, where he accidentally 
fell in with Ca?sar, and surrendered to him. He 
was not only pardoned by Cossar, but in 44 was 
made praetor, and the province of Syria was 
promised him for the next year. But Cassius 
had never ceased to be Caesar's enemy ; it was 
he who formed the conspiracy against the dicta- 
tor's life, and gained over M. Brutus to the plot. 
After the death of Cassar, on the 14th of March, 
44 (vid. Cesar), Cassius remained in Italy for a 
few months, but in July he went to Syria, which 
he claimed as his province, although the senate 
had given it to Dolabella, and had conferred 
upon Cassius Cyrene in its stead. He defeated 
Dolabella, who put an end to his own life ; and, 
after plundering Syria and Asia most unmerci- 
fully, he crossed over to Greece with Brutus in 



CASSIUS. 



CASTELLUM 



42, in order to oppose Octavianus and Antony. 
At the battle of Philippi, Cassius was defeated 
by Antony, while Brutus, who c- - :manded the 
other wing of the army, drove Octavianus off 
the field ; but Cassius, ignorant of the success 
of Brutus, commanded his freedman to put an 
end to his life. Brutus mourned over his com- 
panion, calling him the last of the Romans. 
Cassius was married to Junia Tertia or Ter- 
tulla, half-sister of M. Brutus. Cassius was 
well acquainted with Greek and Roman litera- 
ture ; he was a follower of the Epicurean phi- 
losophy ; his abilities were considerable, but he 
was vain, proud, and revengeful. — 9. L. Cass. 
Longinus, brother of No. 8, assisted M. Late- 
rensis in accusing Cn. Plancius, who was de- 
fended by Cicero in 54. He joined Caesar at 
the commencement of the civil war, and was 
one of Caesar's legates in Greece in 48. In 44 
he was tribune of the plebs, but was not one of 
the conspirators against Caesar's life. He sub- 
sequently espoused the side of Octavianus, in 
opposition to Antony ; and on their reconcilia- 
tion in 43, he fled to Asia : he was pardoned by 
Antony in 41. — 10. Q. Cass; Longinus, the /ra- 
ter (as Cicero calls him, by which he probably 
means first-cousin) of No. 8. In 54: he went as 
the quaastor of Pompey into Spain, where he 
was universally hated on account of his rapaci- 
ty and cruelty. In 49 he was tribune of the 
plebs, and a warm supporter of Caesar, but was 
obliged to leave the city and take refuge in 
Caesar's camp. In the same year he accom- 
panied Caesar to Spain, and after the defeat of 
Afranius and Petreius, the legates of Pompey, 
Caesar left him governor of Further Spain. His 
cruelty and ojjpressions excited an insurrection 
against him at Corduba, but this was quelled by 
Cassius. Subsequently two legions declared 
against- him, and M. Marcellus, the quaastor, put 
himself at their head. He was saved from this 
danger by Lepidus, and left the province in 47, 
but his ship sank, and was lost, at the mouth 
of the l"berus. — 11. L. Cass. Longinus, a com- 
petitor with Cicero for the consulship for 63 ; 
was one of Catiline's conspirators, and under- 
took to set the city on fire ; he escaped the fate 
of his comrades by quitting Rome before their 
apprehension. — 12. L. Cass. Longinus, consul 
A.D. 30, married to Drusilla, the daughter of 
Germanicus, with whom her brother Caligula 
afterward lived. Cassius was proconsul in Asia 
A.D. 40, and was commanded by Caligula to be 
brought to Rome, because an oracle had warned 
the emperor to beware of a Cassius : the oracle 
was fulfilled in the murder of the emperor by 
Cassius Chaerea. — 13. C. Cass. Longinus, the 
celebrated jurist, governor of Syria A.D. 50, in 
tBe reign of Claudius. He was banished by 
Nero in A.D. 66, because he had, among his an- 
cestral images, a statue of Cassius, the mur- 
derer of Caesar. He was recalled from banish- 
ment by Vespasian. Cassius wrote ten books 
on the civil law (Libri Juris Civilis), and Com- 
mentaries on Vitellius and Urseius Ferox, which 
are quoted in the Digest. He was a follower 
of the school of Ateius Capito ; and as he re- 
duced the principles of Capito to a more scien- 
tific form, the adherents of this school received 
the name of Cassiani. — 14. L. Cass. Hemina, a \ 
Roman annalist, lived about B.C. 140, and wrote I 



a history of Rome from the earliest times to the 
end of the third Punic fjar. — 15. Cass. Paemen 
sis, so called from Parma, his feartb-plaee, was 
one of the murderers of Caesar, B.C. 43 ; took 
an active part in the war against the triumvirs ; 
and, after the death of Brutus and Cassius, car- 
ried over the fleet which he commanded to 
Sicily, and joined Sextus Pompey ; upon the de- 
feat of Pompey he surrendered himself to An- 
tony, whose fortunes he followed until after the 
battle of Actium, when he went to Athens, and 
was there put to death by the command of Oc- 
tavianus, B.C. 30. Cassius was a poet, and his 
productions were prized by Horace (Ep. i., 4, 
3). He wrote two tragedies, entitled Tkyestes 
and Brutus, epigrams, and other works. — 16. 
Cass. Etrusous, a poet censured by Horace 
(Sat, i., 10, 61), must not be confounded with 
No. 15. — 17. Cass. Avidius, an able general of 
M. Aurelius, was a native of Syria. In the Par- 
thian war (A.D. 162-165) he commanded the 
Roman army as the general of Verus, and after 
defeating the Partisans he took Seleucia and 
Ctesiphon. He was afterward appointed gov- 
ernor of all the Eastern provinces, and discharg- 
ed his trust for several years with fidelity ; but 
in A.D. 175 he proclaimed himself emperor. 
He reigned only a few months, and was slain 
by his own officers before Marcus Aurelius ar- 
rived in the East. Vid. p. 132, a. — 18. Dionysius 
Cassius, of Utica, a Greek writer, lived about 
B.C. 40, and translated into Greek the work of 
the Carthaginian Mago on agriculture. — 19. 
Cass. Felix, a Greek physician, probably lived 
under Augustus and Tiberius ; wrote a small 
work entitled 'la-pi/cal 'A-nopiat Kal Tlpo6A?juaTa 
Qvoiku, Qucestiones Medicce et Problcmata Natii- 
ralia ; printed in Ideler's Physici et Medici Grmci 
Minores, Berol., 1841. — 20. Cass. Chorea. Vid. 
Cilerea. — 21. Cass. Dion. Vid. Dion Cassi 
us. — 22. Cass. Severus. Vid. Se verus. 

Cassivelaunus, a British chief, ruled over the 
country north of the Tamesis (now Thames), 
and was intrusted by the Britons with the su- 
preme command on Caesar's second invasion of 
Britain, B.C. 54. He was defeated by Caesar, 
and was obliged to sue for peace. 

Cassope (KaoouTTTj : KaaauKaloc : now Cas- 
sopo or Agioi Saranta), a town in Thesprotia, near 
the coast. 

Castabala (tu. KauT<16a\a). 1. [Now Dsjakel 
or Ghokel ; according to Leake, Nigde], a city 
of Cappadocia, near Tyana, celebrated for its 
temple of Artemis (Diana) Perasia. — 2. A town 
in Cilicia Campestris, near Issus. 

Castalia (Kaa-akia), a celebrated fountain 
on Mount Parnassus, in which the Pythia used 
to bathe ; sacred to Apollo and the Muses, who 
were hence called Castalides ; said to have 
derived its name from Castalia, daughter of 
Achelous, who threw herself into the fountain 
when pursued by Apollo. 

[Casiellum often occurs as the designation of 
a place: 1. Castellum Cattorum (now Casscl), 
a place in the territory of the Catti in Germa- 
ny. — 2. Castellum Drusi et Germanici (now 
Altkmnigstein), a fortress built by Drusus and 
Germanicus in the territory of the Mattiaci. — 
3. Castellum Menapiorum (now Kessel), a for- 
tress of the Menapii in Gallia Belgica, on the 
Meuse. — 4. Castellum Morinoeum (now Mount 
181 



CASTHANiEA. 



CATELAUNI. 



Cassel), a fortress of the Morini in Gallia Bel- 
gica.] 

[Casthan^a (Kaadavata), a city of Magnesia 
in Thessaly, at the foot of Mount Pelion (Hdt.) ; 
elsewhere it is written Castancea. Erom this 
place chestnuts, Castanem nuces, were said to 
have derived their name.] 

[Castianira (KaaTtaveipa), wife of Priam, 
and mother of Gorgythion, famed for her beau- 

[Casticus, mentioned in Caesar as having 
seized the government of the Sequani, at the 
instigation of Orgetorix, about B C. 50.] 

Castor, brother of Pollux. Vid, Dioscuri. 

Castor (Kdorup.) 1. A Greek grammarian, 
surnamed Philordmams, probably lived about B.C. 
150, and wrote several books; a portion of his 
Te%vn firjTopiici] is still extant, and printed in 
Walz's Rlietores Grceci, vol. iii., p. 712. seq. — 2. 
Grandson of Deiotarus. Vid. Deiotarus. 

Castra, a " camp," the name of several 
towns, which were originally the stationary 
quarters of the Roman legions. 1. Constantia, 
in Gaul, near the mouth of the Sequana (now 
Seine) — 2. Hannibalis, in Bruttium, on the 
southeastern coast, north of Scylacium, arose 
out of the fortified camp which Hannibal main- 
tained there during the latter years of the sec- 
ond Punic war. — 3. Herculis, in Batavia, per- 
haps near Meussen. — 4. Minerv^e (now Castro), 
in Calabria, with a temple of Minerva, south of 
Hydruntum ; the most ancient town of the Sa- 
lentini, subsequently colonized by the Romans ; 
its harbor was called Portus Veneris (now Porto 
Badisco.) — 5. Vetera (now Xanten), in Gallia 
Belgica, on the Rhine : many Roman remains 
have been found at Xanten— 6. Cornelia (now 
Gcllah), a place in the Carthaginian territory 
(Zeugitana) in northern Africa, where Scipio Af- 
ricanus the elder established his camp when he 
invaded Africa in the second Punic war. It 
was between Utiea and Carthage, on the north- 
ern side of the River Bagradas, but its site is now 
south of the river, in consequence of the altera- 
tions described under Carthago. 

Castrum. 1. Into, a town of the Rutuli, on 
the coast of Latium, confounded by some writers 
with No. 2. — 2. Novum (now Torre di Chiaruc- 
cia), a town in Etruria, and a Roman colony on 
the coast. — Novum (now Giulia Nova), a town 
in Picenum, probably at the mouth of the small 
river Batinum (now Salinello), colonized by the 
Romans B.C. 264, at the commencement of the 
first Punie war. — [4. Castrum Tiberlt, a land- 
ing-place on an island in the Lacus Brigantinus, 
used by Tiberius as a place of arms during his 
war with the Vindeliei.] 

Castulo (KaoraXuv : now Gazlona), a town 
of the Oretani, on the Bastis, and near the fron- 
tiers of Boatica, at the foot of a mountain which 
bore a great resemblance to Parnassus, was under 
the Romans an important place, a municipium 
with the Jus Latii, and included in the jurisdiction 
of Carthago Nova : its inhabitants were called 
Casari venales. In the mountains (Saltus Castu- 
lonensis) in the neighborhood were silver and lead 
mines. The wife of Hannibal was a native of 
Castulo. 

Casuentus (now Basicnto), a river in Luea- 
nia, flows into the sea near Mctapontum. 

[Casus (Kdaoc : now Caso), one of the Spo- 
182 



rades Insulae, south of Carpathos, containing a 
city with the same name as the island.] 

Casystes (Kaavornr : now Ckismeh), a fine 
sea-port on the coast of Ionia ; the harbor of 

Er.YTHR/E. 

Catabathmus Magnus (Kara8a6fi6(, i. e., de- 
scent : now Marsa Sollern, i. e., Port of the Lad- 
der), a mountain and sea-port, at the bottom of 
a deep bay on the northern coast of Africa 
(about 25° 5' east longitude), was generally con- 
sidered the boundary between Egypt and Cy- 
renaica. Ptolemy distinguishes from this a 
place called Catabathmus Parvus, in the interior 
of Africa, near the borders of Egypt, above Parae- 
tonium. 

Catadupa or -I (ru Kardiovna, ol KarddovTzoi), 
a name given to the cataracts of the Nile, and also 
to the parts of ^Ethiopia in their neighborhood. 
Vid. Nilus. 

Catalauni or Catelauni, a people in Gaul in 
the modern Champagne, mentioned only by later 
writers : their capital was Durocatelauni or 
Catelauni (now Chalons sur Marne), in the 
neighborhood of which Attila was defeated by 
Aetius and Theodoric, A.D. 451. 

CatamItus, the Roman name for Ganymedes, 
of which it is only a corrupt form. 

Catana or Catixa (yLardvj] : Karavatoc : now 
Catania), an important town in Sicily, on the 
eastern coast, at the foot of Mount iEtna, found- 
ed B.C. 730 by Naxos, which was itself founded 
by the Chalcidians of Eubcea. In B.C. 476 it 
was taken by Hiero I, who removed its inhabit- 
ants to Leontini, and settled five thousand Syr- 
acusans and five thousand Peloponnesians in 
the town, the name of which he changed into 
./Etna. Soon after the death of Hiero (467), the 
former inhabitants of Catana again obtained 
possession of the town, and called it by its orig- 
inal name, Catana. Subsequently Catana was 
conquered by Dionysius, was then governed bv 
native tyrants, next became subject to Agath- 
ocles, and finally, in the first Punic war, fell un- 
der the dominion of Rome. It was colonized bj 
Augustus with some veterans. Catana frequent- 
ly suffered from earthquakes and eruptions of 
Mount iEtna. It is now one of the most flourish 
ing cities in Sicily. 

Cataonia (Ka-aovia), a district in the south- 
eastern part of Cappadocia, to which it was first 
added under the Romans, with Melitene, which 
lies east of it. These two districts form a large 
and fertile plain, lying between the Anti-Taurus 
and the Taurus and Amanus, and watered by 
the River Pyramus. Cataonia had no large 
towns, but several strong mountain fortresses. 

Catarrhactes {Ka-apfidiiTijc). 1. (Now Du 
dcn-Soo), a river of Parnphylia, which descends 
from the mountains of Taurus in a great brok«i 
waterfall (whence its name, from Ka-afip^jyvvfu), 
and which, after flowing beneath the earth in 
two parts of its course, falls into the sea east 
of Attalia. — 2. The term is also applied, first by 
Strabo, to the cataracts of the Nile, which are 
distinguished as C. Major and C. Minor (vid Ni- 
lus), in which use it must, of course, be regarded 
as a common noun, equivalent to the Latin cata- 
racta, but whether derived from the name of the 
Pamphylian river, or at once from the Greek 
verb, can not be determined. 

Catelauni. Vid. Catalauni. 



CATILEI. 

Cath^ei (Kadaloi), a great aud warlike people 
of India intra Gangem, upon whom Alexander 
made war. Some of the best Orientalists sup- 
pose the name to be that, not of a tribe, but of 
the warrior caste of the Hindoos, the Kshatriyas. 

Catilina, L. Sergius, the descendant of an 
ancient patrician family which had sunk into 
poverty. His youth and early manhood were 
stained by every vice and crime. He first ap- 
pears in history as a zealous partisan of Sulla ; 
and during the horrors of the proscription, he 
killed, with his own hand, his brother-in-law, 
Q. Ca;cilius, a quiet, inoffensive man, and put to 
death by torture M. Marius Gratidianus, the 
kinsman and fellow-townsman of Cicero. He 
was suspected of an intrigue with the vestal 
Fabia, sister of Terentia, and was said and be- 
lieved to have made away with his first wife, 
and afterward with his son, in order that he 
might marry Amelia Orestilla, who objected to 
the presence of a grown-up step-child ; but, not- 
withstanding this infamy, he attained to the dig- 
nity of praetor in B.C. 68, was governor of Africa 
during the following year, aud returned to 
Rome in 66, in order to sue for the consulship. 
The election for 65 was carried by P. Autronius 
Pa3tus and P. Cornelius Sulla, both of whom 
were soon after convicted of bribery, and their 
places supplied by their competitors and accu- 
sers, L. Aurelius Cotta and L. Manlius Torqua- 
tus. Catiline had been disqualified for becom- 
ing a candidate, in consequence of an impeach- 
ment for oppression in his province, preferred 
by P. Clodius Pulcher, afterward so celebrated 
as the enemy of Cicero. Exasperated by their 
disappointment, Autronius and Catiline formed 
a project, along with Cn. Piso, to murder the 
new consuls when they entered upon their 
office upon the first of January. This design is 
said to have beeu frustrated solely by the im- 
patience of Catiline, who, upon the appointed 
day, gave the signal prematurely, before the 
whole of the armed agents had assembled. En- 
couraged rather than disheartened by a failure 
which had so nearly proved a triumph, Catiline 
now determined to organize a more extensive 
conspiracy, in order to overthrow the existing 
government, and to obtain for himself and his 
followers all places of power and profit. Hav- 
ing been acquitted in 65 upon his trial for ex- 
tortion, he was left unfettered to mature his 
plans. The time was propitious to his schemes. 
The younger nobility were thoroughly demoral- 
ized, with ruined fortunes, and eager for any 
change which might relieve them from their 
embarrassments ; the Roman populace were 
restless and discontented, ready to follow at the 
bidding of any demagogue ; while many of the 
veterans of Sulla, who had squandered their ill- 
gotten wealth, were now anxious for a renewal 
of those scenes of blood which they had found 
so profitable. Among such men Catiline soon 
obtained numerous supporters ; and his great 
mental and physical powers, which even his 
enemies admitted, maintained his ascendency 
over his adherents. The most distinguished 
men who joined him, and were present at a 
meeting of the conspirators which he called in 
June, 64, were P. Cornelius Lentulus Sura, who 
had been consul in B.C. 11, but, having been 
passed over by the censors, had lost his seat 



CATILINA. 

in the senate, which he was now seeking to 
recover by standing a second time for the praj- 
torship ; C. Cornelius Cethegus, distinguished 
throughout by his headstrong impetuosity and 
sanguinary violence ; P. Autronius, spoken of 
above ; L. Cassius Longinus, at this time a 
competitor for the consulship ; L. Vargunteius, 
who had been one of the colleagues of Cicero 
in the quaestorship, and had subsequently been 
condemned for bribery ; L. Calpurnius Bestia, 
tribune elect ; Publius and Scrvius Sulla, nepb 
ews of the dictator ; M. Porcius Lseca, &o 
The first object of Catiline was to obtain the 
consulship for himself and C. Antonius, whose 
co-operation he confidently anticipated. But in 
this object he was disappointed : Cicero and 
Antonius were elected consuls. This disap- 
pointment rendered him only more vigorous in 
the prosecution of his designs ; more adherents 
were gained, and troops were levied in various 
parts of Italy, especially in the neighborhood of 
Fsesulse, under the superintendence of C. Man- 
lius, one of the veteran centurions of Sulla. 
Meantime Cicero, the consul, was unrelaxiiig 
in his efforts to preserve the state from the 
threatened danger. Through the agency of 
Fulvia, the mistress of Curius, one of the con- 
spirators, he became acquainted with every cir- 
cumstance as soon as it occurred, and was en- 
abled to counteract all the machinations of Cat- 
iline. Cicero, at the same time, gained over 
his colleague Antonius by promising him the 
province of Macedonia. At length Cicero open- 
ly accused Catiline, and the senate, now aware 
of the danger which threatened the state, passed 
the decree, " that the consuls should take care 
that the republic received no harm," in virtue of 
which the consuls were invested for the time 
being with absolute power, both civil and mili- 
tary. In the consular elections which followed 
soon afterward, Catiline was again rejected. 
On the night of the 6th of November, B.C 
63, he met the ringleaders of the conspiracy at 
the dwelling of M. Porcius Lseca, and informed 
them that he £ad resolved to wait no longer, 
but at once to proceed to open action. Cicero, 
informed as usual of these proceedings, sum- 
moned the senate on the 8th of November, and 
there delivered the first of his celebrated ora- 
tions against Catiline, in which he displayed a 
most intimate acquaintance with all the pro- 
ceedings of the conspirators. Catiline, who 
was present, attempted to justify himself, but 
scarcely had he commenced when his words 
were drowned bj the shouts of " en#my" and 
" parricide" which burst from the whole as- 
sembly. Finding that he could at present ef- 
fect nothing at Rome, he quitted the city in the 
night (8th-9th November), and proceeded to the 
camp of Manlius, after leaving the chief con- 
trol of affairs at Rome in the hands of Lentulus 
and Cethegus. On the 9th, when the flight of 
Catiline was known, Cicero delivered his sec- 
ond speech, addressed to the people in the fo- 
rum, in which he justified his recent conduct. 
The senate declared Catiline and Manlius pub- 
lic enemies, and soon afterward Cicero obtained 
legal evidence of the guilt of the conspirators 
within the city, through the ambassadors of the 
Allobroges. These men had been solicited by 
Lentulus to join the plot, and to induce their 
183 



CATILLU3. 



cato, porcius. 



own counti'ymen to take part in the insurrec- 
tion. Thej revealed "what they had heard to 
Q. Fabius Sanga, the patron of their state, who 
in his turn acquainted Cicero. By the instruc- 
tions of the latter, the ambassadors affected 
great zeal in the undertaking, and having ob- 
tained a written agreement, signed by Lentu- 
lus, Cethegu3, and Statilius, they quitted Rome 
Eoon after midnight on the 3d of December, but 
were arrested on the Milvian bridge by Cice- 
"o's order. Cicero instantly summoned the 
eaders of the conspiracy to his presence, and 
conducted them to the senate, which was as- 
sembled in the temple of Concord (4th of De- 
cember). He proved the guilt of the conspira- 
tors by the testimony of witnesses and their 
own signatures. They were thereupon con- 
signed to the charge of certain senators. Cic- 
ero then summoned the people, and delivered 
what is called his third oration against Catiline, 
in which he informed them of all that had taken 
place. On the following day, the nones (5th) 
of December, the day so frequently referred to 
by Cicero in after times with pride, the senate 
was called together to deliberate respecting the 
punishment of the conspirators. After an ani- 
mated debate, of which the leading arguments 
are expressed in the two celebrated orations 
assigned by Sallust to Coesar and to Cato, a de- 
cree was passed that Lentulus aud the con- 
spirators should be put to death. The sentence 
was executed the same night in the prison. 
Cicero's speech in the debate in the senate is 
preserved in his fourth oration against Catiline. 
The consul Antonius was then sent against 
Catiline, and the decisive battle was fought 
early in 62. Antonius, however, unwilling to 
fight against his former associate, gave the com- 
mand on the day of battle to his legate, M. Pe- 
treius. Catiline fell in the engagement, after 
fighting with the most daring valor. The history 
of Catiline's conspiracy has been written by 
Sallust. 

[Catillus (Virg., jEn., vii., 670) and Catilus 
(Hor., Od., i., 18, 2), son of Amphfaraus, with his 
brothers Coras and Tiburtus migrated to Italy, 
and there founded the city Tibur (now Tivoli), 
on the Anio.l 

Catius. [1. Q. Catius, plebeian redile B.C. 
210 with L. Porcius Licinius ; served under C. 
Claudius Nero against Hasdrubal, B.C. 207 ; and 
was subsequently sent to Delphi to present to 
the temple there some of the booty obtained in 
the victory over Hasdrubal.] — 2. An Epicurean 
philosopher, a native of Gallia Transpadana 
(Insuber), composed a treatise in four books 
on the nature of things and on the chief good 
[de Rerurn Natura et de summo Bono) ; died B.C. 
45. 

Cato, Dioxtsids, the author of a small work, 
entitled Disticha de Moribus ad Filium, consist- 
_ng of a series of sententious moral precepts. 
Nothing is known of the author or the time 
when he lived, but many writers place him 
under the Antonines. The best edition is by 
Arntzenius, Amsterdam, 1754. 

Cato, Porcius. 1. M., frequently surnamed 
Cexsorius or Cexsor, also Cato Major, to dis- 
tinguish him from his great-grandson Cato Uti- 
censis (vid. No. 8). Cato was born at Tuscu- 
lum, B.C. 234, and was brought up at his fa- 
184 



ther's farm, situated in the Sabine territory 
In 217 he served his first campaign, in his seven- 
teenth year, and during the remaining years of 
the second Punic war he greatly distinguished 
bimself by his courage and military abilities. 
In the intervals of war he returned to his Sa- 
bine farm, which he had inherited from his fa- 
ther, and there led the same frugal and simple 
life, which characterized him to his last days. 
Encouraged by L. Valerius Placeus, a young 
nobleman in the neighborhood, he went to 
Rome, and became a candidate for office. He 
obtained the quasstorship in 204, and served un- 
der the proconsul Scipio Africanus in Sicily and 
Africa. From this time we may date the enmi- 
ty which Cato always displayed toward Scipio ; 
their habits and views of life were entirely dif- 
ferent ; and Cato, on his return to Rome, de- 
nounced in the strongest terms the luxury and 
extravagance of his commander. On his voy- 
age home he is said to have touched at Sardinia, 
and to have brought the poet Ennius from the 
island to Italy. In 199 he was sedile, and in 
19S praetor; he obtained Sardinia as his prov- 
ince, which he governed with justice and econ- 
omy. He had now established a reputation for 
pure morality and strict virtue. In 195 he was 
consul with his old friend and patron L. Valerius 
Flaecus. He carried on war in Spain with the 
greatest success, and received the honor of a 
triumph on his return to Rome in 194. In 191 
he served, under the consul M\ Acilius Glabrio, 
in the campaign against Antiochus it Greece, 
and the decisive victory at Thermopylae was 
mainly owing to Cato. From this time Cato's 
military career, which had been a brilliant one, 
appears to have ceased. He now took an act- 
ive part in civil affairs, and distinguished him- 
self by his vehement opposition to the Roman 
nobles, who introduced into Rome Greek luxu- 
ry and refinement. It was especially against 
the Scipios that his most violent attacks were 
directed, and whom he pursued with the bitterest 
animosity. He obtained the condemnation of 
L. Scipio, the conqueror of Antiochus, and com- 
pelled his brother P. Scipio to quit Rome in or- 
der to avoid the same fate. Vid Scipio. In 
184 he was elected censor with L. Valerius 
Flaecus, having been rejected in his applica- 
tion for the office in 189. His censorship was 
a great epoch in his fife. He applied himself 
strenuously to the duties of his office, regard- 
less of the enemies he was making ; but all his 
efforts to stem the ' tide of luxury which was 
now setting in proved unavailing. His strong 
national prejudices appear to have diminished 
in force as he grew older and wiser. He ap- 
plied himself in old age to the study of Greek 
literature, with which in youth he had no ac- 
quaintance, although he was not ignorant of the 
Greek language. But his conduct continued to 
be guided by prejudices against classes aud na- 
tions, whose influence he deemed to be hostile 
to the simplicity of the old Roman character. 
He had an antipathy to physicians, because they 
were mostly Greeks, and therefore unfit to be 
trusted with Roman lives. When Athens sent 
Carneades, Diogenes, and Critolaus as ambas- 
sadors to Rome, he recommended the seuate tc 
send them from the city on account of the dan- 
gerous doctrines taught by Carneades. Vid, 



CATO, PORCIUS 



CATTL 



Oarneades. Cato retained his bodily aud men- 
tal vigor in his old age. In the year (before his 
death he was one of the chief instigators of the 
third Punic war. He had been one of the Ro- 
man deputies sent to Africa to arbitrate between 
Masinissa and the Carthaginians, and he was 
60 struck with the flourishing condition of Car- 
thage that on his return home he maintained 
that Some would never be safe as long as Car- 
thage was in existence. From this time forth, 
whenever he was called upon for his vote in 
the senate, though the subject of debate bore no 
relation to Carthage, his words were Delenda 
est Carthago. Very shortly before his death, 
he made a powerful speech in accusing Galba 
on account of his cruelty and perfidy in Spain. 
He died in 149, at the age of eighty-five. Cato 
wrote several works, of which only the De Re 
Rustica has come down to us, though even this 
work is not exactly in the form in which it pro- 
ceeded from his pen : it is printed in the Scrip- 
tores Rei Rusticce, edited by Gesner (Lips., 
1773-4), and Schneider (Lips., 1794-7). His 
most important work was entitled Origincs, but 
only fragments of it have been preserved, The 
first book contained the history of the Roman 
kings ; the second and third treated of the origin 
of the Italian towns, and from these two books 
the whole work derived its title. The fourth 
book treated of the first Punic war, the fifth 
book of the second Punic war, and the sixth 
and seventh continued the narrative to the year 
of Cato's death. — 2. M., son of No. 1, by his first 
wife Licinia, and thence called Licinianus, was 
distinguished as a jurist. In the war against 
Perseus, 168, he fought with great bravery un- 
der the consul ^Emihus Paulus, whose daugh- 
ter 1 , iEmilia Tertia, he afterward married. He 
died when praetor designatus, about 152. — 3. 
M., son of No. 1, -by his second wife Salonia, 
and thence called Salonianus, was born 154, 
when his father had completed his eightieth 
year. — 4. M., son of No. 2, consul 118, died in 
Africa in the same year. — 5. C, also son of No. 

2, consul 114, obtained Macedonia as his prov- 
ince, and fought unsuccessfully against • the 
Scordisci. He was accused of extortion in 
Macedonia, and was sentenced to pay a fine. 
He afterward went to Tarraco in Spain, and be- 
came a citizen of that town. — 6. M_, son of No. 

3, ' tribunus plebis, died when a candidate for 
the praatorship. — 7. L., also son of No. 3, con- 
sul 89, was killed in battle against the Socii. — 
8. M., son of No. 6, by Livia, great-grandson of 
Cato the Censor, and surnamed Uticensis from 
Utica, the place of his death, was born B.C. 95. 
In early childhood he lost both his parents, and 
was brought up in the house of his mother's 
brother, M Linus Drusus, along with his sister 
Porcia aud the children of his mother by her 
second husband, M. Servilius Caepio. In early 
years he discovered a stern and unyielding 
character ; he applied himself with great zeal 
to the study of oratory and philosophy, and be- 
came a devoted adherent of the Stoic school ; 
and among the profligate nobles of the age he 
60on became conspicuous for his rigid morality. 
He served his first campaign as a volunteer, 
72, in the servile war of Spartacus, and after- 
ward, about 67, as tribunus militum in Mace- 
donia. In 65 he was quaestor when he correct- 



ed numercus abuses which had crept into (he 
administration of the treasury. In 63 he was 
tribune of the plebs, and supported Cicero in 
proposing that the Catilinarian conspirators 
should suffer death. Vid. Catilina. He now 
became one of the chief leaders of the aristo- 
cratical party, and opposed with the utmost ve- 
hemence the measures of Caesar, Pompey, and 
Crassus. In order to get rid of him, he was 
sent to Cyprus in 58 with the task of uniting 
that island to the Roman dominions. He return 
ed in 56, and continued to oppose the triumvirs ; 
but all his efforts were vain, and he was reject- 
ed when he became a candidate for the praetor- 
ship. On the breaking out of the civil war (49), 
he was intrusted, as propraetor, with the de 
fence of Sicily; but, on the landing of Curio 
with an ovei'whelming force, he abandoned the 
island and joined Pompey in Greece. After 
Pompey's victory at Dyrrachium, Cato was left 
in charge of the camp, and thus was not present 
at the battle of Pharsalia (48). After this bat- 
tle he set sail for Corcyra, and thence crossed 
over to Africa, where he joined Metellus Scipio, 
after a terrible march across the desert. The 
army wished to be led by Cato ; but he yielded 
the command to the consular Scipio. In oppo- 
sition to the advice of Cato, Scipio fought w T ith 
Caesar, and was utterly routed at Thapsus (April 
6th, 46). All Africa now, with the exception 
of Utica, submitted to Caesar. Cato wanted 
the Romans in Utica to stand a siege ; but when 
he saw that they were inclined to submit, he 
resolved to die rather than fall alive into the 
hands of the conqueror. Accordingly, after 
spending the greater part of the night in perus- 
ing Plato's Phaedo several times, he stabbed him- 
self below the breast. In falling, he overturned 
an abacus : his friends, hearing the noise, ran 
up, found him bathed in blood, and, while he was 
fainting, dressed his wound. "When, however, 
he recovered feeling, he tore open the bandages, 
let out his entrails, and expired at the age of 
49. Cato soon became the subject of biography 
and panegyric. Shortly after his death appear- 
ed Cicero's Cato, which provoked Caesar's Anti- 
cato. In Luean the character of Cato is a per- 
sonification of godlike virtue. In modern times 
the closing events of his life have been often 
dramatized ; and few dramas have gained more 
celebrity than the Cato of Addison. — 9. M., a 
son of No. 8, fell at the battle of Philippi, 42. 

Cato, Valerius, a distinguished grammarian 
and poet, lost his property in his youth during 
the usurpation of Sulla. He is usually consid- 
ered the author of an extant poem in one hund- 
red and eighty-three hexameter verses, entitled 
Dirm; edited by Putsch, Jena, 1828. 

[Catrecs (Karpevc) or Creteus, son of Minos 
and Creta.] 

Catti or Chatti, whose name is connected 
with the old German word cat or cad, "war," 
one of the most important nations of Germany, 
bounded by the Visurgis (now Weser) on the 
east, the Agri Decumates on the south, and the 
Rhine on the west, in the modern Hesse and 
the adjacent countries. They were a branch 
of the Hermiones, and are first mentioned by 
Caesar under the erroneous name of Suevi. 
Although defeated by Drusus, Germanicus, and 
! other Roman generals, they were never com- 
18.5 



CATUALDA. 



CAUCASUS. 



plctely subjugated by the Romans; and their 
power was greatly augmented on the decline of 
the Cherusci. Their capital was Matticm. 

[Catualda, a noble youth of the Gotones, in 
the time of Tiberius, who drove Maroboduus 
from the throne of the Marcomanni, and was 
himself driven out in turn by the Hermunduri 
under the command of Vibilius.] 

Catullus, Valerius, a Roman poet, born at 
Verona or in its immediate vicinity, B.C. 87. 
Catullus inherited considerable property from 
Iris father, who was the friend of Julius Cae- 
sar ; but he squandered a great part of it by in- 
dulging freely in the pleasures of the metropo- 
lis. In order to better his fortunes, he went to 
Bithynia in the train of the pi'cetor Memmius, 
but it appears that the speculation was attend- 
ed with little success. It was probably during 
this expedition that his brother died in the 
Troad — a loss which he deplores in the affect- 
ing elegy to Hortalus. On his return he con- 
tinued to reside at Rome or at his country-seats 
on the promontory of Sirmio and at Tibur. He 
probably died about B.C. 47. The extant works 
of Catullus consist of one hundred and sixteen 
poems, on a variety of topics, and composed in 
different styles and metres. Some are lyrical, 
others elegies, and others epigrams ; while the 
Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis, in four hundred 
and nine hexameter hues, is an heroic poem. 
Some of his poems are translations or imitations 
from the Greek, as, for instance, his De Coma 
Berenices, which was taken from Callimachus. 
In consequence of the intimate acquaintance 
which Catullus displays with Greek literature 
and mythology, he was called doctus by Tibul- 
lus, Ovid, and others. Catullus adorned all he 
touched, and his shorter poems are character- 
ized by original invention aud felicity of expres- 
sion. — .Editions: By Volpi, Patav., 1710; by 
Doering, Altona, 1884 2d ed. ; and by Lach- 
mann, Berol., 1829. 

Catulus, Lutatius, 1. C, consul B.C. 242, 
defeated as proconsul in the following year the 
Carthaginian fleet off the JEgates Insulae, and 
thus brought the first Punic war to a close, 241. 
— 2. Q., consul 102 with C. Marius IV, and as 
proconsul next year gained along with Marius 
a decisive victory over the Cimbri near Vercel- 
lae (now Vercelli), in the north of Italy. Catu- 
lus claimed the entire honor of this victory, and 
asserted that Marius did not meet with the ene- 
my till the day was decided ; but at Rome the 
whole merit was given to Marius. Catulus be- 
longed to the aristocratical party ; he espoused 
the cause of Sulla ; was included by Marius in 
the proscription of 87 ; and as escape was im- 
possible, put an end to his life by the vapors 
of a charcoal fire. Catulus was well acquaint- 
ed with Greek literature, and famed for the 
grace and purity with which he spoke and wrote 
his own language. He was the author of sev- 
eral orations, of an historical work on his own 
consulship and the Cimbric war, aud of poems ; 
but all these have perished with the exception 
of two epigrams. — 3. Q., son of No. 2, a distin- 
guished leader of the aristocracy, also won the 
respect and confidence of the people by his up- 
right character and conduct. Being consul with 
M. Lepidus in 78, he resisted the efforts of his 
colleague to abrogate the acts of Sulla, and the 
186 



following spring he defeated Lepidus in the bat- 
tle of the Milvian bridge, and forced him to take 
refuge in Sardinia. He opposed the Gabiuiai: 
and Manilian laws which conferred extraordi- 
nary powers upon Pompey (67 and 66). He 
was censor with Crassus in 65, and died in 60. 

Caturiges, a Ligurian people in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, near the Cottian Alps : their chief 
towns were Ebueodunum and Catueig^e or 
Catorijiagus (now Chorges) 

Catus Decianus, procurator of Britain in the 
reign of Nero, was by his extortion one of the 
chief causes of the revolt of the people under 
Boadieea, A.D. 62. He fled to Gaul. 

Cauoa (now Coca), "a town of the Vaecaei in 
Hispania Tarraconensis ; birth-place of the Em 
peror Theodosius I. 

[Caucalus (KavKa/Mg). of Chios, a rhetori- 
cian, brother of the historian Theopompus, 
wrote a eulogium on Hercules, which no longer 
exists.] 

CaucasLe Pyije. Vid. Caucasus. 

Caucasus, Caucasii Monies, (6 KavKaaoc, rd 
KavKuaiov opoc, tu KavKueia opn : now Cauca- 
sus). 1. A great chain of mountains in Asia, 
extending west-northwest and east-southeast 
from the eastern shore of the Pontus Euxiuus 
(now Black Sea) to the western shore of the 
Caspian. Its length is about seven hundred 
miles ; its greatest breadth one hundred and 
twenty, its least sixty or sevent}'. Its greatest 
height exceeds that of the Alps, its loftiest 
summit (now Mount Elbrooz, nearly in 43° north 
latitude and 43° east longitude) being sixteen 
thousand eight hundred feet above the sea, and 
to the east of this are several other summits 
above the line of perpetual snow, which, in the 
Caucasus, is from ten to eleven thousand feet 
above the sea. The western part of the chain 
is much lower, no summit west of Mount El- 
hrooz rising above the snow line. At both ex 
tremities the chain sinks down to low hills. 
There are two chief passes over the chain, both 
of which were known to the ancients : the one, 
between its eastern extremity and the Caspian, 
near Derbent, was called Albanias and some- 
times Casple PyLjE ; the other, nearly in the 
centre of the range, was called Caucasiaa Pylse 
(now Pass of Bariel). In ancient times, as is 
still the case, the Caucasus was inhabited by a 
great variety of tribes, speaking different lan- 
guages (Strabo says, at least seventy), but all 
belonging to that family of the human race 
which lias peopled Europe and Western Asia, 
and which has obtained the name of Caucasian 
from the fact that in no other part of the world 
are such perfect examples of it found as among 
the mountaineers of the Caucasus. That the 
Greeks had some vague knowledge of the Cau- 
casus in very early times, is proved by the 
myths respecting Prometheus and the Argo- 
nauts, from which it seems that the Caucasus 
was regarded as at the extremity of the earth, 
on the border of the River Oceanus. The ac- 
count which Herodotus gives is good as far as 
it goes (i., 203) ; but it was not till the march 
of Pompey, in the Mithradatie "War, extended 
to the banks of the Cyrus aud Araxcs, ai d to 
the foot of the great chain, that means were ob- 
tained for that accurate description of the Cau- 
casus which Strabo gives in his eleventh book. 



CAUCL 



CECROPS. 



The country about the east part of the Cauca- 
sus was called Albania : the rest of the chain 
divided Iberia and Colchis, on the south, from 
Sarmatia Asiatioa on the north. — 2. When the 
soldiers of Alexander advanced to that great 
range of mountains which formed the northern 
boundary of Ariana, the Paropamisus, they sup- 
posed that they had reached the great Cauca- 
sian chain at the extremity of the world men- 
tioned by the early poets, and they applied to 
it the name of Caucasus ; afterward, for the sake 
of distinction, it was called Caucasus Indicus. 
Vid. Paropamisus. 
Cauci. Vid. Chauci. 

Caucones (KavKuvec), the name of communi- 
ties both in Greece and Asia, but whether of the 
same or different tribes cannot be determined 
with certainty. The Caucones in the northwest 
of Greece, in Elis and Achaia, were supposed by 
the ancient geographers to be an Arcadian 
people. The Caucones in the northwest of Asia 
Minor are mentioned by Homer as allies of the 
Trojans, and are placed in Bithynia and Paphla- 
gonia by the geographers who regarded them 
as Pelasgians, as though some thought them Scy- 
thians. 

Caudium (Caudinus), a town in Samnium, on 
the road from Capua to Beneventum. In the 
neighborhood were the celebrated FurculjE 
Caudin/e, or Caudinc Forks, narrow passes in the 
mountains, where the Roman army surrendered 
to the Samnites, and was sent under the yoke, 
B.C. 321 : it is now called the valley of Ar- 
paia. 

Caulon or Caulonia (Cauloniata : now Castel 
Vetere), a towu in Bruttium, northeast of Locri, 
originally called Aulon or Aulonia ; founded by 
the inhabitants of Croton or by the Achaeans ; 
destroyed by Dionysius the elder, who removed 
its inhabitants to Syracuse, and gave its territory 
to Locri ; afterward rebuilt, but again destroyed 
in the war with Pyrrhus ; rebuilt a third time, 
and destroyed a third time in the second Punic 
war. It was celebrated for its worship of the 
Delphian Apollo. Its name is preserved in 
the hill Caulone, in the neighborhood of Castel 
Vetere. 

Caunus. Vid. Byblis. 

Caunus (fj Kaiivoc : Kavvwg : now Kaigues), 
one of the chief cities of Caria, on its southern 
coast, a little east of the mouth of the Calbis, in a 
very fertile but unhealthy situation. It had a 
citadel called Imbros, an inclosed harbor for ships 
of war, and safe roads for merchant vessels. It 
was founded by the Cretans. Its dried figs 
(Cauneae ficus) were highly celebrated. The 
painter Protogenes was born here. 

[Caura (now Coria,) a town of Hispania 
Baetiea, between the Bostis and Anas.] 

Caurus, the Argestes ('ApyearTjc) of the 
Greeks, the northwestern wind, is in Italy a 
stormy wind. 

Cavares or -i, a people in Gallia JSTarbonensis, 
east of the Rhone, between the Druentia and the 
Isara. 

CavarInus, a Senonian, whom Ca?sar made 
king of his people, was expelled by his subjects 
and compelled to fly to Caesar, B.C. 54. 

Caystrus (Kdvorpoc, Ion. Kavarpoc : now 
Kara Su, i. e:, the Black River, or Kuchuk-Mein. 
der, L e., Little M&ander), a celebrated river of 



Lydia and Ionia, rising in the Cilbiani Mountains 
(the eastern part of Tmolus), and flowing be- 
tween the ranges of Tmolus and Messogis into 
the jEgean, a little northwest of Ephesus. To 
this day it abounds in swans, as it did in Ho- 
mer's time. The valley of the Caystrus is called 
by Homer " the Asian meadow," and is probably 
the district to which the name of Asia was first 
applied. There was an inland town of the same 
name on its southern bank. 
[Cea. Vid. Ceos.] 

Cebenna Mons or Gebenna (to Kc/i/ievov bpoc : 
now Cevennes), mountains in the south of Gaul, 
two thousand stadia in length, extending north as 
far as Lugdunum, and separating the Arverni 
from the Helvii : Caesar found them in the winter 
covered with snow six feet deep. 

Cebes (Ke^f), of Thebes, a disciple and friend 
of Socrates, was present at the death of his 
teacher. He 'wrote three philosophical works, 
one of "which, entitled THva% or Picture [com- 
monly cited by its Latin title, Cebetis Tabula, i. e., 
Picat\, is extant. This work is an allegorical 
picture ef human life, "which is explained by an 
old man to a circle of youths. The drift of the 
book is to show that only the development of 
our mind and the possession of real virtue can 
make us happy. Pew works have enjoyed a 
greater popularity. Of the numerous editions, the 
best are by Schweighaiiser, Argent., 1806, and 
by Coraes in his edition of Epictetus, Paris, 
1826. 

[Cebren (KeGprfv), a river of the Troad, said to 
have been so called from Cebren, father of Aste- 
rope. Vid. Cebrene.] 

Cebrene (Ke6p?jvrj : KsBprjvioc and KeSp^vuvc), 
a city in the Troad, on mount Ida, which fell into 
decay when Antigonus transplanted its inhab- 
itants to Alexandrea Tros. A little river, which 
flowed past it, was called Cebren (Kefip^v) 
and the surrounding district Cebrenia (Ke- 
6prjvta). 

[Cebriones (Ke6pwvr}c), a son of Priam by a 
female slave ; charioteer of Hector, and slain by 
Patroclus.] 

Ceoropia. Vid. Athene, p. 122, a. 

Cecrops (Kt/cpoi/)), a hero of the Pelasgic race, 
said to have been the first king of Attica. He 
was married to Agraulos, daughter of Acteeus, 
by whom he had a son, Erysichthon, who suc- 
ceeded him as king of Athens, and three daugh- 
ters, Agraulos, Herse, and Pandrosos. In his 
reign Neptune (Poseidon) and Minerva (Athena) 
contended for the possession of Attica, but Ce- 
crops decided in favor of the goddess. Vid. 
Athena. Cecrops is said to have founded 
Athens, the citadel of which was called Cecropia 
after him, to have divided Attica into twelve 
communities, and to have introduced the first 
elements of civilized life ; he instituted marriage, 
abolished bloody sacrifices, and taught his sub- 
jects how to worship the gods. He is sometimes 
called 6cfv7jg or geminus, an epithet which some 
explain by his having instituted marriage, 
while others suppose it to have reference to the 
legends, in which the upper part of his body 
was represented as that of a man, and the lower 
part as that of a serpent. The later Greek 
writers describe Cecrops as a native of Sais in 
Egypt, who led a colony of Egyptians into 
Attica, and thus introduced from Egypt the 
187 



CECRYPHALIA. 



GELTM 



arts of civilized life ; but this account is rejected 
by some of the ancients themselves, and by the 
ablest modern critics. 

Cecryphalla (KeKpyipaXeia), a small island in 
the Saronic Gulf, between iEgina and Epidau- 
rus. 

CedrEjE (Kedpeai or -elai, Kedpcdrng or -aloe), 
a town of Caria, on the Caremic Gulf. 

Cedrenus, Georgius, a Byzantine writer, of 
whose life nothing is known, the author of an 
Historical work, which begins with the creation 
of the world, and goes down to A.D. 105V. The 
last edition is by Bekker, Bonn, 1838-39. 

[Celadon (Ke Xddav), a tributary of the Al- 
pheus in Elis.] 

[Celadon. 1. An Egyptian, slain at the nup- 
tials of Perseus. — 2. One of the Lapithae, slain at 
the nuptials of Piritlfous.] 

CeLjEn^e (KeXaivai, Kelaivlrnc), the greatest 
city of southern Phrygia, before the rise of its 
neighbor, Apamea Cibotus, xeduced it to insigni- 
ficance. It lay at the sources of the rivers 
Meander and Marsyas. In the midst of it was 
a citadel built by Xerxes, on a precipitous rock, 
at the foot of which, in the Agora of the city, 
the Marsyas took its rise, and near the river's 
source was a grotto celebrated by tradition as 
the scene of the punishment of Marsyas by 
Apollo. Outside of the city was a royal palace, 
with pleasure gardens and a great park (irapu- 
Seiaoc) full of game, which was generally the 
residence of the satrap. The Masander took its 
rise in the very palace, and flowed through the 
park and the city, below which it received the 
Marsyas. 

Cel^eno (KeAoiwS). 1. A Pleiad, daughter of 
Atlas and Pleione, beloved by Neptune (Posei- 
don). — 2. One of the Harpies. Vid. Harpym;. 

Celeia (now Gilly), an important town in the 
southeastern part of Noricum, and a Boman 
colony with the surname Claudia, was in the 
Middle Ages the capital of a Slavonic state call- 
ed Zellia ; hence the modern name of the town, 
which possesses Roman remains. 

Celenderis (Kehevdepic : now KJielindreh), a 
sea-port town of Cilicia, said to have been found- 
ed by Sandarus the Syrian, and afterwards col- 
onized by the Samians. 

Celenna, a town of Campania, mentioned by 
Virgil (JEn., vii., 739), but nowhere else.] 

Celer, together with Severus, the architect of 
Nero's immense palace, the golden house. He 
and Severus began digging a canal from the 
Lake Avernus to the mouth of the Tiber. 

Celer, P. Egnatius. Vid. Barea. 

Celetrum (now Kastoria), a town in Mace- 
louia, on a peninsula of the Laeus Castoris, pro- 
bably the same town afterward called Dioole- 
iianopolis. 

Celeus (KeAeoc,) king of Eleusis, husband of 
Metanmi, and father of Demophon and Triptole- 
mus. He received Ceres (Demeter) with hospi- 
tality at Eleusis when she was wandering in 
search of her daughter. The goddess, in return, 
wished to make his son Demophon immortal, and 
placed him in the fire in order to destroy his 
mortal parts ; but Metar.ira screamed aloud at 
the sight, and Demophoa was destroyed by the 
flames. Ceres '(Demeter) then bestowed great 
favors upon Triptolemus. Vid. Triptolemus. 
Celeus is described as tha first priest and his 
188 



daughters as the first priestesses of Ceres 
(Demeter) at Eleusis. 

Celsa (now Vclilla, ruins near Xclsa), a town 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the Iberus, with a 
stone bridge over this river, and a Roman colony 
with the name Victrix Julia Celsa. 

Celsus. 1. One of the thirty tyrants, usurped 
the purple in Africa, and was slain on the seventh 
day of his reign, A.D., 265. — 2. An Epicurean 
philosopher, lived in the time of the Antonines, 
and was a friend of Lucian. He is supposed to 
be the same as the Celsus who wrote the work 
against Christianity called Aoyog ukriQ-qc, which 
acquired so much notoriety from the answer 
written to it by Origen. Vid. Origenes. — 3. A. 
Cornelius Celsus, probably lived under the 
reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He wrote 
several works of which only one remains entire, 
his treatise Be Medicina, " On Medicine," in 
eight books. The first two books are principally 
occupied by the consideration of diet, and the 
general principles of therapeutics and pathology ; 
the remaining books are devoted to the consider- 
ation of particular diseases and their treatment ; 
the third and fourth to internal diseases ; the 
fifth and sixth to external diseases and to 
pharmaceutical preparations; and the last two 
to those diseases which more particularly belong 
to surgeiy. The work has been much valued 
from the earliest times to the present day. — Edi- 
tions : ByMilligan, Edinb, 1826; by Ritter and 
Albers, Colon. adRhen., 1835. — 4. Julius Celsus, 
a scholar at Constantinople in the seventh cen- 
tury after Christ, made a recension of the text 
of Caesar's Commentaries. Many modern 
writers have "attributed to him the life oi 
Caesar, which was, in reality, written by 
Petrarch. — 5. P. Juventius Celsus, two Roman 
jurists, father and son, both of whom are cited 
in the Digest. Very little is known of the elder 
Celsus. The younger Celsus, who was the 
more celebrated, lived under Nerva and Trajan, 
by whom he was highly favored. He wrote 
Bigesta in thirty-nine books, Epistolce, Quaes- 
tiones, and Institutiones in seven books. — 6. P. 
Marius Celsus, an able general, first of Galba 
and afteward of Otho. After the defeat of 
Otho's army at the battle of Bedriacum, Celsus 
was pardoned by Vitellius, and was allowed 
by him to enter on the consulship in July (A.D. 
69). 

Celt^e, a powerful race, which occupied a 
great part of Western Europe. The Greek and 
Roman writers call them by three names, which 
are probably only variations of one name, name- 
ly, CelTvE (KeXra'i, Ke?.Toi), Galat.se (TaXdrai), 
and Galli (TdhXoi). Their name was originally 
given to all the people of Northern and West- 
ern Europe who were not Iberians, and it was 
not till the time of Caesar that the Romans 
made any distinction between the Celts and the 
Germans: the name of Celts then began to be 
confined to the people between the Pyrenees 
and the Rhine. The Celts belonged to the great 
Indo-Germanic race, as their language proves. 
Like the other Indo-Germanic races they came 
from the East, and, at a period long antecedent 
to all historical records, settled in the west of 
Europe. The most powerful part of the nation 
appears to have taken up their abode in the cen- 
tre of the country called after them Gallia, be- 



CELTIBERI. 



CENT A URL 



tween the Garumna in the south and the Se- 
quana and Matrona in the north. From this 
country they spread over various parts of Eu- 
rope, and they appear in early times as a migra- 
tory race, ready to abandon their homes, and 
settle in any district which their swords could 
win. Besides the Celts in Gallia, there were 
eight other different settlements of the nation, 
which may be distinguished by the following 
names: 1. Iberian Celts, who crossed the Pyr- 
enees and settled in Spain. Vid. Celtibeei. — 
2. British Celts, the most ancient inhabitants of 
Britain. Vid. Britannia. — 3. Belgic Celts, the 
earliest inhabitants of Gallia Belgica, at a later 
time much mingled with Germans. — 4. Italian 
Celts, who crossed the Alps at different periods, 
and eventually occupied the greater part of the 
North of Italy, which was called after them 
Gallia Cisalpina. — 5. Celts in the Alps and on 
the Danube, namely, the Helvetii, Gothini, Osi, 
Vindelici, Recti, Norici, and Carni. — 6. Illyrian 
Celts, who, under the name of Scordisci, settled 
on Mount Scordus. — 1. Macedonian and Thra- 
cian Celts, who had remained behind in Mace- 
donia when the Celts invaded Greece, and who 
are rarely mentioned. — 8. Asiatic Celts, the To- 
listoboii, Trocmi, and Tectosages, who founded 
the kingdom of Galatia. Some ancient writ- 
ors divided the Celts into two great races, one 
consisting of the Celts in the south and centre 
of Gaul, in Spain, and in the north of Italy, who 
were the proper Celts, and the other consisting 
of the Celtic tribes on the shores of the ocean 
and in the east as far as Scythia, who were 
called Gauls : to the latter race the Cimbri be- 
longed, and they are considered by some to be 
identical with the Cimmerii of the Greeks. 
This two-fold division of the Celts appears to 
correspond to the two races into which the Celts 
are at present divided in Great Britain, namely, 
the Gael and the Kymry, who differ in language 
and customs, the Gael being the inhabitants of 
Ireland and the north of Scotland, and the 
Kymry of Wales. The Celts are described by 
the ancient writers as men of large stature, of 
fair complexion, and with flaxen or red hair. 
They were brave and warlike, impatient of con- 
trol, and prone to change. They fought with 
long swords ; their first charge in battle was 
the most formidable, but if firmly resisted they 
usually gave way. They were long the terror 
of the Romans : once they took Rome, and laid 
it in ashes (B.C. 390). For details respecting 
their later history and political organization, 
vid. Gallia. 

Celtibeei (KeXrdT/peg), a powerful people in 
Spain, consisting of Celts, who crossed the Pyr- 
enees at an early period, and became mingled 
with the Iberians, the original inhabitants of the 
country. They dwelt chiefly in the central part 
of Spain, in the highlands which separate the 
Iberus from the rivers which flow toward the 
west, and in which the Tagus and the Durius 
vise. They were divided into various tribes, the 
AbevacvE, Beeones, and Pelendones, which 
were the three most important, the Lusones, 
Belli, Dittani, &c. Their chief towns were 
Segobeiga, Numantia, Bilbilis, <Sic. Their 
country, called Celtibeeia, was mountainous 
and unproductive. They were a brave and war- 
like people, and proved formidable enemies to 



the Romans. They submitted to Scipio Africa- 
nus in the second Punic war,- but the oppres- 
sions of the Roman governors led them to rebel, 
and for many j'ears they successfully defied the 
power of Rome. They were reduced to sub- 
mission on the capture of Numantia by Scipio 
Africanus the younger (B.C. 134), but they 
again took up arms under Sertorius. and it was 
not till his death (72) that they began to adopt 
the Roman customs and language. 

Celtict. 1. A Celtic people in Lusitania, be- 
tween the Tagus and Anas. — 2. A Celtic people 
in Gallscia, near the promontory Neriuin, which 
was called Celticum after them (now Cape Fin- 
isterre). 

Centum {KTjvalov anpov : now Kanaia or Li- 
tar), the northwestern promontory of Eubcea, 
opposite Thermopylae, with a temple of Jupiter 
(Zeus) Cenaeus. 

Cenchee^e (KEyxpicu). 1. (Now Kenhri), the 
eastern harbor of Corinth, on the Sarouic Gulf, 
important for the trade and commerce with the 
East. — 2. A town in Argolis, south of Argos, on 
the road to Tegea. 

[Cencheids (Keyxpioc), a river of Ionia, flow- 
ing through the territory of Ephesus.] 

Cenomani, a powerful Gallic people, original- 
ly a branch of the Auleeci, crossed the Alps at 
an early period, and settled in the north of Italy 
in the country of Brixia, Verona, and Mantua 
and extended north as far as the confines of 
Raatia. They were at constant feud with the 
neighboring tribes of the Irisubres, Boii, <5ic., ano 
hence usually assisted the Romans in their wan 
with these people. 

Censoeinus. 1. One of the thirty tyrants 
assumed the purple at Bologna A.D. 2*70, bui 
was shortly afterward put to death by his own 
soldiers. — 2. Author of a treatise entitled de Die 
Natali, which treats of the generation of man 
of his natal hour, of the influence of the stars 
and genii upon his career, and discusses the 
various methods employed for the division and 
calculation of time. The book is dedicated to 
Q. Cerellius, and was composed A.D. 238. A 
fragment de Metris aud lost tracts de Accentibus 
and de Geometria are ascribed to this Censori- 
nus. — Editions : By Havercamp, Lug. Bat., 
1743; by Gruber, Noremb., 1805. 

Censoeinus, Maecius. 1. C, son of C. Mar- 
cius Rutilus, first plebeian dictator (B.C. 356), 
was originally called Rutilus, and was the first 
member of the family who had the surname 
Censorinus. He was consul in B.C. 310, and 
conducted the war in Samuium. He was censor 
294, and a second time 265, the only instance in 
which a person held the office of censor twice. 
— 2. L., consul 149, the first year of the third 
Punic war, conducted the war against Carthage 
with his colleague M\ Manilius. — 3. C, one of 
the leaders of the Marian party, fought against 
Sulla in the battle near the Colline gate, was 
taken prisoner, and put to death by Sulla's order. 
Censorinus was one of the orators of his time, 
and versed in Greek literature. — 4. L., a parti- 
san of M. Antony, praetor 43, and consul 39. — 
6. C, consul B.C. 8, died in Asia A.D. 2, while 
in attendance upen C. Caesar, the grandson of 
Augustus. 

Centauei (Kevravpoi), that is, the Bull-killei-s, 
were an ancient race, inhabiting Mount Pel ion 
189 



CENTIMANI. 

in Thessaly. They led a wild and savage life, 
and are hence called tyrjpec or &7/ptc in Homer. 
In later accounts they were represented as half 
horses and half men. Their origin is variously 
related. According to the most ancient account, 
Centaurus, the offspring of Ixion and a cloud, 
begot the Hippocentaurs by mixing with Mag- 
nesian mares. From most accounts it would 
appear that the Centaurs and Hippocentaurs 
were originally regarded as two distinct classes 
of beings, although the name of Centaurs is ap- 
plied to both by ancient as well as modern wri- 
ters. The Centaurs are particularly celebrated 
in ancient story for their fight with the Lapithae, 
which arose at the marriage-feast of Pirithous. 
This fight is sometimes placed in connection 
with a combat of Hercules with the Centaurs. 
It ended by the Centaurs being expelled from 
their country, and taking refuge on Mount Pin- 
dus, on the frontiers of Epirus. Chiron is the 
most celebrated among the Centaurs. Vid. 
Chiron. We know that hunting the bull on 
horseback was a national custom in Thessaly, 
and that the Thessalians were celebrated riders. 
Hence may have arisen the fable that the Cen- 
taurs were half men and half horses, just as the 
Americans, when they first saw a Spaniard on 
horseback, believed horse and man to be one 
being. The Centaurs were frequently repre- 
sented in ancient works of art, and generally as 
men from the head to the loins, while the re- 
mainder of the body is that of a horse with its 
four feet and tail. 

[Oentimani ('E/caroy^EipEf), " the hundred- 
handed," the three giants Cottus, iEgseon or 
Briaieus, and Gyges, sons of Ccelus (Uranus) 
and Terra (Ge). They had a hundred hands and 
fifty heads, and were of extraordinary strength 
and terrible size. They helped Jupiter (Zeus) 
conquer the Titans, and had to guard the latter 
when cast, fettered, into Tartarus.] 

Centrites (Kevrpirrjc : now Bcdlis), a small 
river of Armenia, which it divided from the land 
of the Carduehi, north of Assyria, it rises in 
the mountaius south of the Arsissa Palus (now 
Lake Van), and flows into the Tigris. 

[Centrones (Khrpovec), an Alpine nation in 
Gallia Narboneusis, through whose country ran 
the public route from Italy to Lugdunum in 
Gallia.] 

Centumalus, Fulvius. 1. Cn., legate of the 
dictator M. Valerius Corvus B.C. 301 ; consul 
298, when he gained a victory over the Sam- 
uites ; and propraetor 295, when he defeated the 
Ettuscans- — 2. Cn., consul 229, defeated the 
Illyrians subject to the queen Teuta. — 3. Cn., 
curule aedile 214; praetor 213, with Suessula 
as his province; and consul 211; in the next 
year he was defeated by Hannibal near Her- 
douia in Apulia, and was killed in the battle. — 
4. M., praetor urbauus 192, superintended the 
preparations for the war against Antiochus the 
Great. 

Centum Cell.* (now Civita Vecchid), a sea- 
port town in Etruria, first became a place of im- 
portance under Trajan, who built a villa here 
aud constructed an excellent harbor. It was 
destroyed by the Saracens in the ninth century, 
but was rebuilt on its ancient site, and was 
heuce called Civita Vecchia. 

CentOiup/e (ra KtvTupma, al KevrovpiTrai : 
190 



CEPHALUS. 

i Kevropinivoc, in Thuc. oi Kevropnrec, Ceuturipl 
nus : now Ccntorbi), an ancient town of the Si- 
culi in Sicily, at the foot of Mount ./Etna, on the 
road from Catana to Panormus, and not far from 
the River Symaethus ; in its neighborhood a 
great quautity of corn was grown, and it became 
under the Romans one of the most flourishing 
cities in the island. 

Ceos, also Cea or Cia (Kewc, Ion. Kcoc : Kc'iog, 
Ion. Krj'ioc, Ceus : now Zed), an island in the 
^Egeau Sea, one of the Cyclades, between the 
Attic promontory Suuium and the island Cyth- 
nus, celebrated for its fertile soil and its genial 
climate. It was inhabited by Iouians, and orig- 
inally contained four towns, Iulis, Carthasa, Co- 
ressus, and Poaeessa; but the two latter perish 
ed by an earthquake. Simonides was a native 
of lulis in Ceos, wheuce we read of the Cea: 
munera nenice. (Hor., Carm., ii., 1, 38.) 

Cephale (Ke^aXij), an Attic demus, on the 
right bank of the Erasinus, belonging to the 
tribe Acamantis. 

Cephallenia {Ke(j>aX?iT}VLa, Ke<pa?^vla : Ke- 
ipaXXijv, pi. Ke^aXWr/ver : now Cephalonia), called 
by Homer Same {S,upj]) or Samos {~S.up.oc), the 
largest island in the Ionian Sea, separated from 
Ithaca on the east by a narrow channel, con 
tains 348 square miles. It is said to have tteeu 
originally inhabited by Taphians, and to have 
derived its name from the mythical Cephalus. 
Even in Homer its inhabitants are called Ce- 
phallenes, and are the subjects of Ulysses ; but 
the name Cephallenia first occurs in Herodotus. 
The island is very mountainous (iranraXoeooy) ; 
and the highest mountain, called iEnos, on 
which stood a temple of Jupiter (Zeus), rises 
more than four thousand feet above the sea. 
Cephallenia was a tetrapolis, containing the four 
towns Same, Pale, Cranii, and Proni. It 
never attained political importance. In the Per- 
sian wars the inhabitants of Pale are alone men- 
tioned. In the Peloponnesian war Cephallenia 
surrendered to the Athenians. Same ventured 
to oppose the Romans, but was taken by M. Ful- 
vius B.C. 189. In modern times the island was 
for a long while in possession of the Venetians, 
but is now one of the seven Iouian islauds un- 
der the protection of Great Britain. 

Cephalcedium (Ke<l>a?iOidiov : Cephaloedita- 
nus : now Cefali or Cephalu), a towD on the north- 
ern coast of Sicily, in the territory of Himera. 

Cephalus (KeQaXoc). 1. Son of Mercury 
(Hermes) and Herse, was carried off by Aurora 
(Eos), who became by him the mother of Titho- 
nus in Syria. — 2. Son of Deion and Diomede, 
and husband of. Proeris or Procne, daughter of 
Erechtheus, whom he tenderly loved. He was 
beloved by Aurora (Eos), but as he rejected her 
advances from love to his wife, she advised him 
to try the fidelity of Proeris. The goddess then 
metamorphosed him into a stranger, and sent 
him with rich presents to his house. Proeris 
was tempted by the brilliant presents to yield 
to the stranger, who then discovered himself to 
be her husband, whereupon she fled in shame 
to Crete. Diana (Artemis) made her a present 
of a dog and a spear, which were never to miss 
their object, aud then sent her back to Cepha- 
lus iu the disguise of a youth. In order to ob- 
tain this dog aud spear, Cephalus promised tc 
love the youth, who then made herself known 



CEPHEUS. 



CERCIDAS. 



to him .is his -wife Procris. This led to a rec- 
onciliation between them. Procris, however, 
still feared the love of Aurora (Eos,) and there- 
fore jealously watched Cephalus when he went 
out hunting, but on one occasion he killed her 
by accident with the never-erring spear. A 
somewhat different version of the same story 
is given by Ovid. {Met, vii., 685, seq.) Sub- 
sequently Cephalus fought with Amphitryon 
against the Teleboans, upon the conquest of 
whom he was rewarded with the island which 
he called after his own name Cephallenia. — 3. 
A Syracusan, and father of the orator Lysias, 
came to Athens at the invitation of Pericles. 
He is one of the speakers in Plato's Republic. 
— 4. An eminent Athenian orator of the Colly- 
tean demus, flourished B.C. 402. 

CErHEus (K^rfc). 1. King of ^Ethiopia, son 
of Belus, husband of Cassiepea, and father of 
Andromeda, was placed among the stars after 
his death. — 2. Son of Aleus and Neaera or Cle- 
obule, one of the Argonauts. He was king of 
Tegea in Arcadia, and perished, with most of 
his sons, in an expedition against Hercules. 

CephisIa or Cephissia (VLrjijiLG'ia more correct 
than KTjfiocia : KTjfpiaievg : now Kivisia), one 
of the twelve Cecropiau towns of Attica, and 
afterward a demus belonging to the tribe Ereeh- 
theis, northeast of Athens, on the western slope 
of Mount. Pentelicus. 

Cephisodorus (ULrjtyiaodupoc;). 1. An Athe- 
nian comic poet of the old comedy, flourished 
B.C. 402. [A few fragments of his comedies 
are given by Meinecke, Fragm. Com. Grcec, vol. 
i., p. 484-6.] — 2. An Athenian orator, a disci- 
ple of Isocrates, wrote an apology for Isocrates 
against Aristotle, entitled ai irpoc 'kpiGTOTe\r) 
avTiypafat. 

Cephisodotus (K^tpiGodoroc). 1. An Atheni- 
an general and orator, is mentioned on various 
occasions from B.C. 371 to 355. — 2. An Athe- 
nian sculptor, whose sister was the first wife 
of Phociou, flourished 372. He belonged to that 
younger school of Attic artists who had aban- 
doned the stern and majestic beauty of Phidias, 
and adopted a more animated and graceful 
style. — 3. An Athenian sculptor, usually called 
the Younger, a son of the great Praxiteles, 
flourished 300. 

Cepbisophon (Ki](j)Lao(j)C)v), a friend of Eurip- 
ides, is said not only to have been the chief 
uctor in his dramas, but also to have aided him 
with his advice in the composition of them. 

Cephisus or Cephissus (Kri<f>io6c, Knipioo-oc). 
1. (Now Mavronero), the chief river in Phocis 
and Bceotia, rises near Likea in Phocis, flows 
through a fertile valley in Phocis and Boeotia, 
aud falls into the Lake Copais, which is hence 
called Cephids in the Iliad (v., 709). Vid. Co- 
pais. — 2. The largest river in Attica, rises in 
Khe western slope of Mount Pentelicus, and 
flows past Athens on the west into the Saronic 
Gulf near Phalerum. — [3. Another river of At- 
tica, in the territory of Eleusis, called, for dis- 
tinction's sake, C. Eleusinius.] — 4. There was 
also a river of this name in Argolis, Salamis, 
Sicyouia, and Scyros. 

[^Cepi (KTjTTOi, i. e., the Gardens), a city of 
Asiatic Sarmatia, on the island formed by au 
arm of the River Anticites and the Ma;otis (now 
the island Tama.ii): it was a settlement of the 



Milesians, and probably called Kj/kol from ita 
pleasant situation. 

Cer (K?'/p), the personified necessity of death 
(K?jp or Kr/peg ■Savdroio). The Kypeg are de- 
scribed by Homer as formidable, dark and hate- 
ful, because they carry off men to the joyless 
house of Hades. According to Hesiod, they are 
the daughters of Nyx (Night) and sisters of the 
Mosras, and punish men for their crimes. 

Ceramus (# Kepauog : now Keramo), a Dorian 
seaport town on the northern side of the Cnid- 
ian Chersonesus, on the coast of Caria, from 
which the Ceramic Gulf(d KepapctKbs koXtvoc: 
now Gulf of Kos, or Golfo di Stanco) took its 
name. Vid. Caria. 

Cerasus (Kepaaovc : Kepaoovvrioc;) [ruins near 
Skefie ; the modern Kheresoun is the ancient 
Pharnacia, q. «.] : a flourishing colony of Sinope, 
on the coast of Poutus, at the mouth of a river of 
the same name ; chiefly celebrated as the place 
from which Europe obtained both the cherry 
and its name. Lucullus is said to have brought 
back plants of the cherry with him to Rome, 
but this refers probably only to some particular 
sorts, as the Romans seem to have had the tree 
much earlier. Cerasus fell into decay after the 
foundation of Pharnacia. 

Cerata (ra Kepara),»the Horns, a mountain 
on the frontiers of Attica and Megaris. 

Ceraunii Montes {Kepavvia bpr] : now Klum 
ara), a range of mountains extending from the 
frontier of Illyricum along the coast of Epirus, 
derived their name from the frequent thunder- 
storms which occurred among them (icepavvog). 
These mountains made the coast of Epirus 
dangerous to ships. They were also called Aero- 
ceraunia, though this name was properly ap- 
plied to the promontory separating the Adriatic 
aud Ionian Seas. The inhabitants of these 
mountains were called Ceraunii. 

Cerberus (KepCepog), the dog that guarded 
the entrance of Hades, is mentioned as early as 
the Homeric poems, but simply as "the dog," 
and without the name of Cerberus. (II., viii., 
368 ; Od., xi., 623.) Hesiod calls him a son of 
Typhaon and Echidna, and represents him with 
fifty heads. Later writers describe him as a 
monster with only three heads, with the tail of 
a serpent, and with serpents round his neck. 
Some poets, again, call him many-headed or 
hundred-headed. The den of Cerberus is usu- 
ally placed on the further side of the Styx, at 
the spot where Charon landed the shades of the 
departed. • 

Cercasorum, or -us, or -esura (KepKuaupog 
tt62.lc, Herod. : Kepaiaovpa, Strab. : now El-Ar- 
kas), a city of Lower Egypt, on the western bank 
of the Nile, at the point where the river divided 
into its three principal branches, the eastern 
or Pelusiac, the western or Canopic, and the 
northern between them. 

Cercet^e or -H (KepKerai, probably the Cir 
casdans), a people of Sarmatia Asiatica, beyond 
the Cimmerian Bosphorus, on the eastern coast 
of the Palus Maeotis (now Sea of Azov). 

Ceroetius, a mountain in Thessaly, part of 
the range of Pindus. 

[Ceroidas (KepiaSuc), a poet, philosopher, and 
legislator for his native city, Megalopolis. He 
I was a disciple of Diogenes, whose death he re- 
! corded in some Meliambic lines. He appears to 
191 



CERCINA. 



CETHEGUS, CORNELIUS. 



be the same person as Cereidas the ArcadiaD, 
who is mentioned by Demosthenes among those 
Greeks who, by their cowardice and corruption, 
enslaved their states to Philip.] 

CercIna and Cercinitis (KspKiva, KepKivlric : 
now Karkenah Is., Ramlah and Gherba) two low 
islands off the northern coast of Africa, in the 
mouth of the Lesser Syrtis, united by a bridge, 
and possessing a fine harbor. Cercina was the 
larger, and had on it a town of the same name. 

Ceecine (Kepic'ivri : now Kara-dagh), a mount- 
ain in Macedonia, between the Axius and Stry- 
mon, forming the boundary between Sintice and 
Pseonia. 

Cercinitis (KepKivlric), a lake in Macedonia, 
near the mouth of the Strymon, through which 
this river flows. 

Ceecisium, a town in Thessaly, on the Lake 
Bosbe'is. 

Cerco, Q. Lutatius, consul with A. Manlius 
Torquatus B.C. 241, in which year the first 
Punic war was brought to a close by the victory 
of C. Lutatius Catulus at the ^Egates. Cerco, 
in conjunction with his colleague, subdued the 
Falisci or people of Falerii, who revolted from 
the Romans. 

Cercopes (Kipnonec), droll and thievish 
gnomes, robbed Hercules in his sleep, and were 
taken prisoners by him, and either given to Om- 
phale, or killed, or set free again. Some placed 
them at Thermopylae (Herod., vii., 216) ; but the 
comic poem Cercopes, which bore the name of 
Homer, probably placed them at (Echalia in Eu- 
boea. Others transferred them to Lydia, or the 
islands called Pithecusae, which derived their 
name from the Cercopes who were changed into 
monkeys by Jupiter (Zeus) for having deceived 
him. 

Cercops (KspKUTp). 1. One of the oldest Or- 
phic poets, also called a Pythagorean, was the 
author of an epic poem " on the descent of Or- 
pheus to Hades." — 2. Of Miletus, the contem- 
porary and rival of Hesiod, is said to have been 
the author of an epic poem called -dSgimius, 
which is also ascribed to Hesiod. 

Cercyon (KepKvuv), son of Neptune (Posei- 
don) or Vulcan (Hephaestus), a cruel tyrant at 
Eleusis, put to death his daughter Alope, and 
killed all strangers whom he overcame in wrest- 
ling ; he was, in the end, conquered and slain by 
Theseus. 

Cerdylium (KepdvXtov) a small town in Mac- 
edonia, on the right bank of the Strymon, op- 
posite Amphipolis. 

Cerealis, Petilius. 1, Served under Vettius 
Bolanus, in Britain, A.D. 61 ; was one of the 
generals who supported the claim of Vespasian 
to the empire, 69 ; suppressed the revolt of Ci- 
vilis on the Rhine, 70 ; and was governor of 
Britain, 71, when he conquered a great part of 
the Brigantes. — [2. C. Anicius, consul designatus 
A..D. 65, proposed in the senate, after the detec- 
tion of Piso's conspiracy, that a temple should 
be built to Nero as quickly as possible at the 
public expense. Next year he fell under Ne- 
ro's suspicions, was condemned, and put him- 
self to death.] 

CereatjE, (now Cerretano), a town of the 
Herniei in Latium, between Sora and Anagnia. 

Ceres. Vid. Demetee. 

Cerilli (Cirella Vecchia), a town in Bruttium, 
192 



on the coast, a little south of the mouth of the 

Laus. 

Ceeinthus (Krjpivdoc), a town on the eastern 
coast of Eubcea, on the River Budorus. 

Ceune (Kepvri : Kepvalog : now probably Ar- 
guiri), an island off the western coast of Africa, 
to which the Phoenicians appear to have traded. 
Its position is uncertain, and Strabo even denied 
its existence. 

Ceeon, a fountain in Histiaeotis in Thessaly 
said to have made all the sheep black which 
drank of it. 

Cerretam, an Iberian people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, inhabited the modern Cerdagne 
in the Pyrenees, and were subsequently divid- 
ed into the two tribes of the Juliani and Augus- 
tani ; they were celebrated for their hams. 

_ Cersobleptes (KepcoStevTrie), son of Cotys, 
king of Thrace, on whose death, in B.C. 358, he 
inherited the kingdom in conjunction with Beri- 
sades and Amadocus, who were probably his 
brothers. As an ally of the Athenians, Cerso- 
bleptes became involved in war with Philip, by 
whom he was frequently defeated, and was at 
length reduced to the condition of a tributary. 
343. . 

Ceesus (Kepaoc : now JMerkes), a river of Ci- 
licia, flowing through the Pylaj Syro-Cilicia3, 
into the eastern side of the Gulf of Issus. 

[Certijia, a fortified town of the Celtiberi in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, captured by Tiberius 
Gracchus.] 

Certonium (Ksproviov), a town in Mysia, men- 
tioned only by Xenophon (Anab., vii., 8, § 8). 

Cervidius SovEvola. Vid. Sostvola. 

[Ceryjjites, a river of Achaia, flowing from 
the mountain Cerynea in Arcadia.] 

Ceryx (K?jpv£), an Attic hero, son of Mercury 
(Hermes) and Aglauros, from whom the priestly 
family of the Ceryces at Athens derived their 
origin. 

[Cestrine (Kearptv?)), a district of Epirus, 
said to have derived its name from Cestrinus, 
q. v.] 

[Cestrinus (Ksorplvoc), son of Hellenus and 
Andromache, succeeded his father in the sov- 
ereignty of Epirus.] 

Oestrus (Keorpoc : now Ak-su), a consider- 
able river of Pamphylia, flowing from the Tau- 
rus southward into the Mediterranean. It was 
navigable in its lower course at least as far as 
the city of Peige, which stood on its western 
bank, sixty stadia (ten geographical miles) above 
its mouth. 

Cetei (Krjrswi), a people of Mysia, the old in- 
habitants of the country about Pergamus, men- 
tioned by Homer (Od., xi., 521). Their name 
is evidently connected with that of the River 
Cetius. 

Cethegus, Cornelius, an ancient patrician 
family. They seem to have kept up an old 
fashion of wearing their arms bare, to which 
Lucan (ii., 543) alludes when he describes the 
associate of Catiline by the words cxsertiquc ma- 
ims vesana Cethegi. [Horace, however, by his 
cinctuti Cethegi (Ars Poet., 50), refers to the 
earlier members of the family.] 1. M., curule 
ccdile and pontifex maximus B.C. 213 ; praetor 
211, when he had the charge of Apulia; censor 
209, and consul 204. In the next year he com- 
mauded as proconsul in Cisalpine Gaul, whera 



CETIUS. 



OHALCEDON 



tie defeated Mago, brother of Hannibal. He 
died 196. His eloquence was rated very high, 
so that Ennius gave him the name of Suadce me- 
dulla, and Horace twice refers to him as an an- 
cient authority for the usage of Latin words 
{Epist, ii., 2, 116; Ars. Poet, 50).— 2. 'C, com- 
manded in Spain as proconsul 200 ; was sedile 
199; consul 197, when he defeated the Insu- 
brians and Cenomanians in Cisalpine Gaul ; and 
censor 194. — 3. P., curule asdile 187, prastor 185, 
and consul 181. The grave of Numa was dis- 
covered in his consulship. — 4. M., consul 160, 
when he drained a_part of the Pontine Marshes. 
— 5. P., a friend of Marius, proscribed by Sulla 
88, but in 83 went over to Sulla and was par- 
doned. — 6. 0., one of Catiline's crew, was a 
profligate from his early youth. When Catiline 
left Rome, 63, after Cicero's first speech, Cethe- 
gus stayed behind under the orders of Lentulus. 
His charge was to murder the leading senators ; 
but the tardiness .of Lentulus prevented any 
thing being done. Cethegus was arrested and 
condemned to death with the other conspira- 
tors. 

Cetius (Kyreioc), a small river of Mysia, flow- 
ing from the north through the district of Ela- 
itis, and falling into the Ca'icus close to Per- 
gamus. 

[Ceto (Kt]tu), daughter of Pontus and Gasa 
^Terra), wife of Phorcys ; mother of the Graeas 
and of the Gorgons.] 

Ceutrones or Centrones, a people in Gallia 
Belgica, dependentsd the Nervii. 

Ceyx (Kt}v!;), king of Trachys, husband of 
Alcyone. His death is differently related. Vid. 
Alcyone. He was the father of Hippasus, who 
fell fighting as the ally of Hercules. 

[Chaa (Xda : now Chaiappa), a city of Tri- 
phylian Elis, in the plain of ^Epasium : it was 
probably the $£«z of Homer (II., viL, 135). Vid. 
Pheia.J 

Chaboras. Vid. Aborrhas. 

Chabrias (XaCp'uzc), a celebrated Athenian 
general. In B.C. 392 he succeeded Iphicrates 
in the command of the Athenian forces at Cor- 
inth. In 388 he assisted Evagoras in Cyprus 
against the Persians. In 378 he was one of the 
commanders of the forces sent to the aid of 
Thebes against Agesilaus, when he adopted for 
the first time that mancEuvre for which he be- 
came so celebrated, ordering his men to await 
the attack with their spears pointed against the 
enemy and their shields resting on one knee. 
A statue was afterward erected at Athens to 
Chabrias in this posture. In 376 he gained an 
important victory off Naxos over the Lacedae- 
monian fleet under the command of Pollis. In 
361 he took the command of the naval force of 
Tachos, king of Egypt, who was in rebellion 
against Persia. In 358 he was sent as the 
Athenian commander in Thrace, but was com- 
pelled by Charidemus to make a peace unfavor- 
able to Athens. On the breaking out of the 
Social war in 357, Chabrias commanded the 
Athenian fleet. At the siege of Chios he sailed 
into the harbor before the rest of the fleet, and, 
when his ship was disabled, he refused to save 
his life by abandoning it, and fell fighting. 

Chorea, C. Cassh/s, tribune of the praeto- 
rian cohorts, formed the conspiracy by which 
the Emperor Caligula was slain, A.D. 41. Chae- 
13 



rea was put to death by Claudius upon his ac- 
cession. 

[Ch^erecrates (XaipeKpaTijc), a disciple of 
Socrates, who is well spoken of by Xenophon 
in an enumeration of those whose lives testi- 
fied to the excellence of the instruction of Soc 
rates (Mem., i., 2. § 48).] 

Ch^eremon (Xaip-ijfiuv). 1. One of the most 
celebrated of the later tragic poets at Athens, 
flourished B.C. 380. He is erroneously called 
a comic poet by some writers. There are three 
epigrams ascribed to Chasremon in the Greek 
Anthology. [The fragments of his plays have 
been collected and published by Bartsch, Mo 
gunt, 1843, 4to.] — 2. Of Alexandrea, a Stoic 
philosopher, chief librarian of the Alexandrean 
library, was afterward called to Rome, and be- 
came the preceptor of Nero, in conjunction with 
Alexander of .lEgae. He wrote a history of 
Egypt, on Hieroglyphics, on Comets, and a 
grammatical work. Martial (xi., 56) wrote an 
epigram upon him. [The fragments of Chae- 
remon are given by Miiller, Fragm. Hist. Grcec, 
vol. iii., p. 495-99.] 

ChjErephon (XaipeQcjv), a well-known dis- 
ciple of Socrates, was banished by the thirty 
tyrants, and returned to Athens on the restora- 
tion of democracy, B.C. 403. He was dead 
when the trial of Socrates took place, 399. 

[ChjErippus (XaLpnrirog), a Greek, a friend ol 
Cicero and his brother Quintus, whom he ac- 
companied to- his province of Asia.] 

Ch^eronea (XaipuvELa : Xaipovevc : now Ga- 
purna), the Homeric Arne according to Pausa- 
nias, a town in Boeotia on the Cephisus, near 
the frontier of Phoeis, memorable for the defeat 
of the Athenians by the Boeotians, B.C. 447, 
still more for Philip's victory over the Greeks, 
338, and for Sulla's victory over the army ol 
Mithradates, 86. Chasronea was the birth-place 
of Plutarch. Several remains of the ancient 
city are to be seen at Capurna, more particu- 
larly a theatre excavated in the rock, an aque- 
duct, and the marble lion (broken in pieces), 
which adorned the sepulchre of the Boeotians 
who fell at the battle of Chasronea. 

Chal^eum (XdXaiov : Xalatoc), a port-town • 
of the Locri Ozolae on the Crissaean Gulf, on 
the frontiers of Phoeis. 

Chalastra (XaXdurpa, in Herod. XaXearpri : 
XaXaarpaloc : now Culacia), a town in Mygdo- 
uia in Macedonia, at the mouth of the River 
Axius. 

Chalce, or -m, or -ia {XaXurj, XdXicai, XakKla 
XaXnaloc or -iT7]e : now Charki), an island of 
the Carpathian Sea, near Rhodes, with a town 
of the same name, and a temple of Apollo. 

Chaloedon (XahcqSuv, more correctly Ka^xy- 
S6v : Xafatydovwc; : ruins, now Chalkedon, Greek ; 
Kadi-Kioi, Turk.), a Greek city of Bithynia, on 
the coast of the Propontis at the entrance of the 
Bosporus, nearly opposite to Byzantium, was 
founded by a colony from Megara in B.C. 685. 
After a long period of independence (only in- 
terrupted by its capture by the Persians and its 
recovery by the Athenians), it became subject 
to the kings of Bithynia, and suffered by the 
transference of most of its inhabitants to the 
city of Nicomedia (B.C. 140). The Romans 
restored its fortifications, and made it the chief 
city of the province of Bithynia, or Pontica 
193 



CHALCIDICE. 



CHAONES. 



Prima, Afte; various fortunes under the em- 
pire, it was entirely destroyed by the Turks. 
T'.ie fourth oecumenical council of the Church 
met here, A.D. 451. 

Chalcidice (XalKiSiK.rj). 1. A peninsula, in 
Macedonia, between the Thennaic and Strymo- 
nic gulfs, runs out into the sea like a three-prong- 
ed fork, terminating in three smaller peninsulas, 
Pallene, Sithonia, and Acte or Athos. It de- 
rived its name from Chalcidian colonists. Vid. 
Chalcis, No. 1. — [2. A district of Syria. Vid. 
Chalcis, No. 3.] 

Chalcidius, a Platonic philosopher, who lived 
probably in the sixth century of the Christian 
era, translated into Latin the Timasus of Plato, 
on which he likewise wrote a voluminous com- 
mentary ; edited by Meursius, Leyden, 161*7, 
and by Fabricius, Hamburg, 1*718, at the end of 
the second volume of the works of Hippolytus. 

Chalcicectjs (Xa/UiotKOf), " the goddess of 
the brazen house," a surname of Minerva (Athe- 
na) at Sparta, from the brazen temple which she 
had in that city. 

Chalcis (Xa/l/ac : XalnidEve, Chalcidensis). 
1. (Now Egripo or Negroponte), the principal 
town of Euboea, situated on the narrowest part 
of the Euripus, and united with the main land by 
a bridge. It was a very ancient town, original- 
ly inhabited by Abantes or Curetes, and colo- 
nized by Attic Ionians under Cothus. Its flour- 
ishing condition at an early period is attested 
by the numerous colonies which it planted in 
various parts of the Mediterranean. It found- 
ed so many cities in the peninsula in Macedonia 
between the Strymonic and Thermaic Gulfs, that 
the whole peninsula was called Chalcidice. In 
Italy it founded Cumse, and in Sicily Naxos. 
Chalcis was usually subject to Athens during 
the greatness of the latter city, and afterward 
passed into the hands of the Macedonians, An- 
tiochus, Mithradates, and the Romans. It was 
a place of great military importance, as it com- 
manded the navigation between the north and 
south of Greece, and hence it was often taken 
and retaken by the different parties contending 
for the supremacy in Greece. The orator Isseu's 
and the poet Lycophron were born at Chalcis, 
and Aristotle died here. — 2. (Now Galatd), a 
town in iEtolia, at the mouth of the Evenus, 
situated at the foot of the mountain Chalcis, 
and hence also called Hypochalcis. — 3. (Now 
Kinnesrin, ruins), a city of Syria, in a fruitful 
plain, near the termination of the River Chalus ; 
the chief city of the district of Chalcidice, which 
lay to the east of the Orontes. — 4. A city of 
Syria, on the Belus, in the plain of Marsyas. 

Chalcocondyles, or, by contraction, Chal- 
condyles, Laonicus or Nicolads, a Byzantine 
historian, flourished A.D. 1446, and wrote a his- 
tory of the Turks and of the later period of the 
Byzantine empire, from the year 1298 down to 
the conquest of Corinth and the invasion of the 
Peloponnesus by the Turks in 1463, thus in- 
cluding the capture of Constantinople in 1453 ; 
edited by Fabrot, Paris, 1650. [It is also in- 
cluded in the new edition of the Byzantine his- 
torians, and edited by Imm. Bekker, Bonn, 
1843.] 

[Chalcodon (Xa/UwdW), king of the Abantes 
in Eubcea, father of Elpenor, and one of the 
suitors of Helen.] 
194 



[Chalcon (Xu'Xd.jv), a Myrmidon father of 
Bathyeles.] 

ChauxiEA (Xa\6ala : Xa/Wawo), in the nar- 
rower sense, was a province of Babylonia, about 
the lower course of the Euphrates, the border 
of the Arabian Desert, and the head of the Per- 
sian Gulf. It was intersected by numerous 
canals, and was extremely fertile. In a wider 
sense, the term is applied to the whole of Baby- 
lonia, and even to the Babylonian empire, on ac- 
count of the supremacy which the Chaldasans 
acquired at Babylon. Vid. Babylon. Xeno- 
phon mentions Chaldseans jn the mountains 
north of Mesopotamia ; and we have other 
statements respecting this people, from which 
it is very difficult to deduce a clear view of their 
early history. The most probable opinion is, 
that their original seat was in the mountains 
of Armenia and Kurdistan, whence they de- 
scended into the plains of Mesopotamia and 
Babylonia. Respecting the Chaldseans as the 
ruling class in the Babylonian monarchy, vid. 
Babylon. 

[Chalonitis (Xa7.uviTic), a district in the 
southeast of Assyria, around Mount Zagros, 
with a city called Chalet.] 

Chalus {XuXog : now Koweih), a river of 
Northern Syria, flowing south past Bercea and 
Chalcis, and terminating in a marshy lake. 

Chalybes (Xa/lnfief), a remai'kable Asiatio 
people, about whom we find various statements 
in the ancient writers. They are generally 
represented, both in the early poetic legends 
and in the historical period, as dwelling on the 
southern shore of the Black Sea, about The- 
miscrya and the Thermodon (and probably to a 
wider extent, for Herodotus clearly mentions 
them among the nations west of the Halys), 
and occupying themselves in the working of 
iron. Xenophon mentions Chalybes in the 
mountains on the borders of Armenia and Me 
sopotamia, who seem to be the same people 
that he elsewhere calls Chaldasans ; and sev- 
eral of the ancient geographers regarded the 
Chalybes and Chaldaei as originally the same 
people. 

Chalybon (XaXv66v. Old Testament Hel- 
bon,) a considerable city of Northern Syria, 
probably the same as Bercea. The district 
about it was called Chalybomtis. 

Chameleon (Xafiaiteuv), a Peripatetic phi- 
losopher of Heraclea on the Pontus, one of the 
immediate disciples of Aristotle, wrote works 
on several of the ancient Greek poets, and like- 
wise on philosophical subjects. 

Chamavi, a people in Germany, who were 
compelled by the Roman conquests to change 
their abodes several times. They first appear 
in the neighborhood of the Rhine, but afterward 
migrated east, defeated the Bructeri, and set- 
tled between the Weser and the Harz. At a 
later time they dwelt on the Lower Rhine, and 
are mentioned as auxiliaries of the Franks. 

Chaones (Xuofff), a Pelasgian people, one of 
the three communities which inhabited Epirus 
were at an early period in possession of the 
whole of the country, but subsequently dwelt 
along the coast from the River Thyamis to the 
Acroceraunian promontory, which district was 
therefore called Chaonia. By the poets Chao 
nim is used as equivalent to Epirot 



CHAOS. 



CHARIS. 



Chaos {Xdoc), the vacant and infinite space 
which existed, according to the ancient cosmog- 
onies, previous to the creation of the -world, and 
out of which the gods, men, and all things arose. 
Chaos was called the mother of Erebos and Nyx. 

Charadra (XapuSpa : Xapadpaioc). 1. A town 
in Phocis, on the River Charadrus, situated on 
an eminence, not far from Lilasa. — 2. A town in 
Epirus, northwest of Ambracia. — 3. A town in 
Massenia, built by Pelops. 

Charadrus (Xdpadpog). 1. A small river in 
Phocis, a tributary of the Cephisus. — 2. A small 
river in Argolis, a tributary of the Inaehus. — 3. 
A small river in Messenia, rises near (Echalia. 
— [4. A small stream of Achaia, near Argyre, 
now Velvitsi.] 

Charax (Xupaf), of Pergamus, an historian, 
wrote a work in forty books, called 'EXXtjviku, 
and another named Xpovatd. [The fragments 
of his works have been collected by Miiller, 
Fragm. Hist. Grcec, vol. iii., p. 636-45.] 

Charax (Xupaf , i. e., a ■palisaded camp : Xapa- 
Kijvoc), the name of several cities, which took 
their origin from military stations. The most re- 
markable of them stood at the* mouth of the Ti- 
gris. Vid. Alexandrea, No. 4. There were 
others, which only need a bare mention, in the 
Chersonesus Tauriea, in Northern Media, near 
Cekeuae in Phrygia, in Corsica, and on the Great 
Syrtis in Africa, and a few more. 

Charaxus (Xdpatjoc) of Mytilene, son of Sca- 
maudronymus and brother of Sappho, fell in 
love with Rhodopis. 

Chares (Xdpijc). 1. An Athenian general, 
who for a long series of years contrived by pro- 
fuse corruption to maintain his influence with 
the people, in spite of his very disreputable 
character. In B.C. 367 he was sent to the aid 
of the Phliasians, who were hard pressed by the 
Arcadians and Argives, and he succeeded in 
relieving them. In the Social war, after the 
death of Chabrias, 356, he had the command of 
the Athenian fleet along with Iphicrates and 
Timotheus. His colleagues having refused, in 
consequence of a storm, to risk an engagement, 
Chares accused them to the people, and they 
were recalled. Being now left in the sole com- 
mand, and being in want of money, he entered 
into the service of Artabazus, the revolted sa- 
trap of Western Asia, but was recalled by the 
Athenians on the complaint of Artaxerxes III. 
In the Olynthian war, 349, he commanded the 
mercenaries sent from Athens to the aid of 
Olynthus. In 340 he commanded the force 
sent to aid Byzantium against Philip; but he 
effected nothing, and was acccordingly super- 
seded by Phocion. In 338 he was one of the 
Athenian commanders at the battle of Chffiro- 
nea. When Alexander invaded Asia in 334, 
Chares was living at Sigeum ; and in 333 he 
commauded for Darius at Mytilene. — 2. Of Myt- 
ilene, an officer at the court of Alexander the 
Great, wrote a history of Alexander in ten 
books. [His fragments are given by Geier in 
his. Scriptores Hist. Alexandri, Lips., 1844, p. 
293-308.J— 3. Of Lindus in Rhodes, a statuary 
in bronze, the favorite pupil of Lysippus, flour- 
ished B.C. 290. His chief work was the statue 
of the Sun, which, under the name of " The 
Colossus of Rhodes," was celebrated as one of 
the seven wonders of the world. Its height j 



was upward of one hundred and five English 
feet ; it was twelve years in erecting, B.C. 292- 
280, and cost three hundred talents. It stood 
at the entrance of the harbor of Rhodes, but 
there is no authority for the statement that its 
legs extended over the mouth of the harbor. It 
was overthrown and broken to pieces by an 
earthquake fifty-six years after its erection, B. 
0. 224. The fragments remaiued on the ground 
eight hundred and ninety-six years, till they 
were sold by the general of the Calif Othman 
IV. to a Jew of Emesa, who carried them away 
on nine hundred camels, A.D. 672. 

Charicles (XapitcAtjc). 1. An Athenian dem- 
agogue, son of Apollodorus, was one of the 
commissioners appointed to investigate the af- 
fair of the mutilation of the Hermae, B.C. 415 ; 
was one of the commanders of the Athenian 
fleet, 413 ; and one of the thirty tyrants on the 
capture of Athens by Lysander, 404. — 2. An 
eminent physician at Rome, attended the Em- 
peror Tiberius. 

Chariclo (XapiK?i6). 1. A nymph, daughter 
of Apollo, wife of the Centaur Chiron, and moth- 
of Carystus and Oeyroe. — 2. A nymph, wife of 
Eueres and mother of Tiresias. 

Charidemus {Xapidripoc). 1. Of Oreus in Eu 
besa, of mean .origin, became the captaiu of a 
band of mercenaries, and served in this capa- 
city under the Athenian generals Iphicrates and 
Timotheus. He next entered the service of the 
satrap Artabazus, who had revolted against Ar- 
taxerxes HI., and subsequently of Cotys, king 
of Thrace, whose daughter he married. On the 
murder of Cotys, 358, Charidemus adhered to 
the cause of his son Cersobleptes, and on be- 
half of the latter carried on the struggle with 
the Athenians for the possession of the Cherso- 
nesus. In 349 he was appointed by the Atheni- 
ans commander in the Olynthian war, but next 
year was superseded and replaced by Chares. 
— 2. An Athenian, one of the orators whose sur- 
render was required by Alexander in B.C. 335, 
after the destruction of Thebes, fled to Asia, 
and took refuge with Darius, by whose orders 
he was put to death, 333, shortly before the bat- 
tle of Issus. 

Charilaus or Charillus (XapiXaog, XupcX- 
Xoc), king of Sparta, son of Polydectes, is said 
to have received his name from the general joy 
excited by the justice of his uncle Lycurgus 
when he placed him, yet a new-born infant, on 
the royal seat, and bade the Spartans acknowl- 
edge him for their king. He carried on war 
against Argos and Tegea ; he was taken pris- 
oner by the Tegeans, but was dismissed with- 
out ransom on giving a promise (which he did 
not keep) that the Spartans should abstain in 
future from attacking Tegea. 

Charis (Xuptc), the personification of Grace 
and Beauty. In the Iliad (xviii., 382) Charis 
is described as the wife of Vulcan (Hephaestus), 
but in the Odyssey Venus (Aphrodite) appears 
as the wife of Vulcan (Hephasstus), from which 
we may infer, if not the identity of Aphrodite 
and Charis, at least a close connection in the 
notions entertained about the two divinities. 
The idea of personified grace and beauty was 
at an early period divided into a plurality of be 
iugs, and even in the Homeric poems the plural 
Charites occurs several times. The Charites, 
195 



CHARISIUS. 



CHAUCI. 



ealled Gratia; by the Romans, are usually de- 
scribed as the daughters of Jupiter (Zeus), and 
as three in number, namely, Euphrosyne, Aglaia, 
and Thalia. The names of the Charites suffi- 
ciently express their character. They were the 
goddesses who enhanced the enjoyments of life 
by refinement and gentleness. They are most- 
ly described as in the service of other divini- 
ties, and they lend their grace and beauty to 
every thing that delights and elevates gods and 
men. The gentleness and gracefulness which 
they impart to man's ordinary pleasures are ex- 
pressed by their moderating the exciting in- 
fluence of wine (Hor., Carm., iii., 19, 15), and by 
their accompanying Venus (Aphrodite) and Cu- 
pid (Eros). Poetry, however, is the art which 
is especially favored by them, and hence they 
are the friends of the Muses, with whom they 
live together in Olympus. In early times the 
Charites were represented dressed, but after- 
ward their figures were always naked : speci- 
mens of both representations of the Charites 
are still extant. They appear unsuspicious 
maidens in the full bloom of life, and they usu- 
ally embrace each other. 

CharisIus. 1. Aurelius Arcadius, a Ro- 
man jurist, lived in the reign of Constantine 
the Great, and wrote three works, De Testibus, 
De Muneribus civilibus, and De Officio Prcefecti 
prcetorio, all of which are cited in the Digest. — 
2. Elavius Sosir-ATER, a Latin grammarian, who 
flourished A.D. 400, author of a treatise in five 
books, drawn up for the use of his son, entitled 
Institutiones Grammatical, which has come down 
to us in a very imperfect state. Edited by 
Putschius in Grammatical Latino; Auctores An- 
tigui, Hanov., 1605, and by Lindemanu, in Cor- 
pus Grammat. Latin. Veterum, Lips., 1840. 

Charites. Vid. Charis. 

Chariton (Xaplruv), of Aphrodisias, a town 
of Caria, the author of a Greek romance, in 
eight books, on the Loves of Chaereas and Cal- 
lirrhoe. The name is probably feigned (from 
Xuptc and 'A<ppod'iTn), as the time and position 
of the author certainly are. He represents him- 
self as the secretary of the orator Athenagoras, 
evidently referring to the Syracusan orator 
mentioned by Thucydides (vi., 35, 36) as the 
political opponent of Hermocrates. Nothing is 
known respecting the real life or the time of 
the author; but he probably did not live earlier 
than the fifth century after Christ. Edited by 
D'Orville, 3 vols., Amst., 1750, with a valuable 
commentary ; reprinted with additional notes 
by Beck, Lips., 1783. 

Charmande (Xapftavdn : near Haditha or Hit), 
a great city of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates. 

[Ch armadas, otherwise called Charmides. 
Vid. Charmides, No. 2.] 

Charmides (Xapfiid-qc). 1. An Athenian, son 
of Glaucon, cousin to Critias, and uncle by the 
mother's side to Plato, who introduces him in 
the dialogue which bears his name as a very 
young man at the commencement of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. In B.C. 404 he was one of the 
Ten, and was slain fighting against Thrasybu- 
lus at the Piraeus. — 2. Called also Charmadas 
by Cicero, a friend of Philo of Larissa, in con- 
junction with whom he is said by some to have 
been the founder of a fourth academy. He 
flourished B.C. 100. 

196 



I [Charmtnus (Xapfilvoc), a naval commander 
of the Athenians, who was defeated by the 
Spartan admiral Astyochus near Syme, B.C. 
411, with a loss of six ships. — 2. A Lacedaemo- 
nian, was sent by Thibron, the Spartan harmost 
in Asia, to the Greeks who had served under 
Cyrus, then at Selymbria and in the service of 
Seuthes, to induce them to enter the Lacedaemo- 
nian service against Persia, B.C. 399.] 

Charon (Xupoiv). 1. Son of Erebos, con- 
veyed in his boat the shades of the dead across 
the rivers of the lower world. For this service 
he was paid with an obolus or danace, which 
coin was placed in the mouth of every corpse 
previous to its burial. He is represented as an 
aged man with a dirty beard and a mean dress. 
— 2. A distinguished Theban, concealed Pe- 
lopidas and his fellow-conspirators in his house 
when they returned to Thebes with the view of 
delivering it from the Spartans, B.C. 379. — 3 
An historian of Lampsacus, flourished B.C. 464, 
and wrote works on ^Ethiopia, Persia, Greece, 
<fec, the fragments of which are collected by 
Miiller, Fragm. Histor. Grmc, vol. i., p. 32-35, 
Paris, 1841. * 

Charondas (Xapuvdac), a law-giver of Catana, 
who legislated for his own and the other cities 
of Chalcidian origin in Sicily and Italy. His 
date is uncertain. He is said by some to have 
been a disciple of Pythagoras ; and he must 
have lived before the time of Anaxilans, tyrant 
of Rhegium, B.C. 494-476, for the Rhegians 
used the laws of Charondas till they were abol- 
ished by Anaxilaus. The latter fact sufficiently 
refutes the common account that Charondas 
drew up a code of laws for Thurii, since this 
city was not founded till 443. A tradition re- 
lates that Charondas one day forgot to lay aside 
his sword before he appeared in the assembly, 
thereby violating one of his own laws, and that, j 
on being reminded of this by a citizen, he ex- 
claimed, " By Zeus, I will establish it," and im- 
mediately stabbed himself. The laws of Cha- 
rondas were probably in verse. 

Charops (Xtipotp). 1. A chief among the 
Epirots, sided with the Romans in their war j 
with Philip V., B.C. 198.— 2. A grandson of the 1 
above. He received his education at Rome, 
and after his return to his own country adhered 
to the Roman cause ; but he is represented by 
Polybius as a monster of cruelty. He died at 
Brundisium, 157. — [3. Son of the Trojan Hip- 
pasus, slain by Ulysses. — 4. Son of an ^Eschy- 
lus, who was the first decennial arehon in Ath- 
ens, B.C. 752.] 

Charybdis. Vid. Sotlla. 

Chasuari, or Chasuarii, or Chattuarh, a 
people of Germany, allies or dependents of the 
Cherusci. Their position is uncertain. They 
dwelt north of the Chatti ; and in later times 
they appear between the Rhine and the Maas 
as a part of the Franks. 

Chatti. Vid. Catti. 

Chauci or Cauci, a powerful people in the 
northeast of Germany, between the Amisia (now 
JSms) and the Albis (now Elbe), divided by the 
Visurgis (now Weser), which flowed through 
their territory, into Majores and Minores, the 
former west and the latter east of that river. 
They fire described by Tacitus as the noblest 
arid the justest of the German tribes. They 



CHELIDON. 



CHIMERA. 



formed an alliance with the Romans A.D. 5, and 
assisted the latter in their wars against the Che- 
rusci ; but this alliance did not last long. They 
were at war with the Romans in the reigns of 
Claudius and Nero, but were never subdued. 
They are mentioned for the last time in the 
third century, when they devastated Gaul, but 
their name subsequently became merged in the 
general name of Saxons. 

Chelidon, the mistress of C. Verres, often 
mentioned by Cicero. 

Chelidonis (XeAidowc), wife of Cleonymus, 
to whom she proved unfaithful in consequence 
of a passion for Acrotatus, son of Areus L 

ChelidonLe Insula (Ke2.i36viai vjjaoi : now 
Khelidoni), a group of five (Strabo only mentions 
three) small islands, surrounded by dangerous 
shallows, off the promontory called Hiera or 
Chelidouia (now Khelidoni), on the southern 
coast of Lycia. 

Chelonatas {XeTiovdrac : now Cape Tomese), 
a promontory in Elis, opposite Zacynthus, the 
most westerly point of the Peloponnesus. 

Chemmis, afterward Panopolis (X£/ifiic, Tla- 
v6iro?uc : Xe/ifihjic : ruins at Ekhmim). 1. A 
great city of the Thebais, or Upper Egypt, on 
the eastern bank of the Nile, celebrated for its 
manufacture of linen, its stone-quarries, and its 
temples of Pan and Perseus. It was the birth- 
place of the poet Nonnus. — [2. An island in a 
deep lake near the city Buto, in Lower Egypt, 
containiug a spacious temple of Apollo. He- 
rodotus, in speaking of it, says that the Egyp- 
tians told him that it was a floating island, but 
that he, for his part, never saw it float about 
or even move.] 

Chenoboscia (Xqvo6oaicla : ruins at Kasees- 
Said), a city of Upper Egypt, on the right bank 
of the Nile, opposite Diospolis Parva. 

Cheops (Xeo^), an early king of Egypt, god- 
less and tyrannical, reigned fifty years, and 
built the first and largest pyramid by the com- 
pulsory labor of his subjects. 

Chephren (Xe<pp?jv), king of Egypt, brother 
and successor of Cheops, whose example of 
tyranny he followed, reigned fifty-six years, and 
built the second pyramid. The Egyptians so 
hated the memory of these brothers, that they 
called the pyramids, not by their name, but by 
that of Philition, a shepherd who at that time 
fed his flocks near the place. 

Chersiphron (Xepatfpuv) or Ctesiphon, an 
architect of Cnosus in Crete, in conjunction 
with his son Metagenes, built, or commenced 
building, the great temple of Diana (Artemis) 
at Ephesus. He flourished B.C. 560. 

Chersonesus {Xepabv^aoc, Att. Xep'p'bvnaoc), 
" a land-island," that is, " a peninsula" (from 
Xspaoi, "land," and v?/ooc, "island"). 1. Ch. 
Thracica (now Peninsula of the Dardanelles or 
of Gallipoli), usually called at Athens " The 
Chersonesus" without any distinguishing epi- 
thet, the narrow slip of land, four hundred and 
twenty stadia in length, running between the 
Hellespont and the Gulf of Melas, and connect- 
ed with the Thracian main land by an isthmus, 
which was fortified by a wall thirty-six stadia 
across, near Cardia. The Chersonese was col- 
onized by the Athenians under Miltiades, the 
contemporary of Pisistratus. — 2. Taurica or 
Soythioa (now Crimea), the peninsula between 



the Pontus Euxinus, the Cimmerian Bosporus 
and the Palus Masotis, united to the main land 
by an isthmus forty stadia in width. The an- 
cients compared this peninsula with the Pelo- 
ponnesus both in form and size. It produced a 
great quantity of com, which was exported to 
Athens and other parts of Greece. The east- 
ern part of the peninsula was called Tpnxiri or 
the Rugged (Herod., iv., 99). Respecting the 
Greek kingdom established in this country, see 
Bosporus. There was a town on the south- 
ern coast of this peninsula called Chersonesus, 
founded by the inhabitants of the Pontic Hera- 
clea, and situated on a small peninsula, called 
?; fuicpu Xep., to distinguish it from the larger, 
of which it formed a part. — 3. Cimbrica (now 
Jutland). Vid. Cimbri. — [4. Chersonesus Au- 
rea. Vid. Aurea Chersonesus.] — 5. (Now 
Cape Chersonisi), a promontory in Argolis, be- 
tween Epidaurus and TrcE-zen. — 6. (Now Cher- 
soneso), a town in Crete, on the Promontory 
Zephyrium, the harbor of Lyctus in the interior. 

Cherusoi, the most celebrated of all the 
tribes of ancient Germany. The limits of their 
territory cannot be fixed with accuracy, since 
the ancients did not distinguish between the 
Cherusci proper and the nations belonging to 
the league, of which the Cherusci were at the 
head. The Cherusci proper dwelt on both sides 
of the Visurgis (now Weser), and their territo- 
ries extended to the Harz and the Elbe. They 
were originally in alliance with the Romans, 
but they subsequently formed a powerful league 
of the German tribes for the purpose of expell- 
ing the Romans from the country, and under 
the chief Arminius they destroyed the army of 
Varus and drove the Romans beyond the Rhine, 
A.D. 9. In consequence of internal dissensions 
among the German tribes the Cherusci soon lost 
their influence. Their neighbors, the Catti, 
succeeded to their power. 

Chesium (Xt/giov), a promontory of Samos, 
with a temple of Diana (Artemis), who was 
worshipped here under the surname of Xnaiac. 
Near it was a little river Chesius, flowing past 
a town of the same name. 

Chilon (Xuluv, Xi/l&w.) 1. Of Laceda^mon, 
son of Damagetus, and one of the Seven Sages, 
flourished B.C. 590. It is said that he died of 
joy when his son gained the prize for boxing 
at the Olympic games. The institution of the 
Ephoralty is erroneously ascribed by some to 
Chilon. — [2. A Spartan of the royal house of 
the Eurypontids, who, on the death of Cleome- 
nes III, being passed over in the selection of 
king, excited a revolution and slew the ephori ; 
but, the people not sustaining him, he was com- 
pelled to take refuge in Achaia.] 

Chimera (Xiuaipa), a fire-breathing monster, 
the fore part of whose body was that of a lion, 
the hind part that of a dragon, and the middle 
that of a goat. According to Hesiod, she was a 
daughter of Typhaon and Echidna, and had three 
heads, one of each of the tb/ee animals before 
mentioned. She made great havoc in Lycia 
and the surrounding countries, and was at 
length killed by Bellerophon. Virgil places her, 
together with other monsters, at the entrance 
of Oreus. The origin of the notion of this fire 
breathing monster must probably be sought for 
in the volcano of the name of Chimsera, near 
197 



CHIMERION. 



CHOARENE. 



Phaselis, in Lycia. In the works of art recent- 
ly discovered in Lycia, we find several repre- 
sentations of the Chimsera in the simple form 
of a species of lion still occurring in that country. 

Chimerion, a promontory and harbor of Thes- 
protia in Epirus. 

Chion (Xtuv), of Heraelea on the Pontus, a 
disciple of Plato, put to death Clearchus, the 
tyrant of his native town, and was in conse- 
quence killed, B.C. 353. There are extant 
thirteen letters which are ascribed to Chion, 
but which are undoubtedly of later origin. Ed- 
ited by Coberus, Lips., and Dresd., 1*7 65, and by 
Orelli, in his edition of Memnon, Lips., 1816. 

Chione (XiovTj). 1. Daughter of Boreas and 
Orithyia, became by Neptune (Poseidon) the 
mother of Eumolpus. — 2. Daughter of Dseda- 
lion, beloved by Apollo and Mercury (Hermes), 
gave birth to twins, Autolycus and Philammon, 
the former a son of Mercury (Hermes) and the 
latter of Apollo. She was killed by Diana (Ar- 
temis) for having compared her beauty to that 
of the goddess. 

Chionides (XcoviSric and XioviSt/c), an Athe- 
nian poet of the old comedy, flourished B.C. 
460, and was the first poet who gave the Athe- 
nian comedy that form which it retained down 
to the time of Aristophanes. [His fragments 
are given by Meineke, Comic Graze. Fragm., 
vol. i., p. 3-5, edit, minor. 

Chios (Xtoc : Xtoc, Chlus : now Greek Khio, 
Italian Scio, Turkish Saki-Andassi, i. e., Mastic- 
island), one of the largest and most famous 
islands of the ^Egean, lay opposite to the pen- 
insula of Clazomense, on the coast of Ionia, 
and was reckoned at nine hundred stadia (nine- 
ty geographical miles) in circuit. Its length 
from north to south is about thirty miles, its 
greatest breadth about ten, and the width of 
the strait, which divides it from the main land, 
about eight. It is said to have borne, in the 
earliest times, the various names of iEthalia, 
Macris, and Pityusa, and to have been inhab- 
ited by Tyrrhenian Pelasgians and Leleges. It 
was colonized by the Ionians at the time of 
their great migration, and became an import- 
ant member of the Ionian league ; but its pop- 
ulation was mixed. It remained an independ- 
ent and powerful maritime state, under a demo- 
cratic ibrm of government, till the great naval 
defeat of the Ionian Greeks- by the Persians, 
B.C. 494, after which the Chians, who had 
taken part in the fight with one hundred ships, 
were subjected to the Persians, and their island 
was laid waste and their young women carried 
off into slavery. The battle of Mycale, 479, 
freed Chios from the Persian yoke, and it be- 
came a member of the Athenian league, in 
which it was for a long time the closest and 
most favored ally of Athens ; but an unsuccess- 
ful attempt to revolt, in 412, led to its conquest 
and devastation. It recovered its independence, 
with Cos and Rhodes, in 358, and afterward 
shared the fortunes of the other states of Ionia. 
Chios is covered with rocky mountains, clothed 
with the richest vegetation. It was celebrated 
for its wine, which was among the best known 
to tlje ancients, its figs, gum-mastic, and other 
natural products, also for its marble and pottery, 
and for the beauty of its women, and the lux- 
urious life of its inhabitants. Of all the states 
198 



which aspired to the honor of being the birth- 
place of Homer, Chios [alone, with any plausi- 
bility, contested the claim with Smyrna, though 
the latter is generally considered by modern 
critics to have the best claim : Vid. Hoherus ;] 
and it numbered among its natives the trage- 
dian Ion, the historian Theopompus, the poet 
Theocritus, and other eminent men. Its chief 
city, Chios (now Khio), stood on the eastern side 
of the island, at the foot of its highest mountain, 
Pelinasus : the other principal places in it were 
Posidium, Pbanse, Notium, Elseus, and Leuco- 
nium. 

Chirisophus (Xeipioofoc), a Lacedaemonian, 
was sent by the Spartans to aid Cyrus in his 
expedition against his brother Artaxerxes, B.C. 
401. After the battle of Cunaxa and the sub- 
sequent arrest of the Greek generals, Chiriso- 
phus was appointed one of the new generals, 
and, in conjunction with Xenophon, had the 
chief conduct of the retreat. 

Chiron (Xeipav), the wisest and justest of all 
the Centaurs, son of Saturn (Cronos) and Phily- 
ra, and husband of Nais or Cbariclo, lived on 
Mount Pelion. He was instructed by Apollo 
and Diana (Artemis), and was renowned for his 
skill in hunting, medicine, music, gymnastics, 
and the art of prophecy. All the most distin- 
guished heroes of Grecian story, as Peleus, 
Achilles, Diomedes, &c, are described as the 
pupils of Chiron in these arts. His friendship 
with Peleus, who was his grandson, is particu- 
larly celebrated. Chiron saved him from the 
other Centaurs, who were on the point of killing 
him, and he also restored to him the sword 
which Acastus had concealed. Chiron further 
informed him in what manner he might gain 
possession of Thetis, who was destined to marry 
a mortal. Hercules, too, was his friend ; but 
one of the poisoned arrows of this hero was 
nevertheless the cause of his death. While 
fighting with the other Centaurs, one of the 
poisoned arrows of Hercules struck Chiron, 
who, although immortal, would not five any 
longer, and gave his immortality to Prometh 
eus. According to others, Chiron, in looking at 
one of the arrows, dropped it on his foot, and 
wounded himself. Jupiter (Zeus) placed Chiron 
among the stars. 

Chitone (Xctuvt/), a surname of Diana (Arte- 
mis), derived either from the Attic demus of 
Chitone, or because the goddess is represented 
with a short chiton. 

Chloe (XTiorj), the Blooming, a surname of 
Ceres (Demeter) as the protectress of the green 
fields : hence Sophocles ((Ed. Col, 1600) calls 
her l\rjfi7jT7ip evx^ooc. 

[Chloreus, a priest of Cybele, followed jEneas 
from Troy into Italy, and was slain by Turnus.] 

Chloris (XXupic). 1. Daughter of the The- 
ban Amphion and Niobe : she and her brother 
Amyelas were the only children of Niobe not 
killed by Apollo and Diana (Artemis). She is 
often confounded with No. 2. — 2. Daughter of 
Amphion of Orchomenos, wife of Neleus, king 
of Pylos, and mother of Nestor. — 3. Wife of 
Zephyrus, and goddess of flowers, identical with 
the Roman Flora. 

Choarene {Xoapi)vr)), a fertile valley in the 
west of Parthia, on the borders of Media, be- 
tween two ranges of the Caspii Montes 



CHOASPES. 



CHRYSOGONUS. 



Choaspes (Xouoktic). Now Kerah or Ka- 
ra-Su), a river of Susiana, falling into the Tigris. 
Its water was so pure that the Persian kings 
used to cany it with them in silver vessels 
when on foreign expeditious. It is wrongly 
identified by some geographers with the EuiuE- 
0S- — 2. (Now Attoch), a river in the Paropamisus, 
falling into the Cophes (now Cabul), apparently 
identical with the Suastus of Ptolemy and the 
Guraus of Arrian ; and if so, the Choes of Arrian 
is probably the Kama ; but the proper naming 
of these rivers is very difficult. 

Chcsrades (Xoipddcc), two small rocky islands 
off the coast of Italy, near Tarentum. 

Chcbrilus (XoipiXog or XoipiXXog). 1. Of 
Athens, a tragic poet, contemporary with Thes- 
pis, Phrynichus, and iEschylus, exhibited trage- 
dies for forty years, B.C. 523-483, and gained 
the prize thirteen times. — 2. Of Samos, the au- 
thor of an epic poem on the Persian wars : the 
chief action of the poem appears to have been 
the battle of Salamis. He was born about 470, 
and died at the court of Archelaus, king of Ma- 
cedonia, consequently not later than 399, which 
was the last year of Archelaus. [The frag- 
ments of Chcerilus are given by Make, Ghoerili 
Sumii Fragmenta, Lips., 1817.] — 3. Of Iasos, a 
worthless epic poet in the train of Alexander the 
Great, is said to have received from Alexander a 
gold stater for every verse of his poem. (Hor., 
JSp., ii., 1, 232 ; Art. Poet, 357.) 

Choes. Vid. Choaspes, No. 2. 

Chollim; (XoXXeldai or Xo?Mdat : XoIXeiSt/c, 
-idrjg), a demus iu Attica belonging either to the 
tribe Leontis or Acamantis. 

Chonia (Xuv'ia), the name in early times of 
a district in the south of Italy, inhabited by the 
Chones (Xuvef), an OEnotrian people, who de- 
rived their name from the town of Chone 
{Xwvrj). Chonia appears to have included the 
southeast of Lucania, and the whole of the 
east of Bruttium as far as the promontory Ze- 
pliyi-ium. 

Chorasmii (Xupdafiioi), a people of Sogdiana, 
who inhabited the banks and islandsi of the lower 
course of the Oxus. They were a branch of the 
Saeas or Massagetse. 

Chosroes. 1. King of Parthk. Vid. Arsa- 
ces, No. 25. — 2. King of Persia. Vid. Sassani- 

J)M. 

[Celromis (Xpofug), son of Midon, was, with 
Eunomus, leader of the Mysians in the Trojan 
war. Three or four other persons of this name 
are mentioned in the iEneid of Virgil and in 
Ovid.] 

[Chromius (Xpofi'iog). 1. Son of Neleus and 
Chloris ; slain by Hercules. — 2. Son of Priam, 
slain, together with his brother Echomon, by 
Diomedes. — 3. Son of Agesidamus, a Syracusan, 
conqueror at the Nemean games. Two or three 
other persons of this name of no importance are 
mentioned in the Iliad.] 

Chrysa or -e {Xpvaa, -rf), a city on the coast 
of the Troad, near Thebes, with a temple of 
Apollo Smintheus ; celebrated by Homer, but 
destroyed at an early period, and succeeded by 
another city of the same name, on a height 
further from the sea, near Hamaxitos. This 
second city fell into decay in consequence of 
the removal of its inhabitants to Alexandrea 
Teoas. 



Chrtsastas (Xpvadvrac), described by Xeno- 
phon in the Cyropaadia as a brave and wise Per- 
sian, high in the favor of Cyrus, who rewarded 
him with the satrapy of Lydia and Ionia. 

[Chrysanthis (Xpvoavdig), an Argive female, 
who informed Ceres, when she came to Argos, of 
the abduction of her daughter.] 

Chrysaor (Xpvadop), 1. Sou of Neptune 
(Poseidon) and Medusa, husband of Calbxrhoe, 
and father of Geryones and Echidna. — 2. The god 
(or goddess) with the golden sword, a surname of 
several divinities, as Apollo, Diana (Artemis), and 
Ceres (Demeter). 

Chrysas (Xpvcag: now Dittaino), a small 
river in Sicily, an affluent of the Symosthus, was 
worshipped as a god in Assorus, in the neigh- 
borhood of which there was a Fanum Chrysce. 

Chryseis (Xpvaritg), daughter of Chryses, priest 
of Apollo at Chrysa, was taken prisoner by 
Achilles at the capture of Lyrnessus or the Hy- 
poplacian Thebe. In the distribution of the booty 
she was given to Agamemnon. Her father Chry- 
ses came to the camp of the Greeks to solicit her 
ransom, but was repulsed by Agamemnon with 
harsh words. Thereupon Apollo sent a plague 
into the camp of the Greeks, and Agamemnon 
was obliged to restore her to her father to ap- 
pease the anger of the god. Her proper name 
was Astynome. 

Chryses. Vid. Chryseis. 

Chrysippus (Xpvanrirog). 1. Son of Pelops 
and Axioehe, was hated by his step-mother Hip- 
podamia, who induced her sons Atreus and Thy- 
estes to kill him. — 2. A Stoic philosopher, son 
of Apollonius of Tarsus, born at Soli in Cilicia, 
B.C. 2 BO. When young, he lost his paternal 
property and went to Athens, where he became 
the disciple of the Stoic Cleanthes. Disliking 
the Academic skepticism, he became one of the 
most strenuous supporters of the principle that 
knowledge is attainable and may be established 
on certain foundations. Hence, though not the 
founder of the Stoic school, he was the first per- 
son who based its doctrines on a plausible sys- 
tem of reasoning, so that it was said, " if Chry- 
sippus had not existed, the Forch could not 
have been." He died 207, aged seventy-three. 
He possessed great aeuteness and sagacity, and 
his industry was so great that he is said to have 
seldom written less than . five hundred lines a 
day, and to have left behind him seven hundred 
and five works. [His fragments have been col- 
lected by Baguet, Be Chrysippi vita et reliquiis, 
Lovanii, 1822, 4to.] — 3. OfCnidos, a physician, 
sometimes confounded with the Stoic philoso- 
pher, but he lived about a century earlier. He 
was son of Erineus, and pupil of Eudoxus of 
Cnidos : his works, which are not now extant, 
are quoted by Galen. — [4. A learned freedman 
of Cicero, who ordered him to attend upon his 
son in B.C. 52 ; but as he left young Marcus 
without the knowledge of his patron, Cicero de- 
termined to declare his manumission void. He 
afterward appears, however, to have been in 
favor again with his patron. 5. A freedman of 
the architect Cyrus, and himself also an archi- 
tect.] 

Chrysoceras, the " Golden Horn," the prom- 
ontory on which part of Constantinople was 
built. 

Chrysoqontjs, L. Cornelius, a favorite freed- 
199 



CHRTSOPOLIS. 



CICERO, TULLIUS. 



man of Sulla, and a man of profligate character, 
was the false accuser of Sextus Roscius, whom 
Cicero defended, B.C. 80. 

Cheysopolis (XpvaoiToXic . now Scutari) a for- 
tified place on the Bosporus, opposite to Byzan- 
tium, at the spot where the Bosporus was gener- 
ally crossed. It was originally the port of Chal- 
cedon. 

Chrysoerhoas (Xpvaop'p'oac : now Barrada), 
also called Baemnes, a river of Coele-Syria, flow- 
ing from the eastern side of Anti-Libanus, past 
Damascus, into a lake now called Bahr-el-Merj. 

Chey'sostomus, Joannes (Xpvcoarofioc, "gold- 
en-mouthed," so surnamed from the power of 
his eloquence,) usually called St. Chrysostom, 
was born at Antioch, of a noble family, A.D. 
347. He received instruction in eloquence from 
Libanius; and after being ordained deacon (381) 
and presbyter (386) at Antioch, he became so 
celebrated as a preacher that he was chosen 
archbishop of Constantinople on the death of 
Nectarius, 397. Chrysostom soon gave great 
offence at Constantinople by the simplicity of 
his mode of living, by the sternness with which 
he rebuked the immorality of the higher classes, 
and by the severity which he showed to the 
worldly-minded monks and clergy. Among his 
enemies was the Empress Eudoxia ; and they 
availed themselves of a dispute which had 
arisen between Chrysostom and Theophilus, 
patriarch of Alexandrea, to accuse Chrysostom 
of Origenism, and to obtain his deposition by a 
synod held at Chalcedon in 403. But the same 
causes which had brought on Chrysostom the 
hatred of the higher orders had made him the 
idol of the people. A few days after he had left 
the city, an earthquake happened, which the 
enraged people considered as a proof of the di- 
vine anger at his banishment. Eudoxia, fear- 
ing a popular insurrection, recalled him, but two 
months after his return he again excited the 
anger of the empress, and was banished a sec- 
ond time to the desolate town of Cueusus on 
the borders of Isauria and Cilicia. He met with 
much sympathy from other churches, and his 
cause was advocated by Innocent, bishop of 
Rome ; but all this excited jealousy at Constan- 
tinople, and he was ordered to be removed to 
Pityus in Pontus. He died on the journey at 
Comana in Pontus, 407, in the sixtieth year of 
his age. His bones were brought back to Con- 
stantinople in 438, and he received the honor of 
canonization. His works are most volumiuous. 
They consist of, 1. Homilies, Sermons on differ- 
ent parts of Scripture and points of doctrine and 
practice. 2. Commentaries on the Scriptures. 3. 
Epistles. 4. Treatises on various subjects, e. g., 
the Priesthood, Providence, <fec. 5. Liturgies. 
The best edition of his works is by Montfaucon, 
Paris, 1718-38, 13 vols, folio: [reprinted Paris, 
1835-40, 13 vols, royal 8vo.] 

[Cheysothemis (Xpvo-ode/uc), a daughter of 
Agamemnon, offered by him in marriage to 
Achilles to bring about a reconciliation.] 

Chthonius (Xdovwc) and Chthonia (Xdov'ca), 
epithets of the gods and goddesses of the lower 
world (from %6uv, " the earth"), as Hades, Hec- 
ate, Demeter, Persephone, &c. 

Chytei (Xvrpoi). 1. (Now Chytri,) a town in 
Cyprus, on the road from Cerynia to Salamis. — 
2. Warm springs at Salamis. 
200 



Ciaca, a border fortress of the Romans in Les 
ser Armenia. 

Cibal^ or Cibalis, a town in Pannonia, on tha 
Lake Hiuleas, between the Dravus and Savus^ 
near which Constantine gained a decisive victory 
over Licinius, A.D. 314: the birth-place of Val- 
entinian and Gratian. 

Cibotus. Vid. Alexandeea, No. 1 ; Apaiiea, 
No. 3. 

Cibyra (K'dvpa : Ki6vpuT7j^ : now Cibyratd), 
1. Magna (f/ fie-ydXr/ : ruins at Buruz or Aron- 
don ?), a great city of Phrygia Magna, in the fer- 
tile district of Milyas, on the borders of Caria, 
said to have been founded by the Lydians, but 
afterward peopled by the Pisidians. In Strabo's 
time four native dialects were spoken in it be- 
sides Greek, namely, those of the Lydians, the 
Pisidians, the Milyre, and the Solymi. Under 
its native princes, the city ruled over a large 
district called Cibyratis ( Ki6vparig), and could 
send into the field an army of thirty thousand 
men. In B.C. 83 it was added to the Roman 
empire, and was made the seat of a conventus 
juridicus. After being nearly destroyed by an 
earthquake, it was restored by Tiberius, under 
the names Cresarea and Civitas Cibyratica. 
The city was very celebrated for its manufac- 
tures, especially in iron. — 2 Paeva (K. jitKpd : 
now Iburd), a city of Pamphylia, on the borders 
of Cilicia. 

Ciceeeius, C, secretary of the elder Scipio 
Africanus, was a candidate for the preetorship, 
B.C. 174, along with Scipio's son, but resigned 
in favor of the latter. He was prastor in the 
following year, and conquered the Corsicans, but 
was refused a triumph. In 172 and 167 he was 
one of the ambassadors sent to the Illyrian king 
Gentius, and in 168 he dedicated on the Alban 
Mount a temple to Juno Moneta. 

Ciceeo, Tuixius. 1. M., grandfather of the 
orator, lived at his native town Arpinum, which 
received the full Roman franchise in B.C. 188. 
— 2. M., son of No. 1, also lived at Arpinum, and 
died 64. — 3. L, brother of No. 2. was a friend 
of Marcus Antonius the orator. — 4. L., son of 
No. 3, school-fellow of the orator, died 68, much 
regretted by his cousin. — -5. M., the orator, eld- 
est son of No. 2 and Helvia, was born on the 
third of January, B.C. 106, at the family resi- 
dence in the vicinity of Arpinum. He was edu- 
cated along with his brother Quintus, and the 
two brothers displayed such aptitude for learn- 
ing that his father removed with them to Rome, 
where they received instruction from the best 
teachers in the capital. One of their most cele- 
brated teachers was the poet Archias of Antioch. 
After receiving the manly gown (91) the young 
Marcus was placed under the care of Q. Mu- 
cius Scsevola, the augur, from whom he learn- 
ed the principles of jurisprudence. Iu 89 he 
served his first and only campaign under On. 
Pompeius Strabo in the Social .war. During the 
civil wars between Marius and Sulla, Cicero 
identified himself with neither party, but de- 
voted his time to the study of law, philosophy, 
and rhetoric. He received instruction iu phi 
losophy from Fhajdrus the Epicurean, Philo, the 
chief of the New Academy, and Diodotus the 
Stoic, and in rhetoric from Molo the Rhodian, 
Having carefully cultivated his powers, Cicero 
came forward as a pleader in the forum as soon 



CICERO. 

| as tranquillity was restored by the final over- 
I throw of the Marian party. His first extant 
I speech was delivered in 81, when he was twen- 
| ty-six years of age, on behalf of P. Quintius. 

Next year (80) he defended Sextus Roseius of 
I Ameria, charged with parricide by Chrysogonus, 
a favorite freedman of Sulla. Shortly afterward 
(79) Cicero went to Greece, ostensibly for the 
improvement of his health, which was very del- 
icate, but perhaps because he dreaded the re- 
sentment of Sulla. He first went to Athens, 
where he remained six months, studying phi- 
losophy under Antioehus of Asealon, and rhet- 
i oric under Demetrius Syrus ; and here he made 
the acquaintance of Pomponius Atticus, who re- 
mained his firm friend to the close of his life. 
From Athens he passed over to Asia Minor, re- 
ceiving instruction from the most celebrated 
l'hetoricians in the Greek cities of Asia ; and 
finally passed some time at Rhodes (78), where 
he once more placed himself under the' care of 
Molo. After an absence of two years, Cicero 
returned to Rome (77), with his health firmly 
established, and his oratorical powers greatly 
improved. He again came forward as an orator 
in the forum, and soon obtained the greatest 
distinction. His success in the forum paved for 
him the way to the high offices of state. In 75 
he was quaestor in Sicily under Sex. Peducaaus, 
prjetor of Lilybaeum, and discharged the duties 
of his office with an integrity and impartiality 
which secured for him the affections of the pro- 
vincials. He returned to Rome in 74, and for 
the next four years was engaged in pleading 
oauses. In 70 he distinguished himself by the 
impeachment of Verres, and in 69 he was cu- 
rule ajdile. In 66 he was praetor, and while 
holding this office he defended Cluentius in the 
speech still extant, and delivered his celebrated 
oration in favor of the Manilian law, which ap- 
pointed Pompey to the command of the Mith- 
radatic war. Two years afterward he gained 
the great object of his ambition, and, although 
a novus homo, was elected consul with C. Anto- 
uius as a colleague. He entered upon the office 
on the first of January, 63. Hitherto Cicero 
had taken little part in the political struggles of 
his time. As far as he had interfered in public 
affairs, he had sided with the popular party, 
which had raised him to power ; but he appears 
never to have had any real sympathy with that 
party ; and as soon as he had gained the high- 
est office in the state he deserted his former 
friends, and connected himself closely with the 
aristocracy. The consulship of Cicero was dis- 
tinguished by the outbreak of the conspiracy 
of Catiline, which was suppressed and finally 
crushed by Cicero's prudence and energy. Vid. 
Catilina. For this service Cicero received the 
highest honors ; he was addressed as " father 
of his country," and thanksgivings in his name 
were voted to the gods. But as soon as he had 
laid down the consulship, the friends of the con- 
spirators, who had been condemned to death by 
the senate, and whose sentence had been car- 
ried into execution by Cicero, accused him loud- 
ly of having put Roman citizens to death ille- 
gally. Cicero had clearly been guilty of a vio- 
lation of the fundamental principles of the Ro- 
man constitution, which declared that no citizen 
could be put U death until sentence 1 by the 



CICERO. 

• 

whole body of the people assembled in the co 
mitia. Cicero's enemies were not slow in avail- 
ing themselves of this vulnerable point. The 
people, whose cause he had deserted, soon be- 
gan to show unequivocal signs of resentment 
against him. Shortly afterward (62) he mor- 
tally offended Clodius by bearing witness against 
him, when the latter was accused of a violation 
of the mysteries of the Bona Dea. Clodius 
vowed deadly vengeance against Cicero. To 
accomplish his purpose more securely, Clodius 
was adopted into a plebeian family, was then 
elected tribune of the plebs, and as tribune (58) 
brought forward a bill, interdicting from fire and 
water (i. e., banishing) any one who should be 
found to have put a Roman citizen to death un- 
tried. The triumvirs, Cassar, Pompey, and Cras- 
sus,' left Cicero to his fate ; and despairing of 
offering any successful opposition to the meas- 
ure of Clodius, Cicero voluntarily retired from 
Rome before it was put to the vote, and crossed 
over to Greece. He took up his residence at 
Thessalonica in Macedonia. Here he gave way 
to unmanly despair ; and his letters during this 
period are filled with groans, sobs, and tears. 
Meanwhile his friends at Rome had not deserted 
him; and, notwithstanding the vehement oppo- 
sition of Clodius, they obtained his recall from 
banishment in the course of next year. In Au- 
gust, 57, Cicero landed at Brundisium, and in 
September he was again at Rome, where he was 
received with distinguished honor. Taught by 
experience, Cicero would no longer join the sen- 
ate in opposition to the triumvirs, and retired to 
a great extent from public life. In 52 he was 
compelled, much against his will, to go to the 
East as governor of Cilicia. Here he distin- 
guished himself by his integrity and impartial 
administration of justice, but, at the same time, 
made himself ridiculous by the absurd vanity 
which led him to assume the title of imperator 
and to aspire to the honors of a triumph on ac- 
count of his subduing some robber tribes in his 
province. He returned to Italy toward the end 
of 50, and arrived in the neighborhood of Rome 
on the fourth of January, 49, just as the civil war 
between Caesar and Pompey broke out. After 
long hesitating which side to join, he finally de- 
termined to throw in his lot with Pompey, and 
crossed over to Greece in June. After the bat- 
tle of Pharsalia (48), Cicero abandoned the 
Pompeian party and returned to Brundisium, 
where he lived in the greatest anxiety for many 
months, dreading the vengeance of Cassar. , But 
his fears were groundless: he was not only 
pardoned by Caesar, but, when the latter lapded 
at Brundisium in September, 47, he greeted 
Cicero with the greatest kindness and respect, 
and allowed him to return to Rome. Cicero 
now retired into privacy, and during the next 
three or four years composed the greater part 
of his philosophical and rhetorical works. The 
murder of Caesar on the 15th of March, 44, 
again brought Cicero into public fife. He put 
himself at the head of the republican party, and 
in his Philippic orations attacked M. Antony 
with unmeasured vehemence. But this proved 
his ruin. On the formation of the triumvirate 
between Oetavianus, Antony, and Lepidus (27th 
of November, 43), Cicero's name was in the 
list of the proscribed. Cicero was warned of 
201 



CICERO. 

* 

his danger -while at his Tuseulan villa, and em- 
barked at Antium, intending to escape by sea, 
but was driven by stress of weather to Circeii, 
from whence he coasted along to Formiae, where 
he landed at his villa. From Formiae his at- 
tendants carried him in a litter toward the shore, 
but were overtaken by the soldiers before they 
could reach the coast. They were ready to de- 
fend their master with their lives, but Cicero 
commanded them to desist, and, stretching for- 
ward, called upon his executioners to strike. 
They instantly cut off his head and hands, which 
were conveyed to Rome, and, by the orders of 
Antony, nailed to the Rostra. Cicero perished 
on the 7th of December, 43, and, at the time of 
his death, had nearly completed his sixty-fourth 
year. By his first wife, Terentia, Cicero had 
two children, a daughter, Tullia, whose death 
in 45 caused him the greatest sorrow, and a 
son Marcus. Vid. No. 7. His wife Terentia, 
to whom he had been united for thirty years, 
lie divorced in 46, in consequence, it would ap- 
pear, of some disputes connected with pecuni- 
ary transactions ; and soon afterward he mar- 
ried a young and wealthy maiden, Publilia, his 
ward, but, as might have been anticipated, found 
little comfort in this new alliance, which was 
speedily dissolved. As a statesman and a citi- 
zen Cicero can not command our respect. He 
did good service to his country by the suppres- 
sion of the conspiracy of Catiline ; but this was 
almost the only occasion on which he showed 
vigor and decision of character. His own let- 
ters condemn him. In them his inordinate van- 
ity, pusillanimity, and political tergiversation 
appear in the clearest colors. It is as an author 
that Cicero deserves the highest praise. In his 
works the Latin language appears in the great- 
est perfection. They may be divided into the 
following subjects : I. Rhetorical Works : 1. 
Rhetoricorum s. Be Inventione Rhetoriea Libri II. 
This appears to have been the earliest of Cic- 
ero's prose works. It was intended to exhibit 
in a systematic form all that was most valuable 
in the works of the Greek rhetoricians, but it 
was never completed. — 2. Be Partitione Orato- 
ria Bialogus. A catechism of Rhetoric, accord- 
ing to the method of the middle Academy, by 
way of question and answer, drawn up by Cic- 
ero for the instruction of his son Marcus, writ- 
ten in 46. — 3. Be Oratore ad Quintum Fratrem 
Libri III. A systematic work on the art of 
Oratory, written in 55 at the request of his 
brother Quintus. This is the most perfect of 
Cicero's rhetorical works. Best edition by El- 
lendt, Regiomont., 1840. — 4. Brutus s. Be Claris 
Oratoribus. It contains a critical history of Ro- 
man eloquence, from the earliest times down 
to Hortensius inclusive. Editions by Meyer, 
Halae, 1838, and by Ellendt, Regiomont., 1844 — 
5. Ad M. Brutum Orator, in which Cicero gives 
his views of a faultless orator: written 45. 
Edited by Meyer, Lips., 1827. — 6. Be Optimo 
Genere Oratorum. An introduction to Cicero's 
translation of the orations of iEschines and 
Demosthenes in the case of Ctesiphon : the 
translation itself has been lost. — 7. Topica ad 
C. Trebatium. An abstract of the Topics of Ar- 
istotle, illustrated by examples derived chiefly 
from Roman law instead of from Om-k philos- 
ophy : it was written in July, 44. — is. lihetorico- 
202 



CICERO. 

rum ad C. Hcrennium Libri IV. The author of 
this work is uncertain, but it was certainly not 
written by Cicero. — II. Philosophical Works, 
i. Political Philosophy : 1. Be Rcpublica Libri 
VI. . A work on the best form of government 
and the duty of the citizen, in the form of a 
dialogue founded on the Republic of Plato ; 
written in 54. This work disappeared in the 
tenth or eleventh century of our era with the 
exception of the episode of the Somnium Scipi- 
onis, which had been preserved by Macrobius ; 
but in 1822, Angelo Mai found among the Pa- 
limpsests in the Vatican a portion of the lost 
treasure. Thus the greater part of the first 
and second books, and a few fragments of the 
others were discovered. Editions by Mai, 
Rome, 1822, and by Creuzer and Moser, FrankC, 
1826.— 2. Be Legibus Libri III. A dialogue, 
founded on the Laws of Plato ; probably writ- 
ten 52. A portion of the three books is lost, 
and it originally consisted of a greater number. 
Edited by Moser and Creuzer, Frankfort, 1824, 
and by Bake, Lugd. Bat., 1842. — n. Philosophy 
of Morals : 1. Be Officiis Libri III. Writteu 
in 44 for the use of his son Marcus, at that time 
residing at Athens. The first two books were 
chiefly taken from Pansetius, and the third book 
was founded upon the work of the Stoic Hecato ; 
but the illustrations are taken almost exclu- 
sively from Roman history and Roman litera- 
ture. Edited by Beier, Lips., 1820-1821, 2 vols. 
— 2. Cato Major s. Be Senectute, addressed to At- 
ticus, and written at the beginning of 44: it 
points out how the burden of old age may be 
most easily supported. — 3. Lcelius s. Be Amici- 
tia, written after the preceding, to which it may j 
be considered as forming a companion : also 
addressed to Atticus. [Edited by Beier, Lips., 
1828, and by Seyffert, Brandenburg, 1844.] — 4. | 
Be Gloria Libri II, written 44, is now lost, | 
though Petrarch possessed a MS. of the work. 
— 5. Be Cotisolatione s. Be Luctu minuendo, writ- 
ten 45, soon after the death of his daughter 
Tullia, is also lost. — Eft. Speculative Philos- 
ophy : 1. Academicorum Libri II, a treatise upon 
the Academic philosophy, written 45. Edited 
by Goerenz, Lips., 1810, and Orelli, Turk., 1827. 
— 2. Be Finibus Bonorum et Halorum Libri V. 
Dedicated to M. Brutus, in which are discussed 
the opinions of the Epicureans, Stoics, and Per- ! 
ipateties, on the Supreme Good, that is, the Jinis, 
or end, toward which all our thoughts and ac- 
tions are, or ought to be, directed. Written in 
45. Edited by Otto, Lips., 1831, and by Mad- 
vig, Copenhagen, 1839. — 3. Tusculanarum Bis- 
putationum Libri V. This work, addressed to 
M. Brutus, is a series of discussions on various 
important points of practical philosophy, sup 
posed to have been held in the Tusculanum of 
Cicero. Written in 45. Edited by Kiihner, 
Jense, 1846, third edition, and by Moser, Hannov., 
3 vols., 1836-1837. — 4. Faradoxa, six favorite 
Paradoxes of - the Stoics explained in familiar 
language, written early in 46. [Edited by Mo- 
ser, Gottingen, 1S46.] — 5. Hortensius s. Be Fhi- 
losophia, a dialogue in praise of philosophy, of 
which fragments only are extant, written in 45. 
— 6. Umaws s. Be Universo, a translation of Pla- 
to's Timseus, of which we possess a fragment 
— rv. Theology : 1. Be Natura Beorum Libri 
III. An account of the speculations of the , 



CICERO. 



CIC1.1RHUS, MESSIUS. 



Epicureans, the Stoics, and the Academicians, 
on the existence, attributes, and providence of 
a Divine Being; dedicated to M. Brutus, and 
written early in 44 ; edited by Moser and Creu- 
zer, Lips., 1818. — 2. De Divinatione Libri II'., a 
continuation of the preceding work. It presents 
the opinions of the different schools of philoso- 
phy vipon the reality of the science of divina- 
tion. Written in 44, after the death of Caesar ; 
edited by Creuzer, Kayser, and Moser, Frankf, 
1828. — 3. De Fato Liber Singularis, only a frag- 
ment. — III. Orations. The following is a list 
of JJicero's extant speeches, with the date at 
which each was delivered. Some account of 
each oration is given separately with the biog- 
raphy of the person principally concerned. 1. 
Pro P. Quiutio, B.C. 81.— 2. Pro Sex. Roscio 
Amerino, 80. — 3. Pro Q. Roscio Comoado, 76. 
—4. Pro M. Tullio, 71. — 5. In Q. Caecilium, 70. 
—6. In Verrem Actio I, 5th of August, 70.— 7. 
In Verrem Actio II. Not delivered. — 8. Pro 
M. Fonteio, 69. — 9. Pro A. Ciecina, 69, proba- 
bly.— 10. Pro Lege Manilla, 66. — 11. Pro A. 
Cluentio Avito, 66. — 12. Pro C. Cornelio, 55. 
—13. Oratio in Toga Candida, 64.— 14. De Lege 
Agraria, three orations, 63. — 15. Pro C. Rabirio, 
63. — 16. In Catilinam, four orations, 63. — 17. 
Pro Murena, 63.— 18. Pro P. Cornelio Sulla, 62. 
— 19. Pro A. Licinio Archia, 61. — 20. Pro L. 
Valerio Flacco, 59. — 21. Post Reditum in Senatu, 
5th of September, 57. — 22. Post Reditum ad 
Quirites, 6th or 7th of September, 57.-23. Pro 
Domo sua ad Pontifices, 29th of September, 57. 
— 24. De Haruspicum Reaponsis, 56. — 25. Pro 
P. Sextio, 55.-26. In Vatinium, 56.-27. Pro 
M. Caslio Rufo, 56.-28. Pro. L. Cornelio Balbo, 
56. — 29. De Provinciis Consularibus, 56. — 30. 
In L. Pisonem, 55. — 31. Pro On. Plancio, 55. 
—32. Pro C. Rabirio Postumo, 54.-33. Pro M. 
JSmilio Scauro, 54. — 34. Pro T. Annio Milone, 
52.-35. Pro M. Marcello, 47.-36. Pro Q. Li- 
gario, 46. — 37. Pro Rege Deiotaro, 45. — 38. 
Orationes Philippicae, fourteen orations against 
M. Antonius, 44 and 43. — IV. Epistles. Cicero, 
during the most important period of his life, 
maintained a close correspondence with Atticus, 
and with a wide circle of literary and political 
friends and connections. We now have up- 
ward of eight hundred letters, undoubtedly gen- 
uine, extending over a space of twenty-six years, 
and commonly arranged in the following man- 
ner : 1. Epistolarum ad Familiares s. Epistola- 
rum ad Diversos Libri XVI., a series of four 
hundred and twenty-six epistles, commencing 
with a letter to Pompey, written in 62, and 
terminating with a letter to Cassius, July, 43. 
They are not placed in chronological order, but 
those addressed to the same individuals, with 
their replies, where these exist, are grouped to- 
gether, without reference to the date of the rest. — 
2. Epistolarum ad T. Pomponium Atticum Libri 
XVI., a series of three hundred and ninety-six 
epistles addressed to Atticus, of which eleven 
were written in 68, 67, 65, and 62, the remain- 
der after the end of 62, and the last in Novem- 
ber, 44. They are, for the most part, in chro- 
nological order, although dislocations occur here 
and there. — 3. Epistolarum. ad Q. Fratrem Libri 
III, a series of twenty-nine epistles addressed 
to his brother, the first written in 59, the last in 
54. — 4. We find in most editions Epistolarum ad 



Brutum Liber, a series of eighteen epistles, all 
written after the death of Caesar. To these are 
added eight more, first published by Cratander. 
The genuineness of these two books is doubt- 
ful. The most useful edition of Cicero's letters 
is by Schiitz, 6 vols. 8vo, 1809-1812, in which 
they are arranged in chronological order. Cicero 
also wrote a great number of other works on 
historical and miscellaneous subjects, all of 
which are lost. He composed several poems, 
most of them in his earlier years, but two at a 
later period, containing a history of his consul- 
ship, and an account of his exile and recall. A 
line in one of his poems contained the unlucky 
jingle so well known to us from Juvenal (x., 
122), O fortunatam natam me consule Homam. 
The best edition of the collected works of Cicero 
is by Orelli, Turic, 1826-1837, 9 vols. 8vo, in 
thirteen parts. — 6. Q., brother of the orator, was 
born about 102, and was educated along with 
his brother. In 67 he was aedile, in 62 praetor, 
and for the next three years governed Asia as 
propraetor. He returned to Rome in 58, and 
warmly exerted himself to procure the recall 
of his brother from banishment. In 55 he went 
to Gaul as legatus to Caesar, whose approbation 
he gained by his military abilities and gallantry : 
he distinguished himself particularly by the re- 
sistance he offered to a vast host of Gauls, who 
had attacked his camp, when he was stationed 
for the winter with one legion in the country 
of the Nervii. In 51 he accompanied his broth- 
er as legate to Cilicia ; and on the breaking out 
of the civil war in 49 he joined Pompey. After 
the battle of Pharsalia he was pardoned by Cae- 
sar. He was proscribed by the triumvirs, and 
was put to deajth in 43. Quintus wrote several 
works, which are all lost, with the exception 
of an address to his brother, entitled De Peti- 
tione Consulatus. Quintus was married to Pom 
ponia, sister of Atticus ; but, from incompati- 
bility of temper, their union was an unhappy 
one. — 7. M., only son of the orator and his wife 
Terentia, was born 65. He accompanied his 
father to Cilicia, and served it Pompey's army 
in Greece, although he was then only sixteen 
years of age. In 45 he was sent to Athens to 
pursue his studies, but there fell into irregular 
and extravagant habits. On the death of Cae- 
sar (44) he joined the republican party, served 
as military tribune under Brutus in Macedonia, 
and after the battle of Philippi (42) fled to Sex, 
Pompey in Sicily. When peace was concluded 
between the triumvirs and Pompey in 39, Cicero 
returned to Rome, was favorably received by 
Octavianus, who at length assumed him as his 
colleague in the consulship (B.C. 30, from 13th 
ol September). By a singular coincidence, the 
dispatch announcing the capture of the fleet of 
Antony, which was immediately followed by 
his death, was addressed to the hew consul in his 
official capacity, and. thus, says Plutarch, " the 
divine justice reserved the completion of An- 
tony's punishment for the house of Cicero." — 8. 
Q., son of No. 6, and of Pomponia, sister of Atti- 
cus, was bom 66 or 67, and perished with his 
father in the proscription, 43. 

Ciohtevjs (Ktxvpoc;), called Ephyba ('Efvpjj) 
in Homer, a town of Thesprotia in Epirus, be- 
tween the Acherusian Lake and the sea. 

[Cictbrhus, Mjessius, a native of Campania 
203 



CICONES. 



CIMBRL 



a character introduced by Horace (fifth satire of 
the first book) in a ridiculous controversy with 
the slave Sarmentus.] 

Cicones (KUovee), a Thracian people on the 
Hebrus, and near the coast. 

[Cicynethus {Klkvv7]0os : now Pontikd), an 
island and city in the Pagasaeus Sinus.] 

Cicynna (KiKvvva : KiKvvvevc), a demus of At- 
tica, belonging to the tribe Cecropis, and after- 
ward to the tribe Acamantis. 

Cilioia (Kilu'ia : JLVki!;, fem. KiXiood), a dis- 
trict iu the southeast of Asia Minor, bordering 
to the east on Syria, to the north on Cappadocia 
and Lycaonia, to the northwest and west on 
Pisidia and Pamphylia. On all sides, except 
the west, it is inclosed by natural boundaries, 
namely, the Mediterranean on the south, Mount 
Amiinus on the east, and Mount Taurus on the 
north. The western part of Cilieia is intersected 
by the offshoots of the Taurus, while in its east- 
ern part the mountain chains inclose much 
larger tracts of level country : and hence arose 
the division of the country into C. Aspera (K. ?j 
rpaxda, or rpo^Eiiirtc), and C. Campestris (K. 
7] Tredids) ; the latter was also called Cilieia 
Propria (7 16'iug K.) Numerous rivers, among 
which are the Pyrajius, Sarus, Cydntjs, Caly- 
cadxus, and smaller mountain streams, descend 
from the Taurus. The eastern division, through 
which most of the larger rivers flow, was ex- 
tremely fertile, and the narrower valleys of 
Cilieia Aspera contained some rich tracts of 
land; the latter district was famed for its fine 
breed of horses. The first inhabitants of the 
country are supposed to have been of the Syr- 
ian race. The mythical story derived their 
name from Cilix, the son of Agenor, who start- 
ed, with his brothers Cadmus and Phoenix, for 
Europe, but stopped short on the coast of Asia 
Minor, and peopled with his followers the plain 
of Cilieia. The country remained independent 
till the time of the Persian Empire, under which 
it formed a satrapy, but appears to have been 
still governed by its native princes. Alexan- 
der subdued it on his march into Upper Asia ; 
aud, after the division of his empire, it formed 
a part of the kingdom of the Seleueidae; its 
plains were settled by Greeks, and the old in- 
habitants were for the most part driven back 
into the mountains of C. Aspera, where they 
remained virtually independent, practicing rob- 
bery by land and piracy by sea, till Pompey 
drove them from the sea in his war against the 
pirates, and, having rescued the level country 
from the power of Tigranes, who had overrun it, 
he erected it into a Roman province, B.C. 67-66. 
The mountain country was not made a province 
till the reign of Vespasian. The people bore a 
low character among the Greeks and Romans. 
The Carians, Cappadocians, and Cilicians were 
called the three bad K's. 

CiiicLE Pyi^e or Poem (al TLvlai 7% Ki- 
?.L/ccac : now Kolinboghaz), the chief pass between 
Cappadocia and Cilieia, through the Taurus, on 
the road from Tyana to Tarsus. This was the 
way by which Alexander entered Cilieia. 

CiLiciuii Make (tj KiXmia ■&d\aooa), the north- 
eastern portion of the Mediterranean, between 
Cilieia and Cyprus, as far as the Gulf of Issus. 

Cilix (Ki'A(f), son of Agenor and Telephassa, 
was, with his brothers, Cadmus and Phoenix, 
204 



sent out by their father in search of Europa, 
who had been carried off by Jupiter (Zeus). 
Cilix settled in the country called after him Ci- 
lieia. 

Cllla (Kt'AZa) a small town in the Troad, on 
the River Cilleus, at the foot of Mount Cillaeus, iu 
the range of Gargarus, celebrated for its temple 
of Apollo surnamed Cillseus. Its foundation was 
ascribed to Pelops. 

CelnIi, a powerful family in the Etruscan 
town of Arretium, were driven out of their na- 
tive town in B.C. 301, but were restored by the 
Romans. The Cilnii were nobles or Lueumones 
in their state, and some of them in ancient times 
may have held even the kingly dignity. (Com- 
pare Hor., Cam, i., 1.) The name has been ren- 
dered chiefly memorable by C. Cilnius Maecenas. 

Vid. MAECENAS. 

[Cilo or Chilo, P. Magius. 1. A friend and 
client of M. Claudius Marcellus, whom he mur- 
dered at the Piraeus, B.C. 45, at the instiga- 
tion, as some asserted, of Caesar, but more prob- 
ably from anger at being refused a sum of mon- 
ey which Cilo wished to obtain from Marcellus 
to relieve him from his embarrassments. — 2. Ju- 
nius, procurator of Pontus in the reign of Claud- 
ius, brought the Bosporan Mithradates to Rome 
in A.D. 50, and received afterward the consular 
insignia.] 

CliiBEE, C. ANTdus, had obtained the praetor 
ship from Csesar, and was one of Antony's sup 
porters, B.C. 43, on which account he is attacked 
by Cicero. He was charged with having killed 
his brother, whence Cicero calls him ironically 
Philadelphus. 

Cimbee, L. Tillius (not Tullius), a friend of 
Caesar, who gave him the province of Bithynia, 
but subsequently one of Caesar's murderers, B. 
C. 44. On the fatal day, Cimber was foremost 
in the ranks, under pretext of presenting a 
petition to Caesar praying for his brother's re- 
call from exile. After the assassination, Cini 
ber went to his province and raised a fleet, 
with which he rendered service to Cassius and 
Brutus. 

Glmbri, a Celtic people, probably of the same 
race as the Cymry. Vid. Celine. They art 
generally, but incorrectly, supposed to have in 
habited the peninsula which was called aftei 
them Cheksonesus Ciiibeica (now Jutland); 
the greatest uncertainty, however, prevailed 
among the ancients respecting their original 
abode. In conjunction with the Teutoni and 
Ambrones, they migrated south, with their 
wives and children, toward the close of the 
second century B.C.; and the whole host is 
said to have contained three hundred thousand 
fighting men They defeated several Roman 
armies, and caused the greatest alarm at Rome 
In B.C. US they defeated the consul Papirius 
Carbo near Noreia, and then crossed over into 
Gaul, which they ravaged in all directions. In 
109 they defeated the consul Junius Silanus, in 
107 the consul Cassius Longinus, who fell in 
the battle, and in 105 they gained their most 
brilliant victory near the Rhone over the united 
armies of the consul Cn. Mallius and the pro- 
consul Servilius Caepio. Instead of crossing 
the Alps, the Cimbri, fortunately for Rome, 
marched into Spain, where they remained two 
or three years. The Romans meantime had 



OIMINUS. 



CUTEAS. 



been makiDg preparations to resist their for- 
midable foes, and had placed their troops under 
the command of Marius. The barbarians re- 
turned to Gaul in 102. In that year theTeutoni 
were defeated, and cut to pieces by Marius, near 
Aquae Sextiae (now Aix) in Gaul ; and next year 
(101) the Cimbri and their allies were likewise 
destroyed by Marius and Catulus, in the deci- 
sive battle of the Campi Raudii, near Vercellaa, 
in the north of Italy. In the time of Augustus, 
the Cimbri, who were then a people of no im- 
portance, sent an embassy to the emperor. 

Ciminus ov Ciminius Mons (now Monte Cimi- 
no, also Monte Foglitnio), a range of mountains 
in Etruria, thickly covered with wood, (Saltus 
Ciminius, Silva Cimiuia), near a lake of the 
same name, northwest of Tarquinii, between 
the Lacus Vulsiniensis and Soracte. 

[Cimmericum (Ki/ifispiKov, Strab. ; ra Kifipepia 
T&xn, Herod. ; and KififiepiKT] Kufin, Strab.: now 
Eski-Krimm), a village in the Tauric or Cim- 
merian Chersouesus, west of Kaffa : in its neigh- 
borhood was Mons Cimmerius (now Aghirmisch- 

Cimmeru (Ki/uftipiot), the name of a mythical 
and of an historical people. The mythical Cim- 
merii, mentioned by Homer, dwelt in the fur- 
thest west on the ocean, enveloped in constant 
mists and darkness. Later writers sought to 
localize them, and accordingly placed them 
either in Italy near the Lake Avernus, or in 
Spain, or in the Tauric Chersonesus. The his- 
torical Cimmerii dwelt on the Palus Maeotis 
(now Sea of Azov), in the Tauric Chersonesus, 
and in Asiatic Sarmatia. Driven from their 
abodes by the Scythians, they passed into Asia 
Minor on the northeast, aud penetrated west as 
far as iEolis and Ionia. They took Sardis B.C. 
635 in the reign of Ardys, king of Lydia, but 
they were expelled from Asia by Alyattes, the 
grandson of Ardys. 

Cimmerius Bosporus. Vid. Bosporus. 

Cimolus (KZ/zoAof : Kifiu?uo£ : now Gimoli or 
Argentiere), an island in the .JSgean Sea, one 
of the Cyclades, between Siphnos and Melos, 
celebrated for its fine white earth, used by full- 
ers for cleaning cloths. 

Cimon (Ki/xuv). 1. Son of Stesagoras, and 
father of Miltiades, victor at Marathon, gained 
three Olympic victories with his four-horse 
chariot, and after his third victory was secretly 
murdered by order of the sons of Pisistratus. — 
2. Grandson of the preceding, and son of the 
great Miltiades. On the death of his father 
(B.C. 489), he was imprisoned because he was 
unable to pay his fine of fifty talents, which 
was eventually paid by Callias on his marriage 
with Elpinice, Cimon's sister. Cimon first dis- 
tinguished himself on the invasion of Greece by 
Xerxes (480), and after the battle of Plata?ae 
was brought forward by Aristides. He fre- 
quently commanded the Athenian fleet in their 
aggressive wars against the Persians. His 
most brilliant success was in 466, when he de- 
feated a large Persian fleet, and on the same 
day landed and routed their land forces also on 
the River Eurymedon in Pamphylia. The 
death of Aristides and the banishment of The- 
mistoeles left Cimon without a rival at Athens 
for some years. But his influence gradually 
declined as that of Pericles increased. In 461 



Cimon marched at the head of some Athenian 
troops to tho assistance of the Spartans, who 
were hard p'essed by their revolted subjects. 
The Athenians were deeply mortified by the in- 
sulting manner in which their offers of assist- 
ance were declined, and were enraged with 
Cimon, who had exposed them to this insult. 
His enemies, in consequence, succeeded in ob- 
taining his ostracism this year. He was sub- 
sequently recalled, in what year is uncertain, 
and through his intervention a five years' truce 
was made between Athens and Sparta, 450. 
In 449 the war was renewed with Persia; Ci- 
mon received the command, and with two hund- 
red ships sailed to Cyprus : here, while be- 
sieging Citium, illness or the effects of a wound 
carried him off. Cimon was of a cheerful con- 
vivial temper, frank and affable in his manners. 
Having obtained a great fortune by his share of 
the Persian spoils, he displayed unbounded lib- 
erality. His orchards and gardens were thrown 
open ; his fellow demusmeu were free daily to 
his table, and his public bounty verged on os- 
tentation. With the < treasure he brought from 
Asia the southern wall of the citadel was built, 
and at his own private charge the foundation of 
the long walls to the Piraeus was laid down. — 
3. Of Cleonae, a painter of great renown, flour- 
ished about B.C. 460, and appears to have been 
the first painter of perspective. 

Cinadon (Kivuduv), the chief of a conspiracy 
against the Spartan peers (ofiowL) in the first 
year of Agesilaus II. (B.C. SgS-SgY). The plot 
was discovered, and Cinadon aud the other con- 
spirators were put to death. 

CinjEthon (Kwafflav), of Lacedaemon, one of 
the most fertile of the Cyclic poets, flourished 
B.C. 765. 

Cinara or Cinarus (now Ziriara), a small 
island in the iEgean Sea, east of Naxos, cele- 
brated for its artichokes (Kivdpa). 

Cincinnatus, L. Quintius, a favorite hero of 
the old Roman republic, and a model of old Ro- 
man frugality and integrity. He lived on his 
farm, cultivating the land with his own hand. 
In B.C. 460 he was appointed consul suffectus 
in the room of P. Valerius. In 458 he was 
called from the plough to the dictatorship, in 
order to deliver the Roman consul and army 
from the perilous position in which they had 
been placed by the ^Equians. He saved the 
Roman army, defeated the enemy, and, after 
holding the dictatorship only sixteen days, re- 
turned to his farm. In 439, at the age of eighty, 
he was a second time appointed dictator to op- 
pose the alleged machinations of Sp. Maelius. 
Several of the descendants of Cincinnatus held 
the consulship and consular tribunate, but none 
of them is of sufficient importance to require a 
separate notice. 

Cincius Alimentus. Vid. Alimentus. 

Cineas (Kiveag). [1. A Thessalian prince, 
contemporary with and an ally of the Pisistra 
tids, born at Conium in Phrygia.] — 2. A Thes- 
salian, the friend and minister of Pyrrhus, king 
of Epirus. He was the most eloquent man of 
his day, and reminded his hearers of Demos- 
thenes, whom he heard speak in his youth. 
Pyrrhus prized his persuasive powers so highly, 
that " the words of Cineas (he was wont to say) 
had won him more cities than his own arms" 
205 



CINESIAS. 



CIRTA. 



The most famous passage in his life is his em- 
bassy to Rome, with proposals of peace from 
Pyrrhus, after the battle of Heraclea (B.C. 280). 
Oineas spared no arts to gain favor. Thanks 
to his wonderful memory, on the day after his 
arrival he was able (we are told) to address all 
the senators and knights by name. The senate, 
however, rejected his proposals mainly through 
the dying eloquence of old App. Claudius Caeeus. 
The ambassador returned and told the king that 
there was no people like that people — their city 
was a temple, their senate an assembly of kings. 
Two years after (278), when Pyrrhus was about 
to cross over into Sicily, Cineas was again sent 
to negotiate peace. He appears to have died 
in Sicily shortly afterward. 

Cinesias (Kivrjaiag), a dithyrambic poet of 
Athens, of no merit, ridiculed by Aristophanes 
and other comic poets. But he had his re- 
venge, for he succeeded in procuring the abo- 
lition of the Choragia, as far as regarded com- 
edy, about B.C. 390. 

Cinga (now Cinca), a river in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, falls with the Sicoris into the Iberus. 

Cingetorlx. 1. A Gaul, one of the first men 
in the city of the Treviri (now Treves, Trier), at- 
tached himself to the Romans, though son-in- 
law to Indutiomarus, the head of the independ- 
ent party. When this leader had been put to 
death by Cassar, he became chief of his native 
city. — [2. Cassar (B. G-, v., 22) mentions anoth- 
er Cingetorix, a chief of the Kentish Britons.] 

Cingulum (Ciogulanus : now Cingolo), a town 
in Picenum, on a rock, built by Labienus shortly 
before the breaking out of the civil war, B.C. 
49. 

Cinna, Cornelius. 1. L., the famous leader 
of the popular party during the absence of Sulla 
in the East (B.C. 87-84). In 87 Sulla allowed 
Cinna to be elected consul with Cn. Octavius, 
on condition of his taking an oath not to alter 
the constitution as then existing. But as soon 
as Sulla had left Italy, he began his endeavor 
to overpower the senate, and to recall Marius 
and his party. He was, however, defeated by 
his colleague Octavius in the forum, was obliged 
to fly the city, and was deposed by the senate 
from the consulate. But he soon returned ; 
with the assistance of Marius, who came back 
to Italy, he collected a powerful army, and laid 
siege to Rome. The capture of the city, and 
the massacre of Sulla's friends which followed, 
more properly belong to the life of Marius. For 
the next three years (86, 85, 84) Cinna was 
consul. In 84 Sulla prepared to return from 
Greece ; and Cinna was slain by his own troops, 
when he ordered them to cross over from Italy 
to Greece, where he intended to encounter 
Sulla. — 2. L., son of No. 1, joined M. Lepidus 
in his attempt to overthrow the constitution of 
Sulla, 78; and on the defeat and death of Lep- 
idus in Sardinia, he went with M. Perperna to 
join Sertorius in Spain. Cfflsar procured his 
recall from exile. He was made praetor by 
Caesar in 44, but was, notwithstanding, one of 
the enemies of the dictator'. Though he would 
not join the conspirators, he approved of their 
act ; and so great was the rage of the mob 

against him, that they nearly murdered him. 

Vid. below, Cinna, Helvius. 
Cinna, C. Helvius, a poet of considerable re- 
206 



nown, the friend of Catullus. In B.C. 44 h 
was tribune of the plebs, when he was murder 
ed by the mob, who mistook him for his name- 
sake Cornelius Cinna, though he was at the 
time walking in Caesar's funeral procession. 
His principal work was an epic poem entitled 
Smyrna. 

Cinnamus, Joannes ('lauvvng ~K.ivvap.og), one 
of the most distinguished Byzantine historians, 
lived under the Emperor Manuel Comnenus 
(who reigned A.D. 1143-1180), and wrote the 
history of this emperor and of his father Calo- 
Joannes, in six books, which have come down 
to us. Edited by Du Cange, Paris, 1670, fol., 
and by Meineke, Bonn, 1836, 8vo. 

Cinyps or Cinyphus {Jilvvip, Kivv<pog : now 
WadrKhakan or Kinifo), a small river on the 
northern coast of Africa, between the Syrtes, 
forming the eastern boundary of the proper ter- 
ritory of the African Tripolis. The district 
about it was called by the same name, and was 
famous for its fine-haired goats. 

Cinyras (Kivvpag), son of Apollo, king of Cy- 
prus, and priest of the Paphian Venus (Aphro- 
dite), which latter office remained hereditary in 
his family, the Cinyrada?. He was married to 
Metharne, the daughter of the Cyprian king 
Pygmalion, by whom he had several children, 
and among them was Adonis. According to 
some traditions, he unwittingly begot Adonis by 
his own daughter Smyrna, and killed himself on 
discovering the crime he had committed. Ac- 
cording to other traditions, he had promised to 
assist Agamemnon ; but as he did not keep his 
word, he was cursed by Agamemnon, and per- 
ished in a contest with Apollo. 

Cipus or Cippus, Genucius, a Roman praetor, 
on whose head it is said that horns suddenly 
grew, as he was going out of the gates of the 
city, and, as the haruspices declared that if he 
returned to the city he would be king, he im- 
posed voluntary exile upon himself. 

Circe (Ktp/c??), a mythical sorceress, daughter 
of Helios (the Sun) by the Oceanid Perse, and 
sister of iEetes, lived in the island of iEaea. 
Ulysses tarried a whole year with her, after she 
had changed several of his companions into pigs. 
By Ulysses she became the mother of Agrius 
and Telegonus. The Latin poets relate that 
she metamorphosed Scylla, and Picus, king of 
the Ausonians. 

Circeii (Circeiensis : now Circello, and the 
ruins Citta Vecchia), an ancient town of Latium. 
on the Promontory Ciroeium, founded by Tar 
quinius Superbus, never became a place of im 
portance, in consequence of its proximity t<> 
the unhealthy Pontine marshes. The oysters 
caught off Circeii were celebrated. (Hor., Sat. 
ii., 4, 33 ; Juv., iv., 140.) Some writers sup 
pose Circe to have resided on this promontory 
and that hence it derived its name. 

CiROESiUM {VLipKijaiov : now Kerkesiah), a city 
of Mesopotamia, on the eastern bank of the Eu- 
phrates, at the mouth of the Aborrhas : the ex- 
treme border fortress of the Roman empire. 

Circus. Vid. Roma. 

Cirphis (KlpQcg), a town in Phocis, on a 
mouutain of the same name, which is separated 
by a valley from Parnassus. 

ClRRHA. Vid. CRISSA. 

Cirta, afterward Constantina (ruins at Con 



CISPIUS. 



CLAUDIA. 



ilantineh), a city of the Massylii in Numidia, 
fifty Roman miles from the sea ; the capital of 
Syphax, and of Masinissa and his successors. 
Its position on a height, surrounded by the River 
Ampsagas, made it almost impregnable, as the 
Romans found in the Jugurthiue, and the French 
in the Algerine wars. It was restored by Con- 
stautine the Great, in honor of whom it received 
its later name. 

[Cispius, M. 1. Tribune of the plebs B.C. 57, 
the year in which Cicercwas recalled from ban- 
ishment, took an active part in Cicero's favor. 
He was afterward defended by Cicero when ac- 
cused of bribery (ambitus), but could not obtain 
a verdict in his favor. — 2. L., one of Csesar's offi- 
cers in the African war, commanded part of the 
fleet, B.C. 46.] 

[Cissa (Kiuaa), a city of the Jacetani in His- 
pania Tarraconensis ; called by Livy (xxi., 60) 
Scissum (where for Scissis Alschefski writes Cis- 
sis), and probably the Cinna of Ptolemy.] 

Cisseos (Kiaaevc). 1. A king in Thrace, and 
father of Theano, or, according to others, of Hec- 
uba, who is hence called Cisseis (Kicar/ie). — [2. 
Son of Melampus, fought on the side of Tumus, 
and was slain by iEneas.] 

Cissia (Kiooia), a very fertile district of Susi- 
ana, on the Choaspes. The inhabitants (K'laawi) 
were a wild free people, resembling the Persians 
in their manners. 

Cissus (Kujaog), a town in Macedonia, on a' 
mountain of the same name, south of Thessalon- 
ica, to which latter place its inhabitants were 
transplanted by Cassander. 

Cisthene (KiodqvT]). 1. A town on the coast 
of Mysia, on the promontory of Pyrrha, on the 
Gulf of Adramyttium. — 2. (Now Castel-Rosso), 
■in island and town on the coast of Lycia. — 3. In 
the mythical geograpihy of JSschylus (Prom., 
799) the " plains of Cisthene" are made the abode 
of the Gorgons. 

CitHjEron (KtBaipuv : now Citkceron, and its 
highest summit Elatia), a lofty range of mount- 
ains, separated Boeotia from Megaris and Attica. 
It was covered with wood, abounded in game, 
and was the scene of several celebrated legends 
in mythology. It was said to have derived its 
name from Cithasron, a mythical king of Boeo- 
tia. Its highest summit was sacred to the 
CitLueroniau Jupiter (Zeus), aud here was cele- 
brated the festival called Dcedala. Vid. Diet, 
of Ant. s. v. 

Citharista, a sea-port town (now Ceireste), 
and a promontory (now Cape d'Aigle) in Gallia 
Narbonensis, near Massilia. 

Citium: (K'mov : Kirievc). 1. (Ruins near Lar 
neca), one of the nine chief towns of Cyprus, 
with a harbor and salt-works, two hundred sta- 
dia from Salamis, near the mouth of the Tetius : 
here Cimon, the celebrated Athenian, died, and 
Zeuo, the founder of the Stoic school, was born. 
— 2. A town in Macedonia, on a mountain Citius, 
northwest of Bercea. 

Cius (Kioc : Klog or Kuoc, Cianus : now Ghio, 
also Ghemlio and Kemlik). L An ancient city in 
Bithynia, on a bay of the Propontis called Cia- 
nus Sinus, was colonized by the Milesians, aud 
became a place of much commercial importance. 
It joined the JEtolian league, aud was destroyed 
by Philip III.,, king of Macedonia, but was re- 
built by Prusias, king of Bithynia, from whom 



it was called Prusias. — [2. A river of Lowei 
Mcesia, flowing into the Ister or Danube.] 

[Civioa Cerealis, under the Emperor Domi- 
tian, proconsul of Asia : he was put to death by 
the emperor's orders, just before A.D. 90.] 

Civilis, Claudius, sometimes called JuliuSi 
the leader of the Batavi in their revolt from 
Rome, A.D. 69-70. He was of the Bataviau 
royal race, and, like Hannibal and Sertorius,had 
lost an eye. His brother, Julius Paulus, was 
put to death on a false charge of treason by 
Fonteius Capito (A.D. 67 or 68), who sent Civilis 
in chains to Nero at Rome, where he was heard 
and acquitted by Galba. He was afterward 
prefect of a cohort, but under Vitellius he be- 
came an object of suspicion to the army, and 
with difficulty escaped with his life. He vowed 
vengeance. His countrymen, who were shame- 
fully treated by the officers of Vitellius, were 
easily induced to revolt, and they were joined by 
the Canninefates and Frisii. He took up arms 
under pretence of supporting the cause of Ves- 
pasian, and defeated in succession the generals of 
Vitellius in Gaul and Germany, but he eontiuued 
in open revolt even after the death of Vitellius. 
In 70 Civilis gained fresh victories over the Ro- 
mans, but was at length defeated in the course 
of the year by Petilius Cerealis, who had been 
sent into Germany with an immense army. 
Peace was concluded with the Batavi on terms 
favorable to the latter, but we do not know what 
became of Civilis. 

Cizara (Kt£apa), a mountain fortress in the 
district of Phazemonitis in Pontus ; onte a royal 
residence, but destroyed before Strabo's time. 

Cladaus (KluSaoc or KXuSeoc), a river in 
Elis, flows into the Alpheus at Olympia. 

Clampetia, called by the Greeks Lampetia 
(A.ajj.-KETia, Aafj.nt:TEia), a town of Bruttium, on 
the western coast : in ruins in Pliny's time. 

Clanis. 1. (Now Chiano), a river of Etruria, 
rises south of Arretium, forms two small lakes 
near Clusium, west of Lake Trasimenus, and 
flows into the Tiber east of Vulsiuii. — 2. The 
more ancient name of the Liris. — 3. (Now Glan 
in Steiermark), a river in the Norie Alps. 

Clanius. Vid. Liternus. 

Clarus (ij KTidpoc : ruins near Zille), a small 
town on the Ionian coast, near Colophon, with a 
celebrated temple and oracle of Apollo, sur- 
named Clarius. 

[Clarus, one of the companions of ^Eneas.] 

Clarus, Sex. Erucius, a friend of the younger 
Pliny, fought under Trajan in the East, and took 
Seleucia, A.D. 115. His son Sextus was a pa- 
tron of literature, and was consul under Antoni- 
nus Pius, A.D. 146. 

Classicus, Julius, a distinguished man of the 
Treviri, was prefect of an ala of the Treviri in 
the Roman army under Vitellius, A.D. 69, but 
afterward joined Civilis in his rebellion against 
the Romans. Vid. Civilis. 

Clastidium (now Casteggio or Schiateggio), a 
fortified town of the Auanes in Gallia Cispadana, 
not far from the Po, on the road from Dertona 
to Placentia. 

Claterna, a fortified town in Gallia Cispa- 
dana, not far from Bononia : its name is retained 
in the small river Quadcrna. 

Claudia. 1. Quinta, a Roman matron, not a 
Vestal Virgin, as is frequently stated. WheD 
207 



CLAUDIA GENS. 



CLAUDIUS. 



the vessel conveying the image of Cybele from 
Pessinus to Rome had stuck fast in a shallow at 
the mouth of the Tiber, the soothsayers announced 
that only a chaste woman could move it. Clau- 
dia, who had been accused of incontinence, took 
hold of the rope, and the vessel forthwith fol- 
lowed her, B.C. 204.— 2. Or Clodia, eldest of 
the three sisters of P. Clodius Pulcher, the en- 
emy of Cicero, married Q. Marcius rex. — 3. Or 
Clodia, second sister of P. Clodius, married Q. 
Metellus Celer, but became infamous for her de- 
baucheries, and was suspected of having poison- 
ed her husband. Cicero iu his letters frequently 
calls her Bouiuc. — 4. Or Clodia, youngest sister 
of P. Clodius, married L. Lucullus, to whom she 
proved unfaithful. All three sisters are said to 
have had incestuous intercourse with their broth- 
er Publius. 

Claudia Gens, patrician and plebeian. The 
patrician Claudii were of Sabine origin, and 
came to Rome in B.C. 504, when they were re- 
ceived among the patricians. Vid. Claudius, 
No. 1. They were noted for their pride and 
haughtiness, their disdain for the laws, and their 
hatred of the plebeians. They bore various sur- 
names, which are given under Claudius, with the 
exception of those with the cognomen Nero, who 
are better known under the latter name. The 
Plebeian Claudii were divided into several fam- 
ilies, of which the most celebrated was that of 
Marcellus. 

Claudianus, Claudius, the last of the Latin 
classic poets, flourished under Theodosius and his 
sons Arondius and Honorius. He was a native 
of Alexandrea, and removed to Rome, where we 
find him iu A.D. 395. He enjoyed the patron- 
age of the all-powerful Stilicho, by whom he 
was raised to offices of honor and emolument. 
A statue was erected to his honor in the Forum 
of Trajan by Arcadius and Honorius, the inscrip- 
tion on which was discovered at Rome in the 
fifteenth century. He also enjoyed the patron- 
age of the Empress Serena, through whose inter- 
position he gained a wealthy wife. The last his- 
torical allusion in his writings belongs to 404 ; 
whence it is supposed that he may have beeu in- 
volved in the misfortunes of Stilicho, who was 
put to death in 408. He was a heathen. His 
extant works are, 1. The three panegyrics on the 
third, fourth, and sixth consulships of Honorius. 
2. A poem on the nuptials of Honorius and Ma- 
ria. 3. Four short Fescennine lays on the same 
subject. 4. A panegyric on the consulship of 
Probinus and Olybrius. 5. The praises of Stili- 
cho, in two books, and a panegyric on his consul- 
ship, in one book. 6. The praises of Serena, the 
wife of Stilicho. 7. A panegyric on the consul- 
ship of Flavius Mallius Theodorus. 8. The Epi- 
thalamium of Palladius and Celerina. 9. An 
'nvective against Rufinus, in two books. 10. An 
'nvective against Eutropius, in two books. 11. 
De Bello Gildonico, the first book of an histor- 
ical poem on the war in Africa against Gildo. 
12. I)e Bello Getico, an historical poem on the 
successful campaign of Stilicho against Alaric 
and the Goths, concluding with the battle of Pol- 
lentia. 13. Raptus Proserpina, three books of 
an unfinished epic on the rape of Proserpina. 
14. Gigantomachia, a fragment extending to one 
hundred and twenty-eight lines only. 15. Five 
short epistles. 16. Eidyttia a collection of seven 
208 



poems, chiefly on subjects connected with natural 
history. 17. Epigrammata, a collection of shoit 
occasional pieces. The Christian hymns found 
among his poems in most editions are certainly 
spurious. The poems of Claudian are distin- 
guished by purity of language and real poetical 
genius. The best edition is by Burmaun, Anist, 
1760. 

Claudiopolis (Khavdc6~o?a(;), the name of 
some cities called after the Emperor Claudius, 
the chief of which were, 1. In Bithynia (vid. 
Bithynium). 2. A colony in the district of Ca- 
taonia, in Cappadocia. 

Claudius, patrician. Vid. Claudia Gens. 
1. App. Claudius Sabinus Regillensis, a Sabine 
of the town of Regillum or Regilli, who in his 
own country bore the name of Attus Clausus, 
being the advocate of peace with the Romans, 
when hostilities broke out between the two 
nations, withdrew with a large train of follow- 
ers to Rome, B.C. 504. He was received into 
the ranks of the patricians, and lands beyond the 
Anio were assigned to his followers, who were 
formed into a new tribe called the Claudian. 
He exhibited the characteristics which marked 
his descendants, and showed the most bitter 
hatred toward the plebeians. He was consul 
495, and his conduct toward the plebeians led 
to their secession to the Mons Sacer, 494. — 2. 
App. Cl. Sab. Regill., son of No. 1, consul 471, 
•treated the soldiers whom he commanded with 
such severity that his troops deserted him. 
Next year he was impeached by two of the 
tribunes, but, according to the common story, 
he died or killed himself before the trial. — 3. 
C. Cl. Sab. Regill., brother of No. 2, consul 
460, when App. Herdonius seized the Capitol. 
Though a stanch supporter of the Patricians, 
he warned the decemvir Appius against an im- 
moderate use of his power. His remonstrances 
being of no avail, he withdrew to Regillum, 
but returned to defend Appius when impeached. 
— 4. App. Cl. Crassus Regill. Sab., the decem- 
vir, commonly considered son of No. 2, but more 
probably the same person. He was consul 451, 
and on the appointment of the decemvirs in 
that year, he became one of them, and was 
reappointed the following year. His real char- 
acter now betrayed itself in the most tyrannous 
conduct toward the plebeians, till his attempt 
against Virginia led to the overthrow of the 
decemvirate. Appius was' impeached by Vir- 
ginius, but did not live to abide his trial. He 
either killed himself, or was put to death in 
prison by order of the tribunes. — 5. App. Clau- 
dius C^ecus, became blind before his old age. 
In his censorship (312), to which he was elected 
without having been consul previously, he built 
the Appian aqueduct, and commenced the Appi- 
an road, which was continued to Capua. He 
retained the censorship four years in opposition 
to the law which limited the length of the office 
to eighteen months. He was twice consul m 
307 and 296 ; and iu the latter year he fought 
against the Samnites and Etruscans. In his 
old age, Appius, by his eloquent speech, induced 
the senate to reject the terms of peace which 
Cineas had proposed on behalf of Pyrrhus. Ap- 
pius was the earliest Roman writer in prose 
and verse whose name has come down to us. 
He was the author of a poem known to Cicero 



CLAUDIUS. 

through the Greek, and he also wrote a legal 
treatise, De Vsurpationibus. He left four sons 
and five daughters. [Some fragments of his 
speeches are given by Meyer, Oratorum Roma- 
norum Fragmenta, Zurich, 1842, p. 105-6.] — 6. 
App. Cl. Caudex, brother of No. 5, derived his 
surname from his attention to naval affairs. He 
was consul 264, and conducted the war against 
the Carthaginians in Sicily. — 7. P. Cl. Pulcher, 
son of No. 5, consul 249, attacked the Cartha- 
ginian fleet in the harbor of Drepanum, .in defi- 
ance of the auguries, and was defeated, with the 
loss of almost all his forces. He was recalled 
and commanded to appoint a dictator, and there- 
upon named M. Claudius Glycias or Glicia, the 
son of a freedman, but the nomination was im- 
mediately superseded. He was impeached and 
condemned. — 8. C. Cl. Centho or Cento, son 
of No. 5, consul 240, and dictator 213. — 9. Tib. 
Cl. Nero, son of No. 5. An account of his de- 
scendants is given under Nero. — 10. App. Cl. 
Pulcher, son of No. 7, aedile 217, fought at Can- 
nae 216, and was praetor 215, when he was sent 
into Sicily. He was consul 212, and died 211 
of a wound which he received in a battle with 
Hannibal before Capua. — 11. App. Cl. Puxcher, 
son of No. 10, served in Greece ibr some years 
under Flamininus, Ba3bius, and Glabrio (197- 
191). He was praetor 187 and consul 185, when 
he gained some advantages over the Ingaunian 
Ligurians. Pie was sent as ambassador to 
Greece 184 and 176. — 12. P. Cl. Pulcher, 
brother of No. 11, curule asdile 189, praetor 188, 
and consul 184. — 13. C. Cl. Pulcher, brother 
of Nos. 11 and 12, prastor 180 and consul 177, 
when he defeated the Istrians and Ligurians. 
He was censor 160 with Tiberius Sempronius 
Gracchus. He died 167. — 14. App. Cl. Cento, 
aedile 178 and praetor 175, when he fought with 
success against the Celtiberi in Spain. He 
afterward served in Thessaly (173), Macedonia 
(172), and Illyricum (170).— 15. App. Cl. Pul- 
cher, son of No. 11, consul 143, defeated the 
Salassi, an Alpine tribe. On his return a tri- 
umph was refused him ; and when one of the 
tribunes attempted to drag him from his car, 
his daughter Claudia, one of the Vestal Virgins, 
walked by his side up to the Capitol. He was 
censor 136. He gave one of his daughters in 
marriage to Tiberius Gracchus, and in 133, with 
Tiberius and C. Gracchus, was appointed trium- 
vir for the division of the lands. He died 
shortly after Tiberius Gracchus. — 16. C. Clau- 
dius Pulcher, curule aedile 99, praetor in Sicily 
95, consul in 92. — 17. App. Cl. Pulcher, consul 
79, and afterward governor of Macedonia. — 18. 
App. Cl. Pulcher, praetor 89, belonged to Sulla's 
party, and perished in the great battle before 
Rome 82. — 19. App. Cl. Pulcher, eldest son 
of No. 18. In 70 he served in Asia under his 
brother-in-law Lueullus ; in 57 he was praetor, 
and though he did not openly oppose Cicero's 
recall from banishment, he tacitly abetted the 
proceedings of his brother Publius. In 56 he 
was propraetor in Sardinia ; and in 54 was con- 
sul with L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, when a re- 
conciliation was brought about between him and 
Cicero, through the intervention of Pompey. 
In 53 he went as proconsul to Cilicia, which he 
governed with tyranny and rapacity. In 51 he 
\s as succeeded in the government by Cicero, 
14 



CLAUDIUS. 

whose appointment Appius received with dis- 
pleasure. On his return to Rome he was im- 
peached by Dolabella, but was acquitted. In 50 
he was censor with L. Piso, and expelled sev- 
eral of Caesar's friends from the senate. On 
the breaking out of the civil war, 49, he fled 
with Pompey from Italy, and died in Greece 
before the battle of Pharsalia. He was an au 
gur, and wrote a work on the augural discipline 
which he dedicated to Cicero. He was also 
distinguished for his legal and antiquarian 
knowledge. — 20. C. Cl. Pulcher, second son 
of No. 18, was a legatus of Caesar, 58, praetor 
56, and propraetor in Asia 55. 1 On his return he 
was accused of extortion by M. Servilius, who 
was bribed to drop the prosecution. He died 
shortly afterward. — 21. P. Cl. Pulcher, usu- 
ally called Clodius and not Claudius, the young- 
est son of No. 18, the notorious enemy of Ci- 
cero, and one of the most profligate characters 
of a profligate age. In 70 he served under his 
brother-in-law, L. Lueullus, in Asia ; but, dia- 
pleased at not being treated by Lueullus with 
the distinction he had expected, he encourag'ed 
the soldiers to mutiny. He then betook himself 
to his other brother-in-law, Q. Marcius Rex, 
proconsul in Cilicia, and was intrusted by him 
with the command of the fleet. He fell into 
the hands of the pirates, who, however, dismiss 
ed him without ransom, through fear of Pom- 
pey. He next went to Antioch, and joined the 
Syrians in making war on the Arabians. On 
his return to Rome in 66 he impeached Catiline 
for extortion in his government of Africa, but 
was bribed by Catiline to let him escape. In 
64 he accompanied the propraetor L. Murena 
to Gallia Transalpina, where he resorted to the 
most nefarious methods of procuring: money. 
In 62 he profaned the mysteries of the Bona 
Dea, which were celebrated by the Roman ma- 
trons in the house of Caesar, who was then prae- 
tor, by entering the house disguised as a female 
musician, in order to meet Pompeia, Caesar's 
wife, with whom he had an intrigue. He was 
discovered, and next year, 61, when quaestor, 
was brought to trial, but obtained an acquittal 
by bribing the judges. He had attempted to 
prove an alibi, but Cicero's evidence showed 
that Clodius was with him in Rome only three 
hours before he pretended to have been at In- 
teramna. Cicero attacked Clodius in the senate 
with great vehemence. In order to revenge 
himself upon Cicero, Clodius was adopted into a 
plebeian family that he might obtain the formid- 
able power of a tribune of the plebs. He was 
tribune 58, and, supported by the triumvirs Cae- 
sar, Pompey, and Crassus, drove Cicero into 
exile ; but, notwithstanding all his efforts, he 
was unable to prevent the recall of Cicero in 
the following year. Vid. Cicero. In 56 Clo- 
dius was aedile, and attempted to bring his ene- 
my Milo to trial. Each had a large gang of 
gladiators in his pay, and frequent fights took 
place in the streets of Rome between the two 
parties. In 53, when Clodius was a candidate 
for the pra;torship, and Milo for the consulship, 
the contests between them became more vio- 
lent and desperate than ever. At length, on the 
20th of January, 52, Clodius and Milo met, ap 
parently by accident, on the Appian Road near 
Bovillae. An affray ensued between their fol 
209 



CLAUDIUS. 



CLEANTHE3. 



lowers, in which Clodius was murdered. The 
mob was infuriated at the death of their favor- 
ite ; and such tumults followed at the burial of 
Clodius, that Pompey was appointed sole con- 
sul in order to restore order to the state. For 
the proceedings which followed, vid. Milo. The 
second wife of Clodius was the notorious Fulvia. 
— 22. App. Cl. Pulcher, the elder son of No. 
20, was one of the accusers of Milo on the death 
of P. Clodius, 52.-23. App. Cl. Pulcher, broth- 
er of No. 22, joined his brother in prosecuting 
Milo. As the two brothers both bore the prae- 
uomen Appius, it is probable that one of them 
was adopted by their uncle Appius. Vid. No. 
19. — 24. Sex. Clodius, probably a descendant 
of a freedman of the Claudia gens, was a man 
of low condition, and the chief instrument of P. 
Clodius in all his acts of violence. On the death 
of the latter in 52, he urged on the people to 
revenge the death of their leader. For his acts 
of violence on this occasion, he was brought to 
trial, was condemned, and after remaining in 
exile eight years, was restored in 44 by M. An- 
tonius. 

Claudius I., Roman emperor A.D. 41 — 54. 
His full name was Tib. Claudius Drusus Nero 
Germaj<:cus. He was the youDger son of Dru- 
sus, the brother of the Emperor Tiberius, and 
of Antonia, and was born on August 1st, B.C. 
10, at Lyons in Gaul. In youth he was weak 
and sickly, and "was neglected and despised by 
his relatives. When he grew up he devoted 
the greater part of his time to literary pursuits, 
but was not allowed to take any part in public 
iiffairs. He had reached the age of fifty, when 
he was suddenly raised by the soldiers to the 
imperial throne after the murder of Caligula. 
Claudius was not cruel, but the weakness of his 
character made him the slave of his wives and 
freedmen, and thus led him to consent to acts 
of tyranny which he would never have com- 
mitted of his own accord. He was married 
four times. At the time of his accession he 
was married to his third wife, the notorious 
Valeria Messalina, who governed him for some 
years, together with the freedman Narcissus, 
Pallas, and others. After the execution of Mes- 
salina, A.D. 48, a fate which she richly merited, 
Claudius was still more unfortunate in choosing 
for his wife his niece Agrippina. She prevailed 
upon him to set aside his own son, Britannicus, 
and to adopt her sod, Nero, that she might secure 
the succession for the latter. Claudius soon after 
regretted this step, and was, in consequence, 
poisoned by Agrippina, 54. Several public 
works of great utility were executed by Claudi- 
us. He built, for example, the famous Claudian 
aquaaduct (now Aqua Claudia), the port of Os- 
tia, and the emissary by which the water of 
Lake Fucinus was carried iuto the River Liris. 
In his reign the southern part of Britain was 
made a Roman province, aud Claudius himself 
wect to Britain in 43, where he remaiued, how- 
ever, only a short time, leaving the conduct of 
the war to his generals. Cladius wrote sev- 
eral historical works, all of which have perish- 
ed. Of these, one of the most important was a 
history of Etruria, in the composition of which 
he made use of genuine Etruscan sources. 

Claudius II. (M. Aurelius Claudius, sur- 
named Gothicus), Roman emperor A.D 268- 
210 



270, was descended from an obscure family m 
Dardania or Illyria, and by his military talentp 
rose to distinction under Decius, Valerian, and 
Gallienus. He succeeded to the empire on the 
death of Gallienus (268), and soon after his ac- 
cession defeated the Alemanni in the north 
of Italy. Next year he gained a great victory 
over an immense host of Goths near Naissus in 
Dardania, and received, in consequence, the 
surname Gothicus. He died at Sirmium in 270, 
and was succeeded by Aui elian. 

Clazomen^e (al KXa^o/ievai : KAafo^evtoc : now 
Kelisman), an important city of Asia Minor, and 
a member of the Ionian Dodecapolis, lay on the 
northern coast of the Ionian peninsula, upon the 
Gulf of Smyrna. The city was said to have 
been founded by the Colophonians under Para- 
lus, on the site of the later town of Chytrium, 
but to have been removed further east, as a de- 
fence against the Persians, to a small island, 
which Alexander afterward united to the main . ; 
laud by a causeway. It was one of the weaker 
members of the Ionian league, and was chiefly 
peopled, not by Ionians, but by Cleona^ans and 
Phliasians. Under the Romans it was a free 
city. It had a considerable commence, and was 
celebrated for its temple of Apollo, Diana (Arte- 
mis), and Cybele, and still more as the birth- 
place of Anaxagoras. 

Oleander {KXeavdpoc). 1. Tyrant of Gela, 
reigned seven years, and was murdered B.C. 
498. He was succeeded by his brother Hippo- 
crates, one of whose sons was also called Ole- 
ander. The latter was deposed by Gelon when 
he seized the government, 491. — 2. A Lacedae- 
monian, harmost at Byzantium, 400, when the 
Greek army of Cyrus under Xenophon return- 
ed from Asia. — 3. One of Alexander's officers, 
was put to death by Alexander in Carmania, 
325, in consequence of his oppressive govern- ; 
ment in Media. — 4. A Phrygian slave, and sub- 
sequently the profligate favorite and minister 
of Comrnodus. In a popular tumult, occasion- 
ed by a scarcity of corn, he was torn to death ! 
by the mob. 

[Cleandridas (K/ieavdpidag), a Spartan gen- 
eral, who had to flee from his native land for 
having acted treacherously in a war with Athens. 
He was condemned to death, but fled to Thurii 
in Italy.] 

[Cleanor (Kfcdvup), an Arcadian of Orchom- 
enus, served in the Greek army of Cyrus the 
younger; he took an active part in conducting 
the retreat aloDg with Xenophon, after the as- 
sassination of Clearchus and the other generals.] I 

Cleanthes (K?i£ai>&7f). 1. A Stoic, born at 
Assos in Troas about B.C. 300. He entered i 
life as a boxer, and had only four drachmas of 
his own when he began to study philosophy. 
He first placed himself under Crates, aud then 
under Zeno, whose disciple he continued for 
nineteen years. In order to support himself, 
he worked all night at drawing water from gar- 
dens : but as he spent the whole day in philo- 
sophical pursuits, and had no visible means of 
support, he was summoned before the Areop- 
agus to account for his way of living. The 
judges were so delighted by the evidence of in- 
dustry which he produced, that they voted him 
ten niina;, though Zeno would not permit him to 
accept them. He was naturally slow, but his iron 



CLEAROHUS. 



CLEOMEDES. 



industrv overcame all difficulties ; and on the 
death of Zeno iu 263, Cleanthes succeeded him 
in his school. He died about 220, at the age of 
eighty, of voluntary starvation. A hymn of his 
to Jupiter (Zeus) is still extant, and contains 
some striking sentiments: edited by Sturz, 1785, 
and Mersdorf, Lips., 1835. — 2. An ancient painter 
of Corinth, [mentioned among the inventors of 
that art by Pliuy and Athenagoras.] 

Clearchus (Kteapxoc). 1. A Spartan, distin- 
guished himself in several important commands 
during the latter part of the Peloponnesian war, 
and at the close of it persuaded the Spartans to 
send him as general to Thrace, to protect the 
Greeks in that quarter against the Thracians. 
But having been recalled by the ephors, and re- 
fusing to obey their orders, he was condemned to 
death. He thereupon crossed over to Cyrus, col- 
lected for him a large force of Greek mercenaries, 
and marched with him into Upper Asia, 401, in 
order to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes, being 
the only Greek who was aware of the prince's 
real object. After the battle of Cunaxa and the 
death of Cyrus, Clearchus and the other Greek 
generals were made prisoners by the treachery 
of Tissaphernes, and were put to death. — 2. A 
citizen of Heraclea on the Euxine, obtained the 
tyranny of his native town, B.C. 365, by putting 
himself at the head of the popular party. He 
governed with cruelty, and was assassinated 353, 
after a reign of twelve years. He is said to have 
been a pupil of Plato and of Isocrates. — 3. Of 
Soli, one of Aristotle's pupils, author of a num- 
ber of works, none of which are extant, on a 
great variety of subjects. — 4. Au Athenian poet 
of the new comedy, whose time is unknown. 
[His fragments are given by Meineke, Comic. 
Grcac. Fragm., vol. ii., p. 1168-9.] 

[Clearidas (KXeap'tdac), a brave young Spar- 
tan, made governor of Amphipolis by Brasidas; 
he took part in the battle before Amphipolis be- 
tween the Spartans and Athenians, in which both 
Brasidas and Cleou were killed. He afterward 
had the charge of surrendering the city to the 
Athenians, but gave it, in fact, to the Amphipo- 
litans.] 

Clemens. 1. T. Flavius, cousin of the Em- 
peror Domitian, by whom he was put to death. 
He appears to have been a Christian. — 2. Ro- 
manus, bishop of Rome at the end of the first 
century, probably the same as the Clement 
whom St. Paul mentions (Phil., iv., 3). He 
wrote two epistles iu Greek to the Corinthian 
Church, of which the first and part of the sec- 
ond are extant. The second, however, is prob- 
ably not genuine. The Recognitiones, which 
bear the name of Clement, were not written by 
him. The epistles are printed in the Patres 
Apostolici, of which the most convenient edi- 
tions are by Jacobson, Oxford, 1838, and by 
Hefele, Tubingen, 1839. — 3. Alexandrinus, so 
called from his long residence at Alexandrea, 
was ardently devoted in early life to the study 
of philosophy, which had a great influence upon 
his views of Christianity. He embraced Chris- 
tianity through the teaching of Pantasnus at 
Alexandrea, was ordained presbyter about A.D. 
190, and died about 220. Hence he flourished 
uuder the reigns of Severus and Caracalla, 193- 
217. His three principal works constitute parts of 
ft whole. In the Hortatory Address to the Greeks 



(Aoyoc UporpenTiKoc, &<t.) his design was to con- 
vince the heathens and to convert them to Chris- 
tianity. The Pedagogue (Tlaidayuyoc) takes up 
the new convert at the point to which he is sup- 
posed to have been brought by the hortatory ad- 
dress, and furnishes him with rules for the regu- 
lation of his conduct. The Stromata (iTpu/xarelc) 
are in eight books : the title (Stromata, i. e., 
patch-work) indicates its miscellaneous charac- 
ter. It is rambling and discursive, but con- 
tains much valuable information on many points 
of antiquity, particularly the history of philos- 
ophy. The principal information respecting 
Egyptian hieroglyphics is contained in the 
fifth book. The object of the work was to de- 
lineate the perfect Christian or Gnostic, after he 
had been instructed by the Teacher, and thus 
prepared by sublime speculations in philosophy 
and theology. — Editions: By Potter, Oxon., 1715, 
fol, 2 vols.; by Klotz, Lips., 1830-34, 12mo. 4 
vols. 

Cleobis. Vid. Biton. 

Cleobuline (KXeodovXlvrf) or Cleobule (KAe- 
o6ovXrj), daughter of Cleobulus of Lindus, cele- 
brated for her skill in riddles, of which she com- 
posed a number in hexameter verse ; to her is 
ascribed a well-known one on the subject of the 
year : " A father has twelve children, and each 
of these thirty daughters, on one side white, and 
on the other side black, and though immortal 
they all die." 

Cleobulus (KXeoSovXoc), one of the Seven 
Sages, of Lindus in Rhodes, son of Evagoras, 
lived about B.C. 580. He wrote lyric poems, as 
well as riddles, in verse ; he was said by some to^ 
have been the author of the riddle on the year, 
generally attributed to his daughter Cleobuline 
He was greatly distinguished for strength and 
beauty of person. 

Cleochares (KXeoxapm), a Greek orator of 
Myrlea in Bithynia, contemporary with the oratoi 
Demochares and the philosopher Arcesilas, to- 
ward the close of the third century B.C. 

[Cleomus (KXeodaloc), son of the Heraclid 
Hyllus, who, at the head of the Heraclids, made 
an unsuccessful attempt to conquer the Pelopon- 
nesus.] 

Cleombrotus (KXe6ft6poroc). 1. Son of Anax- 
andrides, king of Sparta, became regent after the 
battle of Thermopylae, B.C. 480, for Plistarchus, 
infant son of Leonidas, but died in the same year, 
and was succeeded iu the regency by his sou 
Pausanias. — 2. I. King of Sparta, son of Pausa- 
nias, succeeded his brother Agesipolis I, and 
reigned B.C. 380-371. He commanded the Spar- 
tan troops several times against the Thebans, aud 
fell at the battle of Leuctra (371), after fighting 
most bravely. — 3. II. King of Sparta, son-in-law 
of Leonidas II., in whose place he was made 
king by the party of Agis IV. about 243. On 
the return of Leonidas, Cleombrotus was de- 
posed and banished to Tegea, about 240. — 4. Au 
Academic philosopher of Ambracia, said to have 
killed himself after reading the Phxdon of Plato ; 
not that he had any sufferings to escape from, 
but that he might exchange this life for a 
better. 

Cleomedes (K7i£0/uTjd7]c). 1. Of the island As- 
typatea, an athlete of gigantic strength. — 2. A 
Greek mathematician, probably lived in the sec- 
ond and third centuries of the Christian era 
211 



CLEOMENES. 

the author of a Greek treatise in two books on 
the Circular Theory of the Heavenly Bodies (Kwi- 
Xiktic Qeuplag Mersupuv Bc6Xia 6vo), which is 
still extant. It is rather an exposition of the sys- 
tem of the universe than of the geometrical prin- 
ciples of astronomy : edited by Balfour, Burdigal., 
1605 ; by Bake, Lugd. Bat, 1820 ; and by Schmidt, 
Lips., 1832. 

Cleomenes (K/Uo/in^f). 1. King of Sparta, 
of Auaxandrides, reigned B.C. 520-491. 
He was a man of an enterprising but wild char- 
acter. His greatest exploit was his defeat of 
the Argives, in which six thousand Argive citi- 
zens fell; but the dute of this event is doubt- 
ful. In 510 he commanded the forces by whose 
assistance Hippias was driven from Athens, and 
not long after he assisted Isagoras and the aris- 
tocratical party against Clisthenes. By bribing 
the priestess at Delphi, he effected the deposi- 
tion of his colleague Demaratus, 491. Soon 
afterward he was seized with madness and kill- 
ed himself. — 2. King of Sparta, son of Cleom- 
brotus I., reigned 370-309 ; but during this long 
period we have no information about him of any 
importance. — 3. King of Sparta, son of Leonidas 
II, reigned 236-222. While still young, he 
married Agiatis, the widow of Agis IV.; and 
following the example of the latter, he endeav- 
ored to restore the ancient Spartan constitu- 
tion, and to regenerate the Spartan character. 
He was endowed with a noble mind, strength- 
ened and purified by philosophy, and possessed 
great energy of purpose. His first object was 
to gain for Sparta her old renown in war; and 
for that purpose he attacked the Achseans, and 
carried on war with the league with great suc- 
cess. Having thus gained military renown, he 
felt himself sufficiently strong in the winter of 
226-225 to put the ephors to death and restore 
the ancient constitution. The Achasans now call- 
ed in the aid of Antigonus Dosou, king of Mace- 
donia, and for the next three years Cleomenes 
carried on war against their united forces. He 
was at length completely defeated at the battle 
of Sellasia (222), and fled to Egypt, where 
he was kindly received by Ptolemy Euergetes, 
but on the death of that king he was imprisoned 
by his successor Philopator. He escaped from 
prison, and attempted to raise an insurrection, 
but finding no one join him, he put himself to 
death, 220. 

Cleomenes. 1. A Greek of Naucratis in 
Egypt, appointed by Alexander the Great no- 
march of the Arabian district (vo/ioc) of Egypt, 
and receiver of the tribute from the districts of 
Egypt, B.C. 331. His rapacity knew no bounds, 
and he collected immense wealth by his extor- 
tions. After Alexander's death he was put to 
death by Ptolemy, who took possession of his 
treasures. — 2. A sculptor, son of Apollodorus of 
Athens, executed the celebrated statue of the 
Venus de Medici, as appears from an inscription 
on the pedestal. He lived between B.C. 363 
and 146. 

Cleos (K/tiwv) son of Cleasnetus, was origi- 
nally a tanner, and first came forward in public 
as an opponent of Pericles. On the death of 
this great man, B.C. 429, Cleon became the fa- 
vorite of the people, and for about six years of 
the Peloponnesian war (428-422) was the head 
of the party opposed to peace. He is repre- 
212 ~ ' 



CLEOPATRA. 

sented by Aristophanes as a demagogue ot the 
lowest kind, mean, ignorant, cowardly, and ve- 
nal ; and this view of his character is confirmed 
by Thucydides. But much weight can not be 
attached to the satire of the poet ; and the usual 1 
impartiality of the historian may have been 
warped by the sentence of his banishment, if it 
be true, as has been conjectured with great 
probability, that it was through Cleon that Thu j 
cydides was sent into exile. Cleon may be I 
considered as the representative of the middle , 
classes of Athens, and by his ready, though some- 
what coarse eloquence, gained great influence 
over them. In 427 he strongly advocated iu 
the assembly that the Mytilena?ans should be 
put to death. In 424 he obtained his greatest 
glory by taking prisoners the Spartans in the 
island of Sphacteria, and bringing them in safety 
to Athens. Puffed up by this success, he ob- 
tained the command of an Athenian army, to 
oppose Brasidas in Thrace ; but he was defeated 
by Brasidas, under the walls of Amphipolis, and 
fell in the battle, 422. The chief attack of Aris- j 
tophanes upon Cleon was in the Knights (424), 
in which Cleon figures as an actual dramatis I 
persona, and, in default of an artificer bold 
enough to make the mask, was represented by 
the poet himself with his face smeared with wine 
lees. 

Cleon^e (Kleuvai: KXeuvaloc). 1. An an- 
cient town iu Argolis, on the road from Corinth j 
to Argos, on a river of the same name which | 
flows into the Corinthian Gulf, and at the foot 
of Mount Apesas; said to have been built by 
Cleones, son of Pelops. — 2. A town in the penin- 
sula Athos in Chalcidice. — 3. Vid. Hyampolis. 

Cleonyhus (Kleuvvfioc). 1. An Atheiaian, fre- 
quently attacked by Aristophanes as a pestilent 
demagogue. — 2. A Spartan, son of Sphodrias, 
much beloved by Archidamus, the son of Agesi- | 
laus: he fell at Leuctra, B.C. 371. — 3. Younger 
son of Cleomenes II, king of Sparta, was exclu- 
ded from the throne on his father's death, 309, 
in consequence of his violent and tyrannical j 
temper. In 303 he crossed over to Italy to as- l 
sist the Tarentines against the Lucanians. He 
afterward withdrew from Italy, and seized Cor- 
cyra; and in 272 he invited Pyrrhus to attempt 
the conquest of Sparta Vid. Acrotatus. — [4. A 
Thebau, celebrated for his victories at the Isth 
niian games.] 

Cleopatra (KAeoTrurpa). 1. (Myth.) Daughter 
of Idas and Marpessa, and wife of Meleager, is 
said to have hanged herself after her husband's 
death, or to have died of grief. Her real name 
was Alcyone. — 2. (Hist.) Niece of Attalus, mar- 
ried Philip, B.C. 337, on whose murder she was 
put to death by Olympias. — 3. Daughter of Philip 
and Olyinpias, and sister of Alexander the Great, 
married Alexander, king of Epirus, 336. It was 
at the celebration of her nuptials that Philip was 
murdered. Her husband died 326. After the 
death of her brother she was sought in marriage ■ 
by several of his generals, and at length prom- 
ised to marry Ptolemy ; but, haviug attempted 
to escape from Sardis, where she had been kept 
for years in a state of honorable captivity, she 
was assassinated by Antigonus. — 4. Daughter 
of Antiochus III. the Great, married Ptolemy 
V. Epiphaues, 193. — 5. Daughter of Ptolemy V. 
Epiphanes and No. 4, married her brother Ptol- 



I 



CLEOPATRA. 



CLINIAS. 



emy VI. Philometor, and on his death, 146, her 
other brother Ptolemy VI. Physeon. She was 
soon afterward divorced by Physeon, and fled 
into Syria. — 6. Daughter of Ptolemy VI. Phil- 
ometor and of No. 5, married first Alexander 
Balas (150), the Syrian usurper, and on his death 
Demetrius Nicator. During the captivity of the 
latter in Parthia, jealous of the connection which 
he there formed with Rhodogune, the Parthian 
princess, she married Antioehus VII. Sidetes, 
his brother, and also murdered Demetrius on 
his return. She likewise murdered Seleucus, 
her son by Nicator, who, on his father's death, 
assumed the government without her consent. 
Her other son by Nicator, Antioehus VIII. Gry- 
pus, succeeded to the throne (125) through her 
influence ; and he compelled her to drink the 
poison which she had prepared for him also. 
Vid. Antiochus VIII. She had a son by Side- 
tes, Antioehus IX., eurnamed Cyzicemis. — V. 
Another daughter of Ptolemy VI. Philometor 
and No. 5, married her uncle Physeon when 
the latter divorced her mother. On the death 
of Physeon she reigned in conjunction with her 
elder son, Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, and then in 
conjunction with her younger son Alexander. 
She was put to death by the latter in 89. — 8. 
Daughter of Ptolemy Physeon and No. 7, mar- 
•ied first her brother Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, 
and next Antioehus IX. Cyzicenus. She was 
put to death by Tryphsena, her own sister, wife 
of Antiochus Grypus. — 9. Usually called Selene, 
another daughter of Ptolemy Physeon, married 
first her brother Lathyrus (on her sister No. 8 
being divorced) ; secondly, Antiochus XL Epiph- 
anes ; and thirdly, Antiochus X. Eusebes. — 10. 
Daughter of Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, usually 
called Berenice. Vid. Berenice, No. 4. — 11. 
Eldest daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, celebrated 
for her beauty and fascination, was seventeen 
at the death of her father (51), who appointed 
her heir of his kingdom in conjunction with her 
younger brother, Ptolemy, whom she was to 
marry. She was expelled from the throne by 
Pothinus and Achillas, his guardians. She re- 
treated into Syria, and there collected an army, 
with which she was preparing to enter Egypt, 
when Caesar arrived in Egypt in pursuit of 
Pompey, 47. Her charms gained for her the 
support of Caesar, who replaced her on the 
throne in conjunction with her brother. This 
led to the Alexandrine war, in the course of 
which young Ptolemy perished. Cleopatra thus 
obtained the undivided rule. She was, how- 
ever, associated by Ctesar with another brother 
of the same name, and still quite a child, to 
whom she was also nominally married. She 
had a son by Caasar, called O^esarion, and she 
afterward followed him to Rome, where she ap- 
pears to have been at the time of his death, 44. 
She then returned to Egypt, and in 41 she met 
Antony in Cilicia. She was now in her twenty- 
eighth year, and in the perfection of matured 
beauty, which, in conjunction with her talents 
and eloquence, completely won the heart of An- 
tony, who henceforth appears as her devoted 
lover and slave. He returned with her to Egypt, 
but was obliged to leave her for a short time, 
in order to marry Oetavia, the sister of Octavi- 
anus. But Oetavia was never able to gain his 
affections ; he* soon deserted his wife and re- 



turned to Cleopatra, upon whom he conferred 
the most extravagant titles and honors. In the 
war between Octavianus and Antony, Cleopatra 
accompanied her lover, and was present at the 
battle of Actium (31), in the midst of which she 
retreated with her fleet, and thus hastened the 
loss of the day. She fled to Alexandrea, where 
she was joined by Antony. Seeing Antony's 
fortunes desperate, she entered into negotia- 
tions with Augustus, and promised to make 
away with Antony. She fled to a mausoleum 
she had built, and then caused a report of her 
death to be spread. Antony, resolving not to 
survive her, stabbed himself, and was drawn up 
into the mausoleum, where he died in her arms. 
She then tried to gain the love of Augustus, but 
her charms failed in softening his colder heart 
Seeing that he was determined to carry her cap- 
tive to Rome, she put an end to her own life, 
either by the poison of an asp, or by a poisoned 
comb, the former supposition being adopted by 
most writers. She died in the thirty-ninth year 
of her age (B.C. 30), and with her ended the 
dynasty of the Ptolemies in Egypt, which was 
now made a Roman province. — 12. Daughter 
of Antony and No. 11, born with her twin brother 
Alexander in 40, along with whom she was cai- 
ried to Rome after the death of her parents. Au 
gustus married her to Juba, king of Numidia 
— 13. A daughter of Mithradates, married Ti- 
granes, king of Armenia, 

Cleopatris. Vid. Arsinoe, No. 6. 

Cleophon (Klecxpuv), an Athenian demagogue, 
of obscure, and, according to Aristophanes, ot 
Thracian origin, vehemently opposed peace with 
Sparta in the latter end of the Peloponnesiau 
war. During the siege of Athens by Lysander, 
B.C. 404, he was brought to trial by the aris- 
tocratieal party, and was condemned and put to 
death. 

[Cleopompus (KTieoTTo/xiroc:), son of Clinias, a 
leader of the Athenians in the Peloponnesian 
war.] 

[Cleosthenes (KXeoadevTjc). 1. One of the 
Spartan ephors. — 2. An Epidamnian, a celebrat- 
ed Olympian victor in the chariot-race.] 

Cleostratus (KAeoorparoc), an astronomer 
of Tenedos, said to have introduced the divi- 
sion of the zodiac into signs, probably lived be- 
tween B.C. 548 and 432. 

Clevdm, also Glevum and Glebon (now Glou- 
cester), a Roman colony in Britain. 

Clides (al Kheidec : now Cape S. Andre), " the 
Keys," a promontory on the northeast of Cy- 
prus, with two islands of the same name lying 
off it. 

Climax (KM/nat; : now Ekder), the name ap- 
plied to the western termination of the Taurus 
range,- which extends along the western coast of 
the Pamphylian Gulf, north of Phaselis in Lycia. 
Alexander made a road between it and the sea. 
There were other mountains of the same name in 
Asia and Africa. 

Climberrum. Vid. Auscr. 

Clinias (KXeiviac) 1. Father of the famous 
Alcibiades, fought at Artemisium B.C. 480, in 
a ship built and manned at his own expense : 
he fell 447, at the battle of Coronea. — 2. A 
younger brother of the famous Alcibiades. — 3. 
Father of Aratus of Sicyon, was murdered by 
Abantidas, who seized the tyranny, 264. — i. A 
213 



CLIO. 

Pythagorean philosopher of Tarentum, a con- 
temporary and friend of Plato. [A fragment 
of his writings, preserved by Stobaeus, is given in 
Orelli's Opusc. Grcec. Vett. Sent, ii., p. 324.] 
Clio. Vid. Mvsm. 

Clisthenes (Oei<T0£V»?f). 1. Tyrant of Sic- 
yon. In B.C. 595, he aided the Amphictyons 
in the sacred war against Cirrha, which ended, 
after ten years, in the destruction of the guilty 
city. He also engaged in war with Argos. His 
death can not be placed earlier than 582, in 
which year he won the victory in the chariot- 
race at the Pythian games. His daughter Aga- 
rista was given in marriage to Megacles the 
Alcmasonid. — 2. An Athenian, son of Megacles 
and Agarista, and grandson of No. 1, appears 
as the head of the Alcmseonid clan on the ban- 
ishment of the Pisistratida?. Finding, how- 
ever, that he could not cope with his political 
rival Isagoras except through the aid of the 
commons, he set himself to increase the power 
of the latter. The principal change which he 
introduced was the abolition of the four ancient 
tribes and the establishment of ten new ones 
in their stead, B.C. 510. He is also said to have 
instituted ostracism. Isagoras and his party 
called in the aid of the Spartans, but Clisthenes 
and his friends eventually triumphed. — 3. An 
Athenian, whose foppery and effeminate profli- 
gacy brought him under the lash of Aristophanes. 

[Clitagora (Kleirayopa), a lyric poetess of 
Laconia or Thessaly, mentioned in the Vespas of 
Aristophanes.] 

Clitarchus (Klurapxac). 1. Tyrant of Ere- 
tria in Eubcea, was supported by Philip against 
the Athenians, but was expelled from Eretria 
by Phocion, B.C. 341. — 2. Son of the historian 
Dinon, accompanied Alexander the Great in his 
Asiatic expedition, and wrote a history of it. 
This work was deficient in veracity and inflated 
in style, but appears nevertheless to have been 
much read. [The fragments of his history are 
collected by Geier, Alex. Hist. Scrip., p. 160 — 90.] 

Cliternum or Cliternia (Cliternlnus), a town 
of the Frentani, in the territory of Larinum. 

Clitomachus (K/ieirofzaxoc). 1. A Cartha- 
ginian by birth, and called Hasdrubal in his 
own language, came to Athens in the fortieth 
year of his age, and there studied under Car- 
ueades, on whose death he became the head of 
the New Academy, B.C. 129. Of his works, 
which amounted to four hundred books, only a 
few titles are preserved. His main object in 
writing them was to make known the philosophy 
of his master Carneades. When Carthage was 
taken in 146, he wrote a work to console his 
unfortunate countrymen. — [2. A Theban athlete, 
who gained several victories at the Olympian 
and Pythian games. — 3. Of iEgina, an athlete 
who conquered in wrestling at the Isthmian 
games.] 

Clitor or Clitoeium (KXrfrop : KXeiropwc : 
ruins near Mazi), a town in the north of Arcadia, 
on a river of the same name, a tributary of the 
Aroanius : there was a fountain in the neighbor- 
hood, the waters of which are said to have giveu 
to persons who drank of them a dislike for wine. 
(Ov., Met, xv., 322.) 

Clitumnus (now Glitum.no), a small river in 
Umbria, springs from a beautiful rock in a grove 
of cypress-trees, where was a sanctuary of the 
214 



CLUENTIUS HABITUS. 

I 

god Oliturnnus, and falls into the Tinia, a tributa- 
ry of the Tiber. 

Clitus (KXciTog or Kleiroc). [1. (Mytholog- 
ical) A Trojan, son of Pisenor, slain by Teucer j 
— 2. Son of Mantius, carried off by Aurora on 
account of his beauty.] — 3. (Historical) Son of 
Bardylis, king of Illyria, defeated by Alexander 
the Great, B.C. 335. — 4 A Macedonian, one of 
Alexander's generals and friends, surnamed the 
Black (Me/lac). He saved Alexander's life at 
the battle of Granieus, 334. In 328 he was | 
slain by Alexander at a banquet when both 
parties were heated with wine, and Clitus had I 
provoked the king's resentment by insolent lan 
guage. Alexander was inconsolable at his 
friend's death. — 5. Another of Alexander's offi- 
cers, surnamed the "White (Asvkoc), to distin- 
guish him from the above. — 6. An officer who 
commanded the Macedonian fleet for Antipater 
in the Lamian war, 323, and defeated the Athe- 
nian fleet. In 321 he obtained from Antipater 
the satrapy of Lydia, from which he was ex- 
pelled by Antigonus, 319. He afterward com- 
manded the fleet of Polysperchon, and was at 
first successful, but his ships were subsequently 
destroyed by Antigonus, and he was killed on 
shore, 318. 

Cloactna or Cluacina, the " Purifier" (from 
chare or cluere, " to wash" or " purify"), a sur- 
name of Venus at Rome. 

[Cloanthes, one of the followers of JEneas, 
from whom the Eoman Cluentii pretended to de- 
duce the origin of their name and family.] 

[Clodia. Vid. Claudia.] 

Clodius, another form of the name Clavdim, \ 
just as we find both caudex and codex, claustrum j 
and clostrum, cauda and coda. Vid. Claudius. 

Clodius Albinus. Vid. Albinus. 

Clodius Macer. Vid. Macer. 

Clcslia, a Roman virgin, one of the hostages 
given to Porsena, is said to have escaped from 
the Etruscan camp, and to have swum across 
the Tiber to Rome. She was sent back by the 
Romans to Porsena, who was so struck with her 
gallant deed that he not only set her at liberty, 
but allowed her to take with her a part of the 
hostages. Porsena also rewarded her with a 
horse adorned with splendid trappings, and the 
Romans with the statue of a female on horseback, 
which was erected in the Sacred Way. 

Clcslia or Cluilia Gens, of Alban origin, said | 
to have been received among the patricians on 
the destruction of Alba. A few of its members, 
with the surname Siculus, obtained the consulship , 
in the early years of the republic. 

Clonas (K/kwdc), a poet, and one of the earli- 
est musicians of Greece, either an Arcadian or a 
Boeotian, probably lived- about B.C. 620. 

Clonius (KXovwc). 1. A leader of the Boeo- 
tians in the war against Troy, slain by Agenor. j 
— [2. A companion of ^Eneas, slain by Turnus. 
— 3. Another companion of jEneas, [lain by 
Messapus.] 

[Clonus, an artist mentioned by Virgil as the 
maker of a belt presented to Pallas, son of Evan- 
dei\ on which were represented in gold the fifty 
daughters of Dauaus.] 

Clota iEsTUARiuii (now Frith of Clyde), on 
the western coast of Scotland. 

Jlotho. Vid. Moir,e. 

Cluentius Habitus, A., of Larinum, accused j 



CLUNIA. 



CNOSUS. 



in B.C. 74 his own step-father, Statius Albius 
Oppianicus, of having attempted to procure his 
death by poison. Oppianicus was condemned, 
and it was generally believed that the judges 
bad been bribed by Cluentius. In G6, Cluentius 
was himself accused by young Oppianicu3, son 
of Statius Albius, who had died iu the interval, 
of three distinct acts of poisoning. He was de- 
fended by Cicero in the oration still extant. 

Clunia (ruins on a hill between Cortina del 
Conde and Pennalba de Castro), a town of the 
Arevacae in Hispania Tarracouensis, and a Ro- 
man colony. 

Clupea or Clypea. Vid. Aspis. 

Cll'sium (Clusinus: now Chiusi), one of the 
most powerful of the twelve Etruscan cities, 
situated on an eminence above the River Clanis, 
and southwest of the Lacus Clusinus (now 
Lago 'di Chiusi). It was more anciently called 
Camers or Camars, whence we may conclude 
that it was founded by the Umbrian race of the 
Camertes. It was the royal residence of Por- 
seua, and in its neighborhood was the celebrated 
sepulchre of this king in the form of a labyrinth, 
of which such marvellous accounts have come 
down to us. ( Vid. Diet, of Ant, art. Labyrin- 
thus.) Subsequently Clusium was in alliance 
with the Romans, by whom it was regarded as 
a bulwark against the Gauls. Its siege by the 
Gauls, B.C. 391, led, as is well known, to the 
capture of Rome itself by the Gauls. Clusium 
probably became a Roman colony, since Pliny 
speaks of Clusini Veteres et Novi. In its neigh- 
borhood were warm baths. (Hor., Ep., i., 15, 

Cltjsius (now Chiese), a river in Cisalpine 
Gaul, a tributary of the Ollius, formiug the 
boundary between the Cenomani and Insubres. 

Cluvius, a family of Campanian origin, of 
which the most important person was M. Clu- 
vius Rufus, consul suffeetus A.D. 45, and gov- 
ernor of Spain under Galba, A.D. 69, on whose 
death he espoused the cause of Vitellius. He 
was an historian, and wrote an account of the 
times of Nero, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. 

Cltmene (KhvfiEvn). 1. Daughter of Ocea- 
nus and Tethys, and wife of Iapetus, to whom 
she bore Atlas, Prometheus, and others. — 2. 
Daughter of Iphis or Minyas, wife of Phylacus 
or Cephalus, to whom she bore Iphiclus aDd 
Alcimede. According to Hesiod and others, she 
was the mother of Phaethon by Helios. — 3. A 
relative of Menelaus and a companion of He- 
lena, with whom she was carried off by Paris. 
— [4. Daughter of Catreus, mother of Palame- 
des. — 5. One of the Nereids enumerated by Ho- 
mer (II., xviii., 47.)] 

[Clymenus. 1. King of the Minyae, in Or- 
chomenos ; he was slain by the Thebans at a 
festival of Neptune (Poseidon) at Thebes. — 2. 
Son of Caeneus, king of Arcadia, married Epi- 
caste of Argos, by whom he had Harpalyce and 
several other children. — 3. A companion of 
Phineus at the nuptials of Perseus.] 

[Clysonymus (KXvauvv/zoc), son of Amphida- 
mas of Opus, was unintentionally slain by Pa- 
troelus, who had to seek refuge on this account 
at the court of Peleus.] 

Clyt^mnestra (KXyrat/ivijcTpa), daughter of 
Tyndareus and Leda, sister of Castor, and half- 
sister of Pollux and Helena. She was married 



to Agamemnon. During her husband's absence 
at Troy she lived in adultery with ^Egisthus, 
and on his return to Mycenae she murdered 
him with the help of iEgisthus.. Vid. Agamem 
non. She was subsequently put to death by 
her son Orestes, who thus avenged the murder 
of his father. For details, vid. Orestes. 

[Clytie (KXvria, Ion. KIvtlti). 1. Daughter 
of Oceanus and Tethys. — 2. A female beloved 
by Apollo, died from grief at the unfaithfulness 
of that god, and was changed by him into a he- 
liotrope. — 3. Mother of King Chalcon in the 
island of Cos.] 

[Clytius (KXvrioc). 1. Son of Laomedon, 
brother of Priam. — 2. Son of Alcmaeon and 
father of Piraeus. — 3. Son of the (Echaliau king 
Eurytus, slain by Metes in the Argonautic ex- 
pedition. — 4. A partisan of Phineus, slain by 
Theseus. — 5. One of the companions of ^Eneas, 
son of iEolus, slain by Turnus. Two other he- 
roes of this name are mentioned in the ^Eneid.] 

[Clytomedes (KhvTo/LiT/djic), son of Enops, 
conquered by Nestor in boxing.] 

[Clytoneus (KXvTovnoc), son of King Alci- 
nous, surpassed all his contemporaries in run- 
ning.] 

Cnemis (Kvti/j.1^), a range of mountains on the 
frontiers of Phoeis and Locris, from which the 
northern Locrians were called Epicnemidii. A 
branch of these mountains runs out into the sea, 
forming the jn'omontory Cnemides (Kvn/nldeg) 
with a town of the same name upon it, oppo- 
site the promontory Censeum in Eubcea. 

Cneph (Kv7)(j>) or Cnuphis (KvovQic), an Egyp- 
tian divinity, worshipped in the form of a ser 
pent, and regarded as the creator of the world. 

Cnidus or Gnidus (Kvidoc : KviSioc : ruins 
at Cape JCrio), a celebrated city of Asia Minor, 
on the promontory of Triopium, on the coast of 
Caria, was a Lacedaemonian colony, and the 
chief city of the Dorian Hexapolis. It was 
built partly on the main land and partly on an 
island joined to the coast by a causeway, and 
had two harbors. It had a considerable com- 
merce ; and it was resorted to by travellers 
from all parts of the civilized world, that they 
might see the statue of Venus (Aphrodite) by 
Praxiteles, which stood in her temple here. 
The city possessed also temples of Apollo and 
Neptune (Poseidon.) The great naval defeat 
of Pisander by Conon (B.C. 394) took place off 
Cnidus. Among the celebrated natives of the 
city were Ctesias, Eudoxus, Sostratus, and 
Agatharchides. It is said to have been also 
called, at an early period, Triopia, from its 
founder Triopias, and, in later times, Stadia. 

Cnosus or Gnosus, subsequently Cnossus or 
Gnossus {K.v(ja6g, Tvuauc, VLvoaaoc, Tvuaaoc : 
Kvwoioc, Kvoiaaioc : now Makro Teikho), an au- 
cient town of Crete, and the capital of King Mi- 
nos, was situated in a fertile country on the 
River C^eratus (which was originally the name 
of the town), at a short distance from the north- 
ern coast. It was at any early time colonized by 
Dorians, and from it Dorian institutions spread 
over the island. Its power was weakened by 
the growing importance of Gortyn and Cydo- 
nia ; and these towns, when united, were morf 
than a match for Cnosus. Cnosus is frequent 
ly mentioned by the poets in consequence of 
its connection with Minos, Ariadne, the Mi 
215 



COBUS. 



COLANICA 



notaur, and the Labyrinth ; and the adjective 
Cnosius is frequently used as an equivalent to 
Cretan. 

Cobus or Cohibus (KC>6o(), a river of Asia, 
flowing from the Caucasus into the eastern side 
of the Euxine. 

Cooalus (KoKa^og), a mythical king of Sicily, 
who kindly received Daedalus on his flight from 
Crete ; and, [when Minos subsequently came 
thither in pursuit of him, put that monarch to 
death.] According to others, [Minos] was killed 
by the daughters of Cocalus. 

Cocceius Nerva. Vid. Nerva. 

Coche (Kaxv), a city on the Tigris, near Cte- 
siphon. 

Cocinthum or Cocktum (now Punta di Stilo), 
a promontory on the southeast of Bruttium, in 
Italy, with a town of the same name upon it. 

Cocles, Horatius, that is, Horatius the " one- 
jyed," a hero of the old Roman lays, is said to 
aave defended the Subliciau bridge along with 
Sp. Lartius and T. Hermipius against the whole 
Etruscan army under Porsena, while the Ro- 
mans broke dosvn the bridge behind them. 
When the work was nearly finished Horatius 
sent back his two companions. As soon as the 
bridge was quite destroyed, he plunged into the 
stream and swam across to the city in safety 
amid the arrows of the enemy. The state rais- 
ed & statue to his honor, which was placed in 
the comitium, and allowed him as much land as 
he could plough round in one day. Polybius 
relates that Horatius defended the bridge alone, 
and perished in the river. 

Cocossates, a people in Aquitania in Gaul, 
mentioned along with the Tarbelli. 

Cocylium (Kokv?liov), an jEolian city in My- 
sia, whose inhabitants (KoKv?urai) are mention- 
ed by Xenophon, but which was abandoned be- 
fore Pliny's time. 

Cocytus (Kukvtoc) a river in Epirus, a tribu- 
tary of the Acheron. Like the Acheron, the 
Cocytus was supposed to be connected with the 
lower world, and hence came to be described as 
a river in the lower world. Homer (Od., x., 
513) make the Cocytus a tributary of the Styx; 
but Virgil (uSn., vi., 295) represents the Ache- 
ron as flowing into the Cocytus. 

Codanus Sinus, the southwestern part of the 
Baltic, whence the Danish islands are called 
Codanonia. 

CoDOMANNtrs. Vid. Darius. 

Codrus (KotSpof). 1. Sou of Melanthus, and 
last king of Athens. When the Dorians invad- 
ed Attica from Peloponnesus (about B.C. 1068 
according to mythical chronology), an oracle 
declared that they should be victorious if the 
life of the Attic king was spared. Codrus there- 
upon resolved to sacrifice himself for his coun- 
try. He entered the camp of the enemy in dis- 
guise, commenced quarrelling with the soldiers, 
and was slain in the dispute. When the Dori- 
ans discovered the death of the Attic king, the}' 
returned home. Tradition adds, that as no one 
was thought worthy to succeed such a patriotic 
king, the kingly dignity was abolished, and Me- 
don, sou of Codrus, was appointed archon for life 
instead. — 2. A Roman poet, ridiculed by Virgil. 
Juvenal also speaks of a wretched poet of the 
same name. The name is probably fictitious, 
and appears to have been applied by the Roman 
216 



poets to those poetasters who annoyed other 
people by reading their productions to them. 

Ccsla (ra KolXa ~7js EvCoiag), " the Hollows 
of Eubcea," the western coast of Euboea, be- 
tween the promontories Caphareus and Cher- 
sonesus, very dangerous to ships : here a part 
of the Persian fleet was wrecked, B.C. 480. 

Ccele (KolXri), an Attic demus belonging to 
the tribe Hippothoontis, a little way beyond the 
Melitian gate at Athens: here Cimon and Thu- 
cydides were buried. 

CtELESYRiA (ti KoiTir) J,vpia, i. e., Hollow Syr- 
ia), was the name given after the Macedonian 
conquest to the great valley (M-Bukaa) between 
the two ranges of Mount Lebanon (Libauus 
and Anti-Libanus), in the south of Syria, bor- 
dering upon Phoenicia on the west, and Pales- 
tine on the south. In the wars between the 
Ptolemies and the Seloucidas, the name was ap- 
pbed to the whole of the southern portion of 
Syria, which became subject for some time to 
the kings of Egypt; but, under the Romans, 
when Phoenicia and Judaea were made distinct 
provinces, the name of Ccelesyria was confined 
to Ccelesyria proper, together with the district 
east of Anti-Libanus, about Damascus, and a 
portion of Palestine east of the Jordan; and 
this is the most usual meaning of the term. 
Under the later emperors it was considered as 
a part of Phoenicia, and was called Phcenice 
Libanesia. The country was for the most part 
fertile, especially the eastern district about the 
River Chrysorrhoas : the valley of Ccelesyria 
proper was watered by the Leontes. The in- 
habitants were a mixed people of Syrians, Phoe- 
nicians, and Greeks, called Syrophcenicians (2u- 

pO(j>OLViKE£), 

CoeLET^E or CcelaletjE, a people of Thrace, 
divided into Majores and Miuores, in the district 
Coeletica, between the Hebrus and the Gulf of 
Melas. 

Ccslius. Vid. Cjelius. 

Coelossa (KocXuaaa), a mountain in the Sicy- 
onian territory, near Phlius, an offshoot of the 
Arcadian mountain Cyllene. 

Coelus (KoZAoc Mfi?jv) or Ccela (KoI?m), a sea- 
port town in the Thracian Chersonese, near 
which was the Kwof cijjxa, or the grave of Hec- 
uba. Vid. Cynossema. 

Ccenus (Koivog), son-in-law of Parmenion, 
one of the ablest generals of Alexander the 
Great, died on the Hyphasis, B.C. 327. 

Ccen'yra (Koivvpa), a place in the island Tha- 
sos, opposite Samothrace. 

[Ccsranus (Koipavog). 1. A Lycian, slain by 
Ulysses in the Trojan war. — 2. Charioteer of 
Meriones, slain by Hector. — 3. A Stoic philoso- 
pher, flourished in the reign of the Emperor 
Nero.] 

[Cceus (KoZof), son of Uranus (Ccelus) and 
Ga?a (Terra), one of the most powerful of the 
Titans.] 

Coes (K<j;/c), of Mytilene, dissuaded Darius 
Hystaspis, in his Scythian expedition, from 
breaking up his bridge of boats over the Danube. 
For this good counsel he was rewarded by Da- 
rius with the tyranny of Mytilene. On the 
breaking out of the Ionian revolt, B.C. 501, he 
was stoucd to death by the MytilenaDans. 

[Colanica (now Lanark), a city of the Dam- 
nii in Britannia Barbara.] 



COLAPIS. 



COLUMELLA, L. JUNIUS. 



Colapis (KoXuip in Dion Cass. : now Kulpa), a 
river in Pannonia, flows into the Savus: on it 
dwelt the Colapiani. 

Colchis (KoXxig '■ KoA^of), a country of Asia, 
[comprising the modern Mingrelia and part of 
Imireti], bounded on the west by the Euxine, on 
the north by the Caucasus, on the east by Iberia ; 
on the south and southwest the boundaries were 
somewhat indefinite, and were often considered 
to extend as far as Trapezus (now Trebizond). 
The land of Colchis (or -<Ea) and its river Phasis 
are famous in the Greek mythology. Vid. Ar- 
gonauts. The name of Colchis is first mentioned 
by ^Eschylus and Pindar. The historical ac- 
quaintance of the Greeks with the country may 
be ascribed to the commerce of the Milesians. 
It was a very fertile country, and yielded tim- 
ber, pitch, hemp, flax, and wax, as articles of 
commerce ; but it was most famous for its man- 
ufactures of linen, on account of which, and of 
certain physical resemblances, Herodotus sup- 
posed the Colchians to have been a colony from 
Egypt. The laud was governed by its native 
princes until Mithradates Eupator made it sub- 
ject to the kingdom of Pontus. After the Mith- 
radatic war it was overrun by the Eomans, but 
they did not subdue it till the time of Trajan. 
Under the later emperors the country was called 
Lazica, from the name of one of its principal 
tribes, the Lazi. 

Comas (KuXidg), a promontory on the western 
coast of Attica, twenty stadia south of Phalerum, 
with a temple of Aphrodite, where some of the 
Persian ships were cast after the battle of Sa- 
lamis. Colias is usually identified with the 
cape called the Three Towers, {Tpecg TLvpyoi), 
but it ought to be placed southeast, near "Aycog 
KoGfidg. 

Collatia (Collatinus). 1. (Now Castellaccio), 
a Sabine town in Latium, near the right bank 
of the Anio, taken by Tarquinius Priseus. — 2. A 
town in Apulia, only mentioned under the em- 
pire. 

Collatinus, L. Tarquinius, son of Egerius, and 
nephew of Tarquinius Priseus, derived the sur- 
name Collatinus from the town Collatia, of which 
his father had been appointed governor. He 
was married to Lucretia, and it was the rape of 
the latter by Sextus Tarquinius that led to the 
dethronement of Tarquinius Superbus. Collati- 
nus and L Junius Brutus were the first consuls ; 
but, as the people could not endure the rule of 
any of the hated race of the Tarquins, Collatinus 
resigned his office, and retired from Rome to La- 
vinium. 

Collina Porta. Vid. Roma. 

Collytus (KoXXvtoc, also KoXwrog : KoXXv- 
Tev(), a demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe 
iEgeis, was included within the walls of Athens, 
and formed one of the districts into which the 
city was divided: it was the demus of Plato, and 
the residence of Timon the misanthrope. 

Coloe (KoXon), a lake in Lydia, generally 
called Qygcea. Vid. Gygsa Palus.] 

Colons (KoXuva'i), a small town in the Troad, 
mentioned in Greek history, but destroyed before 
the time of Pliny. 

Colonia Agrippina or Agrippinensis (now 
Cologne on the Rhine), originally the chief town 
of the Ubii, and called Oppidum or Civitas Ubio- 
rum, was a place of small importance till A.D. 



j 51, when a Roman colony was planted in the 
| town by the Emperor Claudius, at the instigation 
of his wife Agrippina, who was born here, and 
from whom it derived its new name. Its inhab- 
itants received the jus Italicum. It soon became 
a large and flourishing city, and was the capital 
of Lower Germany. At Cologne there are still 
several Roman remains, an ancient gate with the 
inscription C. 0. A. A., i. e., Colonia Claudia 
Augusta Agrippinensis, the foundations of the 
Roman walls, &a. 

Colonia Equestris. Vid. Noviodunum. 
Colonus (KoXavog ■ KoXuvevg, -vtrng, -vidrng), 
a demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe iEgeis, 
afterward to the tribe Antiochis, ten stadia, or a 
little more than a mile, northwest of Athens ; 
near the Academy, lying on and round a hill ; 
celebrated for a temple of Neptune (Poseidon) 
(hence called KoXuvog "lmreiog), a grove of the 
Eumenides, and the tomb of (Edipus. Sophocles, 
who was a native of this demus, has described 
the scenery and religious associations of the spot 
in his (Edipus Coloneus. There was a hill at 
Athens called Colonus Agorseus (Ko?iovdg 6 
dyopalog). 

Colophon (KoXocfiuv : ruins at Zille), one of 
the twelve Ionian cities of Asia Minor, was said 
to have been founded by Mopsus, a grandson of 
Tiresias. It stood about two miles from the 
coast, on the River Halesus, which was famous 
for the coldness of its water, between Lebedus 
and Ephesus, one hundred and twenty stadia 
(twelve geographical miles) from the former, and 
seventy stadia (seven geograpical miles) from the 
latter: its harbor was called Notium. It was 
one of the most powerful members of the Ionian 
confederacy, possessing a considerable fleet and 
excellent cavalry ; but it suffered greatly in war, 
being taken at different times by the Lydians, 
the Persians, Lysimachus, and the Cilician pi 
rates. It was made a free city by the Romans 
after their war with Antiochus the Great. Be- 
sides claiming to be the birth-place of Homer, 
Colophon was the native city of Mimnermus, 
Hermesianax, and Nicander. It was also cele- 
brated for the oracle of Apollo Clarius in its 
neighborhood. Vid. Clarus. 

Colosss (KoXoocai, afterward KoXaooal : Ko- 
Xoaanvog, Strab., KoXoooaevg, New Testament ; 
ruins at Khonas), a city of Great Phrygia, on the 
River Lycus, once of great importance, but so re- 
duced by the rise of the neighboring cities of La- 
odicea and Hierapolis that the later geographers 
do not even mention it, and it might have been 
forgotten but for its place in the early history 
of the Christian Church. In the Middle Ages it 
was called Xuvai, and hence the modern name 
of the village on its site. 

Colotes (KoXuTrjg). 1. Of Lampsacus, a hear- 
er of Epicurus, against whom Plutarch wrote two 
of his works. — 2. A sculptor of Paros, floui'ished 
B.C. 444, and assisted Phidias in executing the 
colossus of Jupiter (Zeus) at Olympia. — [3. A 
painter of Teos, a contemporary and rival of Ti- 
manthes, B.C. 396.] 

Columella, L. Junius ModerAtus, a native of 
Gades in Spain, and a contemporary of Seneca. 
We have no particulars of his life ; it appears, 
from his own account, that at some period of his 
life he visited Syria and Cilicia ; but Rome ap- 
pears to have been his ordinary residence. He 
217 



COLUMNS HERCTJLIS. 



COMUM. 



wrote a work upon agriculture (Be Re Rustica), 
in twelve books, which is still extant. It treats 
not only of agriculture proper, but of the culti- 
vation of the vine and the olive, of gardening, of 
rearing cattle, of bees, &c. The tenth book, 
which treats of gardening, is composed in dacty- 
lic hexameters, and forms a sort of supplement 
to the Georgics. There is also extant a work 
De Arboribus, in one book. The style of Colu- 
mella is easy and ornate. The best edition of his 
works is by Schneider, in the Scriptores Rei Rus- 
tics, 4 vols. 8vo, Lips., 1794. 

Columns Herculis. Vid. Abtla, Calpe. 

Coluthus (KoXovdog), a Greek epic poet of 
Lycopolis in Egypt, lived at the beginning of 
the sixth century of our era. He is the author 
of an extant poem on "the Rape of Helen" 
('EXevrjs up-xayri), consisting of three hundred and 
ninety-two hexameter lines. Edited by Bekker, 
Berl, 1816, and Schaefer, Lips., 1825. 

[Colymbas (KoXvfiSdg), one of the daughters 
of Pierus. Vid. Pierides.] 

COLTTTUS. Vid. CoiXYTUS. 

Oomana (Ko/iava). 1. C. Pontica (ruins at 
Guminik), a flourishing city of Pontus, upon the 
River Iris, celebrated for its temple of Diana 
(Artemis) Tauriea, the foundation of which tra- 
dition ascribed to Orestes. The high-priests of 
this temple took rank next after the king, and 
their domain was increased by Pompey after the 
Mithradatic war. — 2. Cappadocle, or C. Chryse 
(now Bostan), lay in a narrow valley of the Anti- 
Taurus, in Cataonia, and was also celebrated for 
a temple of Diana (Artemis) Tauriea, the found- 
ation of which was likewise ascribed by tradition 
to Orestes. 

[Comarus (Kofiapog), a harbor of Epirus, on 
the Ambraeius Sinus, in the district of Molossis.] 

Combrea (K6fi6peia), a town in the Macedonian 
district of Crosssea. 

[Cometes (Kofijjrijc). 1. Father of the Argo- 
naut Asterion — 2. One of the Lapithse, slain at 
the marriage festival of Pirithous.J 

Cominium, a town in Samnium, destroyed by 
the Romans in the Samnite wars. 

[Cominids, P. 1. A Roman knight, who, with 
his brother L. or O, accused C. Cornelius of ma- 
jestas, B.C. 66 : the matter did not come to trial, 
but next year they renewed the accusation, and 
Cornelius, who was defended by Cicero, was ac- 
quitted. The speech delivered by Cominius was 
extant in the time of Asconius, who praises it ; 
Cominius is also well spoken of by Cicero as a 
lively and clear speaker. — 2. One of Csesar's offi- 
cers, taken prisoner near Thapsus, in crossing 
over to Africa, B.C. 47.] 

Commaqene (K.oufiayj]v-ii), the northeastern- 
most district of Syria, was bounded on the east 
and southeast by the Euphrates, on the north 
and northwest by the Taurus, and on the south 
by Cyrrhestice. It formed a part of the Greek 
kingdom of Syria, after the fall of which it main- 
tained its independence under a race of kings who 
appear to have been a branch of the family of the 
Seleucidse, and was not united to the Roman 
Empire till the reign of Vespasian. Under Con- 
stantine, if not earlier, it was made a part of 
Cyrrhestice. The district was remarkable for its 

rtility. 

Commius, king of the Atrebates, was advanced 
to that dignity by Caesar, who had great confi- 
218 



dence in him. He was sent by Csesar to Brit- 
ain to accompany the ambassadors of the Brit- 
ish states on their return to their native coun- 
try, but he was cast into chains by the Britons, 
and was not released till the Britons had been 
defeated by Cassar, and found it expedient to sue 
for peace. In B.C. 52 he joined the other Gauls 
in their great revolt against the Romans, and 
continued in arms even after the capture of Ale- 
sia. 

Commodus, L. CeionIus, was adopted by Ha 
diian, A.D. 136, when he took the name of L 
iELics Verus CjEsar. His health was weak ; ho 
died on the first of January, 138, and was iuterrea 
in the mausoleum of Hadrian. His son, L. Aure 
lius Verus, was the colleague of Antoninus Pius 
in the empire. Vid. Verus. 

Commodus, L AurelJus, Roman emperor A.D 
180-192, son of M. Aurelius and the youngei 
Faustina, was born at Lanuvium 161, and wa; 
thus scarcely twenty when he succeeded to the 
empire. He was an unworthy son of a noble 
father. Notwithstanding the great care which 
his father had bestowed upon his education, he 
turned out one of the most sanguinary and licen- 
tious tyrants that ever disgraced a throne. It 
was after the suppression of the plot against his 
life, which had been organized by his sister Lu- 
cilla, 183, that he first gave uncontrolled sway 
to his ferocious temper. He resigned the gov- 
ernment to various favorites, who followed each 
other in rapid succession (Perennis, Oleander, 
Lsetus, and Eclectus), and abandoned himself 
without interruption to the most shameless de- 
bauchery. But he was at the same time the 
slave of the most childish vanity, and sought to 
gain popular applause by fighting as a gladiator, 
and slew many thousands of wild beasts in the 
amphitheatre with bow and spear. In consequence 
of these exploits he assumed the name of Hercu- 
les, and demanded that he should be worshipped 
as that god, 191. In the following year his con- 
cubine Marcia found on his tablets, while he was 
asleep, that she was doomed to perish, along 
with Lsetus and Eclectus, and other leading men 
in the state. She forthwith administered poison 
to him ; but, as its operation was slow, Narcissus, 
a celebrated athlete, was introduced, and by him 
Commodus was strangled on the 31st of Decem- 
ber, 192. 

Comnena. Vid. Anna Comnena. 

Complutum (now Alcala de Henares), a town 
of - the Carpetani in Hispania Tarraeonensis, be- 
tween Segovia and Bilbilis. 

Compsa (Compsanus : now Conza), a town of 
the Hirpini in Samnium, near the sources of the 
Aufidus. 

Comum (Comensis: now Como), a town in 
Gallia Cisalpina, at the southern extremity of 
the western branch of the Lacus Larius (now 
Lago di Como). It was originally a town of the 
Insubrian Gauls, and was colonized by Pom- 
peius Strabo, by Cornelius Seipio, and by Julius 
Csesar. Csesar settled there six thousand col- 
onists, among whom were five hundred distin- 
guished Greek families ; and this new popula 
tion so greatly exceeded the number of the old 
inhabitants, that the town was called Novum 
Comum, a name, however, which it did not re- 
tain. Comum was a place of importance, and 
carried on considerable commerce with tha 



COMUS. 



CONSTANTIA, 



noi th. It was celebrated for its iron manufac- 
tories ; it was the birth-place of the younger 
Pliny. 

[Conus (Ku/zof), in later antiquity god of fes- 
tive mirth and joy, was represented as a winged 
youth.] 

[Conca.ni, a people of Hispania among the 
Cantabri ; said by Horace to delight in the blood 
of horses (Od., 3, 4, 34): their chief city was 
Concana (now Santillana or Onis).] 

Concordia, a Roman goddess, the personifi- 
cation of concord, had several temples at Rome. 
The earliest was built by Camillus in commem- 
oration of the reconciliation between the patri- 
cians and plebeians, after the enactment of the 
Licinian rogations, B.C. ' 367. In this temple 
the senate frequently met. Concordia is rep- 
resented on coins as a matron, holding in her 
left hand a cornucopia, and in her right either 
an olive branch or a patera. 

Condate, the name of many Celtic towns, 
said to be equivalent in meaning to Confluentes, 
i. e., the union of two rivers. 

[CoNDIVICNUJI. Vid. Namnetes.] 

[Condochates, a navigable tributary of the 
Ganges in India intra Gangem.] 

CondrUsi, a German people in Gallia Belgica, 
the dependents of the Treviri, dwelt between 
the Eburones and the Treviri in the district of 
Condros, on the Maas and Ourthe. 

Confluentes (now Coblenz), a town in Ger- 
many, at the confluence of the Moselle and the 
Rhine. 

[Conii, a people of Hispania, west of the Co- 
lumnas Hereulis.] 

[Conimbriga (now Goimbra), a town of Lusi- 
tania.] 

Conisalus (Kovlaako^), a deity worshipped 
at Athens along with Priapus. 

[Conistorgis (Kov'wrupyic), the ancient capi- 
tal of the Conii in Lusitania.] 

[Conna, Conni, or Conium (Koviov tt6?lic, 
Hierocl, not far from the modern Altun-Tash), 
a city of Phrygia Palatiana.] 

Conon (Kovuv). 1. A distinguished Athenian 
general, held several important commands in 
the latter part of the Peloponnesian war. After 
the defeat of the Athenians by Lysander at JSgos 
Potami (B.C. 405), Conon, who was one of the 
generals, escaped with eight ships, and took ref- 
uge with Evagoras in Cyprus, where he remain- 
ed for some years. He was subsequently ap- 
pointed to the command of the Persian fleet 
along with Pharnabazus, and in this capacity 
was able to render the most effectual service 
to his native country. In 394 he gained a de- 
cisive victory over Pisander, the Spartan ad- 
miral, off Cnidus. After clearing the iEgean 
of the Spartans, he returned to Athens in 393, 
and commenced restoring the long walls and the 
fortifications of Piraeus. When the Spartans 
opened their negotiations with Tiribazus, the 
Persian satrap, Conon was sent by the Atheni- 
ans to counteract the intrigues of Antalcidas, 
but was thrown into prison by Tiribazus. Ac- 
cording to some accounts, he was sent into the 
interior of Asia, and there put to death ; but 
according to the most probable account, he 
escaped to Cyprus, where he died. — 2. Son of 
Timotheus, grandson of the preceding, lived 
about 318. — 3. Of Samos, a distinguished mathe- 



matician and astronomer, lived in the time of 
the Ptolemies Philadelphus and Euergetes (B. 
C. 283-222), and was the friend of Archimedes, 
who praises him in the highest terms. None 
of his works are preserved. — 4. A grammarian 
of the age of Augustus, author of a work enti- 
tled Linyfiauc, a collection of fifty narratives re- 
lating to the mythical and heroic period. An 
epitome of the work is preserved by Photius. 
— [Editions; By Teucher, Lips., 1802; and by 
Westermann in Scriptores Poeticce Histories. 
Grceci, Brunsvigae, 1843.] 

Conopa (Kovuxa : Kuvcotzsvc;, -tt'itv^, Traloc), 
a village in jEtolia, on the Achelous, enlarged 
by Arsinoe, wife of Ptolemy II., and called after 
her name. 

Consentes Dn, the twelve Etruscan gods 
who formed the council of Jupiter. They con- 
sisted of six male and six female divinities : we 
do not kuow the names of all of them, but it is 
certain that Juno, Minerva, Summanus, Vulcan, 
Saturn, and Mars were among them. 

Consent! A (Consentlnus : now Cosenza), chief 
town of the Bruttii on the River Crathis : here 
Alaric died. 

Consentius, P., a Roman grammarian, prob- 
ably flourished in the fifth century of the Chris- 
tian era, and is the author of two extant gram- 
matical works, one published in the Collection 
of grammarians by Putscbius, Hanov., 1605 (Be 
Duabus Partibus Orationis, Nomine et Verbo), 
and the other (Be JBarbarismis et Metaplasmis) 
by Buttmann, Berol, 1817. 

Considics Longus, C. 1. Propraetor in Africa, 
left his province shortly before the breaking out 
of the civil war B.C. 49, intrusting the govern- 
ment to Q. Ligarius. He returned to Africa 
soon afterward, and held Adrumetum for the 
Pompeian party. After the defeat of the Pom- 
peians at Tkapsus, he attempted to fly into 
Mauretania, but was murdered by the Gaetuli- 
ans. — [2. Q. C. Gallus, a contemporary of 
Cicero, one of the judges in the case of Verres, 
praised by Cicero for his integrity and knowl- 
edge of law. — 3. P., served undej' Caesar in his 
first campaign in Gaul, B.C. 58, and is spoken 
of as an experienced soldier.] 

[Consilinum (now Consignano), a city of the 
Bruttii, north of Loeri.] 

Constans, youngest of the three sons of Con- 
stantine the Great and Fausta, received after 
his father's death (A.D. 337) Illyricum, Italy, 
and Africa as his share of the empire. After 
successfully resisting his brother Constantine, 
who was slain in invading his territory (340), 
Constans became master, of the whole West. 
His weak and profligate character rendered him 
an object of contempt, and he was slain in 350 
by the soldiers of the usurper Magnentius. 

Constantia. 1. Daughter of Constantius 
Chlorus and half-sister of Constantine the 
Great, married to Licinius, the colleague of 
Constantine in the empire. — 2. Daughter of 
Constantius II. and grand-daughter of Constan- 
tine the Great, married the Emperor Gratian. 

Constantia, the name of several cities, all of 
which are either of little consequence, or better 
known by other names. 1. In Cyprus, named 
after Constantius (vid. Salamis). 2. In Phoe- 
nicia, after the same (vid. Antabadus). 3. In 
Palestine, the port of Gaza, named after the 
219 



CONSTANTINA. 

sister of Constantine the Great, and also called 
Majuma. 4. In Mesopotamia. Vtd. Antoni- 
nopolis. 

Constantina, daughter of Constantine the 
Great and Fausta, married to Hannibalianus, 
and after the death of the latter to Gallus Cassar. 

Constantina, the city. Vid. Cibta. 

CoNSTANTINOPOLIS (KuVGTdVTWOV TTollC : nOW 

Constantinople), built on the site of the ancient 
Byzantium by Constantine the Great, who call- 
ed it after his own name, and made it the capi- 
tal of the Roman empire. It was solemnly con- 
secrated A.D. 330. It was built in imitation of 
Rome. Thus it covered seven hills, was di- 
vided into fourteen regiones, and was adorned 
with various buildings in imitation of the capi- 
tal of the Western world. Its extreme length 
was about three Roman miles; and its walls 
included eventually a circumference of thirteen 
or fourteen Roman miles. It continued the 
capital of the Roman empire in the East till its 
capture by the Turks in 1453. An account of 
its topography and history does not fall within 
the scope of the present work. 

Constantinus. 1. I. Surnamed " the Great," 
Roman emperor A.D. 306-337, eldest son of 
the Emperor Constantius Chlorus and Helena, 
was born A.D. 272, at Uaissus (now Nissa), a 
town in Upper Mcesia. He was early trained to 
arms, and served with great distinction under 
Galerius in. the Persian war. Galerius became 
jealous of him and detained him for some time 
in the East ; but Constantine at last contrived 
to join his father in Gaul just in time to accom- 
pany him to Britain on his expedition against 
the Piets, 306. His father died at York in the 
same year, and Constantine laid claim to a 
share of the empire. Galerius, who dreaded a 
struggle with the brave legions of the West, 
acknowledged Constantine as master of the 
couutries beyond the Alps, but with the title 
of Caasar only. The commencement of Con- 
stantine's reign, however, is placed in this year, 
though he did not receive the title of Augustus 
till 308. Constantine took up his residence at 
Treviri (now Treves), where the remains of his 
palace are still extant. He governed with jus- 
tice and firmness, beloved by his subjects, and 
feared by the neighboring barbarians. It was 
not long, however, before he became involved 
in war with his rivals in the empire. In the 
same year that he had been acknowledged Cae- 
sar (306), Maxentius, the son of Maximian, had 
seized the imperial power at Rome. Constan- 
tine entered into a close alliance with Maxen- 
ius by marrying his sister Fausta. But in 310 
Maximian formed a plot against Constantine, 
and was put to death by his son-in-law at Mas- 
silia. Maxentius resented the death of his fa- 
ther, and began to make preparations to attack 
Constantine in Gaul. Constantiue anticipated 
his movements, and invaded Italy at the head 
of a large amry. The struggle was brought to 
a close by the defeat of Maxentius at the village 
of Saxa Rubra, near Rome, on the 27th of Octo- 
ber, 312. Maxentius tried to escape over the 
Milvian bridge into Rome, but perished in the 
river. It was in this campaign that Constan- 
tine is said tc have been converted to Christian- 
ity. On his march to Rome, either at Autun in 
Gaul, or near Andernach on the Rhine, or at 
220 



CONSTAMTtfUS. 

Verona, he is said to have seen in the sky a 
luminous cross with the inscription ev tuvtq 
vim, By this, Conquer ; and on the night be- 
fore the last and decisive battle with Maxen- 
tius, a vision is said to have appeared to Con- 
stantine in his sleep, bidding him inscribe the 
shields of his soldiers with the sacred monogram 
of the name of Christ. The tale of the cross 
seems to have grown out of that of the vision, 
and even the latter is not entitled to credit. It 
was Constantine's interest to gain the affections 
of his numerous Christian subjects in his strug- 
gle with his rivals; and it was probably only 
self-interest which led him at first to adopt 
Christianity. But, whether sincere or not in his 
conversion, his conduct did little credit to the 
religion which he professed. The miracle of 
his conversion was commemorated by the im- 
perial standard of the Laharum, at the summit 
of which was the monogram of the name of 
Christ. Constantine, by his victory over Max- 
entius, became the sole master of the West, j 
Meantime important events took place in the 
East. On the death of Galerius in 311, Licini- | 
us and Maximinus had divided the East be- 
tween them ; but in 313 a war broke out be- 
tween them, Maximinus was defeated, and died 
at Tarsus. Thus there were only two emper- 
ors left, Licinius in the East and Constantine in 
the West ; and between them also war broke 
out in 314, although Licinius had married in the 
preceding year Constantia, the half-sister of 
Constantine. Licinius was defeated at Cibalis 
in Pannonia and afterward at Adrianople. Peace 
was then concluded on condition that Licinius 
should resign to Constantine Illyricum, Mace- 
donia, and Aehaia, 314. This peace continued 
undisturbed for nine years, during which time 
Constantine was frequently engaged in war 
with the barbarians on the Danube and the 
Rhine. In these wars his son Crispus greatly 
distinguished himself. In 323 the war between 
Constantine and Licinius was renewed. Licin- 
ius was again defeated in two great battles, 
first near Adrianople, and again at Chalcedon. 
He surrendered himself to Constantine on con- 
dition of having his life spared, but he was short- 
ly afterward put to death at Thessalonica by or- 
der of Constantine. Constantine was now sole 
master of the empire. He resolved to remove 
the seat of empire to Byzantium, which he call- 
ed after his own name Constantinople, or the 
city of Constantine. The new city was solemn 
ly dedicated in 330. Constantine reigned in 
peace for the remainder of his life. In 325 he 
supported the orthodox bishops at the great 
Christian council of Nicoea (Nice), which con- 
demned the Arian doctrine by adopting the 
word dfioovoiov. In 324 he put to death his 
eldest son Crispus on a charge of treason, the 
truth of which, however, seems very doubtful. 
He died in May, 337, and was baptized shortly 
before his death by Eusebius. His three sons 
Constantine, Constantius, and Constans suc- 
ceeded him in the empire. — 2. II. Roman em- 
peror 337-340, eldest of the three sons of Con- 
stantine the Great by Fausta, received Gaul, 
Britain, Spain, and part of Africa at his father's 
death. Dissatisfied with his share of the em- 
pire, he made war upon his younger brother 
Constans, who governed Italy, but was defeat- 



CONSTANTIUS. 



COPTOS. 



ed and slain near Aquileia. — 3. A usurper, -who 
assumed the purple in Britain in the reign of 
Arcadius and Honorius, 407. He also obtained 
possession of Gaul and Spain, and took up his 
residence in the former country. He reigned 
four years, but was defeated in 411 by Constan- 
tius, the general of Honorius, was taken prisoner 
and carried to Ravenna, where he was put to 
death. — 4. Constantine is likewise the name of 
many of the later emperors of Constantinople. 
Of these Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus, 
who reigned 911-959, was celebrated for his 
literary works, many of which have come down 
to us. 

Constantius. 1. I. Surnamed Chlorus, " the 
pale," Roman emperor A.D. 305-306, was the 
son of Eutropius, a noble Dardanian, and of 
Claudia, daughter of Crispus, brother of Clau- 
dius II. He was one of the two Caesars ap- 
pointed by Maximian and Diocletian iu 292, 
and received the government of Britain, Gaul, 
and Spain, with Treviri (now Treves), as his resi- 
dence. At the same time he married Theodora, 
the daughter of the wife of Maximian, divorcing 
for that purpose his wife Helena. As Ca?sar he 
rendered the empire important services. His 
first effort was to reunite Britain to the empire, 
which, after the murder of Carausius, was gov- 
erned by Allectus. After a struggle of three 
years (293-296) with Allectus, Constantius 
established his authority in Britain. He was 
equally successful against the Alemarmi, whom 
he defeated with great loss. Upon the abdica- 
tion of Diocletian and Maximian in 305, Con- 
stantius and Galerius became the Augusti. 
Constantius died fifteen months afterward (July, 
306), at Eboracum (now York), in Britain, on an 
expedition against the Piets, in which he was 
accompanied by his sou Constantine, afterward 
the Great, who succeeded him in his share of 
the government.— 2. II. Roman emperor 337- 

361, third son of Constantine the Great by his 
second wife Fausta. On the death of his fa- 
ther in 337, he received the East as his share 
of the empire. Upon his accession he became 
involved in a serious war with the Persians, 
which was carried on with a few interruptions 
during the greater part of his reign. This war 
prevented him from taking any part in the strug- 
gle between his brothers Constantine and Con- 
stans, which ended in the defeat and death of 
the former, and the accession of the latter to 
the sole empire of the West, 340. After the 
death of Coustans in 350, Constantius marched 
into the West in order to oppose Magnentius 
and Vetranio, both of whom had assumed the 
purple. Vetranio submitted to Constantius, and 
Magnentius was finally crushed in 353. Thus 
the whole empire again became subject to one 
ruler. In 354 Constantius put to death his cous- 
in Gallus, whom he had left in command of the 
East, while he marched against the usurpers in 
the West. In 355 Constantius made Julian, 
the brother of Gallus, Caesar, and sent him into 
Gaul to oppose • the barbarians. In 360 Julian 
was proclaimed Augustus by the soldiers at 
Paris. Constantius prepared for war and set 
out for Europe, but died on his march in Cilicia, 

362. He was succeeded by Julian. — 3. III. A 
distinguished general of Honorius, emperor of 
the West A.D. 421. He defeated the usurper 



I Constantine in 411, and also fought successfully 
against the barbarians. He was rewarded for 
these services with the hand of Placidia, the sis- 
ter of Honorius. In 421 he was declared- Augus- 
tus by Honorius, but died in the seventh month 
of his reign. 

Consus, an ancient Roman divinity, who was 
identified by some in later times with Neptune. 
Hence Livy (i., 9) calls him Neptunus Equestris. 
He was regarded by some as the god of secret 
deliberations, but he was most probably a god 
of the lower world. Respecting his festival of 
the Consualia, vid. Diet, of Ant, s, v. 

[Contestani, a people of Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, in the eastern part of modern Murcia and 
western part of Valencia : in their territory lay 
Carthago Nova.] 

Contrebia, one of the chief towns of the Celti- 
beri in Hispania Tarraconensis, southeast of Sar- 
agossa. 

Convene, a people in Aquitania near the Pyr- 
enees and on both sides of the Garumna, a mixed 
race which had served under Sertorius,,and were 
settled in Aquitania by Pompey. They possessed 
the Jus Latii. Their chief town was Lugdunum 
(now St. Bertrand de Comminges), situated on a 
solitary rock: in its neighborhood were celebra- 
ted warm baths, Aqvje Convenarum (now Bag 
neres). 

CopjH (Kuttoj : Kunaievc : near Topoglia), an 
ancient town in Boaotia, on the northern side of 
the Lake Copais, which derived its name from 
this place. It was originally situated on an isl- 
and in the lake, which island was subsequently 
connected with the main land by a mole. 

Copais (Koiratc Tduvrj), a lake in Bceotia, and 
the largest lake in Greece, formed chiefly by the 
River Cephisus, the waters of which are emptied 
into the Eubosau Sea by several subterraneous 
canals, called Katabothra by the modern Greeks. 
The lake was originally called Cephisis, under 
which name it occurs in Homer, and subsequent- 
ly different parts of it were called after the 
towns situated on it, Haliartus, Orchomenus, 
Onchestus, Copte, <Sic. ; but the name Copais 
eventually became the most common, because 
near Copa? the waters of the lake are the deep- 
est and are never dried up. In the summer the 
greater part of the lake is dry, and becomes a 
green meadow, in which cattle are pastured. 
The eels of this lake were much prized in an- 
tiquity, and they retain their celebrity in modern 
times. 

Cophen or Cophes (Ku^, Arrian., Kuipqc, 
Strab. : now Cabul), the only grand tributary river 
which flows into the Indus from the west. It 
was the boundary between India and Ariana. 

Coponius, O, praetor B.C. 49, fought on the 
side of Pompey ; he was proscribed by the tri- 
umvirs in 43, but his wife obtained his pardon 
from Antony by the sacrifice of her honor. 

Coprates {Konpdf7jg : now Abzal), a river of 
Susiana, flowing from the north into the Pasitigris 
on its western side. 

Copreus (Konpevc), son of Pelops, who, after 
murdering Iphitus, fled from Elis to Mycenae, 
where he was purified by Eurystheus. 

Coptos (Ktmroc : ruins at Koft), a city of the 
Theba'is or Upper Egypt, lay a little to the east 
of the Nile, some distance below Thebes. Un- 
der the Ptolemies it was the central point of 
221 



CORA. 



CORINNA. 



the commerce with Arabia and India, by way of 
Berenice and Myos-Hormos. It was destroyed 
by Diocletian, but again became a considerable 
place. The neighborhood was celebrated for its 
emeralds and other precious stones, and produced 
also a light wine. 

Cora (Coranus: now Cori), an ancient town in 
Latium, in the Volscian Mountains, southeast of 
Veiitras, said to have been founded by the Argive 
Corax. At Cori there are remains of Cyclopian 
walls and of an ancient temple, 

Coracesium (KopwcTjOiov : now Alayd), a very 
strong city of Cilicia Aspera, on the borders of 
Pamphylia, standing upon a steep rock, and 
possessing a good harbor. It was the only 
place in Cilicia which opposed a successful re- 
sistance to Alexander, and, after its strength 
had been tried more than once in the wars of 
the Seleucidae, it became at last the head-quar- 
ters of the Cilician pirates, and was taken by 
Pompey. 

[Coralius (Kwpa/Uoc, also Kovdpioc). 1. A 
river of Thessaly, flowing into the Peneus. — 2. A 
river of Bceotia, near Coronea, flowing into the 
Copais Lacus.] 

CorassLe (Kopaaaiai), a group of small islands 
in the Icarian Sea, southwest of Icaria. They 
must not be confounded, as they often are, with 
the islands Corses or Corsi^e (Kopaeai or Kop- 
oiai), off the Ionian coast, and opposite the prom- 
ontory Ampelos in Samo3. 

Corax (Kopaf), a Sicilian rhetorician, who' ac- 
quired so much influence over the citizens by his 
oratorical powers that he became the leading 
man in Syracuse after the expulsion of Thrasybu- 
lus, B.C. 467. He wrote the earliest work on the 
art of rhetoric, and his treatise (entitled Texvq) 
was celebrated in antiquity. 

[£!6rax (Kopaf). 1. (Now Coraca or Vardhusi 
according to Leake), a mountain in iEtolia, near 
Naupactus. — 2. (Now Cape Aynda ?), a promon- 
tory of Chcrsonesus Taurica.] 

[Corbio. 1. (Now Berga), a city of Hispania 
Tarraeoneusis. — 2. A city in the territory of the 
jEqui in Latium, captured by Coriolanus; at a 
later period by ths Volsci,] 

Corbulo, Cn. Domitius, a distinguished general 
under Claudius and Nero. In A.D. 47 he carried 
on war in Germany with success, but his fame 
rests chiefly upon his glorious campaigns against 
the Parthians in the reign of Nero. Though be- 
loved by the army, he continued faithful to Ne- 
ro, but his only reward was death. Nero, who 
had become jealous of his fame and influence, 
invited him to Corinth. As soon as he landed at 
Cenchreas, he was informed that orders had been 
issued for his death, whereupon he plunged 
his sword into his breast, exclaiming, " Well de- 
served 1" 

Corcyra (KepKvpa, later Kopicvpa : Kepuvp- 
alog : now Corfu, from the Byzantine Kopu^u), an 
island in the Ionian Sea, off the coast of Epirus, 
about thirty-eight miles in length, but of very 
unequal breadth. It is generally mountainous, 
but possesses many fertile valleys. Its two 
chief towns were Corcyra, the modern town of 
Corfu, in the middle of the eastern coast, and 
Cassiope, north of the former. The ancients 
universally regarded this island as the Homeric 
Scheria (S^Ept^), where the enterprising and 
sea-loving Phaeacians dwelt, governed by their 
222 



king Alcinous. The island is said to have alss 
borne the name of Drepane (Apeirdvri), or the 
" Sickle," in ancient times. About B.C. 7 00 it was 
colonized by the Corinthians under Chersicrates. 
one of the Bacehiadas, who drove out the Libur- 
nians, who were then inhabiting the island. It 
soon became rich and powerful by its extensive 
commerce ; it founded many colonies on the oppo- 
site coast, Epidamnus, Apollonia, Leucas, Anac- 
torium ; and it exercised such influence in the 
Ionian and Adriatic Seas as to become a formi- 
dable rival to Corinth. Thus the two states early 
became involved in war, and about B.C. 664 a 
battle was fought between their fleets, which is 
memorable as the most ancient sea-fight on re- 
cord. At a later period, Corcyra, by invoking 
the aid of Athens against the Corinthians, became 
one of the proximate causes of the Peloponnesian 
war, 431. Shortly afterward her power declined 
in consequence of civil dissensions, in which both 
the aristocratical and popular parties were 
guilty of the most horrible atrocities against each 
other. At last it became subject to the Ro- 
mans with the rest of Greece. Corfu is at pres- 
ent one of the seven Ionian islands under the 
protection of Great Britain, and the seat of gov- 
ernment. 

Corcyra Nigra (now Curzola, in Slavonic 
KarTcar), an island off the coast of Illyricum, sur- 
named the "Black" on account of its numerous 
forests, to distinguish it from the more celebrated 
Corcyra. It contained a Greek town of the same 
name fourfded by Cnidos. 

Corduba (now Cordova), one of the largest cit- 
ies in Spain, and the capital of Baetica, on the 
right bank of the Baetis ; made a Roman colony 
B.C. 152, and received the surname Patricia, be- 
cause some Roman patricians settled there ; ta- 
ken by Caesar in 45 because it sided with the 
Pompeians ; birth-place of the two Senecas and 
of Lucan. In the Middle Ages it was the capital 
of the kingdom of the Moors, but is now a decay- 
ing place with 55,000 inhabitants. 

Corduene. Vid. Gordyene. 

Cordus, Cremutius, a Roman historian under 
Augustus and Tiberius, was accused in A.D. 25 
of having praised Brutus and denominated Cas- 
sius " the last of the Romans." As the empe- 
ror had determined upon his death, he put an 
end to his own life by starvation. His works 
were condemned to be burned, but some copies 
were preserved by his daughter Marcia and by 
his friends. 

Core (KopTj), the Maiden, a name by which Per- 
sephone is often called. Vid. Persephone. 

Coressus (KopEccoc). 1. A lofty mountain in 
Ionia, forty stadia (four geographical miles) from 
Ephesus, with a place of the same name at its 
foot. — 2. A town in the island of Ceos. Vid. 
Ceos. 

Corfinium (Corfiniensis), chief town of the Pe- 
ligni in Samnium, not far from the Aternus, strong- 
ly fortified, and memorable as the place which 
the Italians in the Social war destined to be the 
new capital of Italy in place of Rome, on which 
account it was called Italica. 

Corinna (Koptvva) a Greek poetess, of Tana- 
gra in Boeotia, sometimes called the Theban on 
account of her long residence in Thebes. She , 
flourished about B.C. 490, and was a contempo- 
rary of Pindar, whom she is said to have in 



CORINTHIACUS ISTHMUS. 



CORIOLANUS. 



structed, and over ■whom she gained a victory 
at the public games at Thebes. Her poems 
were written in the ^Eolic dialect. They were 
collected in five books, and were chiefly lyrical. 
Only a few fragments have been preserved ; 
[published in the collections of Schneidewin, 
Poetce Elegiaci, Gotting., 1839, and of Bcrgk, Poe- 
tce Lyrici Grceci, Lips., 1843.] 

Corinthiacus Isthmus ('ladjudg Kjp'ivdov), 
often called simply the Isthmus, lay between the 
Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs, and connected the 
Peloponnesus with the main laud or Hellas prop- 
er. In its narrowest part it was forty stadia or 
five Roman miles across : here was the temple 
of Ncptuue (Poseidon), and here the Isthmian 
games were celebrated ; and here, also, was the 
Diolcos (Ai'oA/cof), or road by which ships were 
dragged across from the Bay of Schrenus to the 
harbor of Lechasum. Four unsuccessful at- 
tempts were made to dig a canal across the 
Isthmus, namely, by Demetrius Polioreetes, Ju- 
lius Caesar, Caligula, and Nero. 

Corinthiacus Sinus (KopivdcaKoc or Kopcvdwc:, 
koIkos : now Gulf of Lepanto), the gulf between 
the north of Greece and Peloponnesus, begins, 
according to some, at the mouth of the Ache- 
lous in JStolia and the promontory Araxus iu 
Achaia, according to others at the straits be- 
tween Rhium and Antirrhium. In early times 
it was called the Crissasan Gulf (Kpianaloc koK- 
kor), and its eastern part the Alcyonian Sea (// 
'ATlKvovlg $u?Maaa). 

Corinthus (Kopwdog : Kopivdwg), called in 
Homer Ephyra ('Efvprj), a city on the above- 
mentioned isthmus. Its territory, called Co- 
kinthia (KopivBia), embraced the greater part 
of the Isthmus, with the adjacent part of the 
Peloponnesus : it was bounded north by Mega- 
ris and the Corinthian Gulf, south by Argolis, 
west by Sicyonia and Phliasia, and east by the 
Saronic Gulf. In the north and south the coun- 
try is mountainous, but in the centre it is a plain 
with a solitary and steep mountain rising from 
it, the Acrocorinthus ('AKpoKopivdos), nineteen 
hundred feet in height, which served as the cit- 
adel of Corinth. The city itself was built on 
the northern side of this mountain ; and the 
walls, which included the Acrocorinthus, were 
eighty-six stadia in circumference. It had two 
harbors, Cenchre^e and Schoznus on the east, 
or Saronic Gulf, and one, Lech^eum, on the west 
or Corinthian Gulf. Its favorable position be- 
tween two seas, the difficulty of carrying goods 
round Peloponnesus, and the facility with which 
they could be transported across the Isthmus, 
raised Corinth in very early times to great com- 
mercial prosperity, and made it the emporium 
of the trade between Europe and Asia. Its 
navy was numerous and powerful. At Corinth 
the first triremes were built, and the first sea- 
fight on record was between the Corinthians 
and their colonists the Corcyraeans. Its great- 
ness at an early period is attested by numerous 
colonies, Ambracia, Corcyra, Apollonia, Poti- 
daea, &c. It was adorned with magnificent 
buildings, and in no other city of Greece, except 
Athens, were the fine arts prosecuted with so 
much vigor and success. Its commerce brought 
great wealth to its inhabitants ; but with their 
wealth, they became luxurious and licentious. 
Thus the worship of Venus (Aphrodite) pre- 



vailed in this city, and in her temples a vast 
number of courtesans was maintained. Corinth 
was originally inhabited by the iEolic race. 
Here ruled the ^Eolic Sisyphus and his descend- 
ants. On the conquest of Peloponnesus by the 
Dorians, the royal power passed into the hands 
of the Heraclid Aletes. The conquering Dori- 
ans became the ruling class, and the ./Eolian in- 
habitants subject to them. After Aletes and 
his descendants had reigned for five generations, 
royality was abolished, and in its stead was es- 
tablished an oligarchical form of government, 
confined to the powerful family of the Bacchia- 
dse. This family was expelled B.C. 655 by Cyp- 
selus, who became tyrant, and reigned thirty 
years. He was succeeded, 625, by his son Pe 
riander, who reigned forty years. On the 
death of the latter, 585, his nephew Psammeti- 
chus reigned for three years, and on his fall in 
581, the government again became an aristocra- 
cy. In the Peloponnesian war Corinth was one 
of the bitterest enemies of Athens. In 346 Ti- 
mophanes attempted to make himself master of 
the city, but he was slain by his brother Timo- 
leon. it maintained its independence till the 
time of the Macedonian supremacy, when its 
citadel was garrisoned by Macedonian troops. 
This garrison was expelled by Aratus in 243, 
whereupon Corinth joined the Aehasan league, 
to which it continued to belong till it was taken 
and destroyed in 146 by L. Mummius, the Ro- 
man consul, who treated it in the most bar- 
barous manner. Its inhabitants were sold as 
slaves ; its works of art, which were not de- 
stroyed by the Roman soldiery, were conveyed 
to Rome; its buildings were razed to the 
ground ; and thus was destroyed the lumen to 
tins Gnccice, as Cicero calls the city. For a 
century it lay in ruins ; only the buildings on 
the Acropolis and a few temples remained stand- 
ing. In 46 it was rebuilt by Cassar, who peopled 
it with a colony of veterans and descendants 
of freedmen. It was now called Colonia Julia 
Corinthus ; it became the capital of the Roman 
province of Achaia, and soon recovered much 
of its ancient prosperity, but, at the same time, 
it became noted for its former licentiousness, as 
we see from St. Paul's epistles to the inhabit- 
ants. The site of Corinth is indicated by seven 
Doric columns, which are the only remains of 
the ancient city. 

Coriolanus, the hero of one of the most beau- 
tiful of the early Roman legends. His original 
name was G. or Cn. Marcius, and he received 
the surname Coriolanus from the heroism he 
displayed at the capture of the Volscian town 
of Corioli. His haughty bearing toward the 
commons excited their fear and dislike, and 
when he was a candidate for the consulship 
they refused to elect him. After this, when 
there was a famine in the city, and a Greek 
prince sent corn from Sicily, Coriolanus ad- 
vised that it should not be distributed to the 
commons, unless they gave up their tribunes. 
For this he was impeached and condemned to 
exile, B.C. 491. He now took refuge among 
the Volscians, and promised to assist them in 
war against the Romans. Attius Tullius, the 
king of tlie Volscians, appointed Coriolanus 
general of the Volscian army. Coriolanus took 
many towns, and advanced unresisted till he 
223 



CORIOLI. 



CORONUS. 



came to the fossa Gluilia, or Cluilian dike close 
\o Rome, 489. Here he encamped, and the Ro- 
mans, in alarm, sent to him embassy after em- 
bassy, consisting of the most distinguished men 
of the state. But he would listen to none of 
them. At length the noblest matrons of Rome, 
headed by Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, 
and Volumnia, his 'wife, with his two little chil- 
dren, came to his tent. His mother's reproach- 
es, and the tears of his wife and the other ma- 
trons, bent his purpose. He led back his army, 
and lived in exile among the Volscians till his 
death, though other traditions relate that he was 
killed by the Volscians on his return to their 
country. 

Corioli (Coriolanus), a town in Latium, cap- 
ital of the Volsci, from the capture of which, in 
B.C. 493, C. Marcius obtained the surname of 
Coriolanus. 

Cormasa (Kopfiaaa), an inland town of Pam- 
phylia or of Pisidia, taken by the consul Man- 
lius. 

Cornelia. 1. One of the noble women at 
Rome, guilty of poisoning the leading men of the 
state, B.C. 331— 2. Elder daughter of P. Scipio 
Africanus the elder, married to P. Scipio Nasica. 
— 3. Younger sister of No. 2, married to Ti. 
Sempronius Gracchus, censor 169, was by him 
the mother of the two tribunes Tiberius and 
Caius. She was virtuous and accomplished, 
and united in her person the severe virtues of 
the old Roman matron, with the superior knowl- 
edge and refinement which then began to pre- 
vail in the higher classes at Rome. She super- 
intended with the greatest care the education 
of her sons, whom she survived. She was al- 
most idolized by the people, who erected a 
statue to her, with the inscription Cornelia, 
mother of the Gracohi. — 4. Daughter of L. 
Cinna, married to C. Caasar, afterward dictator. 
She bore him his daughter Julia, and died in 
his qufestorship, 68. — 5. Daughter of Metellus 
Scipio, married first to P. Crassus, the son of 
the .triumvir, who perished in the expedition 
against the Parthians, 53. Next year she mar- 
ried Pompey the Great, by whom she was 
tenderly loved. She accompanied Pompey to 
Egypt after the battle of Pharsalia, and saw him 
murdered. She afterward returned to Rome, 
aud received from Caasar the ashes of her hus- 
band, which she preserved on his Alban estate. 

Cornelia Orestilla. Vid. Orestilla. 

Cornelia Gens, the most distinguished of all 
the Roman gentes. All its great families be- 
longed to the patrician order. The names of 
the patrician families are, Arvina, Cethegus, 
Cinna, Cossus, Dolabella, Lentulus, Malu- 
ginensis, Mammula, Merula, Rufinus, Scipio, 
Sisenna, and Sulla. The names of the ple- 
beian families are Balbus aud Gallus, and we 
also find various cognomens, as Chrysogonus, 
&c, given to freedmen of this gens. 

Cornelius Nepos. Vid. Nepos. 

Cornioulum (Corniculanus), a town in La- 
tium, in the mountains north of Tibur, taken and 
destroyed by Tarquiuius Priseus, and celebrated 
as the residence of the parents of Servius Tul- 
lius. 

Cornifioius. 1. Q., a friend of Cicero, was 
tribune of the plebs B.C. 69, and one of Cic- 
ero's competitors for the consulship in 64. 
224 



When the Catilinarian conspirators were ar- 
rested, Cethegus was committed to his care. — i 
2. Q., son of "No. 1. In the civil war (48) he 
was quaestor of Caesar, who sent him into Illyr- 
icum with the title of propraetor : he reduced 
this province to obedience. In 45 he was ap- 
pointed by Caesar governor of Syria, and in 44 
governor of the province of Old Africa, where 
he was at the time of Caesar's death. He main- 
tained this province for the senate, but on the 
establishment of the triumvirate was defeated 
and slain in battle by T. Sextius. Cornificius 
was well versed in literature. Many have at- 
tributed to him the authorship of the " Rhetor- 
ica ad Herennium," usually printed with Cic- 
cero's works ; but this is only a conjecture. The 
Cornificius who is mentioned by Quintilian as 
the author of a work on rhetoric was probably 
a different person from the one we are speaking 
of. — 3. L., one of the generals of Octavianus in 
the war against Sex. Pompey, and consul 35. 

Cornus, a town on the west of Sardinia. 

Cornutus, L. Amosus, a distinguished Stoic 
philosopher, was born at Leptis in Libya. He 
came to Rome, probably as a slave, and was 
emancipated by the Annaei. He was the teach- 
er and friend of the poet Persius, who has ded- 
icated his fifth satire to him, and who left him 
his library and money. He was banished by 
Nero, A.D. 68, for having too freely criticised 
the literary attempts of the emperor. He wrote 
a large number of works, all of which are lost : 
the most important of them was on Aristotle's 
Categories. — [Editions : by Osann, Cornutus 
(Phurnutus) de Natura Bcorum, Gotting., 1844.] 

Corosbus (KopoiSoc). 1. A Phrygian, son of 
Mygdon, loved Cassandra, and for that reason 
fought on the side of the Trojans : he was slain 
by Neoptolemus or Diomedes. — 2. An Elean, 
who gained the victory in the stadium at the 
Olympic games, B.C. 776 : from this time the 
Olympiads begin to be reckoned. 

Corone (Kopuvjj: Kopuvevg, -vaievg : now Co- 
ron), a town in Messenia on the western side 
of the Messenian Gulf, founded B.C. 3*71 by the 
Messenians after their return to their native 
country, with the assistance of the Thebans : 
it possessed several public buildings, and in its 
neighborhood was a celebrated temple of Apollo. 

Coronea (Kopuveia : Kopupaloc, Kopuvetoc, 
-viog). 1. (Near modern Gamari), a town in 
Boeotia, southwest of the Lake Copais, situate 
on a height between the rivers Phalarus and 
Coralius ; a member of the Boeotian league ; in 
its neighborhood was the temple of Athena Iton- 
ia, where the festival of the Pambceotia was 
celebrated. Near Coronea the Bccotiaus gained 
a memorable victory over the Athenians under 
Tolmides, B.C. 447 ; and here Agesilaus de- 
feated the allied Greeks, 394. — 2. A town in 
Phthiotis in Thessaly. 

Coronis (Kopww'c). 1. The mother of ^Escu- 
lapius. — 2. Daughter of Phoroneus, king of Pho- 
cis, metamorphosed by Minerva (Athena) into a 
crow when pursued by Neptune (Poseidon). 

[Coronta (Kopovra), a city of Acarnania, at 
the mouth of the Achelous.] 

[Coronus (Kopovoc). 1. Son of Creneus, and 
one of the princes of the Lapithoe ; slain by Her- 
cules. — 2. Son of Thersander, grandson of Sis- 
yphus, reputed founder of Coronea.] 



CORSETS. 



COS. 



Corses. Vid. Corassm:. 

Oorsia (Kopaeia, also Kopaiat), a town in 
Bceotia, on the borders of Phocis. 

Corsica, called Cyrnus by the Greeks (Kvp- 
vog : Kvpvtoc, Kvpvaioc, Corsus : now Corsica), 
an island north of Sardinia, spoken of by the 
ancients as one of the seven large islands in 
the Mediterranean. The ancients, however, 
exaggerate for the most part the size of the 
island ; its greatest length is one hundred and 
sixteen miles, and its greatest breadth about 
fifty-one. It is mountainous, and was not much 
cultivated in antiquity. A range of mountains 
running from south to north separates it into 
two parts, of which the eastern half was more 
cultivated, while the western half was covered 
almost entirely with wood. Honey and wax 
were the principal productions of the island ; 
but the honey had a bitter taste, from the yew- 
trees with which the island abounded (Cyrne- 
as taxos, Virg., Eel., ix., 30). The inhabitants 
were a rude mountain race, addicted to robbery, 
and paying little attention to agriculture. Even 
in the time of the Roman empire their charac- 
ter had not much improved, as we see from the 
description of Seneca, who was banished to this 
island. The most ancient inhabitants appear to 
have been Iberians ; but in early times Ligu- 
rians, Tyrrhenians, Carthaginians, and even 
Greeks (vid. Aleria), settled in the island. It 
was subject to the Carthaginians at the com- 
mencement of the first Punic war, but soon 
afterward passed into the hauds of the Romans, 
and subsequently formed a part of the Roman 
province of Sardinia. The Romans founded 
several colonies in the island, of which the most 
important were Mariana and Aleria. 

Oorsote (KopocjTr/ : ruins at Ersey), a city of 
Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, near the mouth 
of the Mascas or Saocoras (now Wady-el-Seba), 
which Xenophon found already deserted. 

Cortona (Cortouensis : now Cortona), one 
of the twelve cities of Etruria, lay northwest of 
theTrasimene Lake, and was one of the most an- 
cient cities in Italy. It is said to have been orig- 
inally called Corythus from its reputed found- 
er Corythus, who is represented as the father 
of Dardanus. It is also called Croton, Cothor- 
nia, Cyrtonium, (Sic. The Creston mentioned 
by Herodotus (i., 57) was probably Creston in 
Thrace and not Cortona, as many modern writ- 
ers have supposed. Cortona is said to have 
been originally founded by the Umbrians, then 
to have been conquered by the Pelasgians, and 
subsequently to have passed into the hands of 
the Etruscans. It was afterward colonized by 
the Romans, but under their dominion sunk into 
insignificance. The remains of the Pclasgic 
walls of this city are some of the most remark- 
able in all Italy : there is one fragment one 
hundred and twenty feet in length, composed 
of blocks of enormous magnitude. 

Corunoanius, Ti., consul B.C. 280, with P. 
Valerius Lsevinus, fought with success against 
the Etruscans and Pyrrhus. He was the first 
plebeian who was created poutifex maximus. 
He was one of the most remarkable men of his 
age, possessed a profound knowledge of pon- 
tifical and civil law, aud was the first person at 
Rome who gave regular instruction in law. 

Horvinos Messala. Vid. Messala. 
15 



Corvus, M. Valerius, one of the most illus* 
t'rious men in the early history of Rome. He 
obtained the surname of Corvus, or " Raven/' 
because, when serving as military tribune under 
Camillus, B.C. 349, he accepted the challenge 
of a gigantic Gaul to single combat, and was 
assisted in the conflict by a raven which settled 
upon his helmet, aud flew in the face of the bar- 
barian. He was six times consul B.C. 348, 346, 
343, 335, 300, 299, and twice dictator, 342, 301, 
and by his military abilities rendered the most 
memorable services to his country. His most 
brilliant victories were gained in his third con- 
sulship, 343, when he defeated the Samnites at 
Mount Gaurus and at Suessula ; and in his other 
consulships he repeatedly defeated the Etrus- 
cans and other enemies of Rome. He reached 
the age of one hundred years, and is frequently 
referred to by the later Roman writers as a 
memorable example of the favors of fortune. 

Corybantes, priests of Cybele or Rhea in 
Phrygia, who celebrated her worship with en- 
thusiastic dances, to the sound of the drum auu 
the cymbal. They are often identified with the 
Curetes and the Idtean Dactyli, and thus are 
said to have been the nurses of Jupiter (Zeus) 
in Crete. They were called Galli at Rome. 

Corycia (YLupvu'ia or Kopvuic), a nymph who 
became by Apollo the mother of Lycorus or Ly 
coreus, and from whom the Corycian cave in 
Mount Parnassus was believed to have derived 
its name. The Muses are sometimes called by 
the poets Corycidcs Nymphoe. 

Corycus (KupvKOc : Kupvjctoc, Corycius). 1. 
(Now Koraka), a high rocky hill on the coast of 
Ionia, forming the southwestern promontory of 
the Erythraean peninsula. — 2. A city of Pam- 
phylia, near Phaselis and mount Olympus: colo- 
nized afresh by Attalus II. Philadelphus ; taken, 
and probably destroyed, by P. Servilius Isauri- 
cus. — 3. (Ruins opposite the island of Khorgos), 
a city in Cilicia Aspera, with a good harbor, 
between the mouths of the Lamus and the Ca- 
lycaduus. Twenty stadia (two geographical 
miles) from the city was a grotto or glen in the 
mountains, called the Corycian Cave (Kupvuiov 
uvrpov), celebrated by the poets, and also famous 
for its saffron. At the distance of one hundred 
stadia (ten geographical miles) from Corycus 
was a promoutory of the same name. 

Corydallus (KopvSaXXoc : YLopvSaWevc), a 
demus in Attica belonging to the tribe Hippo- 
thooutis, situate on the mountain of the same 
name, which divides the plain of Athens from 
that of Eleusis. 

Coryphasium (Kopvfdatov), a promontory in 
Messenia, inclosing the harbor of Pylos on the 
north, with a town of the same name upou it 
(now Old Navarino). 

Corythus (Kopvdoc). 1. An Italian hero, sou 
of Jupiter, husband of Eleetra, aud father of 
Iasius and Dardanus, is said to have founded 
Corythus (now Cortona). — [2. Son of Marmarus, 
wounded Pelates with a javelin at the marriage 
festival of Perseus.] 

Cos, Coos, Cous (K(Df, Kuuc : Kwof, Cfiiis : now 
Kos, Stanco), one of the islands called Sporades, 
layoff the coast of Caria, at the mouth of the Ce 
ramie Gulf, opposite to Halicarnassus. In early 
times it was called Meropis aud Nymphasa. Ik 
was colonized by iEoliaus, but became a mem- 
225 



COSA. 



COTYLUS. 



ber ol the Dorian confederacy. Its chief city, 
Oos, stoood on the northeast side of the island, 
in a beautiful situation, and had a good harbor. 
Near it stood the Asclepieum, or temple of As- 
clepius (^Esculapius), to whom the island -was 
sacred, and from whom its chief family, the As- 
clepiadae, claimed their descent. The island 
was very fertile ; its chief productions were 
wine, ointments, and the light transparent dress- 
es called " Coae vestes." It was the birthplace 
of the physician Hippocrates, who was an As- 
clepiad, of the poet Philetas, and of the painter 
Apelles, whose pictures of Antigonus and of 
Venus Anadyomene adorned the Asclepieum. 
Under the Romans, Cos was favored by Clau- 
dius, who made it a free state, and by Antoni- 
nus Pius, who rebuilt the city of Cos after its 
destruction by an earthquake. 

Cosa or Cossa (Cossanus). 1. (Now Anse- 
donia, about five miles southeast of Orbetello), a 
city of Etruria, near the sea, with a good har- 
bor, called Herculis Portus, was a very ancient 
place, and after the fall of Falerii one of the 
twelve Etruscan cities. It was colonized by 
the Romans B.C. 273, and received in 197 an 
addition of one thousand colonists. There are 
still extensive ruins of its walls and towers, 
built of polygonal masonry. — 2. A town in Lu- 
eania, near Thurii. — [3. (Now Com), or Cosas, 
a river of Latium, near Frusino.] 

Coscoxius. 1. C, praetor in the Social war, 
B.C. 89, defeated the Samnites.— 2. C, praetor 
in the consulship of Cicero, 63 ; governed in the 
following year the province of Further Spain ; 
was one of the twenty commissioners in 59, to 
carry into execution the agrarian law of Julius 
Caesar, but died in this year. — 3. C, tribune of 
the plebs 59, aedile 57, and one of the judices at 
the trial of P. Sextius, 56. 

Cosmas (Koo/xac), commonly called Indico- 
I'Leustes (Indian navigator), an Egyptian monk, 
flourished in the reign of Justinian, about A.D. 
535. In early life he followed the employment 
of a merchant, and visited many foreign coun- 
tries, of which he gave an account in his To- 
~oypa<pta XpianaviK?}, Topographia Christiana, 
in twelve books, of which the greater part is 
extant 

Cosroks. L. King of Partbia. Vid. Aesa- 
ces, No. 25. — 2. King of Persia. Vid. Sassa- 

NID.E. 

Cossjia (Koaaaia), a district iu and about 
Mount Zagros, on the northeast side of Susiana, 
and on the confines of Media and Persia, in- 
habited by a rude, warlike, predatory people, 
Ihe Cossaei (KoGaaloi), whom the Persian kings 
never subdued, but, on the contrary, purchased 1 
their quiet by paying them tribute. Alexander 
conquered them (B.C. 325-324), and with dif- 1 
fieufty kept them in subjection ; after his death 
they soon regained their independence. Their j 
name is supposed to have been the origin of the 
modern name of Susiana, Khuzistan, and is pos- 
sibly connected with the Cush of the Old Testa- ] 
inent 

Cossus, Cornelius, the name of several il- j 
lustrious Romans in the early history of the 
republic. Of these the most celebrated was 
Ser. Cornelius Cossus, consul B.C. 428, who 
killed Lar Tolumnius, the king of the Veii, in 
single combat, and dedicated his spoils in the I 
226 



temple of Jupiter Feretrius — the second of the 
three instances iu which the spolia opima were 
won. 

Cossutids, a Roman architect, who rebuilt, 
at the expense of Antiochus Epiphanes, the tern 
pie of the Olympian Jupiter (Zeus) at Athens, 
about B.C. 168, in the most magnificent Corinth- 
ian style. 

Cosyra (now Pantelaria), also written Cos- 
syra, Cosyrus, Cosura, Cossura, a small island 
in the Mediterranean near Malta. 

Cothon. Vid. Carthago. 

Cotiso, a king of the Dacians, conquered in 
the reign of Augustus by Lentulus. 

Cotta, Aurelius. 1. C, consul B.C. 252 and 
248, in both of which years he fought in Sicily 
against the Carthaginians with success. — 2. C, 
consul 200, fought against the Boii and the other 
Gauls in the north of Italy. — 3. L, tribune of 
the plebs 154, and consul 144. — 4. L., consul 
119, opposed C. Marius, who was then tribune 
of the plebs. — 5. O, was accused under the lex 
Varia, 91, of supporting the claims of the Italian 
allies, and went into voluntary exile. He re- 
turned to Rome when Sulla was dictator, 82 ; 
and in 75 he was consul with L. Octavius. He 
obtained the government of Gaul, and died im- 
mediately after his return to Rome. He was 
one of the most distinguished orators of his 
time, and is introduced by Cicero as one of the 
speakers iu the Be Oratore, and the Be Natura 
Beorum, in the latter of which works he main- 
tains the cause of the Academics. — 6. M, broth- 
er of No. 5, consul 74, with L. Licinius Lucul- 
lus, obtained Bithynia for his province, and was 
defeated by Mithradates near Chalcedon. — 7. 
L., brother of Nos. 5 and 6, praetor 70, when he 
carried the celebrated law (lex Aurelia judicia- 
ria) which intrusted the judicia to the senators, 
equites, and tribuni aerarii. He was consul 65 
with L. Manlius Torquatus, after the consuls 
elect, P. Sulla and P. Autronius Paetus, had 
been condemned of ambitus. He supported 
Cicero during his consulship, and proposed his 
recall from exile. In the civil war he joined 
Caesar, whom he survived. 

Cotta, L. Auronculeitis, one of Caesar's le- 
gates in Gaul, perished along with Sabinus in 
the attack made upon them by Ambiorix, B.C. 
54. Vid. Ambiorix. 

Cottius, son of Donuus, king of several Li- 
gurian tribes iu the Cottian Alps, which derived 
their name from him. Vid. Alms. He sub- 
mitted to Augustus, who granted him the sover- 
eignty over twelve of the tribes, with the title of 
Prasfectus. Cottius thereupon made roads over 
the Alps, and erected (B.C. 8) at Segusio (now 
Suza) a triumphal arch iu honor of Augustus, 
extant at the present day. His authority was 
transmitted to his son, upon whom Claudius 
conferred the title of king. On his death his 
kingdom was made a Roman province by Nero. 

Cottcs, a giant with one huudred hands, son 
of Uranus (Coelus)and Gaea (Terra). 

[Cotvaeum or Cotiaeum (Korvdewv or Ko- 
riuttov : now Kiutayah), a city of Phrygia Epic- 
tetus on the Thymbris.] 

Cotyla, L. Varius, one of Antony's most in- 
timate friends, fought on his side at Mutina, R 
C 43. 

C5'ri-i.us(K6rv/.of), the highest peak of Mount 



COTYORA 



CRASSUS, LICINIUS. 



Ida in the Troad, containing the sources of tine 
rivers Scamander, Granicus, and ^Esepus. 

Cotyora (Korvupa), a colony of Sinope, in 
the territory of the Tibareni, on the coast of 
Pontus Polemoniacus, at the west end of a bay 
of the same name, celebrated as the place where 
the ten thousand Greeks embarked for Sinope. 
The foundation of Pharnacia reduced it to in- 
significance. 

COTYS Or COTI'TTO (KoTVC Or KoTVTTu), SL 

Thracian divinity, whose festival, the Cotyttia 
(vid. Diet, of Ant., s. v.), resembled that of the 
Phrygian Cybele, and was celebrated with licen- 
tious revelry. Jn later times her worship was 
introduced at Athens and Corinth. Those who 
celebrated her festival were called Baptee, from 
the purifications which were originally connect- 
ed with the solemnity. 

Cotys (Kotvc). 1. King of Thrace B.C. 382- 
358, was for a short time a friend of the Atheni- 
ans, but carried on war with them toward the 
close of his reign. He was cruel and sanguin- 
ary, and was much addicted to gross luxury 
and drunkenness. He was murdered by two 
brothers whose father he had injured. — 2. King 
of the Odrysse in Thrace, assisted Perseus 
against Rome, B.C. 168. His son was taken 
prisoner and carried to Rome, whereupon he 
sued for peace and was pardoned by the Ro- 
mans. — 3. A king of Thrace, who took part 
against Caesar with Pompey, 48. — 4. King of 
Thrace, son of Rhcemetalces, in the reigns of 
Augustus and Tiberius. He carried on war 
with his uncle Rhescuporis, by whom he was 
murdered, A.D. 19. Ovid, during his exile at 
Tomi, addressed an epistle to him (JSx Pont. 
ii, 9). 

Cragus (Kptlyoc), a mountain consisting of 
eight summits, being a continuation of Taurus 
to the west, and formiug, at its extremity, the 
southwestern promontory of Lycia (now Yedy- 
Booroon, i. e,; Seven Capes). Some of its sum- 
mits show traces of volcanic action, and the an- 
cients had a tradition to the same effect. At 
its foot was a town of the same name, on the 
sea-shore, between Pydua and Patara. Paral- 
lel to it, north of the River Glaucus, was the 
chain of Anticragus. The greatest height of 
Cragus exceeds three thousand feet. 

[CrambOsa (Kpu/j.6ovad). 1. A city of Lycia, 
at the foot of the Lycian Olympus, one hundred 
stadia (ten geographical miles) from Phaselis. 
— 2. An island on the coast of Cilicia, not far 
from the promontory Corycus.] 

Cranae (Kpavdn), the island to which Paris 
first carried Helen from Peloponnesus (Horn., 
iii., 445), is said by some to be an island 
off Gythium in Laconia, by others to be the isl- 
and Helena off Attica, and by others, again, to 
be Cythera. 

Cranaus (Kpavaoc), king of Attica, the son- 
in-law and successor of Cccrops. He was de- 
prived of his kingdom by his son-in-law Am- 
phictyon. 

Cranii or Cranium (Kpuviot, Kpavwv : Kpu- 
vioc : now Krania, near Argostoli), a town of 
Cephallenia, on the southern coast. 

Cranon or Crannon (Kpavuv, Kpavvuv : 
Kpavvuvioc : now Sarliki or Tzeres), in ancient 
times Ephyra,. a town in Pelasgiotis in Thessa- 
ly, not far from Larissa. 



Crantor (Kpuvrup), of Soli in Cilicia, an 
Academic philosopher, studied at Athens under 
Xenocrates and Polemo, and flourished B.C. 
300. He was the author of several works, all 
of which are lost, and was the first who wrote 
commentaries on Plato's works. Most of his 
writings related to moral subjects (Hor., Ep., 
i., 2, 4). One of his most celebrated works was 
On Grief, of which Cicero made great use in 
the third book of his Tusculan Disputations, and 
in the Gonsolatio, which he composed on the 
death of his daughter Tullia. 

CrassIpes Furius, Cicero's son-in-law, the 
second husband of Tullia, whom he married B. 
C. 56, but from whom he was shortly afterward 
divorced. 

Crassus, Licinius. 1. P., prcetor B.C. 176, 
and consul 171, when he carried on the war 
against Perseus. — 2. C, brother of No. 1., prs- 
tor 172, and consul 168. — 3. O, probably son of 
No. 2, tribune of the plebs 145, was distinguish- 
ed as a popular leader. — 4. P., surnamed Dives 
or Rich, elected pontifex maximus 212, curule 
aedile 211, praetor 208, and consul 205, with 
Scipio Africanus, when he carried on war 
against Hannibal in the south of Italy. He 
died 183. — 5. P., surnamed Dives Mucianus, son 
of P. Mucius Scaevola, was adopted by the son 
of No. 4. In 131 he was consul and pontifex 
maximus, and was the first priest of that rank 
who went beyond Italy. He carried on war 
against Aristonicus in Asia, but was defeated 
and slain. He was a good orator and jurist. — 
6. M., surnamed Agelastus, because he is said 
never to have laughed, was grandfather of Cras 
sus the triumvir. — 7. P., surnamed Dives, son 
of No. 5, and father of the triumvir. He was 
the proposer of the lex Lieinia, to prevent ex- 
cessive expense in banquets, but in what year 
is uncertain. He was consul 97, and carried on 
war in Spain for 6ome years. He was censor 
89 with L. Julius Cffisar. In the civil war he 
took part with Sulla, and put an end to his own 
life when Marius and Cinna returned to Rome at 
the end of 87. — 8. M., surnamed Dives, the trium- 
vir, younger son of No. 7. His life was spared 
by Cinna after the death of his father; but, 
fearing Cinna, he afteward escaped to Spain, 
where he concealed himself for eight months 
On the death of Cinna in 84, he collected some 
forces and crossed over into Africa, whence he 
passed into Italy in 83 and joined Sulla, on 
whose side he fought against the Marian party. 
On the defeat of the latter, he was rewarded 
by donations of confiscated property, and thus 
greatly increased his patrimony. His ruling pas- 
sion was money, and he devoted all his energies 
to its accumulation. He was a keen and saga 
cious speculator. He bought multitudes of 
slaves, and, in order to increase their value, had 
them instructed in lucrative arts. He worked 
silver mines, cultivated farms, and built houses, 
which he let at high rents. In 71 he was ap- 
pointed prastor in order to carry on the war 
against Spartacus and the gladiators ; he de- 
feated Spartacus, who was slain in the battle, 
and he was honored with an ovation. In 70- 
Crassus was consul with Pompey ; he enter- 
tained the populace at a banquet of ten thousand 
tables, and distributed corn enough to supply the 
family of every citizen for three months. He 
227 



CRASTTNUS. 



CRATHIS. 



I 



did not, however, co-operate cordially 'with Pom- 
pey, of 'whose superior influence he was jealous. 
He was afterward reconciled to Pompey by Cas- 
Bar's mediation, and thus was formed between 
them, in 60, the so-called triumvirate. ( Vid. 
p. 158, a.) In 55 Crassus was again consul 
with Pompey, and received the province of 
Syria, where he hoped both to increase his 
wealth and to acquire military glory by attack- 
ing the Parthians. He set out for his province 
before the expiration of his consulship, and con- 
tinued his march notwithstanding the unfavor- 
ible omens which occurred to him at almost 
every step. After crossing the Euphrates in 
54, he did not follow up the attack upon Parthia, 
but returned to Syria, where he passed the wiu- 
ter. In 53 he again crossed the Euphrates ; he 
was misled by a crafty Arabian chieftain to 
march into the plains of Mesopotamia, where 
he was attacked by Surenas, the general of the 
Parthian king, Orodes. In the battle which fol- 
lowed Crassus was defeated with immense 
slaughter, and retreated with the remainder of 
his troops to Carrhas (the Haran of Scripture). 
The mutinous threats of his troops compelled 
him to accept a perfidious invitation from Sure- 
Das, who offered a pacific interview, at which 
he was slain, either by the enemy, or by some 
friend who desired to save him from the dis- 
grace of becoming a prisoner. His head was 
cut off and sent to Orodes, who caused melted 
gold to be poured into the mouth of his fallen 
enemy, saying, " Sate thyself now with that 
metal of which in life thou wast so greedy." — 9. 
M, surnamed Dives, son of No. 8, served un- 
der Caasar in Gaul, and, at the breaking out of 
the civil war in 49, was prafect in Cisalpine 
Gaul. — 10. P., younger son of No 8, was Cae- 
sar's legate in Gaul from 58 to 55. In 54 he 
followed his father to Syria, and fell in the bat- 
tle against the Parthians. — 11. L., the celebrated 
orator. At the age of twenty-one (B.C. 119), 
he attracted great notice by his prosecution of 
0. Carbo. He was consul in 95 with Q. Seae- 
vola, when he proposed a law to compel all who 
were not citizens to depart from Rome : the 
rigor of the law was one of the causes of the 
Social war. He was afterward proconsul of 
Gaul. In 92 he was ceusor, when he caused 
the schools of the Latin rhetoricians to be closed. 
He died in 91, a few days after opposing in the 
senate the consul L. Philippus, an enemy of the 
aristocracy. Crassus was fond of elegance and 
luxury. His house upon the Palatium was one 
of the most beautiful at Rome, and was adorn- 
ed with costly works of art. As an orator he 
surpassed all his contemporaries. In the treat- 
ise De Oratore Cicero introduces him as one of 
the speakers, and he is understood to express 
Cicero's own statements. [The fragments of 
his orations are collected and published by 
Meyer, Oratorum Roman. Fragmenta. p. 291-317, 
Zurich, 1842.] 

Crastinus, one of Caesar's veterans, com- 
menced the battle of Pharsalia B.C. 48, and 
died fighting bravely iu the foremost line. 

[Cratveis (Kpa-auc), according to one legend, 
the mother of Seyila ; goddess of sorcerers and 
enchanters.] 

[Crat/Emenes (K parai/ihnc), a native of Chai- 
ns, founded the city of Zancle in Sicily.] 
228 



Crateriis (Kparcpoc). 1. A distinguished gen- 
eral of Alexander the Great, on whose death 
(B.C. 323) he received, iu common with Antip 
ater, the government of Macedonia and Greece 
He arrived iu Greece iu time to render effectual 
assistance to Antipater in the Lamian war. At 
the close of this war he married Phila, the 
daughter of Antipater. Soon after, he accom 
pauied Antipater in the war against the ^Eto- 
lians, and in that against Perdiccas in Asia. He 
fell in a battle against Eumenes in 321. — 2. 
Brother of Antigonus Gonatas, compiled histor- 
ical documents relative to the history of Attica. 
— 3. A Greek physician, who attended the fam- 
ily of Atticus, mentioned also by Horace (Sat., 
ii., 3, 161). 

Crates (Kparvc). 1. An Athenian poet of the 
old comedy, began to flourish B.C. 449, and was 
one of the most celebrated of the comic poets. 
He excelled chiefly in mirth and fun, and was 
the first Attic poet who brought drunken per- 
sons ou the stage. [His fragments are collect- 
ed and edited by Meineke, Comic. Gra>c. Fragm.. 
voL i., p. 78-86, edit, minor.] — 2. Of Tralles, an 
orator or rhetorician of the school of Isocrates. 
— 3. Of Thebes, a pupil of the Cynic Diogenes, 
and oue of the most distinguished of the Cynic 
philosophers, flourished about 320. Though 
heir to a large fortune, he renounced it all, and 
lived and died as a true Cynic, disregarding all 
external pleasures, and restricting himself to 
the most absolute necessaries. He received 
the surname of the " Door-opener," because it 
was his practice to visit every house at Athens 
and rebuke its inmates. He married Hippar- 
chia, the daughter of a family of distinction, | 
who threatened to commit suicide wheu her 
parents opposed her uuiou with the philosopher. 
He wrote several works which are lost, for the 
epistles extant under his name are not genuine. 
—4. Of Athens, the pupil and friend of Polemo, 
and his successor in the chair of the Academy, 
about 270. He was the teachev of Arcesilaiis, 
Theodoras, and Bion Borysth^nites. — 5. Of 
Mallus in Cilicia, a celebrated grammarian. He 
was brought up at Tarsus, whence he removed 
to Pergamos, where he founded the Psrgamene 
school of grammar," in opposition to the Alexan- , 
drean. He wrote a commentary on the Ho- 
meric poems, in opposition to Aristarchus, and 
supported the system of anomaly (avuuaAia) 
against that of analogy (uva?.oyia). He also 
wrote commentaries on the other Greek poets, 
and works on other subjects, of which ouly frag- 
ments have come down to us. In 157 he was 
sent by Attalus as an ambassador to Rome, 
where he introduced far the first time the study 
of grammar. [His fragments have been pub- 
lished by C. F. Wegener, Be Aula Attalica Lilt 
Artiumque fautrice, vol. i., Havuise, 1836.] 

[Cratesippidas (Kparricnnrtdar), a Lacedae- 
monian admiral, seized the citadel of Chios, and 
effected the restoration of the Chian exiles ; he 
was succeeded by Lysauder.] 

Crathis (Kpudic). 1. (Now Crata), a river 
in Achaia, rises in a mountain of the same name 
in Arcadia, receives the Styx flowing down from 
Nonacris, and falls into the Corinthian Gulf near 
yEgae. — 2. (Now Crati), a river in lower Italy, 
forming the boundary on the east between Lu- 
eauia and Bruttii, and falling into the sea neai ! 



CRATINUS. 



CRETA. 



Sybaris. At its mouth was a celebrated tem- 
ple of Minerva : its waters were fabled to dye 
the hair blonde. 

Cratinus (Kparivoc). 1. One of the most 
celebrated of the Athenian poets of the old com- 
edy, was born B.C. 519, but did not begin to 
exhibit till 454, when he was sixty-five years 
of age. He exhibited twenty-one plays, and 
gained nine victories. He was the poet of the 
old comedy. He gave it its peculiar character, 
and he did not, like Aristophanes, live to see its 
decline. Before his time the comic poets had 
aimed at little beyond exciting the laughter of 
their audience : he was the first who made com- 
edy a terrible weapon of personal attack, and 
the comic poet a severe censor of public and 
private vice. He is frequently attacked by Ar- 
istophanes, who charges him with habitual in- 
temperance, an accusation which was admitted 
by Cratinus himself, who treated the subject in 
a very amusing way in his Hvtlvv. This play 
was acted in 423, when the poet was ninety-six 
years of age: it gained the prize over the Con- 
nus of Amipsias and the Clouds of Aristophanes. 
Cratinus died in the following year at the age 
of ninety-seven. [His fragments are given by 
Meiueke, Comic. Grcec. Fragm., vol. i., p. 7— *78, 
edit, minor.] — 2. The younger, an Athenian poet 
of the middle comedy, a contemporary of Plalo 
the philosopher, flourished as late as 324. [His 
fragments are given by Meiueke, Comic. Grccc. 
Fragm., vol. ii., p. G84-7, edit, minor.] 

Cratippus (KpuTLTTTroc). 1. A Greek historian 
and contempurary of Thucvdides, whose work 
he completed. — -2. A Peripatetic philosopher of 
Mytilene, a contemporary of Pompey and Cic- 
ero, the latter of whom praises him highly. He 
accompanied Pompey in his flight after the bat- 
tle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48. He afterward settled 
at Athens, where young M. Cicero was his pupil 
in 44. Through the influence of Cicero, Cratip- 
pus obtained from Ca?sar the Roman citizenship. 

Cratos (Kpuroc), the personification of 
strength, a sou of [Pallas and the Oceanid 
Styx, represented as placed near the throne of 
Jupiter (Zeus) for having aided him against the 
Titans.] 

Cratylus (KpaTvXoc), a Greek philosopher, a 
pupil of Heraclitus, and one of Plato's teachers. 
Plato introduces him as one of the speakers in 
the dialogue which bears his name. 

Cremera, a small river in Etruria, which falls 
into the Tiber a little above Rome: memorable 
for the death of the three hundred Fabii. 

Gremna (Kp?j/J.va : ruins at Ghcrme), a strong- 
jy fortified city of Pisidia, built on a precipitous 
jock in the Taurus range, and noted for repeated 
obstinate defences : a colony under Augustus. 

Cremni (Kpnfivoi), an emporium of the free 
8'jythians on the western side of the Palus 
Maeotis. 

- Cremona (Cremonensis : now Cremona), a 
Romau colony iu'tha north of Italy, north of the 
Po, and at no great distance from the conflu- 
ence of the Addua and the Po, was founded, to- 
gether with Placentia, B.C. 219, as a protection 
against the Gauls and Hannibal's invading army. 
It soon became a place of great importance, and 
one of the most flourishing cities in the north 
of Italy ; but, having espoused the cause of Vi- 
tellius, it was totally destroyed by the troops of 



Vespasian, A.D. 69. It was rebuilt by Vespa- 
sian, but never recovered its former greatness. 

Cremonis Jugum. Vid. Alpes. 

Cremutius Cordus. Vid. Cordus. 

[CrenjE (Kpr/vai, i. e., the springs : now Ar- 
myro), a place near Argos Amphiloehicum in 
Acarnania.] 

[Crenides (KpTjvtdec), earlier name of the city 
Philippi. Vid. Philippi.] 

Creon (Kpeuv). 1. King of Corinth, son of 
Lyeasthus, whose daughter, Glauce or Creusa, 
married Jason. Medea, thus forsaken, sent 
Glauce a garment which burned her to death 
when she put it on ; the palace took fire, and Gre- 
on perished in the flames. — 2. Son of Mencecus, 
and brother of Jocaste, the wife of Laius. After 
the death of Laius, Creon governed Thebes for a 
short time, and then surrendered the kingdom 
to Qlldipu^, who had delivered the country from 
the Sphinx. Vid. (Edipus. When Eteocles and 
Polyuices, the sons of G2dipus, fell in battle 
by each other's hands, Creon became king of 
Thebes. His cruelty in forbidding burial to the 
corpse of Polynices, and his sentencing Antig- 
one to death for disobeying his orders, occa- 
sioned the death of his own son Hsemon. For 
details, vid. Antigone. — [3. Father of Lycome- 
des, mentioned in the Iliad. — 4. Father of Sco- 
pas, who ruled in Thessalian Cranon.] 

[Creontiades, patronymic from Creon, as Ly- 
comedes, &c. Vid. Creon, No. 3.] 

Creophylus (K.pe6(j>v?t.oc), of Chios, one of the 
earliest epic poets, said to have been the friend 
or son-in-law of Homer. The epic poem Oixa- 
Xia or OixaAcae dXuacc, ascribed to him, related 
the contest which Hercules, for the sake of Iole, 
undertook with Eurytus, and the capture of 
GSchalia. 

Cresphontes (KptjcsQovTTic), an Heraclid, son 
of Aristomachus, and one of the conquerors of 
Peloponnesus, obtained Messenia for his share. 
During an insurrection of the Messeuians, he 
and two of his sons were slain. A third son, 
jEpytus, avenged his death. Vid. ^Epytus. 

Crestonia (Kpr/oruvia : f/ KprjoruviKri), a dis- 
trict in Macedonia between the Axius and Stry- 
mon, near Mount Cercine, inhabited by the 
Creston^ei (KpTjCTuvaioi), a Thracian people : 
their chief town was Creston or Crestone 
(Kprjar6v, 'KprjGTuvrj), founded by the Pelas- 
gians. This town is erroneously supposed by 
some writers to be the same as Cortona in Italy 

Greta {Kpi]TTj : Kprjraloc : Creticus: now 
Candid), one of the largest islands in the Medi- 
terranean Sea, nearly equidistant from Europe, 
Asia, and Africa, but always reckoned as part 
of Europe. Its length from east to west is 
about one hundred and sixty miles : its breadth 
is very unequal, being in the widest part about 
thirty-five miles, and in the narrowest only six. 
A range of mountains runs through the whole 
length of the island from east to west, sending 
forth spurs north and south: in the centre of 
the island rises Mount Ida far above all the 
others. Vid. Ida. The rivers of Crete are nu- 
merous, but are little more than mountain-tor- 
rents, and are for the most part dry in summer. 
The country was celebrated in antiquity for its 
fertility and salubrity. Crete was inhabited at 
an early period by a numerous and civilized 
I population. Homer speaks of its hundred cities 
229 



CRETEUS. 



CRITIAS. 



(KprjTTj UaTouitoXtc, II. ii., 649) ; and, before the 
Trojan war, mythology told of a king Minos 
who resided at Cnosus, and ruled oyer the 
greater part of the island. He is said to have 
given laws to Crete, and to have been the first 
prince who had a navy, with which he sup- 
pressed piracy in the iEgean. After his de- 
scendants had governed the island for some 
generations, royalty was abolished, and the 
cities became independent republics, of which 
Cnosus and Gortyua were the most important, 
and exercised a kind of supremacy over the rest. 
The ruling class were the Dorians, who settled 
in Crete about sixty years after the Dorian con- 
quest of Peloponnesus, and reduced the former 
inhabitants, the Pelasgians and Achaeans, to sub- 
jection. The social and political institutions of 
the island thus became Dorian, and many of 
the ancients supposed that the Spartan consti- 
tution was borrowed from Crete. The chief 
magistrates in the cities were the Cosvni, ten in 
number, chosen from certain families : there 
was also a Gerusia, or senate ; and an Ecclesia, 
or popular assembly, which, however, had very 
little power. (For details, vid. Diet, of Ant., art. 
Cosmi.) At a later lime the power of the aris- 
tocracy was overthrown, and a demoeratical 
form of government established. The ancient 
Doric customs likewise disappeared, and the 
people became degenerate in their morals and 
character. The historian Polybius accuses them 
of numerous vices, and the Apostle Paul, quot- 
ing the Cretan poet Epimenides, describes them 
as " always liars, evil beasts, slow bellies" (Titus, 
i., 12). The' Cretans were celebrated as arch- 
ers, and frequently served as mercenaries in the 
armies of other nations. The island was con- 
quered by Q. Metellus, who received in conse- 
queuce the surname Cretieus (B.C. 68-66), and 
it became a Roman province. Crete and Cy- 
reuaica subsequently formed one province. 

Creteus or Catreus (Kpr/revc), son of Minos 
by Pasiphae or Crete, and father of Althemenes. 

Cretheus (Kprjdevc), son of ^Eolus and En- 
arete, husband of Tyro, and father of ^Eson, 
Pheres, Amythaon, and Hippolyte : he was the 
founder of Ioleus. 

[Crethon (Kpjjduv), son of Diocles of Pherte, 
slain by iEueas before Troy.] 

Cretopolis (KprjronoXic), a town in the dis- 
trict of Milyas in Asia Minor, assigned some- 
times to Pisidia, sometimes to Pamphylia. 

Creusa (Kpeovaa). 1. A Naiad, daughter of 
Oeeauus, became by Peneus the mother of Hyp- 
seus and Stilbe. — 2. Daughter of Erechtheus 
and Praxithea, wife of Xuthus, and mother of 
Achaeus and Ion. She is said to have been be- 
loved by Apollo, whence Ion is sometimes call- 
ed her son by this god. — 3. Daughter of Priam 
and Hecuba, wife of ^Eneas, and mother of As- 
canius. She perished on the night of the cap- 
ture of Troy, having been separated from her 
husband in the confusion. — 4. (Or Glauce), a 
daughter of Crcon, who fell a victim to the ven- 
geance of Medea. Vid. Creon, No. 1. 

Creusis or Creusa (Kpevoic, Kpeovaa : Kpev- 
aievg), a town on the eastern coast of Boeotia, 
the harbor of Thespiaa. 

Crimisa or Ckimissa (Kpi/iioa, Kpi/ntaaa : 
now Capo dell' Alice), a promontory on the east- 
ern coast of Bruttium, with a town of the same 
230 



I name upon it, said to have been founded by Phi- 
loctetes, a little south of the River Crimisus. 

CrimIsus or Crimissus (Kpi/uooc, Kpificaooc), 
a river in the west of Sicily, falls into the 
Hypsa : on its banks Timoleon defeated the 
Carthaginians, B.C. 339. 

Crinagoras (Kptvayopac), of Mytilene, the au- 
thor of fifty epigrams in the Greek Anthology, 
lived in the reign of Augustus. 

[Crisfina, wife of the Emperor Commodus 
having proved unfaithful, she was banished to 
Capreae, and there put to death.] 

[Crispinilla, Calvia, a Roman female of rank, 
notorious for her intrigues at the court of Nero ; 
she is called by Tacitus Nero's instructor in 
voluptuousness. Notwithstanding her intrigues 
and plots, she managed to escape with impu- 
nity, and even to be in favor in the succeeding 
reigns of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius.] 

Crispinus, a person ridiculed by Horace (Sat., 
i., 1. 120), is said to have written bad verses on 
the Stoic philosophy, and to have been surnamed 
Aretalogus. 

Crispus, Flavius Julius, eldest son of Con- 
stantine the Great, was appointed Caesar A.D. 
317, and gained great distinction in a campaign 
against the Franks and in the war with Licin- 
ius; but, having excited the jealousy of his 
step-mother Fausta, he was put to death by his 
father, 326. 

Crispcs Passienus, husband of Agrippiua, and 
step-father of the Emperor Nero, was distin- 
guished as an orator. 

Crispus, Vibius, of Vercelb', a contemporary 
of Quintilian, and a distinguished orator. [The 
few fragments that remain of his speeches have 
been collected by Meyer, Oral. Roman. Fragm n 
p. 585-588.] 

Crissa or Crisa (Kotcca, Kplaa: Kpiocaioc), 
and Cirrha (Kipfia : Kippaioc), towns in Phoeis, 
regarded by some ancient, as well as by some 
modern writers, as the same ; but it seems most 
probable that Crissa was a town inland south- 
west of Delphi, and that Cirrha was its port on 
the Crissaean Gulf. The inhabitants of the 
towns levied contributions upon the pilgrims 
frequenting the Delphic oracle, in consequence 
of which the Amphictyons declared war against 
them, B.C. 595, and eventually destroyed them. 
Their territory, the rich Crissaean plain, was 
declared sacred to the Delphic god, and was for- 
bidden to be cultivated. The cultivation of thii 
plain by the inhabitants of Amphissa led to the 
Sacred war, in which Philip was chosen general 
of the Amphictyons, 338. Crissa remained in 
ruins, but Cirrha was afterward rebuilt, and be 
came the harbor of Delphi. 

CriiiAs (Kptrtac). 1. Son of Dropides, a con- 
temporary and relation of Solon's. — 2. Son ot 
Callaeschrus, and grandson of the above, wa»- 
one of the pupils of Socrates, by whose instruc 
tions he profited but little in a moral point of 
view. He was banished from Athens, and on 
his return he became leader of the oligarchical 
parly. He was one of the thirty tyrants estab- 
lished by the Spartans B.C. 404, and was con- 
spicuous above all his colleagues for rapacity 
and cruelty. He was slain at the battle of Mu- 
nychia in the same year, fighting against Thra- 
sybulus nDd the exiles. He was a distinguish- 
ed orator, and some of his speeches were ex- 



CRITOLAUS 



CROrOK 



tant in the time of Cicero. H i also wrote po- 
ems, dramas, and other -works. Some frag- 
ments of his elegies are still extant, [and have 
been collected by Bach, Critice carmina, etc., quce 
supersunt, Lips., 1827.] 

Critolaus (KpiToTiaoc). 1. Of Phaselis in 
Lycia, studied philosophy at Athens under Aris- 
ton of Ceos, whom be succeeded as the head of 
the Peripatetic school. In B.C. 155 he was sent 
by the Athenians as ambassador to Rome with 
Carncades and Diogenes. Vid. Carneades. 
He lived upward of eighty-two years, but we 
have no further particulars of his life. — 2. Gen- 
eral of the Achaean League, 147, distinguished 
by his bitter enmity to the Romans. He was 
defeated by Metellus. and was never heard of 
after the battle. 

Criton (Kpi-ov). 1. Of Athens, a friend and 
disciple of Socrates, whom he supported with 
his fortune. He had made every arrangement 
for the escape of Socrates from prison, and tried, 
in vain, to persuade him to fly, as we see from 
Plato's dialogue named after him. Criton wrote 
seventeen dialogues on philosophical subjects, 
which are lost. — [2. A comic poet of the new 
comedy, of whose plays a few fragments remain, 
collected by Meineke, Comic. Greet: Fragm., 
Tol. ii., p. 1153-4, edit, minor.] — 3. A physician 
at Rome in the first or second century after 
Christ, perhaps the person mentioned by Mar- 
tial (Epigr., xi., 60, 6) : he wrote several medi- 
cal works. 

CriO-metopon (Kpiov /neruirov), i. e., " Ram's 
Front." 1. A promontory at the soiuth of the 
Tauric Chersonesus. — 2. (Now Capo Krio), a 
promontory at the southwest of Crete. 

CrIus (Kploc). one of the Titans, son of Ura- 
nus (Ccelus) and Ge (Terra). 

Crocooilopolis (KpoicodeiXov noTiic). 1. (Now 
Embeshunda ?), a city of Upper Egypt, in the No- 
mos Aphroditopolites. — 2. Vid. Arsinoe, No. 7. 

Crocus, the beloved friend of Smilax, was 
changed by the gods into a saffron plant. 

Crocylea (tu. KpoKvXeia), according to Homer 
(II., ii., 633), a place in Ithaca, but according to 
Strabo, in Leueas iu Acarnania. 

[Croctlion (KookvXlov), according to Thucyd- 
ides (3, 96), a place iu ^Etolia, otherwise un- 
known.] 

Crcesus (Kpoiaoc), last king of Lydia, son of 
Alyattes, reigned B.C. 560-546, but was proba- 
bly associated in the kingdom during his la- 
ther's life. The early part of his reign was 
most glorious. He subdued all the nations be- 
tween the ^Egean and the River Halys, and 
made the Greeks in Asia Minor tributary to him. 
The fame of his power and wealth drew to his 
court at Sardis all the wise men of Greece, and 
among them Solon, whose interview with the 
king was celebrated in antiquity. In reply to 
the question who was the happiest man he had 
ever seen, the sage taught the king that no man 
should be deemed happy till he had finished his 
life in a happy way. Alarmed at the growing 
power of the Persians, Croesus sent to consult 
the oracle of Apollo at Delphi whether he 
should march against the Persians. Upon the 
reply of the oracle, that, if he marched against 
the Persians, he would overthrow a great em- 
pire, he collected a vast army and marched 
against Cyrus. Near Sinope an indecisive bat- 



tle was fought between the two armies ; wLere- 
upon he returned to Sardis, and disbanded bis 
forces, commanding them to reassemble in the 
following spring. But Cyrus appeared unex- 
pectedly before Sardis ; Crcesus led out the 
forcta still remaining with him, but was defeat- 
ed, and the city was taken after a siege of four- 
teen days. Crcesus, who was taken alive, was 
condemned to be burned to death. As he stood 
before the pyre, the warning of Solon came to 
his mind, and he thrice uttered the name of So- 
lon. Cyrus inquired who it was that he called 
on ; and, upon hearing the story, repented of his 
purpose, and not only spared the life of Crcesus, 
but made him hi3 friend. Crcesus survived Cy- 
rus, and accompanied Cambyses in his expedi 
tion against Egypt. 

Crohmyon or Ceomyon (Kpofifivuv, Kpo[ivuv\ 
a town iu Megaris, on the Saronic Gulf, after 
ward belonged to Corinth ; celebrated in my- 
thology on account of its wild sow, which was 
slain by Theseus. 

[Cromna (Kpti/iva), a town and fortress on 
the coast of Paphlagonia, between Cytorus and 
Amastris.] 

[Cromni or Cromi (Kpufivoi, and in Pausanias 
Kpdfioi), a stronghold in Arcadia, on the borders 
of Messenia, in the district named from it Cro 
mItis (Kpuftlric) its inhabitants were removed 
to Megalopolis.] 

Cronius Mons (Kpoviov bpog), a mountain iD 
Elis, near Olympia, with a temple of Cronus 
(Saturn.) 

Cronus (Kpovoc), the youngest of the Titans, 
son of Ccelus (Uranus) and Terra (Ge), father 
by Rhea of Hestia, Ceres- (Demeter), Juno 
(Hera), Pluto (Hades), Neptune (Poseidon), and 
Jupiter (Zeus). At the instigation of his moth- 
er, Saturn (Cronus) unmanned his father for 
having thrown the Cyclopes, who were likewise 
his children by Terra (Ge), into Tartarus. Out 
of the blood thus shed sprang np the Erinnyes. 
When the Cyclopes were delivered from Tar- 
tarus, the government of the world was taken 
from Coelus (Uranus) and given to Saturn (Cro- 
nus), who in his turn lost it through Jupiter 
(Zeus), as was predicted to him by Terra (Ge) 
and Ccelus (Uranus.) Vid. Zeus. The Romans 
identified their Saturnus with Cronus. Vid. 
Saturnus. 

Cropia {KpuitEia), an Attic demus belonging 
to the tribe Leontis. 

[Cross^ea (Kpoaoaca), a district of Macedonia, 
on the eastern coast of the Thermaicus Sinus: 
it was also called Kpoiw'c.] 

Croton or Ceotona (Crotoniensis, Crotonen- 
sis, Crotoniata : now Crotona), a Greek city on 
the eastern coast of Bruttium, on the River 
^Esarus, and in a very healthy locality, was 
founded by the Achseans under Myscellus of 
jEgse, assisted by the Spartans, B.C. 710. Its 
extensive commerce, the virtue of its inhabit- 
ants, and the excellence of its institutions, made 
it the most powerful and flourishing town in the 
south of Italy. It owed much of its greatness 
to Pythagoras, who established his school here. 
Gymnastics were cultivated here in greater per- 
fection than in any other Greek city ; and one 
of its citizens, Milo, was the most celebrated 
athlete in Greece. It attained its greatest pow- 
er by the destruction of Sy'oaris in 510; but it 
231 



CRUSTUMERIA. 



CUALE. 



subsequently declined in consequence of the 
severe defeat it sustained from the Locrians on 
the River Sagras. It suffered greatly in the 
wars with Dionysius, Agathocles, aud Phyrrhus ; 
and in the second Punic war a considerable part 
of it had ceased to be inhabited. It received a 
colony from the Romans in 195. 

Crustomkria, -rium, also Crustumium (Crus- 
tuminus), a town of the Sabines, situated in the 
mountains near the sources of the Allia, was 
conquered both by Romulus and Tarquinius 
Priscus, and is not mentioned in later times. 

Oteatus. Vid. Moliones. 

Ctesias (KTr/aiac), of Cnidus in Caria, a con- 
temporary of Xeuophon, was private physician 
of Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he accompanied 
in his war against his brother Cyrus, B.C. 401. 
He lived seveuteen years at the Persian court, 
and wrote in the Ionic dialect a great work on 
the history of Persia (IlepaiKu), in twenty-three 
books. The first six contained the history of 
the Assyrian monarchy down to the foundation 
of the kingdom of Persia. The next seven con- 
tained the history of Persia down to the end of 
the reign of Xerxes, and the remaining ten car- 
ried the history down to the time when Ctesias 
left Persia, i. e., to the year 398. All that is 
now extant is a meagre abridgment in Photius 
and a number of fragments preserved in Diodo- 
rus and other writers. The work of Ctesias 
was compiled from Oriental sources, and its 
statements are frequently at variance with those 
of Herodotus. Ctesias also wrote a work on 
India ('Ivdiial) in one book, of which we possess 
an abridgment in Photius. This work con- 
tains numerous fables, but it probably gives a 
faithful picture of India, as it was conceived by 
the Persians. The abridgment which Photius 
made of the Persiea and Indica of Ctesias has 
been printed separately by Lion, Gottingen, 
1823, and by Bahr, Frankfort, 1824. 

Ctesibius (KtijgWioq), celebrated for his me- 
chanical inventions, lived at Alexandrea in the 
reigns of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Euergetes, 
about B.C. 250. His father was a barber, but 
his own taste led him to devote himself to me- 
chanics. He is said to have invented a clepsy- 
dra or water-clock, a hydraulic organ (vdpav'hie), 
and other machines, aud to have been the first 
to discover the elastic force of air and apply it 
as a moving power. He was the teacher, and 
has been supposed to have been the father of 
Hero Alexaudrinus. — [2. A Greek historian, 
who probably lived at the time of the first Ptole- 
mies ; according to Apollodorus, he lived to the 
age of one hundred and four years, but accord- 
ing to Lucian, to the age of one hundred and 
twenty-four.] 

Ctesiphon (KTrjoupuv), son of Leosthenes of 
Anaphlystus, was accused by iEschines for hav- 
ing proposed the decree that Demosthenes 
should be honored with the crown. Vid. Ms- 

CHINES. 

Ctesiphon {KTrjoityuv : Kr7?<7i0<ji>-noc : ruins 
at Takti Xesra), a city of Assyria, on the eastern 
bank of the Tigris, three Roman miles from Se- 
leucia on the western bank, first became an im- 
portant place under the Parthians, whose kings 
used it for some time as a winter residence, 
and afterward enlarged and fortified it, aud 
made it the capital of their empire. It is said 
232 



to nave contained at least one hundred thousand 
inhabitants. In the wars of the Romans with 
the Parthians and Persians, it was taken, first 
by Trajan (A.D. 115), and by several of the later 
emperors, but Julian did not venture to attack 
it, even after his victory over the Persians be- 
fore the city. 

Ctesippus (KTz/dix-iTog). 1. Two sons of Her- 
cules, one by Deianira, and the other by Asty- 
damia. — 2. Son of Polytherses of Same, one of 
the suitors of Penelope, killed by Philcetius, the 
cow-herd. — -[3. A Greek historian, of uncertain 
date ; Plutarch quotes his history of the Scyth- 
ians, but nothing further is known of him. — 4. A 
pupil of Socrates, who is often mentioned by 
Plato.] 

[Ctesius (Ktjjgloc), son of Ormenus, aud 
father of Eumteus, whom the Phoenicians car- 
ried off from him, and sold to Laertes in Ithaca.] 

[Ctimene (KTipiZvT)), sister of Ulysses, young- 
est child of Laertes.] 

[Cucusus (Kovaovaoc) or Cocusus (Kokkov- 
croc), a place in Cappadocia, to which St. Chry- 
sostom was banished. Vid. Chrysostomus.] 

[Cuda (now Coa), a tributary of the Durius, 
in Hispania Tarraeonensis.] 

Cularo, afterward called Gratianopolis 
(now Grenoble) in honor of the Emperor Gra- 
tian, a town in Gallia Narbonensis, on the Isara 
(now Isire.) 

Cuixijo or Culeo, Q. Terentitjs. 1. A sen- 
ator of distinction, was taken prisoner in the 
second Punic war, and obtained his liberty at 
the conclusion of the war B.C. 201. 1o show 
his gratitude to P. Scipio, he followed his tri- 
umphal car, wearing the pileus or cap of liberty, 
like an emancipated slave. Iu 18*7 he was prse- 
tor peregrinus, and in this year condemned L. 
Scipio Asiaticus, on the charge of having mis- 
appropriated the money gained in the war with 
Autioehus. — 2. Tribune of the plcbs, 58, exerted 
himself to obtain Cicero's recall from banish- 
ment. Iu the war which followed the death of 
Csesar (43), Culleo was one of the legates of 
Lepidus. 

Cum^e(K{i ( w!7 : KvfiaZoc, Cumanus). 1. A town 
in Campania, and the most ancient of the Greek 
colonies in Italy and Sicily, was founded by 
Cyme in JEolis, in conjunction with Chalcis and 
Eretria iu Eubcea. Its foundation is placed in 
B.C. 1050, but this date is evidently too early. 
It was situated on a steep hill of Mount Gaurus, 
a little north of the promontory Misenum. It 
became in early times a great and flourishing 
city; its commerce was extensive ; its terri- 
tory included a great part of the rich Campa- 
nian plain ; its population was at least sixty 
thousand ; and its power is attested by its col- 
onies in Italy and Sicily, Puteoli, Palreopolis 
afterward Neapolis, Zancle afterward Messana. 
But it had powerful enemies to encounter in 
the Etruscans aud the Italian nations. It was 
also weakened by internal dissensions, and one 
of its citizens, Aristodemus, made himself ty- 
rant of the place. Its power became so much 
reduced that it was only saved from the at- 
tacks of the Etruscans by the assistance of 
Hiero, who annihilated the Etruscan fleet, 474. 
It maintained its independence till 417, when it 
was taken by the Campauiaus, aud most of its 
inhabitants sold as slaves. From this time 



CUNAXA. 



CURT1US. 



Capua became the chief city of Campania ; and 
although Cumae was subsequently a Roman 
muuicipium and a colony, it continued to de- 
cline iu importance. At last the Acropolis was 
the only part of the town that remained, and 
this was eventually destroyed by Narses in his 
wars with the Goths. Cumae was celebrated 
as the residence of the earliest Sibyl, and as 
the place where Tarquinius Superbus died. Its 
ruius are still to be seen between the Lago di 
Patria and Fusaro. — [2. A city of iEolis. Vid. 
Cyme.] 

Cunaxa (Kovva^a), a small town in Babylo- 
nia, on the Euphrates, famous for the battle 
fought here between the younger Cyrus and 
his brother Artaxerxes Mnemou, in which the 
former was killed (B.C. 401). Its position is 
uncertain. Plutarch (Artax., 8) places it five 
huudred stadia (fifty geographical miles) above 
Babylon ; Xenophon, who does not mention it 
by name, makes the battle field three hundred 
and sixty stadia (thirty-six geographical miles) 
from Babylon. 

[Cuneus. 1. Ager (now Algarve), the south- 
ern part of Lusitania, where the Couii dwelt, 
from whom it was probably so called, and not 
from its wcdge-YC&e. shape. — 2. Promontorium (uow 
Gabo di S. Maria), the southern point of the 
Cuneus Ager.] 

[Cupencus, a Virgilian hero, one of the follow- 
ers of Turnus, slain by iEneas.] 

[Cupido. Vid. Eros.] 

Cupiennius, attacked by Horace (Sat., i., 2, 36), 
s said by the Scholiast to have been a friend of 
Augustus, but is probably a fictitious name. 

Cupka (Cuprensis). 1. Maritima (uow Ma- 
rano, at the mouth of the Monccchia), a town in 
Picenum, with an ancient temple of Juuo, found- 
ed by the Pelasgians and restored by Hadrian. — 
2. Montana, a town near No. 1, in the mount- 
ains. 

Cures (Gen. Curium), an ancient town of the 
Sabines, celebrated as the birth-place of T. Ta- 
tius and Numa Pompilius : from this town the 
Romans are said to have derived the name of 
Quirites. 

Curetes (Kovpr/TJic), a mythical people, said 
to be the most ancient inhabitants of Acarnania 
and JEtolia ; the latter country was called Cu- 
retis from them. They also occur in Crete as 
the priests of Jupiter (Zeus), and are spoken of 
in connection with the Corybantes and Idaean 
Daetyli. The infant Jupiter (Zeus) was intrusted 
to their care by Rhea ; and by clashing their 
weapons in a warlike dance, they drowned the 
cries of the child, and prevented his father Sat- 
urn (Cronus) from ascertaining the place where 
he was concealed. 

Curias. Vid. Curium. 

Curiatk, a celebrated Alban family. Three 
brothers of this .family fought with three Roman 
brothers, the Horatii, and were conquered by 
the latter. In consequence of their defeat, Alba 
became subject to Rome. 

Curiatius Maternus. Vid. Maternus. 

Guuio, C. Scribonius. 1. Praetor B.C. 121, 
was one of the most distinguished orators of his 
time. — 2. Son of No. 1, tribune of the plebs B.C. 
90 ; afterward served under Sulla in Greece ; 
was praitor 82 ; consul 76;. and after his con- 
sulship obtained the province of Macedonia, 



where he carried on war against the barbarians 
as far north as the Danube. He was a personal 
enemy of Caesar, and supported P. Clndius when 
the latter was accused of violating the sacra of 
the Bona Dea. In 57 he was appointed ponti- 
fex maximus, and died 63. He had some rep- 
utation as an orator, and was a friend of Cicero. 
— 3. Son of No. 2, also a friend of Cicero, was 
a most profligate character. He was married 
to Fulvia, afterward the wife of Antony. He 
at first belonged to the Pompeian party, by 
whose influence he was made tribune of the 
plebs, 50 ; but he was bought over by Caesar, 
and employed his power as tribune against his 
former friends. On the breaking out of the 
civil war (49), he was sent by Caesar to Sicily 
with the title of propraetor. He succeeded in 
driving Cato out of the island, aud then crossed 
over to Africa, where he was defeated aud slain 
by Juba and P. Attius Varus.' 

Curiosolit^e, a Gallic people on the ocean 
iu Armorica, near the Veneti, in the country of 
the modern Corscult, near St. Malo. 

Curium (Kovpiov : Kovpcevc : ruins near Pis- 
copia), a town on the southern coast of Cyprus, 
near the promontory Curias, west of the mouth 
of the Lyeus. 

Curius Dentatus. Vid. Dentatus. 

Curius, M\ 1. Au intimate friend of Cicero 
and Atticus, lived for several years as a nego- 
tiator at Patrae in Peloponnesus. In his will he 
left his property to Atticus and Cicero. Sev- 
eral of Cicero's letters are addressed to him. — 
[2. Q., a Roman senator, who was candidate 
for the consulship B.C. 64, but lost his election, 
and for his vices was ejected from the senate : 
he joined the conspiracy of Catiline, aud it was 
through his mistress Fulvia, to whom he related 
their designs, that Cicero obtained the informa- 
tion which enabled him to crush the conspiracy.] 

Cursor, L. Papirius. 1. A distinguished 
Romau general in the second Samnite war, was 
five times consul (B.C. 333, 320, 319, 315, 313), 
aud twice dictator (325, 309). He frequently 
defeated the Samnites, but his greatest victory 
over them was gained in his second dictator- 
ship. Although a great general, he was not 
popular with the soldiers on account of his se- 
verity. — 2. Son of No. 1, was, like his father, a 
distinguished general. In both his consulships 
(293, 272) he gained great victories over the 
Samnites, and in the second he brought the 
third Samnite war to a close. 

Curtius, Mettus or Mettius, a distinguish- 
ed Sabine, fought with the rest of his nation 
against Romulus. According to one tradition, 
the Lacus Curtius, which was part of the Roman 
forum, was called after him ; because in the 
battle with the Romans he escaped with diffi- 
culty from a swamp, into which his horse had 
plunged. But the more usual tradition respect- 
ing the name of the Lacus Curtius related that 
in B.C. 362 the earth in the forum gave way, and 
a great chasm appeared, which the soothsayers 
declared could only be filled up by throwing into 
it Rome's greatest treasure ; that thereupon M. 
Curtius, a noble youth, mounted his steed in full 
armor ; and declaring that Rome possessed no 
greater treasure than a brave and gallant citizen, 
leaped into the abyss, upon which the earth closed 
over Wm 

233 



CURTIUS MONTANUS. 



CYCNUS. 



CortIus MontInus. Vid. Montanus. 

Cuetics Kufus, Q., the Roman historian of 
Alexander the Great. Respecting his life, and 
the time at -which he lived, nothing is known 
with certainty. Some critics place him as early 
as the time of Vespasian, and others as late as 
Constantine : but the earlier date is more prob- 
able than the later. The work itself, entitled- 
De Rebus Gestis Alexandri Magni, consisted of 
ten books, but the first two are lost, and the re- 
maining eight are not without considerable 
gaps.- It is written in a pleasing though some- 
what declamatory style. It is taken from good 
sources, but the author frequently shows his 
ignorance of geography, chronology and tactics. 
The best editions are by Zumpt, Berlin, 1826, 
small edition; Miitzell, Berlin, 1843; [and by 
Zumpt, Berlin, 1849, with copious comment- 

CutilLe Aqu^e. Vid. Aqu.e, No. 3. 

Cyane (Kvuvr/), a Sicilian nymph and play- 
mate of Proserpina (Persephone), changed into a 
fountain through grief at the loss of the goddess. 

Cyane^e Insula (Kvuvecu vrjaot or Tcerpai, 
now Urek-Jaki), two small rocky islands at the 
entrance of the Thracian Bosporus into the 
Euxine, the Planct^e (Hlay/irai) and Symple- 
gades (2i>//7r/li?yuc5£f) of mythology, so called 
because they are said to have been once mova- 
ble and to have rushed together, and thus de- 
stroyed every ship that attempted to pass 
through them. After the ship Argo had passed 
through them in safety, they became stationary. 
Vid. p. 91, a. 

Cyaxares (Kva^dpT)^), king of Media B.C. 
634-594, son of Phraortes, and grandson of 
Deioces. He was the most warlike of the Me- 
dian kings, and introduced great military re- 
forms. He defeated the Assyrians, who had 
slain his father in battle, and he laid siege to 
Ninus (Nineveh). But while he was before 
the city, he was defeated by the Scythians, who 
held the dominion of Upper Asia for twenty- 
eight years (634-607), but were at length driven 
out of Asia by Cyaxares. After the expulsion 
of the Scythians, Cyaxares again turned his 
arms against Assyria, and with the aid of the 
King of Babylon (probably the father of Nebu- 
chadnezzar), he took and destroyed Ninus in 
606. He subsequently carried on war for five 
years against Alyattes, king of Lydia. Vid. 
Alyattes. Cyaxares died in 594, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Astyages. Xenophon speaks 
of a Cyaxares II, king of Media, son of Astya- 
ges, respecting whom, vid. Cyrus. 

Cybele. Vid. Rhea. 

Cybistra (ra KvStaTpa), an ancient city of 
Asia Minor, several times mentioned by Cicero 
(JEp. ad Fam., xv., 2, 4 ; ad Att, v., 18, 20), who 
describes it as lying at the foot of Mount Taurus, 
in the part of Cappadocia bordering on Cilicia. 
Strabo places it three hundred stadia (thirty geo- 
graphical miles) from Tyana. Mention is made 
of a place of the same name (now Kara Missar), 
between Tyana and Caesarea ad Argaeum ; but 
this latter can hardly be believed to be identical 
with the former. 

Cyolades (KwAafoc), a group of islands in 
the JEgean Sea, so called because they lay in 
a circle (kv kvkIu) arouud Delos, the most im- 
portant of them. According to Strabo they were 
234 



twelve in number ; but their number is increas- 
ed by other writers. The most important of 
them were Delos, Geos, Cythnos, Seriphos, 
Rhenia, Siphnos, Cimolos, Naxos, Paros, Si 
ros, Mycokos, Tenos, Andros. 

Cyclopes (KvuXuKeg), that is, creatures with 
round or circular eyes, are described differently 
by different writers. Homer speaks of them as 
a gigantic and lawless race of shepherds in Si- 
cily, who devoured human beings and cared 
nought for Jupiter (Zeus) : each of them had 
only one eye in the centre of bis forehead : the 
chief among them was Polyphemus. Accord- 
ing to Hesiod, the Cyclopes were Titans, sons 
of Coelus (Uranus) and Terra (Ge), were three 
in number, Arges, Steropes, and Brontes, and 
each of them had only one eye on his forehead. 
They were thrown into Tartarus by Saturn (Cro- 
nus), but were released by Jupiter (Zeus), and, 
in consequence, they provided Jupiter (Zeus) 
with thunderbolts and lightning, Pluto with a 
tielmet, and Neptune (Poseidon) with a trident 
They were afterward killed by Apollo for having 
furnished Jupiter (Zeus) with the thunderbolts 
to kill uEsculapius. A still later tradition re- 
garded the Cyclopes as the assistants of Vulcan 
(Hephaestus). Volcanoes were the work-shops 
of that god, and Mount jEtna in Sicily and the 
neighboring isles were accordingly considered 
as their abodes. As the assistants of Vulcau 
(Hephaestus), they make the metal armor and 
ornaments for gods and heroes. Their number 
is no longer confined to three ; and besides the 
names mentioned by Hesiod, we also find those 
of Pyracmon and Acamas. The name of Cy- 
clopian walls was given to the walls built of 
great masses of unhewn stone, of whicli speci- 
mens are still to be seen at Mycenas and other 
parts of Greece, and also in Italy. They were 
probably constructed by the Pelasgians ; and 
later generations, being struck by their gran- 
deur, ascribed their building to a fabulous race 
of Cyclopes. 

Cycnus (Kvkvoc). 1. Son of Apollo by Hyrie, 
lived in the district between Pleuron and Caly- 
don, and was beloved by Phyllius ; but as Phyl- 
lius refused him a bull, Cycnus leaped into a 
lake and was metamorphosed into a swan. — 2. 
Son of Neptune (Poseidon), was king of Colonaa 
in Troas, and father of Tenes and Hemithea. 
His second wife, Philonome, fell in love with 
Tenes, her step-son, and as he refused her of- 
fers, she accused him to his father, who threw 
Tenes with Hemithea in a chest into the sea. 
Tenes escaped and became king of Tenedoa. 
Vid. Tenes. In the Trojan war both Cycnus 
and Tenes assisted the Trojans, but both were 
slain by Achilles. As Cycnus could not be 
wounded by iron, Achilles strangled him with 
the thong of his helmet, or killed hini with a 
stone. When Achilles was going to strip Cyc 
uus of his armor, the body disappeared, and Was 
changed into a swan. — 3. Son of Mars (Aresj 
and Pelopia, slain by Hercules at Itoue. — 4. Sou 
of Mars (Ares) and Pyrene, likewise killed by 
Hercules. — 5. Son of Sthenelus, king of the 
Ligurians, and a friend and relation of Phaethon 
While he was lamenting the fate of PhaSthon on 
the banks of the Eridanus, he was metamorph- 
osed by Apollo into a swan, and placed among 
the stars. 



CTDIAS. 



CYNOSURA. 



Ctdias. 1. A eel jbrated painter from tbeisland 
i of Cythnus, B.C. 864, whose picture of the Ar- 
gonauts was exhibited in a portieus by Agrippa 
at Rome. — [2. An Atheniau orator, a contempo- 
rary of Demosthenes ; an oration of his, nepi 
I t% lidfiov K?L7]povxia£, is mentioned by Aristotle. 
— 3. An early Greek poet, classed by Plutarch 
with Mimnermus and Archilochus. His frag- 
ments are given in the collections of Schneide- 
win and Bergk.] 

Cydippe. Vid. Acontius. 

Ovdnus (Kv6vog : now Tersoos-Ghai), a river 
I of Cilicia Campestris, rising in the Taurus, and 
flowing through the midst of the city of Tarsus, 
' where it is one hundred and twenty feet wide 
j (Kinneir: Xenophon says two plethra=two 
hundred and two feet). It was celebrated for 
the clearness and coldness of its water, which 
was esteemed useful in gout and nervous dis- 
eases, but by bathing in which Alexander nearly 
lost his life. At its mouth the river spread into 
a lagune, which formed the harbor of Tarsus, 
but which is now choked with sand. In the 
Middle Ages the river was called Hierax. 

Cydonia, more rarely Cydonis (KvSuvta, KvSa- 
v?f : KvduvidTTjg : now Khania), one of the chief 
cities of Crete, the rival and opponent of Cno- 
6us and Gortyna, was situated on the north- 
western coast, and derived its name from the 
Cydones (Kvduveg), a Cretan race, placed by 
Homer in the western part of the island. At a 
later time a colony of Zacynthians settled in 
Cydonia ; they were driven out by the Samians 
about B.C. 524 , and the Samians were in their 
turn expelled by the iEginetans. Cydonia was 
the place from which quinces (Cydonia mala) 
were first brought to Italy, and its inhabitants 
were some- of the best Cretan archers (Gydonio 
arcu, Hor., Carm., iv., 19, 17). 

[Cydrara (Kvdpapa), a city on the borders of 
Phrygia and Lydia, where a monument was set 
up by Croesus to mark the boundaries.] 

Cyllarus (KvXkapog), a beautiful centaur, 
killed at the wedding feast of Pirithous. The 
horse of Castor was likewise called Cyllarus. 

Cyllene {KvXlijvrj). 1. (Now Zyria), the 
highest mountain in Peloponnesus on the front- 
iers of Arcadia and Achaia, sacred to Hermes 
(Mercury), who had a temple on the summit, 
was said to have been born there, and was hence 
called Cyllenius. — 2. (Now Chiarcnza), a sea- 
port town of Elis. 

Cylon (KvTluv), an Athenian of noble family, 
married the daughter of Theagenes, tyrant of 
Megara, and gained au Olympic victory B.C. 
640. Encouraged by the Delphic oracle, he 
seized the Acropolis, intending to make him- 
self tyrant of Athens. Pressed by famine, Cy- 
lon and his adherents were driven to take refuge 
at the altar of Minerva (Athena), whence they 
were induced to withdraw by the archon Meg- 
acles, the Alcmaeonid, on a promise that their 
lives should be spared. But their enemies put 
them to death as soon as they had them in their 
power. 

Cyme (Kvfirj : Kvfialog : now Sandakli), the 
largest of the iEolian cities of Asia Minor, stood 
upon the coast of iEolis, on a bay named after 
it Cumseus (also Ela'iticus) Sinus (6 Kv/iaiog 
nbXirog : now Gulf of Sandakli), and had a good 
harbor. It was founded by a colony of Locrians 



from Mount Phrieius, and hence it had the epi- 
thet $piKuv'i£. It was the native place of Epho- 
rus, and the mother city of Side in Pamphylia 
and of Cumse in Campania. 

[Cymodoce (Kvixo66k?i), one of the Nereids 
(Horn, and Hes.) ; in Virgil, one of those nymphs 
into whom Cybele metamorphosed the ships of 
iEoeas.] 

[Cymothoe (Kv/uodoi]), one of the Nereids.] 
Cyna. Vid. Cynane 

Cynaegirus (Kvvaiyeipog), brother of the poet 
jEschylus, distinguished himself by his valor at 
the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490. According 
to Herodotus, when the Persians were endeav- 
oring to escape by sea, Cynaegirus seized one 
of their ships to keep it back, but fell with his 
right hand cut off. In the later versions of the 
story, Cynaegirus is made to perform still more 
heroic deeds. 

Cynjjtha (KvvaiOa : Kvvaidevg, -daievc), a 
town in the north of Arcadia, whose inhabit- 
ants, unlike the other Arcadians, had a dislike 
to music, to which circumstance Polybius at- 
tributes their rough and demoralized character. 

Cynane, Cyna, or Cynna (Kvvuvi], Kvva, Kw- 
va), half-sister to Alexander the Great, daugh- 
ter of Philip by Audata, an Illyrian woman. 
She was married to her cousin Amyntas ; and 
after the death of Alexander she crossed over 
to Asia, intending to marry her daughter Euryd- 
ice to Arrhidaeus, who had been chosen king. 
Her project alarmed Perdiccas, by whose order 
she was put to death. 

Cynesii or Cynetes (Kwijawc, Kvvjjrec), » 
people, according to Herodotus, dwelling in the 
extreme west of Europe, beyond the Celts, ap 
parently in Spain. 

[Cynici. Vid. Diogenes, Antisthenes.] 

Cynisoa (KvviaKa), daughter of Archidamut 
Ift, king of Sparta, was the first woman wh< 
kept horses for the games, and the first wh( 
gained an Olympic victory. 

Cynopolis (Kvvbg -KoXiq : now Samallout), a 
city of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, on an 
island in the Nile ; the chief seat of the worship 
of Anubis. There was a city of the same naint. 
in the Delta. 

Cynos (Kvvog: Kwtof, Kwatoc), the chief 
sea-port in the territory of the Locri Opuntii. 

Cynosarges (to Kwooapyeg), a gymnasium, 
sacred to Hercules, outside- Athens, east of tht 
city, and before the gate Diomea, for the use of 
those who were not of pure Athenian blood . 
here taught Antisthenes, the founder of the 
Cynic school. 

CynoscephaljK (Kvvdg Ke<j>a\at), " Dogs' 
Heads." 1. Two hills near Scotussa in Thes- 
saly, where Flaminius gained his celebrated 
victory over Philip of Macedonia, B.C. l'Jl. — 
2. A hill between Thebes and Thespiae, in Boe- 
otia. 

Cynossema (Kvvdg arjfj.a), " Dog's Tomb," >* 
promontory in the Thracian Chersonesus, neai 
Madytus, so called because it was supposed to 
be the tomb of Hecuba, who had been previous- 
ly changed into a dog. 

Cynosura (Kvvogovpa), an Idaean nymph, and 
one of the nurses of Jupiter (Zeus), who placed 
her among the stars. Vid. Arotos. 

Cynosura (Kvvogovpa), " Dogs Tail," a prom- 
ontory in Attica, south of Marathon. 

235 



CYNTHIA. 

Cynthia and Cynthius (Kvvdia and Kvvdwc), 
Buroames respectively of Diana (Artemis) and 
Apollo, which they derived from Mount Cynthus 
in the island of Delos, their birth-place. 

CynOria (Kvvovpla : Kvvovpioc), a district on 
the frontiers of Argolis and Laconia, for the 
possession of which the Argives and Spartans 
earned, on frequent wars, and which the Spar- 
tans at length obtained about B.C. 550. Vid. 
p. 02, a. The inhabitants were Ionians. 

Cyparissia (Kv7rapi(j<Tia). 1. A town in Mes- 
seuia, on the western coast, south of the River 
Cyparissus, and on a promontory and bay of the 
same name. Homer (II., ii., 593) speaks of a 
town Gyparisseis (KvKapiaojeic) subject to 
Nestor, which is probably the same as the pre- 
ceding, though Strabo places it in Triphylia. — 
2. A town in Laconia, on a peninsula near the 
Asopus. 

Cyparissus (Kvndpiaaoc), son of Telephus, 
beloved by Apollo or Silvanus. Having inad- 
vertently killed his favorite stag, he was seized 
with immoderate grief, and metamorphosed into 
a cypress. 

Cyparissus (Kvirdpiccoc), a small town in 
Phocis, on Parnassus, near Delphi. 

Cyphanta (rii Kvipavra), a town on the east- 
ern coast of Laconia, near Prasiae. 

Cypria, Cypris, surnames of Venus (Aphro- 
dite), from the island of Cyprus. 

Cyprianus, a celebrated father of the Church, 
was a native of Africa. He was a heathen by 
birth, and before his conversion to Christianity 
he taught rhetoric with distinguished success. 
He was converted about A.D. 246, was ordain- 
ed a presbyter 247, and was raised to the bish- 
opric of Carthage 248. When the persecution 
of Decius burst forth (250), Cyprian fled from 
the storm, and remained two years in retire- 
ment. A few years afterward the emperor Vale- 
rian renewed the persecution against the Chris- 
tians. Cyprian was banished by Paternus the 
proconsul to the maritime city of Curubis, where 
he resided eleven months. He was then recall- 
ed by the new governor, Galerius Maxim us, and 
was beheaded in a spacious plain without the 
walls A.D. 258. He wrote several works which 
have come down to us. They are characterized 
by lucid arrangement, and eloquent, though de- 
clamatory style. The best editions are by Fell, 
Oxford, 1682, fol, to which are subjoined the 
Annates Cyprianici of Pearson ; and that com- 
menced by Baluze, and completed by a monk 
of the fraternity of St. Maur, Paris, 1726, fol. 
[A convenient and useful edition is that pub- 
lished in the collection of Caillau and Guillon, 
Paris, 1829, 8vo.] 

Cyprus (ILvTrpoc : ~Kvirpioc : now Cyprus, call- 
ed by the Turks Kebris), a large island in the 
Mediterranean, south of Cilicia, and west of 
Syria. It is called by various names in the 
poets, Cerastia or Cerasti.s, Macaria, Sphecia, 
Acamantis, Amathusia, and also Paphos. The 
island is of a triangular form : its length from 
east to west is about one hundred and forty 
miles; its greatest breadth, which is in the 
western part, is about fifty miles from north to 
south, but it gradually narrows towards the east. 
A range of mouutains, called Olympus by the 
ancients, runs through the whole length of the 
island from east to west, and rises in one part 
236 



CYRENAICA. 

' I 

more than seven thousand feet in height. The 
plains are chiefly in the south of the island, and 
were celebrated in ancient as well as in modern i 
times for their fertility. The largest plain, call- 
ed the Salaminian plain, is in tho eastern part 
of the island, near Salamis. The rivers are lit- 
tle more than mountain torrents, mostly dry in 
summer. Cyprus was colonized by the Phoeni- 
cians at a very early period ; and Greek colo- 
nies were subsequently planted in the island, 
according to tradition soon after the Trojan j 
war. We read at first of nine independent 
states, each governed by its own king, Salamis, , 
Citium, Amathus, Curium, Paphos, Marium, 
Soli, Lapethus, Cerynia. The island was sub- 
dued by Amasis, king of Egypt, about B.C. 540. 
Upon the downfall of the Egyptian monarchy, it 
became subject to the Persians ; but Evagoras 
of Salamis, after a severe struggle with the Per- 
sians, established its independence about 3S5, 
and handed down the sovereignty to his son 
Nicocles. It eventually fell to the share of the 
Ptolemies in Egypt, and was governed by them, ! 
sometimes united to Egypt, and sometimes by 
separate princes of the royal family. In 58 the 
Romans made Cyprus one of their provinces, 
and sent M. Cato to take possession of it. Cy- 
prus was one of the chief seats of the worship 
of Aphrodite (Venus), who is hence called Cy- 
pris or Cypria, and whose worship was intro- 
duced into the island by the Phoenicians. 

Cypsela (ra KiV'rAo : KvipeTilvoc, -"hnvoc. 1. 
A town in Arcadia, a the frontiers of Laconia. 
— 2. (Now Ipsalla), a town in Thrace, on the 
Hebrus and the Egnatia Via. 

Cypselus (Kvi/j£/Ioc). 1. Father of Merope 
and grandfather of ilSpytus. Vid. JEpytus. — 
2. Of Corinth, sou of iEetion. The mother of 
Cypselus belonged to the house of the Bacchia- 
da?, that is, to the Doric nobility of Coriuth. j 
Aecordiug to tradition, she married iEetion, be- 
cause, being ugly, she met with no one among 
the Bacchiadaa who would have her as his wife. 
As the oracle of Delphi had declared that her 
son would prove formidable to the ruling party I 
at Corinth, the Bacchiadae attempted to murder J 
the child. But his mother concealed him in a j 
chest (KvipiXn), from which he derived his name 
Cypselus. When he had grown up to manhood, 
he expelled the Bacchiadffi, with the help of the 
people, and then established himself as tyrant 
He reigned thirty years, B.C. 655-625, and' was 
succeeded by his son Periander. The cele- 
brated chest of Cypselus, consisting of cedar 
wood, ivory, and gold, and richly adorned with 
figures in relief, is described at length by Pau- 
sanias (v., 17, <fcc). 

Cyraunis (Kvpavvic), an island off the north- 
ern coast of Africa, mentioned by Herodotus (iv, 
95) ; probably the same as Cercine. 

Cyrenaica (?) Kvpnva'ia, r) Kvpnvain x^pw, He- 
rod. : now Dernah or Jcbel-Aklidar, i. e., the 
Green Mountain, the northeastern part of Trip- 
oli), a district of Northern Africa, between Mar- 
marica on the east and the Regio Syrtica on 
the west, was considered to extend in its widest 
limits from the Phikeuorum Arse at the bottom 
of the Great Syrtis to the Chersonesus Magna 
or northern headland of the Gulf of Platea (now 
Gulf of Bomba), or even to the Catabathmus 
Magnus (now Marsa Solium) ; but tho part ac- 



CYRENAICA. 



CYRILLUS. 



tually possessed and cultivated by the Greek 
colonists can only be considered as beginning 
at the northern limit of the sandy shores of the 
Great Syrtis, at Boreum Promoutorium (now 
Ras Teyonas, south of Ben-Ghazi), between 
which and the Chersouesus Magna the country 
projects into the Mediterranean in the form of 
a segment of a circle, whose chord is above 
one hundred and fifty miles long and its arc 
above two hundred. From its position, forma- 
tion, climate, and«soil, this region is perhaps 
one of the most delightful on the surface of the 
globe. Its centre is occupied by a moderately 
elevated table-land, whose edge runs parallel 
to the coast, to which it sinks down in a suc- 
cession of terraces, clothod with verdure, inter- 
sected by mountain streams running through 
ravines filled with the richest vegetation, ex- 
posed to the cool sea-breezes from the north, 
and sheltered by the mass of the mountain from 
the sands and hot winds of the Sahara. These 
slopes produced the choicest fruits, vegetables, 
and flowers, and some very rare plants, such 
as the silphium, yielding the Onbc Kvprjvalog. 
The various harvests, at the different eleva- 
tions, lasted for eight mouths of the year. With 
these physical advantages, the people naturally 
became prone to luxury. Their country was, 
however, exposed to actual ravages by locusts. 
The belt of mountainous land extends inward 
from the coast about seventy or eighty miles. 
The first occupation of this by the Greeks, of 
which we have any clear account, was effected 
by Battus, who led a colony from the island of 
Thera, and first established himself on the isl- 
and of Plafcea at the eastern extremity of the 
district, and afterward? built Cyrene (B.C. 631), 
where he founded a dynasty, which ruled over 
the country during eight reigns, though with 
comparatively little power over some of the 
other Greek cities. Of these ue earliest found- 
ed were Teuchira and Hesperis, then Barca, 
a colony from Cyrene ; and these, with Cyrene 
itself and its port Apolloxia, formed the orig- 
inal Libyan Peutapolis, though this name seems 
not to have come iuto general use till under the 
Ptolemies. The comparative independence of 
Barca, and the temporary conquest of the couu- 
try by the Persians under Cambyses, diminish- 
ed the power of the later kings of Cyrene, and 
at last the dynasty was overthrown and a re- 
public established in the latter part of the fifth 
century B.C. Wheu Alexander invaded Egypt, 
the Cyrenaeans formed an alliance with him ; 
but their country was made subject to Egypt by 
Ptolemy, the sou of Lagus. It appears to have 
flourished under the Ptolemies, who pursued 
their usual policy of raising new cities at the 
expense of the ancient ones, or restoring the 
latter under new names. Thus Hesperis be- 
came Berenice, Teuchira was called Arsinoe, 
Barca was entirely eclipsed by its port, which 
was raised into a city under the name of Ptole- 
ma'is, and Cyrene suffered from the favors be- 
stowed upon its port Apollonia. The country 
was now usually called Pentapulis, from the five 
cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Ptoleniai's, Arsinoe, 
and Berenice. In B.C. 95 the last Egyptian 
governor, Apion, an illegitimate son of Ptole- 
my Physcon, made the country over to the Ro- 
mans, who at first gave the cities their free- 



dom, and afterward formed the district under 
the name of Cyrenaiea, with the island of Crete, 
into a province. Under Constantine Cyrenaiea 
was separated from Crete, and made a distiuct 
province under the name of Libya Superior. 
The first great blow to the prosperity of the 
country was given by the murderous conflict 
which ensued on an insurrection of the Jews 
(who had long settled here in great numbers) in 
the reign of Trajan. As the Roman empire de- 
clined, the attacks of the native Libyan tribes 
became more frequent and formidable, and the 
sufferings caused by their inroads and by lo- 
custs, plague, and earthquakes, are most pathet- 
ically described by Synesius, bishop of Ptole- 
mais, in the fifth century. In the seventh cen- 
tury the country was overrun by the Persians, 
and soon afterward it fell a final prey to the 
great Arabian invasion. 

Cyrene {Kvprjvrj), daughter of Hypseus, moth- 
er of Aristseus by Apollo, was carried by the 
god from Mount Pelion to Libya, where the city 
of Cyrene derived its name from her. 

Cyrene [Kvprivt] : Kvprjvalog : now Ghrennah, 
with very large ruins), the chief city of Cyre- 
naica in Northern Africa, was fouuded by Bafc- 
tus (B.C. 631) over a fountain consecrated to 
Apollo, and called Cyre (Kvprj : 'AtvoMdvoi; 
upr/vrf), which supplied the city wilh water, and 
then ran down to the sea through a beautiful 
raviue. The city stood eighty stadia (eight 
geographical miles) from the 'coast, on the edge 
of the upper of two terraces of table-land, at 
the height of eighteen hundred feet above the 
sea, in one of the finest situations in the world. 
The road which connected it with its harbor, 
Apollonia, still exists, and the ruins of Cyrene, 
though terribly defaced, are very extensive, 
comprising streets, aqueducts, temples, thea- 
tres, tombs, paintings, sculpture, and inscrip- 
tions. In the face of the terrace on which the 
city stands is a vast subterranean necropolis. 
For the history of the city and surrounding 
country, vid. Cyrenaica. Among its celebrated 
natives were the philosopher Aristippus, the 
poet Callimachus, and the Christian bishop aud 
orator Synesius. 

[Cyrenius. Vid. Quirinius.] 

Cyreschata or Cyropolis (Kvpecxara, Kvpa, 
Kvpov vroAir), a city of Sogdiana, on the Jaxartes, 
the furthest of the colonies founded by Cyrus, 
and the extreme city of the Persian empire : 
destroyed, after many revolts, by Alexander. 
Its position is doubtful, but it was probably not 
far from Alexandresehata (now Kokand). 

[Cyrnus (Kvpvng), Greek name of Corsica. 
Vid. Corsica.] 

[Cyropolis {Kvpov Tr6Xig). Vid. Cyreschata.] 

Cyrillus (KvpilXoc). 1. Bishop of Jerusa- 
lem, A.D. 351-386, was a firm opponent of the 
Arians, by whose influence he was banished 
three times from Jerusalem. His works are 
not numerous. The most important are lec- 
tures to catechumens, &c, and a letter to the 
Emperor Constautius, giving an account of the 
luminous cross which appeared at Jerusalem, 
351. The best editions are by Miles, Oxford, 
1703, fol, and by Touttee, Paris, 1720, fol.— 
2. Bishop of Alexandrea A.D. 412-444, of which 
city lie was a native. He was fond of power, 
and of a restless and turbulent spirit. He per- 
.237 



CYRRHESTICE. 



CYRUS. 



eecuted the Jews, whom he expelled from Alex- 
audrea ; and after a long-protracted struggle lie 
procured the desposition of Nestorius, bishop of 
Constantinople. He was the author of a large 
□umber of works, many of which are extant ; 
but in a literary view they are almost worthless. 
The best edition is by Aubert, Paris, 1638, 6 
vols., fol. 

Cyrrhestice (KvfifiecrTtKTj), the name given 
under the Seleueidas to a province of Syria, ly- 
ing between Commagene on the north and the 
plain of Antioch on the south, between Mount 
Amanus ou the west and the Euphrates ou the 
east. After the time of Constantine, it was 
united with Commagene into one province, un- 
der the name of Euphratesia. 

Cyrrhus or Cyrus (Kiy5/5or, Kvpoc : now 
Korus ?), a city of Syria, founded under the Se- 
leucidffi, and called after the city of the same 
name in Macedonia ; chiefly remarkable as the 
residence and see of Theodoret, who describes 
its poverty, which he did much to relieve. 
Justinian rebuilt the walls, and erected an 
aqueduct. 

Cyrrhus, a town in Macedonia, near Pella. 

Cyrus (Kvpoc). 1. The Elder, the founder 
of the Persian empire. The history of his life 
was overlaid in ancient times with fables and 
romances, and is related differently by Herodo- 
tus, Ctesias, and Xenophon. The account of 
Herodotus best preserves the genuine Persian 
legend, and is to be preferred to those of Ctesias 
and Xenophon. It is as follows : Cyrus was 
the son of Cambyses, a noble Persian, and of 
Mandane, daughter of the Median king Astyages. 
In consequence of a dream, which seemed to 
portend that his grandson should be master of 
Asia, Astyages sent for his daughter when she 
was pregnant ; and, upon her giving birth to a 
son, he committed it to Harpagus, his confiden- 
tial attendant, with orders to kill it. Harpagus 
gave it to a herdsman of Astyages, who was to 
expose it. But the wife of the herdsman hav- 
ing brought forth a still-born child, they substi- 
tuted the latter for the child of Mandane, who 
was reared as the son of the herdsman. When 
he was ten years old, his true parentage was 
discovered by the following incident. In the 
sports of his village, the boys chose him for 
their king. One of the boys, the son of a noble 
Median named Artembares, disobeyed his com- 
mands, and Cyrus caused him to be severely 
scourged. Artembares complained to Astyages, 
who sent for Cyrus, in whose person and cour- 
age he discovered his daughter's son. The 
herdsman and Harpagus, being summoned be- 
fore the king, told him the truth. Astyages for- 
gave the herdsman, but revenged himself on 
Harpagus by serving up to him at a banquet the 
flesh of his own son. As to his grandson, by 
the advice of the Magians, who assured him that 
his dreams were fulfilled by the boy's having 
been a king in sport, he sent him back to his 
parents in Persia When Cyrus grew up, he 
conspired with Harpagus to dethrone his grand- 
father. He induced the Persians to revolt from 
the Median supremacy, and at their head march- 
ed against Astyages. The latter had given the 
command of his forces to Harpagus, who de- 
serted to Cyrus. Astyages thereupon placed 
himself at the head of his troops, but was defeat- 
238 



ed by Cyrus and taken prisoner, B.C. 559. The 
Medes accepted Cyrus for their king, and thus 
the supremacy which they had held passed to 
the Persians. It was probably at this time that 
Cyrus received that name, which is a Persian 
word (Kohr), signifying the Sun. Cyrus now 
proceeded to conquer the other parts of Asia. 
In 526 he overthrew the Lydiau monarchy, and 
took Crcesus prisoner. Vid. Crcesus. The 
Greek cities in Asia Minor were subdued by his 
general Harpagus. He nejg; turned his arms 
against the Assyrian empire, of which Babylon 
was then the capital. After defeating the Baby- 
lonians in battle, he laid siege to the city, and 
after a long time he took it by diverting the 
course of the Euphrates, which flowed through 
the midst of it, so that his soldiers entered Bab- 
ylon by the bed of the river. This was in 538. 
Subsequently he crossed the Araxes, with the 
intention of subduing the Massagetae, a Scythian 
people, but he was defeated and slain in battle. 
Tomyris, the queen of the Massagetae, cut off his 
head, and threw it into a bag filled with human 
blood, that he might satiate himself (she said) 
with blood. He was killed in 529. He was 
succeeded by his son Cambyses. Xenophon 
represents Cyrus as brought up at his grand- 
father's court, as serving in the Median army 
under his uncle Cyaxares II., the son and suc- 
cessor of Astyages, of whom Herodotus and 
Ctesias know nothing ; as making war upon 
Babylon simply as the general of Cyaxares ; as 
marrying the daughter of Cyaxares ; and at 
length dying quietly in his bed, after a sage and 
Socratic discourse to his children and friends. 
Xenophon's account is preserved in the Cyro- 
pcedla, in which he draws a picture of what a 
wise and just prince ought to be. The work 
must not be regarded as a genuine history. In 
the East Cyrus was long regarded as the great- 
est hero of antiquity, and hence the fables by 
which his history is obscured. His sepulchre 
at Pasargadae was visited by Alexander the 
Great. The tomb has perished, but the name 
is found on monuments at Murghab, north of 
Persepolis. — 2. The Younger, the second of the 
four sons of Darius Nothus, king of Persia, and 
of Parysatis, was appointed by his father com- 
mander of the maritime parts of Asia Minor, and 
satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia, B.C. 
407. He assisted Lysander and the Laceda?- 
monians with large sums of money in their war 
against the Athenians. Cyrus was of a daring 
and ambitious temper. On the death of his 
father and the accession of his elder brother Ar- 
taxerxes Mnemon, 404, Cyrus formed a plot 
against the life of Artaxerxes. His design was 
betrayed by Tissaphernes to the king, who con- 
demned him to death ; but, on the intercession 
of Parysatis, he spared his life aud sent him 
back to his satrapy. Cyrus now gave himself 
up to the design of dethroning his brother. He 
collected a powerful native army, but he placed 
his chief reliance on a force of Greek merce- 
naries. He set out from Sardis in the spring 
of 401, and, haviug crossed the Euphrates at 
Thapsacus, marched down the river to the plain 
of Cunaxa, five hundred stadia from Babylon. 
Here he found Artaxerxes prepared to meet 
him. Artaxerxes had from four hundred thou- 
sand to a million of men ; Cyrus had about on« 



GYRUS. 



DACIA. 



hundred thousand Asiatics and thirteen thou- 
sand Greeks. The battle was at first altogether 
in favor of Cyrus. His Greek troops on the 
right routed the Asiatics who were opposed to 
them ; and he himself pressed forward in the 
centre against his brother, and had even wound- 
ed him, when he was killed by one of the king's 
body-guard. Artaxerxes caused his head and 
right hand to be struck off, and sought to have 
it believed that Cyrus had fallen by his hand. 
The character of Cyrus is drawn by Xenophon 
in the brightest colors. It is enough to say that 
his ambition was gilded by all those brilliant 
qualities which win men's hearts. — 3. An archi- 
tect at Rome, who died on the same day as 
Clodius, 52. 

Cyrus (Kvpoc : now Kour), one of the two 
great rivers of Armenia, rises in the Caucasus, 
flows through Iberia, and after forming the 
boundary between Albania and Armenia, unites 
with the Araxes, and falls into the western side 
of the Caspian. There were small rivers of the 
same name in Media and Persia. 

Cyta or Cyt^ea (Kvra, Kvrata : Kvralo^, Kv- 
tciievc;), a town in Colchis on the River Phasis, 
where Medea was said to have been born. 

Cytheea (Kv6?ipa: Kydypwc : now Cerigo), a 
mountainous island off the southwestern point 
of Laconia, with a town of the same name in 
the interior, the harbor of which was called 
Scandea (%Kavdeia). It was colonized at an 
early time by the Phoenicians, who introduced 
the worship of Venus (Aphrodite) into the isl- 
and, for which it became celebrated. This god- 
dess was hence called Cytherea, Cythereis ; 
and, according to some traditions, it was in the 
neighborhood of this island that she first rose 
from the foam of the sea. The Argives subse- 
quently took possession of Cythera, but were 
driven out of it by the Lacedaemonians, who 
added it to their dominions. 

Cytheris, a celebrated courtesan, the mis- 
tress of Antony, and subsequently of the poet 
Gallus, who mentioned her in his poems under 
the name of Lycoris. 

[Cytherius (Kvdrjpioc), a river of Pisatis in 
Elis, a tributary of the Alpheus.] 

Cytherus (KvdTjpog: KvOijpw^), one of the 
twelve ancient towns of Attica, and subsequent- 
ly a demus, belonging to the tribe Pandionis. 

Cythnus (Kvdvog : Jtvdvioc : now Thermia), 
an island in the iEgasan Sea, one of the Cycla- 
des, with a town of the same name, celebrated 
for its cheese, and also for its warm springs, 
whence its modern name. 

Cytinium (KvTiviov : 'KvrwiuTTjc:), one of the 
four cities in Doris, on Parnassus. 

Cytorus or -uar (Kvrwpoc or -ov : now Kidros), 
•a town on the coast of Paphlagonia, between 
Amastris and the promontory Carambis, was a 
sommercial settlement of the people of Sinope. 
It stood upon or near the mountain of the same 
name, which is mentioned by the Romans as 
abounding in box-trees. 

Cyzicus (KiC""T), son of JSneus and iEuete, 
the daughter of Eusorus, or son of Eusorus, or 
son of Apollo by Stilbe. He was king of the 
Doliones at Cyzicus on the Propontis. For his 
connection with the Argonauts, vid. p. 90, b. 

Qyzious (Kie«c6f : Kv&KTjvog : rains at Bal 
Kiz or Chizico), one of the most ancient and 



powerful of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, 
stood upon an island of the same name in the 
Propontis (now Sea of Marmara). This island, 
the earlier name of which was Arctonnesus 
("ApuTuv vfjaos), lay close to the shore of Mys- 
ia, to which it was united by two bridges, and 
afterward (under Alexander the Great) by a 
mole, which has accumulated to a considerable 
isthmus. The city of Cyzicus stood on the 
southern side of the island, at the northern end 
of the isthmus, on each side of which it had a 
port. Tradition ascribed the foundation of the 
city to the Doliones, a tribe of Thessalian Pelas- 
gians, who had been driven from their homes 
by the ^Eolians. It was said to have been aft- 
erward colonized by the Milesians. It was one 
of the finest cities of the ancient world for the 
beauty of its situation and the magnificence of 
its buildings : it possessed an extensive com- 
merce, and was celebrated for the excellence of 
its laws and government. Its staters were 
among the most esteemed gold coins current in 
Greece. It took no conspicuous place in his- 
tory till about twenty-two years after the peace 
of Antalcidas, when it made itself independent 
of Persia. It preserved its freedom under Al- 
exander and his successors, and was in alliance 
with the kings of Pergamus, and afterward with 
the Romans. Its celebrated resistance against 
Mithradates, when he besieged it by sea and 
land (B.C. 75), was of great service to the Ro- 
mans, and obtained for it the rank of a " libera 
civitas," which it lost again under Tiberius. 
Under Constantine it became the chief city of 
the new province of Hellespontus. It was great- 
ly injured by an earthquake in A.D. 443, and 
finally ruined by its conquest by the Arabians 
in 675. 

D. 

Di^s. Vid. Dah^e. 

[Dabar, son of Massugrada, of the family of 
Masinissa, sent by Bocchus to Sulla to negoti- 
ate the peace which ended in the surrender of 
Jugurtha.] 

[Dabrona (now Blachwater), a river of Hi 
bernia.] 

Dachinabades (AaxtvaGddqc), a general name 
for the southern part of the Indian peninsula, 
derived from the Sanscrit dakshina, the south 
wind, and connected with the modern name 
Dcccan. 

Dacia (Dacus), as a Roman province, was 
bounded on the south by the Danube, which 
separated it from Mcesia, on the north by the 
Carpathian Mountains, on the west by the Riv- 
er Tysia (now Theiss), and on the east by the 
River Hierasus (now Pruth), thus comprehend- 
ing the modern 2'ransylvania, Wallachia, Molda- 
via, and part of Hungary. The Daci were of 
the same race and spoke the same language as 
the Getaj, and are therefore usually said to be 
of Thracian origin. They were a brave and 
warlike people. In the reign of Augustus -they 
crossed the Danube and plundered the al'lies of 
Rome, but were defeated and driven back into 
their 'own country by the generals of Augustus. 
In the reign of Domitian they became so formi- 
dable under their king Decebalus, that the Ro- 
mans were obliged to purchase a peace of them 
239 



DACTYLT. 



DALMATIA. 



by the payment of tribute. Trajan delivered 
the empire from this disgrace ; he crossed the 
Danube, and after a war of five years (A.D. 101- 
106), conquered the country, made it a Roman 
province, and colonized it with inhabitants from 
all parts of the empire. At a later period Dacia 
was invaded by the Goths ; and as Aurelian con- 
sidered it more prudent to make the Danube 
the boundary of the empire, he resigned Dacia 
to the barbariaDS, removed the Roman inhabit- 
ants to Mcesia, and gave the name of Dacia (Au- 
reliani) to that part of the province along the 
Danube where they were settled. 

Dactyli (Auktv'Aoi), fabulous beings, to whom 
the discovery of iron and the art of working it 
by means of fire were ascribed. Their name 
Dactyls, that is, Fingers, is accounted for in 
various ways : by their number being five or 
ten, or by the fact of their serving Rhea just as 
the fingers serve the hand, or by the story of 
their having lived at the foot (kv 6aKrv\oir) of 
Mount Ida in Phrygia as the original seat of the 
Dactyls, whence they are usually called Idaean 
Dactyls. In Phrygia they were connected with 
the worship of Rhea. They are sometimes con- 
founded or identified with the Curetes, Cory- 
bantes, Cabin, and Telchines. This confusion 
with the Cabiri also accounts for Samothrace 
being in some accounts described as their resi- 
dence. Other accounts transfer them to Mount 
Ida in Crete, of which island they are said to 
have been the original inhabitants. Their num- 
ber appears to have been origiually three : Cel- 
mis (the smelter), Damnarncneua (the hammer), 
and A anon (the anvil). Their number was aft- 
erward increased to five, ten (five male and five 
female), fifty-two, and one hundred. 

Dadastana (7j Aadaardva : now Torbalch or 
Kt stabeg ?), a fortress on the borders of Bithynia 
and Galatia, where- the Emperor Jovian died 
suddenly, A.D. 364. 

[Dadio^e (Aad7/cai), a tribe of the Persian 
empire, who formed part of the seventh satrapy 
of Darius.] 

D/EDala (tu AaiSaAa), a city in Asia Minor, 
upon the Gulf of Glaucus, on the borders of 
Caria and Lycia. The same name was given 
to a mountain overhanging the town. 

[D^edaliok (AaidaAiGiv), son of Lucifer, and 
father" of Chione, who was slain by Diana. 
Dtedalion, out of grief at her death, threw him- 
self from Parnassus, but was changed into a 
falcon.] 

Daedalus (AatSaXoc). 1. A mythical person- 
age, under whose name the Greek writers per- 
sonified the earliest development of the arts of 
sculpture and architecture, especially among 
the Athenians and Cretans. The ancient writ- 
ers generally represent Daedalus as an Athenian, 
of the royal race of the Erechthidae. Others 
called him a Cretan, on accouut of the long time 
he lived in Crete. He is said to have been the 
sou of Metion, the son of Eupalamus, the son 
of Erechtheus. Others make him the son of 
Eupalamus or of Palamaou. His mother is 
called Alcippe, or Iphiuoe, or Phrasimede. He 
devoted himself to sculpture, and made great 
improvements ia the art. He instructed his 
sister's son, Calos, Talus, or Perdix, who soon 
came to surpass him in skill aud ingenuity, and 
Daedalus killed him through envy. Yid. Perdix. 
240 



Being condemned to death by the Areopagus 
for this murder, he went to Crete, where the 
fame of his skill obtained for him the friendship 
of Minos. He made the well-known woodeu 
cow for Pasiphae ; and when Pasiphae gave 
birth to the Minotaur, Daedalus constructed the 
labyrinth at Cnosus in which the monster was 
kept. For his part in this affair, Daedalus was 
imprisoned by Minos ; but Pasiphae released 
him, and, as Minos had seized all the ships on 
the coast of Crete, Daedalus procured wings for 
himself and his son Icarus, and fastened them 
on with wax. Daedalus himself flew safe over 
the ^Egean, but, as Icarus flew too near the 
sun, the wax by which his wings were fastened 
on was melted, and he dropped down and was 
drowned in that part of the ^Egeau which was 
called after him the Icarian Sea. Daedalus fled 
to Sicily, where he was protected by Cocalus, 
the king of the Sicani. When Mines heard 
where Daedalus had taken refuge, he sailed with 
a great fleet to Sicily, where he was treaeher 
ously murdered by Cocalus or his daughters. Ac- 
cording to some accounts, Daedalus first alighted 
in his flight from Crete at Cumae in Italy, where 
he erected a temple to Apollo, in which he ded- 
icated the wings with which he had fled from 
Crete. Several other works of art were attrib- 
uted to Daedalus, in Greece, Italy, Libya, aud 
the islands of the Mediterranean. They belong 
to the period when art begaD to be developed. 
The name of Dcedala was given by the Greeks 
to the ancient wooden statues, ornamented with 
gilding and bright colors and real drapery, which 
were the earliest known forms of the images of 
the gods, after the mere blocks of wood or stone, 
which were at first used for symbols of them. — 
2. Of Sicyon, a statuary in bronze, son and dis- 
ciple of Patroeles, flourished B.C. 400. 

Daime (Aum), a great Scythian people, who 
led a nomad life over a great extent of country 
on the east of the Caspian, in Hyrcania (which 
still bears the name of Daghestan), on the banks 
of the Margus, the Oxus, and even the Jaxartcs. 
Some of them served as cavalry and horse- 
archers in the armies of Darius Codomannus, 
Alexander, and Antiochus the Great, aud they 
also made good foot-soldiers. 

Daimaouus (Aaifiaxos), of Plataeae, was sent 
by Seleucus a3 ambassador to Sandrocottus, 
king of India, about B.C. 312, and wrote a work- 
on India, which is lost. 

[Da'iphantus (AaiQavTOf), a Theban, slain at 
Mautinea; his bravery and skill were indicated 
by the fact that Epaminondas, when mortally 
wounded, named him as the one best qualified 
to succeed to the command.] 

Daijiatia or Delmatia (Aa?i{ia-'ia : Aalfia-n]g, 
more anciently AaAfiarevg : now Dahnata), a 
part of the country along the eastern coast of 
the Adriatic Sea included under the general 
name of Illyricum, was separated from Libur- 
nia on the north by the Titius (now KerM). and 
from Greek Illyria on the south by the Drilo 
(now Drino), and extended inland to the Bebian 
mountains aud the Drinus, thus nearly corre- 
sponding to the modern Dalmatia. The capital 
was Dalminium or Dei.minium, from which the 
country derived its name, The next most im- 
portant town was Salona, the residence of Dio- 
cletian. The Dalmatians were a brave aud 



DALMATIUS. 



DAMOCRITUS. 



warlike people and gave much trouble to the 
Romans. In B.C, 119 their country was over- 
run by L. Metellus, who assumed, in conse- 
quence, the surname Dalmaticus; but they con- 
tinued independent of the Romans. Iu 39 they 
were defeated by Asinius Pollio, of whose Dal- 
maticus triumphus Horace speaks (Carm., ii., 1, 
16); but it was not till the year 23 that they 
were finally subdued by Statilius Taurus. They 
took part in the great Pannonian revolt under 
their leader Bato ; but, after a three years' war, 
were again reduced to subjection by Tiberius, 
A.D. 9. 

Dalmatics, Vid. Delmatius. 

Dalminidm. Vid. Dalmatia. 

Damagetus (AajidyrjToc), king of Ialysus in 
Rhodes, married, in obedience to the Delphic ora- 
cle, the daughter of Aristomenes of Messeue, and 
From this marriage spraug the family of the Dia- 
ijoridae, who were celebrated for their victories at 
Dlympia. Vid, Aristomenes. 

[Damagon (Aa/idyuv), a Spartan, who, with Le- 
on and Alcidas, superintended the planting of the 
Lacedaemonian colony Heraclea in Phthiotis, B.C. 
426.] 

Damalis or Bous (Ad/ialic, rj Bovc), a small 
place in Bitliynia, on the shore of the Thracian 
Bosporus, north of Chalcedon ; celebrated by tra- 
dition as the landing-place of Io, the memory of 
whose passage was preserved by a bronze cow 
set up here by the Cbaleedonians. 

Damaratus. Vid. Demakatds. 

[Damascenus, Nicolaus. Vid. Nicolaus.] 

Damascius (Aap.dciK.ioc), the Syrian, of Damas- 
cus, whence he derived his name, the last of 
the renowned teachers of the Neo-Platonic phi- 
losophy at Athens, was born about A.D. 480. He 
first studied at Alexandrea and afterward at 
Athens, under Marinus and Zenodotus, whom 
he succeeded. "When Justinian closed the hea- 
then schools of philosophy at Athens in 529, 
Damascius emigrated to King Chosroes of Per- 
sia. He afterward returned to the west, since 
Chosroes had stipulated in a treaty that the 
heathen adherents of the Platonic Philosophy 
should be tolerated by the Byzantine emperor. 
The only work of Damascius which has been 
printed is entitled " Doubts and Solutions of the 
first Principles," edited by Kopp, Francof., 1828, 
8vo. 

Damascus (fi AajiaaKoc : AafiaaKrjvog : now Da- 
meshk, Damascus, Esh-Sham), one of the most 
ancient cities of the world, mentioned as exist- 
ing in the time of Abraham (Gen., xiv., 15), 
stood in the district afterward called Ccele-Syr- 
ia, upon both banks of the River Chrysorrhoas 
or Bardines (now Burada), the waters of which, 
drawn off by canals and aqueducts, fertilized the 
plain around the city. This plain is open on the 
south and east, and sheltered on the west and 
north by an offshoot of the Antilibanus; its 
fruits were celebrated in ancient, as in modern 
times ; and altogether the situation of the city 
is one of the finest on the globe. In the earli- 
est times, except during the short period for 
which David subjected it to the Hebrew mon- 
archy, Damascus was the seat of an independ- 
ent kingdom, called the kingdom of Syria, which 
was subdued by the Assyrians, and passed suc- 
cessively under the dominion of the Babyloni- 
ans, the Persians, the Greek kings of Syria, and 
16 



the Romans, the last of whom obtained possession 
of it after the conquest of Tigranes, and assigned 
it to the province of Syria. It flourished great- 
ly under the emperors, and is called by Julian 
(Epist. 24) " the Eye of all the East." Diocle- 
tian established in it a great factory for arms ; 
and hence the origin of the fame of Damascus 
blades. Its position on one of the high roads 
from Lower to Upper Asia gave it a consider 
able trade. The surrounding district was calle-1 
Aafiaonnvq. 

Damasippus, L. JnNa-s Brutus. Vid. Brutus, 
No. 10. 

Damasippus Licikius. 1. A Roman senator, 
fought on the side of the Pompeians in Africa, 
and perished B.C. 47. — 2. A contemporary of 
Cicero, who mentions him as a lover of statues, 
and speaks of purchasing a garden from Dama- 
sippus. He is probably the same person as the 
Damasippus ridiculed by Horace. (Sat, ii., 3, 16, 
64.) It appears from Horace that Damasippus 
had become bankrupt, in consequence of which 
he intended to put an end to himself; but he was 
prevented by the Stoic Stertinius, and then turned 
Stoic himself, or at least affected to be one by his 
long beard. The. Damasippus mentioned by Juv- 
enal (Sat, viii., 147, 151, 167) is a fictitious name, 
under which the satirist ridiculed some noble 
lover of horses. 

[Damasithymus (Aafiaafflvfioc), son of Can- 
daules, prince of Calynda in Caria, followed 
Xerxes to Greece, and perished at the battle of 
Salamis.] 

Damastes (Aa/xdarnc), of Sigeum, a Greek his- 
torian, and a contemporary of Herodotus and 
Hellamcus of Lesbos : his works are lost. 

[Damastorides (Aa/iaaTopiSric), patronymic 
from Damastor, as Tlepolemus in the Iliad, and 
Agelaus iu the Odyssey.] 

[Damasus (Aufiaooe). 1. A Trojan, slain by 
Polypoetes. — 2. D. Scombrus, a celebrated rheto- 
rician of Tralles in Cilicia.] 

Damia. Vid. Auxesia. 

Damnonii. 1. Or Dumnonii or Dumnunh, a 
powerful people in the southwest of Britain, in 
habiting Cornwall, Devonshire, and the western 
part of Somersetshire, from whom was called the 
promontory Damnonium, also OcrInum, (now Cape 
Lizard) in CornwalL — 2. Or Damnii, a people in 
north Britain, inhabiting parts of modern Perth, 
Argyle, Stirling, and Dumbarton-shires. 

Damo (Aafiu), a daughter of Pythagoras and 
Theano, to whom Pythagoras intrusted his writ- 
ings, and forbade her to give them to any one. 
This command she strictly observed, although 
she was in extreme poverty, and received many 
requests to sell them. 

Damocles (AapLonlrjc), a Syracusan, one of the 
companions and flatterers of the elder Dionysius. 
Damocles having extolled the great felicity of 
Dionysius on account of his wealth and power, 
the tyrant invited him to try what his happiness 
really was, and placed him at a magnificent ban- 
quet, in the midst of which Damocles saw a naked 
sword suspended over his head by a single horse- 
hair — a sight which quickly dispelled all his vis- 
ions of happiness. The story is alluded to by 
Horace. (Carm., hi., 1, 17.) 

[Damocritus (Aa/ionpLTOc), of Calydon, a gen- 
eral of the ^Etolian league, B.C. 200, opposed the 
Romans and sided with the Macedonians; he 
241 



DAMON. 



DAPHNE. 



subsequently fell into the hands of the Romans, 
and was thrown into prison, from which he es- 
caped by night, but, being pursued, threw him- 
self on his own sword.] 

Damon (Adfiov). 1. Of Athens, a celebrated 
musician and sophist. He was a pupil of Lam- 
prus and Agathocles, and the teacher of Pericles, 
with whom he lived on the most intimate terms. 
He is also said to have taught Socrates, but this 
statement is more doubtful. In his old age he 
was banished from Athens, probably on account 
of the part he had taken in politics. — 2. A Pytha- 
gorean, and friend of Phintias (not Pythias). 
When the latter was condemned to die for a plot 
against Dionysius I. of Syracuse, he asked leave 
of the tyrant to depart for the purpose of arrang- 
ing his domestic affairs, promising to find a friend 
who would be pledge for his appearance at the 
time appointed for his punishment. To the sur- 
prise of Dionysius, Damon unhesitatingly offered 
himself to be put to death instead of his friend, 
should he fail to return. Phintias arrived just in 
time to redeem Damon, and Dionysius was so 
struck with this instance of firm friendship on 
both sides, that he pardoned the criminal, and 
entreated to be admitted as a third into their 
bond of brotherhood. 

Damoxenus (Aajio&voc), an Athenian comic 
poet of the new comedy, and perhaps partly of 
the middle. [Some fragments remain, which 
have been collected by Meineke, Comic. Grcec. 
Fragm., vol. ii., p. 1149-53, edit, minor.] 

Dana (Adva), a great city of Cappadocia (Xen., 
Anab., i., 2, § 20), probably the same as the later 
Tyana. 

Danae (Aavd?i) daughter of Acrisius ano 
mother of Perseus. Vid. Acrisius. An Italian 
legend related that Danae came to Italy, built 
the town of Ardea, and married Pilumnus, by 
whom she became the mother of Daunus, the an- 
cestor of Turnus. 

Danai. Vid. Danaus. 

Danaides (Aavatdec), the fifty daughters of 
Danaus. Vid. Danaus. 

Danala (rd. AdvaXa), a city in the territory of 
the Trocmi, in the northeast of Galatia, notable 
in the history of the Mithradatic War as the 
place where Lucullus resigned the command to 
Pompey. 

Danapris. Vid. Bortsthenes. 

Danastris. Vid. Tyras. 

Danaus (Aavaoc), son of Belus and twin- 
brother of iEgyptus. Belus had assigned Libya 
to Danaus, but the latter, fearing his brother 
and his brother's sons, fled with his fifty daugh- 
ters to Argos. Here he was elected king by 
the Argives, in place of Gelanor, the reigning 
monarch. The story of the murder of the fifty 
sons of JEgyptus by the fifty daughters of Da- 
naus (the Danaides) is given under ^Esyptus. 
There was one exception to the murderous 
deed. The life of Lynceus was spared by his 
wife Hypermnestra ; and, according to the com- 
mon tradition, he afterward avenged the death 
of his brothers by killing his father-in-law, Da- 
naus. According to the poets, the Danaides 
were punished in Hades by being compelled 
everlastingly to pour water into a sieve (inane 
lymphce dolium fundo pereuntis imo, Hor., Carm., 
iii., 11, 26) From Danaus the Argives were 
called Danai, which name, like that of the Ar- 
242 



gives, was often applied by the poets to the cot. 
lective Greeks. 

[Dandarii ( Aavddpwi) and DandaridjE, a peopU 
on the coasts of the Palus Mseotis and the Euxine, 
traces of whose name appear to remain in the 
modern Drandi.] 

Danubius (now Danube, in German Donau), 
also Danuvius on coins and inscriptions, called 
Ister ("larpoc) by the Greeks, one of the chief 
rivers of Europe, rises in the Black Porest, and, 
after flowing one thousand seven hundred and 
seventy miles, falls into the Black Sea. It is 
mentioned by Hesiod, but the Greeks knew very 
little about it. According to Herodotus, it rises 
at the city Pyrene, among the Celts, and flows 
through the whole of Europe. The Romans first 
obtained some accurate information concerning 
the river at the commencement of the empire. 
Tiberius, in his campaign against the Vindelicians, 
visited the sources of the Danube, which, accord- 
ing to Tacitus, rises in Mount Abnoba. The 
Danube formed the northern boundary of the em- 
pire, with the exception of the time that Dacia 
was a Roman province. In the Roman period, 
the upper part of the river, from its source as far 
as Vienna, was called Danubius, while the lower 
part to its entrance in the Black Sea was named 
Ister. 

Daorsi or Daouizi (AaopL&i). a tribe in Dal- 
matia. 

Daphne PelusLe (Adtyvai al HeTtpvaiai : now 
Safnas), a border fortress of Lower Egypt 
against Arabia and Syria, stood on the right 
hand of the Nile, sixteen Roman miles southwest 
of Pelusium. Many Jews settled here after 
the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babyloni- 
ans. 

Daphne (Adtyvn). 1. Daughter of the river- 
god Ladon in Arcadia, by Ge (the earth), or of 
the river-god Peneus in Thessaly. She was 
extremely beautiful and was loved by Apollo 
and Leueippus, son of ffinomaus, but she re- 
jected both their suits. In order to win her, 
Leueippus disguised himself as a maiden, but 
Apollo's jealousy caused his discovery, and he 
was killed by the companions of Daphne. Apol- 
lo now pursued Daphne, and she was on the 
point of being overtaken by him : she prayed for 
aid, and was metamorphosed into a laurel-tree 
(6d<t>vn), which became, in consequence, the fa- 
vorite tree of Apollo. — 2. Daughter of Tiresias, 
better known under the name of Manto. . Vid. 
Manto. 

Daphne (Adtyvrj). 1. (Now Bcit-cl-Moie, or 
Babyla?) a beautiful spot, five miles south of 
Antioch in Syria, to which it formed a sort of 
park or pleasure garden. Here was a grove of 
laurels and cypresses, eighty stadia in circuit, 
watered by fresh springs, and consecrated by 
Seleucus Nicator to Apollo, to whom also a 
magnificent temple was built by Antioehus 
Epiphanes, and adorned with a splendid statue 
of the god by Bryaxis. To this temple were 
attached periodical games and the privilege of 
asylum. Daphne was a royal residence of the 
Seleucida? and of the later Romau emperors, 
and a favorite resort of the people of Antioch, 
who, however, carried the pleasures they en- 
joyed here so far beyond the bounds of mod- 
eration, that the phrase Daphnici mores passed 
into a provp ,- b. It was from this place that An- 



DAPHNIS 



DARIUS. 



tioch received its distinguishing name, 'A. brl 
Adtpviig. — 2. A place in Upper Galilee, on the 
Lake Semecbonitis. 

Daphnis (Ad<pvig). 1. A Sicilian hero, to 
whom the invention of bucolic poetry is ascribed. 
He was son of Mercury (Hermes) by a nymph. 
His mother placed him when an infant in a 
charming valley in a laurel grove, from which 
he received the name of Daphnis. He was 
brought up by nymphs ; was taught by Pan to 
play on the flute ; he became a shepherd, and 
tended his flocks on Mount Mina, winter and 
summer. A Naiad fell in love with him, and 
made him swear that be would never love any 
other maiden, threatening him with blindness 
if he broke his oath. For a time the handsome 
shepherd resisted the numerous temptations to 
which he was exposed, but at last he forgot 
himself, having been made intoxicated by a 
princess. The Naiad accordingly punished him 
with blindness, or, as others relate, changed him 
into a stone. Previous to this time he had com- 
posed bucolic poetry, and with it delighted Di- 
ana (Artemis) during the chase. After having 
become blind, he invoked his father to help 
nim. The god accordingly raised him up to 
heaven, and caused a well to gush forth on the 
spot whe&e this happened. The well bore the 
name of Daphnis, and at it the Sicilians offered 
an aunual sacrifice. — [2. Tyrant of Abydos, one 
of those who were left by Darius in charge of 
the bridge of boats over the Danube, and who 
refused to destroy the bridge as urged by Milti- 
ades.] 

Daphnus (Aa<j>vovc -ovvroc : Aaipvovacoc), a 
town of the Locri Opuntii on the coast, in earlier 
times belonging to Phoeis. 

Daradax (Aapd5a%: now Abu-Ghalgal ?), a 
river of Upper Syria, flowing into ^he Euphrates, 
thirty parasangs from the River Chalos, and fif- 
teen from Thapsacus. 

[Dardanes (AapSavelc), a people of Media, on 
the Gyndes, mentioned by Herodotus (i., 189), 
otherwise unknown.] 

DardXni (Adpdavoc : Aapdaviurai, Strab.), a 
people in Upper Moesia, who also occupied part 
of lllyricum, and extended as far as the frontiers 
of Macedonia. 

Dardania (AapSavla), a district of the Troad, 
lying along the Hellespont, southwest of Abydos, 
and adjacent on the land side to the territories 
of Ilium and Scepsis. Its people (Adpdavoi) ap- 
pear in the Trojan war, and their name is often 
interchanged with that of the Trojans, especially 
by the Roman poets. Vid. Dardanus. 

Dardanus (AdpSavoc). 1. Son of Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Eleetra. His native place in the various 
traditions is Arcadia, Crete, Troas, or Italy. Dar- 
danus is the mythical ancestor of the Trojans, and 
through them of the Romans. The Greek tradi- 
tions usually make him a king in Arcadia. He 
first emigrated to Samothrace, and afterward 
passed over to Asia, where he received a tract 
of land from King Teucer, on which he built the 
town of Dardania. He married Batea, daughter 
of Teucer, or Arisbe of Crete, by whom he be- 
came the father of Erichthonius. His grandson 
was Tros, who removed to Troy the Palladium, 
which had belonged to his grandfather. Accord- 
ing to the Italian traditions, Dardanus was the 
son of Corythus, an Etruscan prince of Corythus 



(now Cortona), or of Jupiter (Zeus) by the wife 
of Corythus; and, as in the Greek tradition, he 
afterward emigrated to Phrygia. — [2. A Stoic 
philosopher, who, with Mnesarchus, stood at 
the head of the Stoic school at Athens; con- 
temporary with the Academic Antiochus of 
Ascalou.] 

Dardanus {rj Adpdavog : Aapdavevc), also -um 
and -1UM, a Greek city in the Troad on the Hel- 
lespont, near the Promontorium Dardanis or 
Dardanium and the mouth of the River Rhodius, 
twelve Roman miles from Ilium, and nine (or 
seventy stadia) from Abydus. It was built by 
jEolian colonists, at some distance from the site 
of the ancient city Dardania (Aapdaviij), which is 
mentioned by Homer (II., ii., 216) as founded by 
Dardanus before the building of Ilium. The Ro- 
mans, after the war with Antiochus the Great, 
made Dardanus and Ilium free cities, as an act 
of filial piety. The peace between Sulla and 
Mithradates was made here, B.C. 84-. From 
Dardanus arose the name of the Castles of the 
Dardanelles, after which the Hellespont is now 
called. 

Dares (Adpns). 1. A priest of Vulcan (He- 
phasstus) at Troy, mentioned in the Iliad (v., 9), 
to whom was ascribed in antiquity an Iliad, 
which was believed to be more ancient than 
the Homeric poems. This work, which was 
undoubtedly the composition of a sophist, is 
lost ; but there is extant a Latin work in prose 
in forty-four chapters, on the destruction of Troy, 
bearing the title Daretis Phrygii de Excidio 
Trqjce Historia, and purporting to be a transla- 
tion of the work of Dares by Cornelius Nepos. 
But the Latin work is evidently of much later 
origin ; it is the production of a person of little 
education and of bad taste ; and it is supposed 
by some to have been written even as late as 
the twelfth century. It is usually printed with 
Dictys Cretensis: the best edition is by Deder- 
ich, Bonn, 1837, 8vo. — [2. A Trojan, companion 
of iEneas, distinguished for bis skill in boxing ; 
vanquished and driven from the field by the aged 
Entellus.] 

Darius (Aapeiog). 1. King of Persia, B.C. 
521-485, was the son of Hystaspes, satrap of 
the province of Persia, and of the royal family 
of the Achsemenidae. He was one of the seven 
Persian chiefs who destroyed the usurper Smer- 
dis. The seven chiefs agreed that the one of 
them whose horse neighed first at an appointed 
time and place, should become king; and as 
the horse of Darius neighed first, he was de- 
clared king. He married Atossa and Artystone, 
the two daughters of Cyrus, and Parmys, the 
daughter of Cyrus's son Smerdis, and Phsedime, 
the daughter of Otanes, one of the seven chiefs. 
He then began to set in order the affairs of his 
vast empire, which he divided into twenty sa- 
trapies, assigning to each its amount of tribute. 
Persis proper was exempted from all taxes, ex- 
cept those which it had formerly been used to 
pay. It was in the reign of Darius that the con- 
solidation of the empire was effected, for Cyrus 
and Cambyses had been engaged in continual 
wars. A few years after his accession the 
Babylonians revolted, but after a siege of twenty 
months, Babylon was taken by a stratagem of 
Zoptrus, about 516. The reduction of Babylon 
was followed by the invasion of Scythia (about 
243 



DASCON. 



DACELEA. 



608), Darius crossed the Danube, and marched 
far into the interior of modern Russia; but, 
after losing a large number of men by famine, 
and being unable to meet with the enemy, he 
was obliged to retreat. On his return to Asia, 
he sent part of his forces, under Megabazus, to 
subdue Thrace and Macedonia, -which thus be- 
came subject to the Persian empire. The most 
important event in the reign of Darius was the 
commencement of the great war between the 
Persians and the Greeks. The history of this 
war belongs to the biographies of other men. 
In 501 the Ionian Greeks revolted ; they were 
assisted by the Athenians, who burned Sardis, 
and thus provoked the hostility of Darius. 
Vid. Aristagoras, Histi^eus. In 492 Mar- 
donius was sent with a large army to invade 
Greece, but he lost a great part of his fleet 
off Mount Athos, and the Thracians destroyed 
a vast number of his land forces. Vid. Mar- 
donius. He was, in consequence, recalled, and 
Datis and Artaphernes appointed to the com- 
mand of the invading army. They took Eretria 
in Eubcea, and landed in Attica, but were de- 
feated at Marathon by the Athenians under the 
c immand of Miltiades. Vid. Miltiades. Da- 
rius now resolved to call out the whole force of 
his empire for the purpose of subduing Greece ; 
but, after three years of preparation, his atten- 
tion was called off by the rebellion a" Ejvypt. 
He died in 485, leaving the execution of his 
plans to his son Xerxes. — II. King of Persia, 
424-405, named Ochus (*fi^oc), before his ac- 
cession, and then surnamed Nothus (No#of), or 
the Bastard, from his being one of the bastard 
sons of Artaxerxes I. . Darius obtained the 
crown by putting to death his brother Sogdia- 
nus, who had murdered Xerxes II. He mar- 
ried Parysatis, daughter of Xerxes I., by whom 
he had two sons, Artaxerxes II., who succeeded 
him, and Cyrus the younger. Darius was gov- 
erned by eunuchs, and the weakness of his gov- 
ernment was shown by repeated insurrections 
of his satraps. In 414 the Persians were ex- 
pelled from Egypt by Amyrteus, who reigned 
there six years, and at whose death (408) Da- 
rius was obliged to recognize his son Pausiris 
as his successor. — III. Last king of Persia, 336- 
331, named Codomannus before his accession, 
was the son of Arsames and Sisygambis, and a 
descendant of Darius II. He was raised to the 
throne by Bagoas, after the murder of Arses. 
The history of his conquest by Alexander the 
Great, and of his death, is given in the life of 
Alexander. 

[Dascon (Adonuv), a Syracusan, founder of 
Camarina.] 

Dascon (Adanuv : AaoKuvios), a fortress near 
Syracuse, situated on a bay of the same name. 

[Dascyles (AaoicvXrit), father of Gyges.] 

Dascylium (AauKv^iov or -elov : AaaKvXcTTjc : 
now Diaskili), a town of Bithynia, on the Propon- 
tis, near a lake called Dascylitis. 

Dasea (Aaaea, also Aaceai : AaeedrTjc), a small 
town in Arcadia, near Megalopolis. 

Dassaretii or Dassarit^e, Dassaretve (Aaoaa- 
07/tioi, Aaaaaplrai), a people in Greek lllyria, on 
the borders of Macedonia : their chief town was 
Lychnidus (A^v/iiof), on a hill, on the northern 
side of the Lake Lychnitis, which was so called 
after the town. 

244 



Datames {Aardfirig), a distinguished Persian 
general, a Cariau by birth, son of Camissares 
by a Scythian mother. He succeeded his father 
as satrap of Cilicia, under Artaxerxes II. (Mne- 
mon), but, in consequence of the machinations of 
his enemies at the Persian court, he threw off 
his allegiance to the king, and made common 
cause with the other satraps who had revolted 
from Persia. He defeated the generals who 
were sent against him, but was assassinated 
by Mithradates, son of Ariobarzanes, about 
B.C. 362. Cornelius Nepos, who has written 
his life, calls him the bravest and most able of 
all barbarian generals, except Hamilcar and 
Hannibal. 

Datis (Auric), a Mede, commanded, along with 
Artaphernes, the Persian army of Darius, which 
was defeated at Marathon, B.C. 490. 

Datum or Datus (Autov, Autoc : Aarjjvoc . 
now Eski-Cavallo), a Thracian town on the Stry- 
monic Gulf, subject to Macedonia, with gold 
mines in Mount Pangseus in the neighborhood, 
whence came the proverb a ' Datum of good 
things." 

Daulis or Dauiia (Aau/*;7, -sttj, Aavlla: Aav- 
%levc, AavXwc;: nowJow.a), an ancient town in 
Phocis, on the road from CbseronOa and Orcho- 
menus to Delphi, situated on a lofty hill : cele- 
brated in mythology as the residence of the 
Thracian king Tereus, and as the scene of the 
tragic story of Philomela and Procne. Hence 
Daulias (AavYiac) is the surname both of Proene 
and Philomela. 

Daunia. Vid. Apulia, 

Daunus (Aavvoc). I. Son of Lyeaon, and 
brother of Iapyx and Peucetius. The three 
brothers crossed over from lllyria, and settled 
in Apulia, which was divided into three parts, 
and named after them. The poets sometimes 
gave the name of Daunia to the whole of Apu- 
lia: Horace (Carm., i., 22, 14) uses the adjec- 
tive Daunias (sc. terra). — 2. Son of Pilumnus 
and Danae, wife of Venilia, and ancestor of Tur- 
nus. 

[Decapolis (AekuttoXlc), in Palestine, east of 
the Jordan, an association composed of the ten 
cities, Philadelphia, Damascus, Raphana, Scytho- 
polis, Gadara. Hippon, Dion, Pella, Galasa, and 
Canatha, which, not being inhabited by Jews, 
formed a confederation for mutual protection 
against the Asmonean princes of Judcea.] 

Deoebalus (AeKe6aXoc), a celebrated king of 
the Dacians during the reigns of Domitian and 
Trajan. For four years (A.D 86-90) he car 
ried on war against the Romans with such suc- 
cess, that Domitian was at length glad to con- 
elude peace with him by the payment of an an- 
nual tribute. Trajan refused to continue this 
disgraceful payment, and renewed the war.' 
He defeated the Dacians, and compelled Dece- 
balus to sue for peace, which was granted (101- 
103). But in 104 the war broke out again ; De- 
cebalus was again defeated, and put an end to 
his life ; and Dacia became a Roman province, 
106. 

Decelea or -ia (Ae/ceAna : AeneTievg : now 
Biala-Castro), a demus of Attica, belonging to 
the tribe Hippothoontis, lay northwest of Athens, 
on the borders of Breotia, near the sources of 
the Cephisus. In the nineteenth year of the 
Peloponnesian War (B.C. 413), the Peloponne- 



I 



DECENTIUS MAGNUS. 



DEIPHOBUS. 



j sians under Agis seized and fortified Decelea, and 
thereby" annoyed the Athenians in many ways 
during the remainder of the war. 

Decentius Magnus, brother or cousin of Mag- 
nentius, by whom he was created Caesar, A.D. 
351. After the death of Magnentids, he put an 
end to his own life, 353. 

Decetia (now Desize), a city of the iEdui, in 
Gallia Lugdunensis, on an island in the Liger 
(now Loire). 

Dectates, a Ligurian people on the coast and 
about the sources of the Druentia (now Durance). 
Their chief city, Deciatum (AeKtijrov), lay be- 
tween Nicaea and Antipolis. 
Decidius Saxa. Vid. Saxa. 
Decius Mds, P., plebeians. 1. Consul B.C. 
340 with T. Manlius Torquatus in the great 
Latin war. Each of the consuls had a vision 
in the night before fighting with the Latins, an- 
nouncing that the general of one side and the 
army of the other were devoted to death. The 
eonsuls thereupon agreed that the one whose 
wing first began to waver should devote him- 
self and the army of the enemy to destruction. 
Decius commanded the left wing, which began 
to give way, whereupon he devoted himself and 
the army of the enemy to destruction, accord- 
ing to the formula prescribed by the pontifex 
maximus, then rushed into the thickest of the 
enemy, and was slain, leaving the victory to the 
Romans. — 2. Son of the preceding, four times 
consul, 312, 308, 297, and 295, In his fourth 
consulship he commanded the left wing at the 
battle of Sentinum, where he was opposed to 
the Gauls, and when his troops began to give 
way, he imitated the example of his father, de- 
voted himself and the enemy to destruction, and 
fell as a sacrifice for his nation. — 3. Son of No. 
2, consul 279, in the war against Pyrrhus. Ac- 
cording to some, he sacrificed himself in battle 
like his father and grandfather, but this is not 
true, for he survived the war with Pyrrhus. 

Decius, a Roman emperor, A.D. 249-251, 
whose full name was C. Messius Quintus Tra- 
ianus Decius, was born at Bubalia, in Pannonia. 
He was sent by the Emperor Philippus in 249 
to restore subordination in the army of Mcesia, 
but the troops compelled him to accept the pur- 
ple under threats of death. Decius still assured 
Philippus of his fidelity ; but the latter not trust- 
ing these professions, hastened to meet his rival 
in the field, was defeated near Verona, and slain. 
The short reign of Decius was chiefly occupied 
in warring against the Goths. He fell in battle 
against the Goths together with his son in 251. 
In his reign the Christians were persecuted with 
great severity. 

Decumates Agri. Vid. Agri Decumates. 
Deianira (Arjidveipa), daughter of Althaea by 
either (Eneus, or Bacchus, (Dionysus), or Dex- 
amenus, and sister of Meleager. Achelous and 
Hercules both loved Deianira, and fought for 
the possession of her. Hercules was victorious, 
and she became his wife. She was the unwill- 
ing cause of her husband's death by presenting 
him with the poisoned robe which the centaur 
Nessus gave her. In despair, she put an end to 
her own life. For details, vid. Hercules. 

[Deicoon (Aijiicouv), a Trojan hero, friend of 
jEneas, slain by Agamemnon.] 
Deidamia (ATjiddueia.). 1. Daughter of Lyco- 



medes in the island of Scyrus. When Achilles 
was concealed there in maiden's attire, she be- 
came by him the mother of Pyrrhus or Neop- 
tolemus. — 2. Wife of Pirithous, commonly call- 
ed Hippodamia. — [3. Daughter of Bellerophon, 
wife of Euander, and mother of Sarpedon ; she 
is called by Homer (E,, vi., 197) Laodamia.l — 
4. Sister of Pyrrhus, married Demetrius Pohor- 
cetes. 

Deioces (ATjtoKTjc), first king of Media, after 
the Medes had thrown off the supremacy of the 
Assyrians, was the son of Phraortes, and reign- 
ed B.C. 709-656. He built the city of Ecbat- 
ana, which he made the royal residence. His ad- 
ministration of justice was severe, and he kept a 
body of spies and informers throughout the 
whole country. He was succeeded by his son 
Phraortes 

[Deiochus {Arj'toxoc), a Greek, slain before 
Troy by Paris.] 

Deion (Arjiwv), son of jEolus and Enarete, 
king in Phocis, husband of Diomede, and father 
of Asteropia, iEnetus, Actor, Phylacus, and 
Cephalus. 

DeIone (Arjiuvrf), mother of Miletus, who is 
hence called Dei'onides. (Ov., Met, ix., 442.) 

[Deioneus (Aniovevc). 1. Father of Dia, the 
wife of Ixion, by whom he was thrown into a pit 
filled with fire, and there perished. — 2. A son of 
Eurytus of OEchalia, whom Theseus married to 
Perigune, the daughter of Sinis.] 

[DeIopea, a beautiful nymph, whom Juno 
promised to iEolus if he would aid her in destroy- 
ing the fleet of ^Eneas.] 

[Deiopites (ArjioniTrig), a son of Priam, slain 
by Ulysses (II., xi., 420) ; Apollodorus calls him 
ArjioTTTr/c.'] 

Deiotarus (Arjlorapoc). 1. Tetrarch of Gala- 
tia, adhered firmly to the Romans in their wars 
in Asia against Mithradates, and was rewarded 
by the senate with the title of kiug, and the ad- 
dition of Armenia Minor to his dominions. In 
the civil war he sided with Pompey, and was 
present at the battle of Pharsalia. B.C. 48. In 
47 he applied to Domitius Calvinus, Caesar's le- 
gate in Asia, for aid against Pharnaces, who 
had taken possession of Armenia Minor. When 
Caesar, in the same year, came into Asia from 
Egypt, Deiotarus received him with submission, 
and endeavored to excuse the aid he had given 
to Pompey. Caesar deprived him of part of his 
dominions, but allowed him to retain his regal 
title. Two years afterward (45) his grandson 
Castor accused him of having formed a design 
against Caesar's life, when he received Caesar 
in Galatia. He was defended by Cicero before 
Caesar, in the house of the latter at Rome, in 
the speech (pro Rege Deiotaro) still extant. The 
result of the trial is not known. After Caesar's 
death he obtained from Antony the restitution 
of his dominions by paying Fulvia a large sum 
of money. In 42 lie joined the party of Brutus 
and Cassius, and died shortly afterward at a great 
age. — 2. Son and successor of the above. In the 
war between Antony and Octavianus he took part 
with the former, but went over from him to the 
enemy in the battle of Actium, 31. 

Deiphobe (Arjl(p66ri), the Sibyl at Cumae.daugh- 
ter of Glaueus. Vid. Sibylla. 

Deiphobus (Arji<j>o6oc). 1. A son of Priam and 
Hecuba, and, next to Hector, the bravest among 
245 



DEIPHONTES. 



DELPHL 



the Irojans. He always supported Paris in Lis 
refusal to deliver up Helen to the Trojans ; and 
be married her after the death of Paris. Ac- 
cordingly, on the fall of Troy, the vengeance of 
the Greeks -was chiefly directed against him. 
His house was one of the first committed to 
the flames, and he was slain and fearfully man- 
gled by Menelaus, [the marks of which mutila- 
tion his shade still bore in the lower world when 
encountered by ./Eneas; who, before leaving 
Troy, had erected a cenotaph to bis memory 
on Cape Rhceteuin. — 2. Son of Hippolytus in 
Amyclte, who purified Hercules of the murder 
of Ignitus.] 

Deiphontes (&rii<l>ovT?!g), son of Antimaehus, 
and husband of Hyrnetho, the daughter of Tem- 
enus the Heraclid, became king of Argos after 
Temenus had been murdered by his own sons. 
Pausauias (ii., 19) gives a different account. 

[Deipyle (AninvAn), daughter of Adrastus, 
king of Argos, wife of Tydeus, and mother of 
Diomedes.] 

[Deipylus (Atjl-kvAoc), a Greek, companion of 
Diomedes in the Trojan war.] 

[Deipyrus (Aqiirvpoc), a Greek warrior, slain 
by Helenus before Troy.] 

DiLiuM (AtjXlov : now Dhilessi), a town on 
the coast of Boeotia, in the territory of Tanagra, 
near the Attic frontier, named after a temple of 
Apollo, similar to that at Delos. The Athenians 
used it as a fortress in the early part of the Pe- 
loponnesian War, and in B.C. 424 they were de- 
feated here by the Boeotians. 

Delius and Delia ( AjjAtog, Ar/Ma), surnames 
of Apollo and Diana (Artemis) respectively, 
from the island of Delos. 

Dellius, Q., a Roman eques, who frequently 
changed sides in the civil wars. In B.C. 44 he 
joined Dolabella in Asia, afterward went over 
to Cassius, and then united himself to M. Antony. 
He deserted to Oetavianus shortly before the bat- 
tle of Actium, 31. He appears to have become 
a personal friend of Oetavianus and Maecenas, 
and is therefore addressed by Horace in one of 
his Odes (ii., 3). He wrote a history of Antony's 
war against the Parthians, in which he had him- 
self fought. 

Delmatius or Dalmatics. 1. Son of Con- 
stantinus Ohlorus and his second wife Theodora. 
Prom his half-brother, Constantine the Great, he 
received the title of censor : he died before A.D. 
335. — 2. Son of the preceding, was created Caesar 
by Constantine the Great, 335 ; and, upon the di- 
vision of the empire, received Thrace, Macedonia, 
and Achaia as his portion. He was put to death 
in 33V on the death of Constantine. 

Delos or Delus {f) AyAoc : hrjXwc : now Delo, 
Deli, Dili, or Sdilli) the smallest of the islands 
called Cyclades, in the _<Egean Sea, lay in the 
strait between Ehenea and Myconus. It was 
also called, in earlier times, Asteria, Ortygia, 
and Chlamydia. According to a legend, found- 
ed, perhaps, on some tradition of its late volcanic 
origin, it was called out of the deep by the tri- 
dent of Neptune (Poseidon), but was a floating 
island until Jupiter (Zeus) fastened it by ada- 
mantine chains to the bottom of the sea, that 
it might be a secure resting-place to Latoua 
(Leto) for the birth of Apollo and Diana (Arte- 
mis). Apollo afterward obtained possession of 
Delos by giving Calauria to Neptune Posei- 
246 



don) in exchange for it ; and it became tne most 
holy seat of the worship of Apollo. Such is the 
mythical story : we learn from history that De- 
los was peopled by the Ionians, for whom it was 
the chief centre of political and religious union 
in the time of Homer : it was also the seat of 
an Amphictyony, comprising the surrounding 
islands. In the time of Pisistratus, Delos be- 
came subject to the Athenians : it was made 
the common treasury of the Greek confederacy 
for carrying on the war with Persia; but the 
transference of the treasury to Athens, and the 
altered character of the league, reduced the isl- 
and to a condition of absolute political depend- 
ence upon Athens. It still possessed, how- 
ever, a very extensive commerce, which was 
increased by the downfall of Corinth, when De- 
los became the chief emporium for the trade in 
slaves ; and it was one of the principal seats of 
art in Greece, especially for works in bronze, 
of which metal one of the most esteemed mix- 
tures was called the Delian. An especial sanc- 
tity was attached to Delos from its connection 
with the worship of Apollo ; and the peculiar 
character assigned to the island by the tradi- 
tions of its origin was confirmed by the remark- 
able fact that, though of volcanic origin, and in 
the midst of islands very subject to earthquakes, 
Delos enjoyed an almost entire exemption from 
such visitations, so that its being shaken by an 
earthquake was esteemed a marked prodigy. 
The city of Delos stood on the west side of the 
island, at the foot of Mount Cynthus (whence 
the god's surname of Cynthius), near a little 
river called Inopus. It contained a temple of 
Latona (Leto), and the great temple of Apollo. 
The latter was built near the harbor, and pos- 
sessed an oracle. Though enriched with offer- 
ings from all Greece, and defended by no forti- 
fications, it was so protected from plunder by 
the sanctity of the place, that even the Per- 
sians when sailing against Greece, not only 
passed it by uninjured, but sent rich presents 
to the god. With this temple were connected 
games, called Delia, which were celebrated 
every four years, and were said to have been 
founded by Theseus. A like origin is ascribed 
to the sacred embassy (deapta) which the Athe- 
nians sent to Delos every year. Vid. Diet, 
of Ant., art. Theori. The temple and oracle 
were visited by pilgrims from every quarter, 
even from the regions of Scythia. The great- 
est importance was attached to the preser- 
vation of the sanctity of the island. It was 
twice purified by the Athenians ; once under Pi- 
sistratus, when all tombs within sight of the 
temple were taken away ; and again in B.C. 
426, when all human and animal remains were 
removed entirely from the island, which was 
henceforth forbidden to be polluted by births or 
deaths, or by the presence of dogs : all persons 
about to die or to bring forth children were to 
be removed to the adjacent island of Rhenea 
Delos continued in a fkmrishing condition, and 
under the rule of the Athenians, who were con- 
firmed in the possession of it by the Romans, 
until the Mithradatic War, when Meuophanes, 
one of the generals of Mithradatcs, inflicted 
upon it a devastation from which it never again 
recovered. 

Delphi (ol AeA^oZ : AeAdoc : Delphicus : now 



DELPHI. 



DEMARATUS 



Kastri), a small town in Phocis, but one of the 
most celebrated in Greece, on account of its 
oracle of Apollo. It was sixteen stadia in cir- 
cumference, was situated on a steep declivity 
on the southern slope of Mount Parnassus, and 
its site resembled the cavea of a great theatre. 
It was shut in on the north by a barrier of rocky 
mountains, which were cleft in the centre into 
two great cliffs with peaked summits, between 
which issued the waters of the Castalian spring. 
It was originally called Pytho (Tlvda), by which 
name it is alone mentioned in Homer. The 
origin of the name of Delphi is uncertain. The 
ancients derived it from an eponymous hero, 
Delphus, a descendant of Deucalion ; but it has 
been conjectured that Delphi is connected with 
adelphos, " brother," and that it was indebted 
for its name to the twin peaks mentioned above. 
Delphi was colonized at an early period by Doric 
settlers from the neighboring town of Lycorea, 
on the heights of Parnassus. The government 
was an oligarchy, and was in the hands of a few 
distinguished families of Doric origin. From 
them were taken the chief magistrates, the 
priests, and a senate consisting of a very few 
members. Delphi was regarded as the central 
point of the whole earth, and was hence called 
the " navel of the earth." It was said that two 
eagles sent forth by Jupiter, one from the east 
and another from the west, met at Delphi at 
the same time. Delphi was the principal seat 
of the worship of Apollo. Besides the great 
temple of Apollo, it contained numerous sanc- 
tuaries, statues, and other works of art. The 
Pythian games were also celebrated here, and 
it was one of the two places of meeting of the 
Amphictyonic council. The temple of Apollo 
was situated at the northwestern extremity of 
the town. The first stone temple was built by 
Trophonius and Agamedes ; and when this was 
burned down B.C. 548, it was rebuilt by the Am- 
phictyons with still greater splendor. The ex- 
pense was defrayed by voluntary subscriptions, 
to which even Amasis, king of Egypt, contribu- 
ted. The architect was Spintharus of Corinth ; 
the Alemaaonklfe contracted to build it, and lib- 
erally substituted Parian marble for the front 
of the building, instead of the common stone 
which they bad agreed to employ. The temple 
contained immense treasures ; for not only 
were rich offerings presented to it by kings and 
private persons, who had received favorable re- 
plies from the oracle, but many of the Greek 
states had in the temple separate tfwsauri, in 
which they deposited, for the sake of security, 
many of their valuable treasures. The wealth 
of the temple attracted Xerxes, who sent part 
of his army into Phocis to obtain possession of 
its treasures, but the Persians were driven back 
by the god himself, according to the account of 
the Delphians. The Phocians plundered the 
temple to support them in the war against 
Thebes and the other Greek states (357-346) ; 
and it was robbed at a later time by Brennus 
and by Sulla. In the centre of the temple there 
was a small opening (^atj/^a) in the ground, from 
which, from time to time, an intoxicating vapor 
arose, which was believed to come from the well 
of Oaisotis. No traces of this chasm or of the 
mrphitie exhalations are now any where ob- 
eer/able. Over tins chasm there stood a tripod, 



on which the priestess, called Pythia, took her 
seat whenever the oracle was to be consulted. 
The words which she uttered after inhaling the 
vapor were believed to contain the revelations 
of Apollo. They were carefully written down 
by the priests, and afterward communicated in 
hexameter verse to the persons who had come 
to consult the oracle. If the Pythia spoke in 
prose, her words were immediately turned into 
verse by a poet employed for the purpose. Th« 
oracle is said to have been discovered by its hav- 
ing thrown into convulsions some goats which 
had strayed to the mouth of the cave. For de- 
tails respecting the oracle and its influence in 
Greece, vid. Diet, of Ant., art. Okaculum. 

[Delphicus, appellation of Apollo, from Del- 
phi (Ovid., Met, ii., 543).] 

Delphines. Vid. Delphinius. 

Delphinium (Aety'iviov). 1. A temple of Apol- 
lo Delphinius at Athens, said to have been built 
by JEgeus, in which the Ephetae sat for trying 
cases of intentional, but justifiable homicide. — 
2. The harbor of Oropus in Attica, on the bor- 
ders of Bosotia, called 6 lepdc Xifajv. — 3. A town 
on the eastern coast of the island Chios. 

Delphinius (AeXQivioc), a surname of Apollo, 
derived either from his slaying the dragon Del- 
phines (usually called Python), or because in 
the form of a dolphin {6eX<p'ie), or riding on a dol- 
phin, he showed the Cretan colonists the way 
to Delphi. 

Delphus (Ae^oc). 1. Son of Neptune (Po- 
seidon) and Melantho, to whom the foundation 
of Delphi was ascribed. — 2. Son of Apollo and 
Cekeno, who is also said to have founded Delphi. 

Delta. Vid. ^Egyptus. 

Demades (A^/zacS^c, a contraction of AriftedStjc), 
an Athenian orator, was of very low origin, but 
rose by his talents to a prominent position at 
Athens. He belonged to the Macedonian party, 
and was a bitter enemy of Demosthenes. He 
was taken prisoner at the battle of Chseronea, 
B.C. 338, but was dismissed by Philip with dis- 
tinguished marks of honor. After Philip's death 
he was the subservient supporter of Alexander, 
but, notwithstanding, frequently received bribes 
from the opposite party. He was put to death 
by Antipater in 318, because the latter had dis- 
covered a letter of Demades, urging the enemies 
of Antipater to attack him. Demades was a 
man without principle, and lived in a most prof- 
ligate and dissolute manner. But he was a 
brilliant orator. He always spoke extempore, 
and with such irresistible force, that he was a 
perfect match for Demosthenes himself. There 
is extant a large fragment of an oration bearing 
the name of Demades (Kepi dudEKaeriac), in 
which he defends his conduct during the period 
of Alexander's reign. It is printed in the col- 
lections of the Attic orators, but its genuineness 
is doubtful. Cicero and Quintilian both state 
that Demades left no orations behind him. 

[Demakata, daughter of Hiero, king of Syra- 
cuse, married to Andranodorus, the guardian of 
Hieronymus, on whose assassination she en- 
deavored to persuade her husband to seize on 
the sovereign power: she was afterward put 
to death.] 

Demaratus (Av/xdparoc, Dor. Aafidparoc). 1. 
King of Sparta, reigned from about B.C. 510 to 
491. He was at variance with his unscrupu- 
247 



DEMET^E. 



DEMETER. 



lous colleague Cleomenes, who at length accus- 
ed him before the Ephors of being an illegiti- 
mate son of Ariston, and obtained his deposition 
by bribing the Delphic oracle, B.C. 491. Derna- 
ratus thereupon repaired to the Persian court, 
where he was kindly received by Darius. He 
accompanied Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, 
and recommended the king not to rely too con- 
fidently upon his countless hosts. His family 
continued long in Asia. — 2. A merchant-noble 
of Corinth, and one of the Bacchiadse. When 
the power of his clan had been overthrown by 
Cypselus, about B.C. 657, he fled from Corinth, 
and settled at Tarquinii in Etruria, where he 
married an Etruscan wife, by whom he had two 
sons, Aruns and Lucumo, afterward L. Tarquin- 
ius Priscus. 

Demet^e, a peop*le of Britain, in the southwest 
of Wales: their chief towns were Maridunum 
(now Carmarthen) and Luentinum. 

Demeter (A7]fC7jT7ip), the Roman Ceres, one 
of the great divinities of the Greeks, was the 
goddess of the earth, and her name probably sig- 
nified Mother-Earth (yr/ fiVTTjp). She was the 
protectress of agriculture and of all the fruits 
of the earth. She was the daughter of Cronus 
(Saturn) and Rhea, and sister of Zeus (Jupiter), 
by whom she became the mother of Perseph- 
one (Proserpina). Zeus (Jupiter), without the 
knowledge of Demeter (Ceres), had promised 
Persephone (Proserpina) to Aidoneus (Pluto); 
and while the unsuspecting maiden was gather- 
ing flowers in the Nysian plain in Asia, the 
earth suddenly opened, and she was carried off 
by Aidoneus (Pluto). Her mother, who heard 
only the echo of her voice, immediately set out 
in search of her daughter. For nine days she 
wandered about without obtaining any tidings 
of her, but on the tenth she met Hecate, who 
told her that she had heard the cries of Perseph- 
one (Proserpina), but did not know who had 
carried her off. Both then hastened to Helios 
(the Sun), who revealed to them that it was Ai- 
doneus (Pluto) who had carried off Perseph- 
one (Proserpina) with the consent of Zeus (Ju- 
piter). Thereupon Demeter (Ceres), in her an- 
ger, avoided Olympus, and dwelt upon earth 
among men, conferring blessings wherever she 
was kindly received, and severely punishing 
those who repulsed her. In this manner she 
came to Celeus at Eleusis. Vid. Celeus. As 
the goddess still continued angry, and did not 
allow the earth to produce any fruits, Zeus (Ju- 
piter) first sent Iris and then all the gods to per- 
suade Demeter (Ceres) to return to Olympus. 
But she was deaf to all their entreaties, and re- 
fused to return to Olympus, and to restore fer- 
tility to the earth, till she had seen her daughter 
again. Zeus (Jupiter) accordingly sent Hermes 
(Mercury) into Erebus to fetch back Persepho- 
ne (Proserpina). Aidoneus (Pluto) consented, 
but gave Persephone (Proserpina) part of a 
pomegranate to eat. Hermes (Mercury) then 
took her to Eleusis to her mother, who received 
her with unbounded joy. At Eleusis both were 
joined by Hecate, who henceforth became the 
attendant of Persephone (Proserpina). Deme- 
ter (Ceres) now returned to Olympus with her 
daughter; but as the latter had eaten in the 
lower world, she was obliged to spend one third 
of the year with Aidoneus (Pluto), but was al- 
248 



lowed to continue with her mother the remain- 
der of the year. The earth now brought forth 
fruit again. Before Demeter (Ceres) left Eleu- 
sis, she instructed Triptolemus, Diocles, Eumol- 
pus, and Celeus in the mode of her worship and 
in the mysteries. This is the ancient legend as 
preserved in the Homeric hymn, but it is va- 
riously modified in later traditions. In the Latin 
poets the scene of the rape is near Enna in 
Sicily ; and Ascalaphus, who had alone seen 
Persephone (Proserpina) eat any thing in the 
lower world, revealed the fact, and was, in 
consequence, turned into an owl by Demeter 
(Ceres). Vid. Ascalaphus. In the Iliad and 
Odyssey there is no mention of this legend, 
and there appears no connection between Peme- 
ter (Ceres) and Persephone (Proserpina). The 
meaning of the legend is obvious. Persephone 
(Proserpina), who is carried off to the lower 
world, is the seed-corn, which remains concealed 
in the ground part of the year; Persephone 
(Proserpina), who returns to her mother, is the 
corn which rises from the ground and nourishes 
men and animals. Later philosophical writers, 
and perhaps the mysteries also, referred the 
disappearance and return of Persephone (Pro- 
serpina) to the burial of the body of man and 
the immortality of his soul. The other legends 
about Demeter (Ceres) are of less importance. 
To escape the pursuit of Poseidon (Neptune), 
she changed herself into a mare, but the god 
effected his purpose, and she became the mother 
of the celebrated horse Arion. Vid. Arion, No. 
2. According to some traditions, she also bore 
to Poseidon (Neptune) a daughter Despcena (i. 
e., Persephone). She fell in love with Iasion, 
and lay with him in a thrice-ploughed field in 
Crete : their offspring was Plutus ( Wealth) Vid. 
LisiON. She punished with fearful hunger Ery- 
sichthon, who had cut down her sacred grove. 
Vid. Erysichthon. The chief seats of the wor- 
ship of Demeter (Ceres) and Persephone (Pro- 
serpina) were Attica, Arcadia and Sicily. In 
Attica she was worshipped with great splendor. 
The Athenians pretended that agriculture was 
first practiced in their country, and that Trip- 
tolemus of Eleusis, the favorite of Demeter (Ce 
res), was the first who invented the plough ana 
sowed corn. Vid. Triptolemus. Every yeai 
at Athens the festival of the JEleutinia was eel 
ebrated in honor of these goddesses. The fes- 
tival of the Thesmophoria was also celebrated 
in her honor as well at Athens as at other parts 
of Greece: it was intended to commemorate 
the introduction of the laws and the regulations 
of civilized fife, which were ascribed to Deme- 
ter (Ceres), since agriculture is the basis of 
civilization. Vid. Diet, of Ant., arts. Eleusinia, 
Thesmophoria. In works of art Demeter (Ce- 
res) was represented sometimes in a sitting 
attitude, sometimes walking, and sometimes 
riding in a chariot drawn by horses or dragons, 
but always in full attire. Around her head she 
wore a garland of corn-ears or a simple riband, 
and in her haud she held a sceptre, corn-ears, or 
a poppy, sometimes also a torch and the mystic 
basket. The Romans received from Sicily the 
worship of Demeter (Ceres), to whom they gavr 
the name of Ceres. The first temple of Ceres 
at Rome was vowed by the dictator A. Postu- 
mius Albinus, B.C. 496, for the purpose o* 



DEMETRIAS. 

Ij averting a famine with which Rome was threat- 
ened during a war with the Latins. The Ro- 
mans instituted a festival with games in honor 
of her (vid. Diet, of Ant, s. v., Cerealia). She 
' was looked upon by the Romans much in the 
same light as Tellus. Pigs were sacrificed to 
both divinities in the seasons of sowing and in 
harvest time, and also at the burial of the dead. 
Her worship acquired considerable political im- 
portance at Rome. The property of traitors 
against the republic was often made over to her 
temple. The decrees of the senate were de- 
| posited in her temple for the inspection of the 
] tribunes of the people. If we further consider 
: that the tediles had the special superintendence 
of this temple, it is very probable that Ceres, 
whose worship was, lite the plebians them- 
selves, introduced into Rome from without, had 
some peculiar relations to the plebeian order. 

Demeteias (AqfinTpidc : Arj/irjTpisvc). 1. A 
town in Magnesia in Thessaly, on the inner- 
most recess of the PagasEean Bay, founded by 
Demetrius Polioreetes, and peopled by the in- 
habitants of Iojcus and the surrounding towns : 
it soon became one of the most important towns 
in the north of Greece, and is frequently men- 
tioned in the wars between the Macedonians 
and Romans. — 2. A town in Assyria, not far 
from Arbela. — 3. An Athenian tribe, added to 
the ten old tribes, B.C. 30V, and named in honor 
of Demetrius Polioreetes. 

Demetrius (Aiifitjrpcoc). 1. A Greek of the 
island of Pharos in the Adriatic. He was a gen- 
eral of Teuta, the Illyrian queen, and treacher- 
ously surrendered Corcyra to the Romans, who 
rewarded him with a great part of the dominions 
of Teuta, B.C. 22S. Subsequently he ventured 
on many acts of piratical hostility against the 
Romans, thinking that they were too much oc- 
cupied with the Gallic war and the impending 
danger of Hannibal's invasion to take notice of 
him. The Romans, however, immediately sent 
the consul L. ^Emilius Paulus over to Illyria 
(219), who took Pharos itself, and obliged De- 
metrius to fly for refuge to Philip, king of Mac- 
edonia, At the court of this prince he spent 
the remainder of his life. — 2. Younger son of 
Philip V., king of Macedonia, was sent as a 
hostage to Rome after the battle of Cynoseeph- 
alas (198). Five years afterward he was restor- 
ed to his father, who subsequently sent him as 
his ambassador to Rome. But, having incurred 
the jealousy of his father and his brother, Per- 
seus, by the favorable reception he had met 
with from the Romans, he was secretly put to 
death by his father's order. 

I. Kings of Macedonia. 1. Surnamed Polior- 
cetes (ILohiopKnTTjg), or the Besieger, son of 
Antigonus, king of Asia, and Stratonice. At an 
early age he gave proofs of distinguished brav- 
ery. He accompanied his father in his cam- 
paigns against Eumenes (B.C. 31*7, 316), and a 
few years afterward was left by his father in 
tie command of Syria, which he had to defend 
agaiust Ptolemy. In 312 he was defeated by 
Ptolemy near Gaza, but soon after retrieved his 
disaster in paii; by defeating one of the generals 
oi Ptolemy. In 311 a general peace was con- 
cluded among the successors of Alexander, but 
it was only of short duration. In 307 Deme- 
trius was dispatched by his father with a power- 



DEMETRIUS. 

ful fleet and army to wrest Greece from Cas- 
sander and Ptolemy. He met with great suc- 
cess. At Athens he was received with enthu- 
siasm by the people as their liberator. Deme- 
trius the Phalereau, who had governed the city 
for Cassander, was expelled, and the fort at 
Munychia taken. Demetrius took up his abode 
for the winter at Athens, where divine honors 
were paid him under the title of " the Preserv- 
er" (oDurr/p). He was recalled from Athens by 
his father to take the command of the war in 
Cyprus against Ptolemy. Here also he was 
successful, and in a great naval battle he anni- 
hilated the fleet of Ptolemy (306). Next year 
(305) he laid siege to Rhodes, because the Rho- 
dians had refused to support him against Ptol- 
emy. It was in consequence of the gigantic 
machines which Demetrius constructed to as- 
sail the walls of Rhodes that he received the 
surname of Polioreetes. But all his exertions 
were unavailing, and after the siege had lasted 
above a year, he at length concluded a treaty 
with the Rhodians (304). Demetrius then cross- 
ed over to Greece, which had meanwhile been 
almost conquered by Cassander. He soon com- 
pelled Cassander to evacuate all Greece south 
of Thermopylae, and for the next two years con- 
tinued to prosecute the war with success. But 
in 302 he was obliged to return to Asia in order 
to support his father Antigonus. In 301 their 
combined forces were totally defeated by those 
of Lysimachus and Seleucus in the battle of 
Ipsus, and Antigonus himself slain. Demetrius, 
to whose impetuosity the loss of the battle 
would seem to be in great measure owing, fled 
to Ephesus, and from thence set sail for Athens ; 
but the Athenians declined to receive him into 
their city. The jealousy of his enemies soon 
changed the face of his affairs; and Ptolemy 
having entered into a closer union with Lysim- 
achus, Seleucus married Stratonice, daughter 
of Demetrius. By this alliance Demetrius ob- 
tained possession of Cilicia, and he had never 
lost Cyprus, Tyre and Sidon. In 297 he de- 
termined to make an effort to recover his do- 
minions in Greece. He appeared with a fleet 
on the coast of Attica, but was at first unsuc- 
cessful. The death of Cassander, however, in 
the course of the same year, gave a new turn to 
affairs. Demetrius made himself master of 
iEgiua, Salamis, and finally of Athens, after a 
long blockade (295). In 294 he marched into 
Peloponnesus against the Spartans, and was on 
the point of taking their city when he was sud- 
denly called away by the state of affairs in Mac- 
edonia. Here the dissensions between Antip- 
ater and Alexander, the two sons of Cassander, 
had led Alexander to call in foreign aid to his 
support : and he sent embassies at once to De- 
metrius and to Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus was the near- 
est at hand, and had already defeated Antipatei 
and established Alexander on the throne, when 
Demetrius arrived with his army. He was re- 
ceived with apparent friendliness, but mutual 
jealousies quickly arose. Demetrius caused tht 
young king to be assassinated at a banquet, and 
was thereupon acknowledged as king by the 
Macedonian army. Demetrius kept possessioi 
of Macedonia for seven years (294-287). Hit 
reign was a series of wars. In 292 he marchec 
against the Thebans, who had risen against him 
249 



DEMETRIUS. 



DEMETRIUS. 



aud took their city. In 291 lie took advantage 
of the captivity of Lysimachus among the Getaa 
to invade Thrace ; but he was recalled by the 
news of a fresh insurrection in Bo3otia. He 
repulsed Pyrrhus, who had attempted by invad- 
ing Thessaly to effect a diversion in favor of the 
Bcsotians, and again took Thebes after a long 
siege (290). In 289 he carried on war against 
Pyrrhus and the iEtolians, but he concluded 
peace with Pyrrhus that he might march into 
Asia with the view of recovering his father's 
dominions. His adversaries, however, fore- 
stalled him. In 287 Ptolemy sent a powerful 
fleet against Greece, while Pyrrhus (notwith- 
standing his recent treaty) on the one side, and 
Lysimachus on the other, simultaneously in- 
vaded Macedonia. Demetrius was deserted by 
his own troops, who proclaimed Pyrrhus king 
of Macedonia. He then crossed over to Asia, 
and, after meeting with alternate success and 
misfortune, was at length obliged to surrender 
himself prisoner to Seleucus (286). That king 
kept him in confinement, but did not treat him 
with harshness. Demetrius died in the third 
year of his imprisonment and the fifty-sixth of 
his age (283). He was one of the most remark- 
able characters of his age : in restless activity 
of mind, fei'tility of resource, and daring prompt- 
itude in the execution of his schemes, he has, 
perhaps, never been surpassed. His besetting 
sin was his unbounded licentiousness. Besides 
Lamia and his other mistresses, he was regu- 
larly married to four wives, Phila, Eurydice, 
Deidamia, and Ptolemais, by whom he left four 
sons. The eldest of these, Antigonus Gonatas, 
eventually succeeded him on the tibxone of Mac- 
edonia. — 8. Son of Antigonus Gonatas, succeed- 
ed his father, and reigned B.C. 239-229. He 
carried on war against the JStohans, and was 
opposed to the Achsean League. He was suc- 
ceeded by Antigonus Doson. 

II. Kings of Syria, 1. Soteb (reigned B.C. 
162-150), was the son of Seleucus IV. Philop- 
ater, and grandson of Antiochus the Great. 
"While yet a child, he had been sent to Rome 
by his father as a hostage, and remained there 
during the whole of the reign of Antiochus IV. 
Epiphanes. After the death of Antiochus, being 
now twenty-three years old, he demanded of the 
senate to be set at liberty ; but, as his request 
was refused by the senate, he fled secretly from 
Rome, by the advice of the historian Polybius, 
and went to Syria. The Syrians declared in 
his favor ; and the young king Antiochus V. 
Eupator, with his tutor Lysias, was seized by 
his own guards and put to death. By valuable 
presents Demetrius obtained from the Romans 
his recognition as king ; but, having alienated 
his own subjects by his luxury and intemper- 
ance, they sided with an impostor of the name 
of Balas, who took the title of Alexander. By 
him Demetrius was defeated in battle and slain. 
He left two sons, Demetrius Nicator and Anti- 
ochus Sidetes, both of whom subsequently as- 
cended the throne, — 2. Nicatok (B.C. 146-142, 
and again 128-125), son of Demetrius Soter. 
He had been sent by his father for safety to 
Cnidus when Alexander Balas invaded Syria, 
and, after the death of his father, he continued 
in exile for some years. With the assistance 
of Ptolemy Philometor he defeated Balas and 
250 



I recovered his kingdom ; but having, like hi» 
father, rendered himself odious to his subjects 
by his vices and cruelties, he was driven out 
of Syria by Tryphon, who set up Antiochus, the 
infant son of Alexander Balas, as a pretender 
against him. Demetrius retired to Babylon, and 
from thence marched against the Parthians, by 
whom he was defeated and taken prisoner, 138. 
He remained as a captive in Parthia ten years, 
but was kindly treated by the Parthian king 
Mithradates (Arsaces VI.), who gave him his 
daughter Rhodogune in marriage. Meanwhile 
his brother, Antiochus VII. Sidetes, having over- 
thrown the usurper Tryphon, engaged in war 
with Parthia, in consequence of which Phraates, 
the successor of Mithradates, brought forward 
Demetrius, and sent him into Syria to operate 
a diversion against his brother. In the same 
year Antiochus fell in battle, and Demetrius 
again obtained possession of the Syrian throne, 
128. Having engaged in an expedition against 
Egypt, Ptolemy Physcon set up against him the 
pretender Alexander Zebina, by whom he was 
defeated and compelled to fly. His wife Cleo- 
patra, who could not forgive him his marriage 
with Rhodogune in Parthia, refused to afford 
him refuge at Ptolemais, and he fled to Tyre, 
where he was assassinated, 125. — 3. Euaasiius, 
son of Antiochus VIII. Grypus, and grandson of 
Demetrius II. During the civil wars that fol- 
lowed the death of Antiochus Grypus (96), De- 
metrius and his brother Philip for a time held 
the whole of Syria. But war broke out between 
them ; Demetrius was taken prisoner and sent 
to Parthia, where he remained in captivity till 
his death. 

IIL Literary. 1. Of Adhamttttuat, surnamed 
Ixion, a Greek grammarian of the time of Au 
gustus, lived partly at Pergamus and partly a1 
Alexandrea, and wrote commentaries on Homei 
and Hesiod and other works. — 2. Magnes, that 
is, of Magnesia, a Greek grammarian, and a 
contemporary of Cicero and Atticus. He wrote 
a work on concord (Hepl dfiuvoiag), and anothei 
on poets and other authors who bore the same 
name (ILepl dfiuvvfiov nonj-cov nal avyypatpiuv) 
— 3. Phaiekeus, so called from his birth-place 
the Attic demos of Phalerus, where he was bom 
aboiit B.C. 345. His parents were poor, but by 
his talents and perseverance he rose to the 
highest honors at Athens, and became distin- 
guished both as an orator, a statesman, a phi- 
losopher, and a poet. He was educated, to- 
gether with the poet Menander, in the school 
of Theophrastus. He began his public careei 
about 325, and acquired great reputation by his 
eloquence. In 317 the government of Athens 
was intrusted to him by Cassander, and he dis- 
charged the duties of his office for ten years 
with such general satisfaction, that the Athe- 
nians conferred upon him the most extraordi 
nary distinctions, and erected no less than three 
hundred and sixty statues to his honor. But 
duriog the latter period of his administration he 
seems to have become intoxicated with his good 
fortune, and he abandoned himself to dissipa- 
tion. When Demetrius Poliorcetes approached 
Athens in 307, Demetrius Phalereus was obliged 
to take flight, and his enemies induced the Athe 
nians to pass sentence of death upon him. He 
went to Ptolemy Lagi at Alexandrea, with whom 



DEMO. 



DEMOCRITUS 



he lived for many years on the ; est terms ; ana 
it was probably owing to the influence of De- 
metrius that the Great Alexandrine library was 
formed. His successor, Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
was hostile towards Demetrius, because he had 
advised his father to appoint another of his sons 
as his successor. He banished Demetrius to 
Upper Egypt, where he is said to have died from 
the bite of a snake. Demetrius Phalereus was 
the last among the Attic orators worthy of the 
name ; but even his orations bore evident marks 
of the decline of oratory, and were characterized 
rather by grace and elegance than by force and 
sublimity. His numerous writings, the greater 
part of which was probably composed in Egypt, 
embraced subjects of the most varied kinds ; 
but none of them has come down to us, for the 
work on elocution (wept kpjirivEiac), extant under 
his name, is probably the work of an Alexan- 
drine Sophist of the name of Demetrius. [Best 
edition by Fr. Goeller, Lips., 1837.]— 4. Of Scep- 
sis, a Greek grammarian of the time of Aris- 
tarchus, wrote a learned commentary on the 
Catalogue in the second book of the Iliad. — 5. 
Of Sunium, a Cynie philosopher, lived from the 
reign of Caligula to that of Domitian, and was 
bauished from Rome in consequence of the 
freedom with which he rebuked the powerful. 

[Demo (Ari/xu), a daughter of Celeus and Met- 
anira.] 

[Demo (Arjfujv), 1. Author of an Atthis, or 
history of Attica, and probably, also, of a work on 
proverbs : his fragments are collected in Siebe- 
lis, JPhanodemi, Demonis, (be., Fragmenta, Lips., 
1812; and by Miiller, Fragm. Hist. Grcec, vol. 
i., p. 378-83. — 2. Son of Demosthenes's sister, 
of the demos of Pajania in Attica, distinguished 
himself as an orator ; he belonged, like his 
uncle, to the anti-Macedonian party.] 

Demooedes (ATj/ioK7jd7]c), a celebrated physi- 
cian of Crotona. He practiced medicine suc- 
cessively at iEgina, Athens, and Samos. He 
was taken prisoner, along with Polycrates, in 
B.C. 522, and was sent to Susa to the court of 
Darius. Here he acquired great reputation by 
curing the king's foot, and the breast of the queen 
Atossa. Notwithstanding his honors at the Per- 
sian court, he was always desirous of returning 
to his native country. In order to effect this, 
he pretended to enter into the views and inter- 
ests of the Persians, and procured by means of 
Atossa that he should be sent with some nobles 
to explore the coast of Greece, and ascertain in 
what parts it might be most successfully at- 
tacked. When they arrived at Tarentum, the 
king, Aristophilides, out of kindness to Dem- 
ocedes, seized the Persians as spies, which af- 
forded the physician an opportunity of escap- 
ing to Crotona. Here he settled, and married 
the daughter of the famous wrestler Milo, 
the Persians having followed him to Crotona, 
and in vain demanded that he should be re- 
stored. 

Demoohaees {Ari/ioxdpnc), an Athenian, son 
of the sister of Demosthenes. He was proba- 
bly trained by his uncle in oratory, and inherit- 
ed his patriotic sentiments. After the restora- 
tion of the Athenian democracy in B.C. 307 by 
Demetrius Poliorcetes, Demochares was at the 
head of the patriotic party, and took an active 
part in public affairs for the next twenty or thirty 



years. He left behind him several orations, and 
an extensive history of his own times. 

Demooles (ArifioK?i7jc), an Attic orator, and an 
opponent of Demochares. 

[Democoon (Av/uokouv), a son of Priam by a 
female slave ; came from Abydus to assist his 
father against the Greeks, but was slain by 
Ulysses.] 

Democeates (ArifioKpaTTjc), a Pythagorean phi- 
losopher, of whose life nothing is known, the 
author of an extant collection of moral maxims, 
called the golden sentences (yvtiftai xpvaat). 
They are printed with Demophilus, No. 3. 

Democeitds (Anfioicpiroc), n celebrated Greek 
philosopher, was born at Abdera, in Thrace, 
about B.C. 460. His father, Hegesistratus — or, 
as others called him, Damasippus or Athenoc- 
ritus — was possessed of so large a property that 
he was able to entertain Xerxes on his march 
through Abdera. Demoeritus spent the inherit- 
ance which his father left him on travels into 
distant countries, which he undertook to satis- 
fy his extraordinary thirst for knowledge. He 
travelled over a great part of Asia, and spent 
some time in Egypt. The many anecdotes pre- 
served about Demoeritus show that he was a 
man of a most sterling and honorable charac- 
ter. His diligence was incredible : he lived ex- 
clusively for his studies, and his disinterested- 
ness, modesty, and simplicity are attested by 
many features which are related of him. Not- 
withstanding the great property he had inherit- 
ed from his father, he died in poverty, but high- 
ly esteemed by his fellow-aitizens. He died in 
261 at a very advanced age. There is a tradi- 
tion that he deprived himself of his sight, that 
he might be less disturbed in his pursuits ; but 
this tradition is one of the inventions of a later 
age, which was fond of piquant anecdotes. It 
is more probable that he may have lost his sight 
by too severe application to study. This loss, 
however, did not disturb the cheerful disposi- 
tion of his mind, which prompted him to look, 
in all circumstances, at the cheerful side of 
things, which later writers took to mean that 
he always laughed at the follies of men. His 
knowledge was most extensive. It embraced 
not only the natural sciences, mathematics, 
mechanics, grammar, music, and philosophy, 
but various other useful arts. His works were 
composed in the Ionic dialect, though not with- 
out some admixture of the local peculiarities of 
Abdera. They are nevertheless much praised 
by Cicero on account of the liveliness of their 
style, and are in this respect compared even 
with the works of Plato. The fragments of 
them are collected by Mullach, Democriti Ab- 
deritcB Operum Fragmenta, Berlin, 1843. Leu- 
cippus appears to have had most influence upon 
the philosophical opinions of Demoeritus, and 
these two philosophers were the founders of 
the theory of atoms. In order to explain the 
creation of all existing things, Demoeritus main- 
tained that there was in infinite space an infinite 
number of atoms or elementary particles, homo- 
geneous in quality, but heterogeneous in form 
He further taught that these atoms combine 
with one another, and that all things arise from 
the infinite variety of the form, order, and posi- 
tion of the atoms in forming combinations. The 
cause of these combinations he czdled chance 
251 



DEMODOCUS. 



DEMOSTHENES. 



I 



(~vxv)< in opposition to the vovg of Anaxagoras ; 
6ut he did not use the word chance in its vul- 
gar acceptation, but to signify the necessary 
succession of cause and effect. In his ethical 
philosophy Democritus considered the acquisi- 
tion of peace of mind {evdvjua) as the end and 
ultimate object of our actions. 

Demodocus (Arifi66oKOQ)f 1. The celebrated 
bard at the court of Alcinoiis, who sang of the 
loves of Mars (Ares) and Venus (Aphrodite), 
while Ulysses sat at the banquet of Alcinoiis. 
He is also mentioned as the bard who advised 
Agamemnon to guard Clytaemnestra, and to ex- 
pose -<Egisthus in a desert island. Later writ- 
ers, who looked upon this mythical minstrel as 
an historical person, related that he composed 
a poem on the destruction of Troy, and on the 
marriage of Vulcan (Hephaestus) and Venus 
(Aphrodite). — [2. A Trojan warrior, who came 
with ./Eneas to Italy ; he was slain by Halesus. 
— 3. A friend of Socrates, father of Theages, 
mentioned in the Theages of Plato.] 

[Demoleon (/±.i)/io?i£uv). 1. A Centaur, slain 
by Theseus at the nuptials of Pirithous. — 2. A 
brave Trojan, son of Antenor, slain by Achilles.] 

[Demoleus, a Greek, slain by iEneas on the 
banks of the Simo'is, and whose coat of mail 
jEneas offered as the second prize at the games 
celebrated by him in Sicily.] 

[Demon (Aijfiuv). Vid. Demo.] 

Demonax (Aqfidval;), of Cyprus, a Cynic phi- 
losopher in the time of Hadrian. We owe our 
knowledge of his character to Lucian, who has 
painted it in the most glowing colors, represent- 
ing him as almost perfectly wise and good. 
Demonax appears to have been free from the 
austerity and nioroseness of the sect, though he 
valued their indifference to external things. He 
was nearly one hundred years old at the time 
of his death. 

Demonesi Insula (&7ifi6v7iaoi), a group of isl- 
ands in the Propontis (now Sea of Marmara), 
belonging to Bithynia ; of these the most im- 
portant were Pityodes and Chalcltis, also call- 
ed Demonesus. 

Demophilus (Arj/io^iXog). 1. Son of Ephorus, 
continued his father's history by adding to it the 
history of the Sacred War. — 2. An Athenian 
comic poet of the new comedy, from whose 
'Ovayog Plautus took his Asinaria. — 3. A Pyth- 
agorean philosopher, of whose life nothing is 
known, wrote a work entitled fiiov depdirua, 
part of which is extant in the form of a selec- 
tion, entitled yvu/MKa d/aoiufiara. Best edition 
by Orelli, in his Opusc. Grcec. Vet. Sentent., Lips., 
1819. 

Demophon or Demophoon (Arjfiofdv or Arjfio- 
<p6av). 1. Son of Celeus and Metanlra, whom 
Ceres (Demeter) wished to make immortal. 
For details, vid. Celeus. — 2. Son of Theseus 
and Phaedra, accompanied the Greeks against 
Troy, and there procured the liberation of his 
grandmother Aithxa, who lived with Helen as a 
slave. On his return from Troy he gained the 
love of Phyllis, daughter of the Thracian king 
Sithon, and promised to marry her. Before the 
nuptials were celebrated, he went to Attica to 
settle his affairs, and as he tarried longer than 
Phyllis had expected, she thought that she was 
forgotten, and put an end to her life ; but she 
was metamorphosed into a tree. Deiaophon 
252 



became king of Athens. He marched out against 
Diomedes, who, on his return from Troy, bad 
landed on the coast of Attica, and was ravaging 
it. He took the Palladium from Diomedes, but 
had the misfortune to kill an Athenian in the 
struggle. For this murder he was summoned 
before the court knl TLaXXadiu — the first time 
that a man was tried by that court. — [3. A com- 
panion of jEneas, slain by Camilla in Italy.] 

Demosthenes {Arj/ioadhrig). 1. Son of Alci- 
sthenes, a celebrated Athenian general in the 
Peloponnesian War. In B.C. 426 he was sent 
with a fleet to ravage the coast of Peloponne- 
sus : he afterward landed at Naupaetus, and 
made a descent into jEtolia ; he was at first 
unsuccessful, and was obliged to retreat ; but 
he subsequently gained a brilliant victory over 
the Ambraciots. In 425, though not in office, 
he sailed with the Athenian fleet, and was al- 
lowed by the Athenian commanders to remain 
with five ships at Pylos, which he fortified in 
order to assail the Lacedaemonians in their own 
territories. He defended Pylos against all the 
attempts of the Lacedaemonians, till he was re- 
lieved by an Athenian fleet of forty ships. The 
Spartans, who in their siege of the place had 
occupied the neighboring island of Sphacteria, 
were now cut off and blockaded. Later in the 
same year he rendered important assistance to 
Oleon, in making prisoners of the Spartans in 
the island of Sphacteria, though the whole glory 
of the success was given to Cleon. In 413 he 
was sent with a large fleet to Sicily, to assist 
Nicias. Fortune was unfavorable to the Athe- 
nians. Demosthenes now counselled an imme- 
diate departure, but Nicias delayed returning 
till it was too late. The Athenian fleet was de- 
stroyed, and when Demosthenes and Nicias at- 
tempted to retreat by land, they were obliged 
to surrender to the enemy with all their forces 
Both commanders were put to death by the 
Syracusans. 2. The greatest of Athenian ora- 
tors, was the son of Demosthenes, and was born 
in the Attic demos of Paeania. about B.C. 385. 
At seven years of age he lost his father, who 
left him and his younger sister to the care of 
three guardians, Aphobus and Demophon, two 
relations, and Therippides, an old friend. These 
guardians squandered the greater part of the 
property of Demosthenes, and neglected his ed- 
ucation to a great extent. He nevertheless re 
ceived instruction from the orator Isaeus ; but it 
is exceedingly doubtful whether he was taught 
by Plato and Isocrates, as some of the ancients 
stated. At the age of eighteen Demosthenes 
called upon his guardians to render him an ac- 
count of their administration of his property ; 
but by intrigues they contrived to defer the busi- 
ness for two years. At length, in 364, Demos- 
thenes accused Aphobus before the archon, and 
obtained a verdict in his favor. Aphobus was 
condemned to pay a fine of ten talents. Em 
boldened by this success, Demosthenes ven 
tured to come forward as a speaker in the pub 
lie assembly. His first effort was unsuccessful 
and he is said to have been received with ridi- 
cule ; but he was encouraged to persevere by 
the actor Satyrus, who gave him instruction in 
action and declamation. In becoming an ora 
tor, Demosthenes had to struggle hard against the 
greatest physical disadvantages. His voice 



DEMOSTHENES. 

was weak and his utterance defective ; he could 
not pronounce the p, and constantly stammered, 
whence he derived the nickname of T3dra?ioc. 
It was only owing to the most unwearied exer- 
tions that he succeeded in overcoming the ob- 
stacles which nature had placed in his way. 
Thus it is said that he spoke with pebbles in 
his mouth, to cure himself of stammering; that 
he repeated verses of the poets as he ran up 
hill, to strengthen his voice ; that he declaim- 
ed on the sea-shore, to accustom himself to the 
noise and confusion of the popular assembly ; 
that he lived for months in a cnve under ground, 
engaged in constantly writing out the history 
of Thucydides, to form a standard for his own 
style. These tales are not worthy of much 
credit ; but they nevertheless attest the com- 
mon tradition of antiquitv respecting the great 
efforts made by Demosthenes to attain to ex- 
cellence as an orator. It was about 355 that 
Demosthenes began to obtain reputation as a 
speaker in the public assembly. It was in this 
year that he delivered the oration against Lep- 
tines, and from this time we have a series of 
his speeches on public affairs. His eloquence 
soon gained him the favor of the people. The 
influence which he acquired he employed for the 
good of his country, and not for his own ag- 
grandizement. He clearly saw that Philip had 
resolved to subjugate Greece, and he therefore 
devoted all his powers to resist the aggressions 
of the Macedonian monarch. Eor fourteen 
years he continued the struggle against Philip, 
and neither threats nor bribes could turn him 
from his purpose. It is true he failed ; but the 
failure must not be considered his fault. The 
history of his struggle is best given in the life 
of Philip. Vid. Philippus. It is sufficient to 
relate here that it was brought to a close by the 
battle of Chaeronea (338), by which the inde- 
pendence of Greece was crushed. Demosthe- 
nes was present at the battle, and fled like 
thousands of others. His enemies reproached 
him with his flight, and upbraided him as the 
cause of the misfortunes of his country ; but 
the Athenians judged better of his conduct, re- 
quested him to deliver the funeral oration upon 
those who had fallen at Chasronea, and cele- 
brated the funeral feast in his house. At this 
time many accusations were brought against 
him. Of these one of the most formidable was 
the accusation of Ctesiphon by -55schines, but 
which was in reality directed against Demos- 
thenes himself. iEschines accused Ctesiphon 
for proposing that Demosthenes should be re- 
warded for his services with a golden crown in 
the theatre. iEschines maintained that the 
proposal was not only made in an illegal form, 
but that the conduct of Demosthenes did not 
give him any claim to such a distinction. The 
trial was delayed for reasons unknown to us till 
330, when Demosthenes delivered his oration 
on the crown (tteoi areijiuvov). ^Eschines was 
defeated and withdrew from Athens. Vid. Ms- 
chines. Meantime important events had taken 
place in Greece. The death of Philip in 336 
roused the hopes of the patriots, and Demosthe- 
nes, although he had lost his daughter only seven 
day s before, was the first to proclaim the joyful 
tidings of the king's death, and to call upon the 
Greeks to unite their strength against Macedo- 



DEMOSTHENES. 

[ nia. But Alexander's energy, and the frightful 
vengeance which he took upon Thebes, compel- 
led Athens to submit and sue for peace. Alex- 
ander demanded the surrender of Demosthenes 
and the other leaders of the popular party, and 
with difficulty allowed them to remain at Athens. 
During the life of Alexander, Athens made no 
open attempt to throw off the Macedonian su- 
premacy. In 325 Harpalus fled from Babylon 
with the treasure intrusted to his care by Alex- 
ander, and came to Athens, the protection of 
which he purchased by distributing his gold 
among the most influential demagogues. The 
reception of such an open rebel was viewed as 
an act of hostility toward Macedonia itself ; and 
accordingly Antipater called upon the Athenians 
to deliver up the rebel and to try those who had 
accepted his bribes. Demosthenes was one of 
those who were suspected of having received 
money from Harpalus. His guilt is doubtful ; 
but he was condemned, and thrown into prison 
from which, however, he escaped, apparently 
with the connivance of the Athenian magis- 
trates. He now resided partly at Troezene and 
partly in iEgina, looking daily across the sea 
toward his beloved native land. But his exile 
did not last long. On the death of Alexander 
(323) the Greek states rose in arms against Ma- 
cedonia. Demosthenes was recalled from ex- 
ile ; a trireme was sent to iEgina to fetch him. 
and his progress to the city was a glorious 
triumph. But in the following year (322) the 
confederate Greeks were defeated by Antipa- 
ter at the battle of Cranon, and were obliged 
to sue for peace. Antipater demanded the sur- 
render of Demosthenes, who thereupon fled to 
the island of Calauria, and took refuge in the 
temple of Neptune (Poseidon). Here he was 
pursued by the emissaries of Antipater ; he 
thereupon took poiswn, which he had for some 
time carried about his person, and died in the 
temple, 322. There existed sixty-five orations 
of Demosthenes in antiquity ; but of these only 
sixty-one have come down to us, including the 
letter of Philip, which is strangely enough count- 
ed as an oration. Several of the orations, how- 
ever, are spurious, or at least of very doubtful 
authenticity. Besides theae orations, there are 
fifty-six Exordia to public orations, and six letters 
which bear the name of Demosthenes, but are 
probably spurious. The oration may be divided 
into the following classes : (I.) Seventeen Po- 
litical Orations {XoyoL ovfiSovhevTiicoV), of which 
the twelve Philippic orations are the most im- 
portant. They bear the following titles : 1. The 
first Philippic, delivered 352. 2-4. The three 
Olynthiac orations, delivered 349. 5. On the 
Peace, 349. 6. The second Philippic, 344. 1. 
On Halonesus, 343, not genuine, probably writ 
ten by Hegesippus. 8. On the affairs of the 
Chersonesus, 342. 9. The third Philippic, 342. 
10. The fourth Philippic, not genuine, 341. 11 
On the letter of Philip, 340, also spurious. 12 
The letter of Philip. — (II.) Forty-two Judicial 
Orations (Xoyoi di/cavi/coi), of which the most im- 
portant are, Against Midias, written 355, but 
never delivered ; Against Leptines, 355 ; On 
the dishonest conduct of ^Eschines during his 
embassy to Philip (llepl tt)c TlapaTrpeadeiac), 
342; On the Crown, 330.— (III). Two Show 
Speeches (Xoyoi imdetKTCKoi), namely the Em-, 
253 



DEMOSTRATUS. 



DEUCALION. 



raQtoc; and 'Epuriicog, both of -which are spuri- 
ous. The orations of Demosthenes are con- 
tained iu the collections of the Attic orators by 
Reiske, Lips., 1770-1775; [Demosthenes separ- 
ately, with additions by Sehaeffer, Lond., 1822- 
3, 9 vols. 8vo] ; Bekker, Oxon, 1823 ; Dobson, 
Lond., 1828 ; Baiter and Sauppe, Turic, 1845. 

[DemostrItus (A7ifioorpaTog), an Athenian or- 
ator and popular leader, at whose proposal Al- 
cibiades, JSTicias, and Lamaehus were placed at 
the head of the Sicilian expedition.] 

[Demuchus (Ati/j.ovxoc), son of Philetor, slain 
by Achilles before Troy.] 

Denselem; or DentheleTjE {AevdrjXrjTai), a 
Thracian people on the Haemus, between the 
Strymon and Nessus. 

Dentatus, M'. Curius, a favorite hero of the 
Roman republic, was celebrated in later times 
as a noble specimen of old Roman frugality and 
virtue. He was of Sabine origin, and the first 
of his family who held any high offices of state 
(consequently a homo novus). He was consul 
B.C. 290 with P. Cornelius Rufinus. The two 
consuls defeated the Samnites, and brought the 
Samnite wars to a close. In the same year 
Dentatus also defeated the Sabines, who appear 
to have supported the Samnites. In 283 he 
fought as praetor against the Senones. In 275 
he was consul a second time, and defeated Pyr- 
rhus near Beneventum and in the Arusinian 
plain so completely that the king was obliged to 
quit Italy. The booty which he gained was im- 
mense, but he would keep nothing for himself. 
In 274 he was consul a third time, and con- 
quered the Lucauians, Samnites, and Bruttians, 
who still continued in arms after the defeat of 
Pyrrhus. Dentatus now retired to his small 
farm in the country of the Sabines, and culti- 
vated the laud with his own hands. Once the 
Samnites sent an embassy to him with costly 
presents ; they found him sitting at the hearth 
and roasting turnips. He rejected their pres- 
ents, telling them that he preferred ruling over 
those who possessed gold to possessing it him- 
self. He was censor iu 272, and in that year 
executed public works of great importance. He 
commenced the aquseduet which carried the 
water from the River Anio into the city (Am- 
ends Vetus) ; and by a canal he carried off the 
water of the Lake Veliuus into the River Ear, 
in consequence of .which the inhabitants of 
Reate gained a large quantity of excellent land. 

Deo (Arju), another name for Ceres (Deme- 
ter) : hence her daughter Proserpina (Perseph- 
one) is called by the patronymic Deois and De- 
fine. 

Derbe {Aip6ri -.AepGr/Tr/^, Aepdalog), a town in 
Lyoaonia, on the frontiers of Isauria. It is first 
mentioned as the residence of the tyrant Antip- 
ater of Derbe, a friend of Cicero, whom Amyn- 
tas put to death. 

Derbicoe or Derbices (Aep6LtcKai or AepBc- 
K£c), a Scythian people in Margiana, dwelling on 
the Oxus, near its entrance into the Caspian Sea. 
They worshipped the earth as a goddess, neither 
sacrificed or ate any female animals, and killed 
aud ate all their old men above seventy years 
of age. 

[Deroennus, an early king of Laurentum, in 
Latium ; according to some, the same with La- 
tiuus.] 

254 



Dercetis, Deroeto (AepKeric, Aepntrtj), also 
called Atargatis, a Syrian goddess. She offend- 
ed Venus (Aphrodite), who, iu consequence, in- 
spired her with love for a youth, to whom she 
bore a daughter Semiramis ; but, ashamed of her , 
fraility, she killed the youth, exposed her child j 
in a desert, and threw herself into a lake near 
Ascalon. Her child was fed by doves, and she 
herself was changed into a fish. The Syrians 
thereupon worshipped her as a goddess. The . 
upper part of her statue represented a beautiful 
woman, while the lower part terminated in the 
tail of a fish. She appears to be the same as 
Dagon mentioned in the Old Testament as a 
deity of the Philistines. 

Deroyllidas (AepuvTOdSas), a Spartan, sue j 
ceeded Thimbron, B.C. 399, in the command of 
the army which was employed in the protection 
of the Asiatic Greeks against Persia. He car- 
ried on the war with success. Tissaphernes t 
and Pharnabazus were at length glad to sue for 
peace. In 396 he was superseded by Agesilaus. j 

[Derdas (Alpoac). 1. A Macedonian chief- 
tain, who joined with Philip, brother of Perdio- 
cas II, in rebellion against him. — 2. A prince 
of Elymea in Macedonia iu the time of Amyn- 
tas II. ; sided with the Spartans in their war 
with Olynthus, through fear of the growing 
power of that city.] 

Dertona (now Tortona), an important town ] 
in Liguria, and a Roman colony with the sur- 
name Julia, on the road from Genua to Placentia. 

Dertosa (now Tortosa), a town of the Ilerca- 
ones, on the Iberus, iu Hispania Tarraeonensis, 
and a Roman colony. 

Despcena (Aeanocvu), the mistress, a surname 
of several divinities, as Venus (Aphrodite), Ce- 
res (Demeter), and more especially Proserpina ( 
(Persephone), who was worshipped under this j 
name in Arcadia. 

Deucalion (AcvtcaXiuv). 1. Son of Prome- 
theus and Clymene, king of Phthia, in Thessaly. 
When Jupiter (Zeus), after the treatment he 
had received from Lyeaon, had resolved to de- i 
stroy the degenerate race of men, Deucalion j 
and his wife Pyrrha were, on account of their | 
piety, the only mortals saved. On the advice 
of his father, Deucalion built a ship, in which 
he and his wife floated iu safety during the nine j 
days' flood, which destroyed all the other in- 
habitants of Hellas. At last the ship rested on 
Mount Parnassus in Phocis, or, according to 
other traditions, on Mount Othrys in Thessaly, 
on Mount Athos, or even on JEtna in Sicily. 
When the waters had subsided, Deucalion 
offered up a sacrifice to Jupiter (Zeus) Phyxius , 
($iifioc), and he and his wife then consulted the 
sanctuary of Themis how the race of man might 
be restored. The goddess bade them cover 
their heads and throw the bones of their mother 
behind them. After some doubts and scruples 
respecting the meaning of this command, they 
agreed iu interpreting the bones of their mother 
to mean the stones of the earth. They accord- 
ingly threw stones behind them, and from those 
thrown by Deucalion there sprang up men, from 
those thrown by Pyrrha, women. Deucalion 
then descended from Parnassus, and built his 
first abode at Opus or at Cyuus. Deucalion be- 
came by Pyrrha the father of Hellen, Amphic- 
tyon, Protogeuia, and others. — 2. Son of Minos 



DEVA. 



DIO^EARCHUS. 



and Pasiphae, father of Idomeneus, was an Ar- 
gonaut, and one of the Calydonian hunters. — 
[3. A Trojan, slain by Achilles.] 

Deva. 1. (Now Chester), the principal town 
of the Cornavii in Britain, on the Seteia, (now 
Dee), and the head-quarters of the Legio XX. 
Victrix. — 2. (Now Bee), an estuary in Scotland, 
on which stood the town Devana, near the mod- 
ern Aberdeen. 

Dexamenus (AeZ<1/j.evoc), a Centaur, who lived 
in Bura in Achaia. According to others, he 
was King of Olenus, and father of De'iamra, who 
is usually represented as daughter of CEneus. 

Dexippus (Ae^imroc). 2. Called also Bioxip- 
pus, a physician of Cos, one, of the pupils of 
Hippocrates, lived about B.C. 380, and attended 
the children of Hecatomnus, prince of Caria. — 
2. P. Herennius, a Greek rhetorician and his- 
torian, was a native of Attica, and held the 
highest offices at Athens. He distinguished 
himself in fighting against the Goths when they 
invaded Greece in A.D. 262. He was the au- 
thor of three historical works : 1. A history of 
Macedonia from the time of Alexander. 2. A 
chronological history from the mythical ages 
down to the accession of Claudius Gothicus, 
A.D. 268. 3. An account of the war of the 
Goths or Scythians, in which Dexippus himself 
had fought. The fragments of Dexippus, which 
are considerable, are published by Bekker and 
Niebuhr in the first volume of the Scriptores 
Histories Byzantines, Bonn, 1829, 8vo. — 3. A dis- 
ciple of the philosopher Iamblichus, lived about 
A.D. 350, and wrote a commentary on the Cat- 
egories of Aristotle, of which a Latin transla- 
tion appeared at Paris, 1549, 8vo, and at Ven- 
ice, 1546, fol., after the work of Porphyry In 
Prcedicam. Arist. 

Dia (Aw), daughter of Deioneus and wife of 
Ixion. By Ixion, or, according to others, by 
Jupiter (Zeus), she became the mother of Pir- 
ithous. 

Dia (Ala). 1. The ancient name of Naxos. — 
2. An island near Amorgos. — 3. (Now Stan- 
dia), a small island off Crete, opposite the har- 
bor of Cnosus. — 4. An island in the Arabian 
Gulf, on the western coast of Arabia. 

DlABLINTES. Vid. AULEECI. 

Diacria (Jj Aiaicpta), a mountainous district 
in the northeast of Attica, including the plain 
of Marathon. Vid. Attica. The inhabitants 
of this district (AcaKpielc, Aidnptoi), formed one 
of the three parties into which the inhabitants 
of Attica were divided in the time of Solon: 
they were the most democratical of the three 
parties. 

Diadumenianus or Diadumenus, son of the 
Emperor Maerinus, received the title of Caesar 
when his father was elevated to the purple, A.D. 
217, and was put to death in the following year 
about the same time with Maerinus. 

DiiEus (Ataioc), of Megalopolis, general of the 
Achfean league B.C. 149 and 147, took an ac- 
tive part in the war against the Romans. On 
the death of Critolaiis in 146, he succeeded to 
the command of the Achasans, but was defeated 
by Mummius near Corinth, whereupon he put 
an end to his own life, after slaying his wife to 
prevent her falling into the enemy's power. 

Diagoras (Aiayopac). 1. Son of Damagetus, 
of Ialysus in Rhodes, was very celebrated for 



his ovm victories and those of his sons and 
grandsons, in the Grecian games. His fame 
was celebrated by Pindar in the seventh Olym- 
pic ode. He was victor in boxing twice in the 
Olympian games, four times in the Isthmian, 
twice in the Nemean, and once at least in the 
Pythian. He had, therefore, the high honor of 
being a irepLodovtKTjc, that is, one who had gained 
crowns at all the four great festivals. When 
an old man, he accompanied his sons, Acusilaiis 
and Damagetus, to Olympia. The young men, 
having both been victorious, carried their fa- 
ther through the assembly, while the specta- 
tors showered garlands upon him, and congrat- 
ulated him as having reached the summit of hu- 
man happiness. He gained his Olympic victory 
B.C. 464. — 2. Surnamed the Atheist ( J A6eoc), 
a Greek philosopher and poet, was the son of 
Teleclides, and was born in the island of Melos, 
one of the Cyclades. He was a disciple of 
Democritus of Abdera, and in his youth he ac- 
quired considerable reputation as a lyric poet. 
He was at Athens as early as B.C. 424, for 
Aristophanes in the Clouds (v. 830), which were 
performed in that year, alludes to him as a well- 
known character. In consequence of his at- 
tacks upon the popular religion, and especially 
upon the Eleusinian mysteries, he was formally 
accused of impiety B.C. 411, and, fearing the 
results of a trial, fled from Athens. He was 
condemned to death in his absence, and a re- 
ward set upon his head. He first went to Pal- 
lene, and afterward to Corinth, where he died. 
One of the works of Diagoras was entitled 
fypvyioi TJbyoi, in which he probably attacked 
the Phrygian divinities. 

Diana, an ancient Italian divinity, whom the 
Romans identified with the Greek Artemis. 
Her worship is said to have been introduced at 
Rome by Servius Tullius, who dedicated a tem- 
ple to her on the Aventine ; and she appears to 
have been originally worshipped only by the 
plebeians. At Rome Diana was the goddess 
of light, and her name contains the same root 
as the word dies. As Dianus (Janus), or the god 
of light, represented the sun, so Diana, the god- 
dess of light, represented the moon. The at- 
tributes of the Greek Artemis were afterward 
ascribed to the Roman Diana. Vid. Artemis. 

Dianium. 1. (Now Qianuti), a small island 
in the Tyrrhenian Sea, opposite the Gulf of 
Cosa. — 2. (Now Benia), called Hemeroscopion 
('HfiepouKOTTelov) by Strabo, a town in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, on a promontory of the same 
name (now Cape Martin), founded by the Mas- 
silians. Here stood a celebrated temple of Di- 
ana, from which the town derived its name; 
and here Sertorius kept most of his military 
stores. 

Diclea (At/caia), a town in Thrace, on the 
Lake Bistonis. 

Dicsarchia. Vid. Puteoli. 

Dicjsarchus (Aimiapxoc), a celebrated Peri- 
patetic philosopher, geographer, and historian, 
was born at Messana in Sicily, but passed the 
greater part of his life in Greece Proper, and 
especially in Peloponnesus. He was a disciple 
of Aristotle and a friend of Theophrastus. He 
wrote a vast number of works, of which only 
fragments are extant. His most important 
work was entitled Bioc rijc 'EXXddog : it con- 
255 



DICE. 



DIDO. 



famed au account of the geography, history, and 
moral and religious condition of Greece. See 
Fuhr, Dicccarchi Messenii qua: supersunt cotnpo- 
sita et illustrata, Darmstadt, 1841. 

Dice (A'iktj), the personification of justice, a 
daughter of Jupiter (Zeus) and Themis, and the 
sister of Eunomia and Eirene. She was con- 
sidered as one of the Horos, and is frequently 
called the attendant or counsellor (TTilpedpoc or 
fui'EfJpoc) of Jupiter (Zeus). In the tragedians 
she appears as a divinity who severely punishes 
all wrong, watches over the maintenance of 
justice, and pierces the hearts of the unjust 
with the sword made for her by jEsa. In this 
capacity she is closely connected with the Erin- 
nyes, though her business is not only to punish 
injustice, but also to reward virtue. 

Diotjeus. Vid. Diote. 

Dictamnuji (AUrafivov), a town on the north- 
ern coast of Crete, with a sanctuary of Dictynna, 
from whom the town itself was also called Dic- 
tynna. 

Dicte (Aiktt) : now Lasthi), a mountain in 
the east of Crete, where Jupiter (Zeus) is said 
to have been brought up. Hence he bore the 
surname Dictceus. The Roman poets frequent- 
ly employ the adjective Dictaeus as synonymous 
with Cretan. 

Dictynna ( Alktvvvo), a surname both of Bri- 
tomartis and Diana, which two divinities were 
subsequently identified. The name is connect- 
ed with 6'iktvov, a hunting-net, and was borne 
by Britomartis and Diana as goddesses of the 
chase. One tradition related that Britomartis 
was so called because, when she had thrown 
herself into the sea to escape the pursuit of 
Minos, she was saved in the nets of fishermen. 

[Dictys (AUrvg). 1. A Tyrrhenian, changed 
by Bacchus (Dionysus) into a dolphin. — 2. A 
Centaur, slain at the nuptials of Pirithoiis. — 3. 
Son of Peristhenes or of Magnes and a Naiad, 
who, with his brother Polydectes, preserved Da- 
nae and her son Perseus in the island Seriphus.] 

Dictys Cbetensis, the reputed author of an 
extant work in Latin on the Trojan war, divided 
into six books, and entitled Ephemeris Belli Tro- 
jani, professing to be a journal of the leading 
events of the war. In the preface to the work 
we are told that it was composed by Dictys of 
Cnosus, who accompanied Idomeneus to the 
Trojan war, and was inscribed in Phoenician 
characters on tablets of lime-wood or paper 
made from the bark. The work was buried in 
the same grave with the author, and remained 
undisturbed till the sepulchre was burst open by 
an earthquake in the reign of Nero, and the 
work was discovered in a tin case. It was car- 
ried to Rome by Eupraxis, whose slaves had 
discovered it, and it was translated into Greek 
by order of Nero. It is from this Greek version 
that the extant Latin work professes to have 
been translated by a Q. Septimius Romanus. 
Although its alleged origin and discovery are 
quite unworthy of credit, it appears neverthe- 
less to be a translation from a Greek work, 
which we know to have been extant under the 
name of Dictys, since it is frequently quoted by 
the Byzantine writers: The work was proba- 
bly written in Greek by Eupraxis in the reign 
of Nero, but at what time the Latin translation 
was executed is quite uncertain. The work 
256 



contains a history of the Trojan war, its causes 
and consequences, from the birth of Paris down 
to the death of Ulysses. The compiler not un- 
frequently differs widely from Homer, adding 
many particulars, and recording many events of 
which we find no trace elsewhere. All miracu- 
lous events and supernatural agency are entirely 
excluded. The compilations ascribed to Dictys 
and Dares (vid. Dares) are of considerable im- 
portance in the history of modern literature, 
since they are the chief fountains from which 
the legends of Greece first flowed into the ro- 
mances of the Middle Ages, and then mingled 
with the popular tales and ballads of England, 
France, and Germany. The best edition of Dic- 
tys is by Dederich, Bonn, 1835. 

Didius. 1. T., praetor in Macedonia B.C. 100 
where he defeated the Scordiscans, consul 98, 
and subsequently proconsul in Spain, where he 
defeated the Celtiberians. He fell in the Mar- 
sic war, 89. — 2. C, a legate of Caasar, fell in 
battle in Spain fighting against the sons of Pom- 
pey, 46. — 3. M. Didius Salvius Julianus, bought 
the Roman empire of the praetorian guards, 
when they put up the empire for sale after the 
death of Pertinax, A.D. 193. Elavius Sulpicia- 
nus, prefect of the city, and Didius bid against 
each other, but it was finally knocked down to 
Didius upon his promising a donative to each 
soldier of twenty-five thousand sesterces. Did- 
ius, however, held the empire for only two 
months, from March 28th to June 1st, and was 
murdered by the soldiers when Severus was , 
marching against the city. 

Dido (Aidu), also called Elissa, the reputed 
founder of Carthage. She was daughter of the j 
Tyrian king Belus or Agenor or Mutgo, and 
sister of Pygmalion, who succeeded to the crown 
after the death of his father. Dido was married i 
to her uncle, Acerbas or Sichseus, a priest of 
Hercules, and a man of immense wealth. He 
was murdered by Pygmalion, who coveted his 
treasures ; but Dido secretly sailed from Tyre 
with the treasures, accompanied by some noble 
Tyrians, who were dissatisfied with Pygmalion's 
rule. She first went to Cyprus, where she car- 
ried off eighty maidens to provide the emigrants 
with wives, and then crossed over to Africa. 
Here she purchased as much land as might be 
covered with the hide of a bull ; but she order- 
ed the hide to be cut up into the thinnest possi- 
ble strips, and with them she surrounded a spot 
on which she built a citadel called Byrsa (from 
jivpaa, i. e., the hide of a bull). Around this fort 
the city of Carthage arose, and soon became a 
powerful and flourishing place. The neighbor- 
ing king Hiarbas, jealous of the prosperity of the j 
new city, demanded the hand of Dido in mar- 
riage, threatening Carthage with war in case of 
refusal. Dido had vowed eternal fidelity to her , 
late husband ; but, seeing that the Carthaginians | 
expected her to comply with the demands of 
Hiarbas, she pretended to yield to their wishes, 
and under pretence of soothing the manes of 
Acerbas by expiatory sacrifices, she erected a 
funeral pile, on which she stabbed herself in 
presence of her people. After her death she 
was worshipped by the Carthaginians as a di- 
vinity. Virgil has inserted in his ^Eneid the 
legend of Dido with various modifications. Ac- 
cording to the common chronology, there was j 



DIDYMA. 



DIOCLETIANITS, VALERIUS. 



an interval of more than three hundred years 
between the capture of Troy (B.C. 1184:) and 
the foundation of Carthage (B.C. 853) ; but Vir- 
gil nevertheless makes Dido a contemporary of 
^Eueas, with whom she falls in love on his arri- 
val in Africa. When ^Eneas hastened to seek 
the new home which the gods had promised him, 
Dido, in despair, destroyed herself on a funeral 
pile. 

Didyma. Vid. Beahchid^:. 

Didyme. Vid. ^EoLivS Insula. 

Didymus (Aidv/nog), a celebrated Alexandrine 
grammarian, a contemporary of Julius Caesar 
and Augustus, was a follower of the school of 
Aristarchus, and received the surname ^aA/ct-v- 
rcpoc on account of his indefatigable and un- 
wearied application to study. He is said to 
have written four thousand works, the most im- 
portant of which were commentaries on Homer. 
The greater part of the extant Scholia minora on 
Homer was at one time considered the work of 
Didymus, but is really taken from the commen- 
taries of Didymus and of other grammarians. 

Diespiter. Vid. Jupiter. 

Digentia (now Licenza), a small stream in 
Latham, beautifully cool and clear, which flows 
into the Anio near the modern Vicovaro. It 
flowed through the Sabine farm of Horiiee. 
Near its source, which was also called Digentia 
(fons etiam rivo dare nomen idoneus, Hot., F!p., 
L, 16, 12), stood the house 6f Horace (vicinus 
teeto jugis aqucefons, Hot., Sat., ii., 6, 2). 

Dimalldm, a town in Greek Illyria. 

Dinarchus (Aetvapxoc), the last and least im- 
portant of the ten Attic orators, was born at 
Corinth about B.C. 361. He was brought up at 
Athens, and studied under Theophrastus. As 
he was a foreigner, he could not come forward 
himself as an orator, and was therefore obliged 
to content himself with writing orations for 
others. He belonged to the friends of Phocion 
and the Macedonian party. When Demetrius 
Poliorcetes advanced against Athens in 307, Di- 
narchus fled to Chalcis in Eubcea, and was not 
allowed to return to Athens till 292, where he 
died at an advanced age. Only three of his 
speeches have come down to us : they all refer 
to the question about Harpalus. They are 
printed in the collections of the Attic orators, 
[and separately by Mastzner, Berlin, 1842, 8vo.] 

DlNDYMENE. Vid. DlNDYMUS. 

Dindymus or Dindyma, -orum (Aivdvpoc : ril 
AlvSvfia). 1. A mountain in Phrygia, on the 
frontiers of Galatia, near the town Pesskms, 
sacred to Cybele, the mother of the gods, who 
is hence called Dindymene. — 2. A mountain in 
Mysia, near Cyzicus, also sacred to Cybele. 

[Dinias (Acivlac), a Greek historian of uncer- 
tain date, who wrote a work on Argolis ('Apyo- 
?uko) : a few fragments are collected by Miiller, 
Fragm. Hist Grcec, vol. iii., p. 24-26.] 

DSnocratks (AeLvoKpuTTjs), a distinguished 
Macedonian architect in the time of Alexander 
the Great. He was the architect of the new 
temple of Diana (Artemis) at Ephesus, which 
was built after the destruction of the former 
temple by Herostratus. He was employed by 
Alexander, whom he accompanied into Egypt, 
in the building of Alexandrea. He formed a 
design for cutting Mount Athos into a statue of 
Alexander ; but the king forbade the execution 
17 



of the project. The right hand of the figure 
was to have held a city, and in the left there 
would have been a basin, in which the water of 
all the mountain streams was to pour, and 
thence into the sea. He commmenced the erec- 
tion of a temple to Arsinoe, the wife of Ptolemy 
II, of which the roof was to be arched with 
loadstones, so that her statue, made of iron, might 
appear to float in the air, but he died before 
completing the work. 

[Dinomache (Aeivo/idxv), daughter of Mega- 
cles, granddaughter of Clisthenes, and mother of 
Aleibiades.] 

Dinomachus (Aewo/aaxoc), a philosopher, who 
agreed with CalupiJon in considering the chief 
good to consist in the union of virtue with bod- 
ily pleasure. 

Dinomenes {Aeivojxevrjc). 1. A statuary, whose 
statues of Io and Callisto stood in the Acropolis 
at Athens in the time of Pausanias : he flour 
ished B.C. 400.— [2. Father of Hiero, Gelon, and 
Thrasybulus, born at ^Etna, a city of Sicily. — 

3. One of the guards of Hieronymus of Syracuse, 
whom he aided in assassinating ; he was after- 
ward elected one of the generals of the Syracu- 
sans.] 

Dinon (Aetvav, Aivuv), father of the historian 
Clitarchus, wrote himself a history of Persia, 
[to which Nepos refers as the mo^t trustworthy 
authority on the subject: the fragments of his 
work are collected by Miiller, Fragm. Hist. Grate, 
vol. ii., p. 88-95.] 

Dio. Vid. Dion. 

DioCvEsarea (Aio/caiadpeta : now Sefurieh), 
more anciently Sepphoris (2e7r0o/atf), in Gali- 
lee, was a small place until Herodes Antipas 
made it the capital of Galilee, under the name 
of Diocaesarea. It was destroyed in the fourth 
century by Gallus, on account of an insurrection 
which had broken out there. 

Dioclea or Docxea (Aoicfea), a place in Dal- 
matia, near Salona, the birth-place of Diocletian. 

DiScles (AiokItic). 1. A brave Athenian, who 
lived in exile at Megara. Once in a battle he 
protected with his shield a youth whom he loved, 
but he lost his own life in consequence. The 
Megarians rewarded him with the honors of a 
hero, and instituted the festival of the Dioclea, 
which they celebrated in the spring of every 
year. — 2. A Syracusan, the leader of the popu- 
lar party in opposition to Hermocrates. In B.C. 
412 he was appointed with several others to 
draw up a new code of laws. This code, which 
was almost exclusively the work of Diocles, 
became very celebrated, and was adopted by 
many other Sicilian cities. — 3. Of Carystus in 
Eubcea, a celebrated Greek physician, lived in 
the fourth century B.C. He wrote several med- 
ical works, of which only some fragments re- 
main ; [edited by Frasnkel, Berlin 1840, 8vo. — 

4. Of Preparethus, the earliest Greek historian 
who wrote about the foundation of Rome, and 
whom Q. Fabius Pietor is said to have followed 
in a great many points.] 

Diocletianopolis. Vid. Celetrum. 

Diocxetianus, Valerius, Roman emperor 
A.D. 284-305, was born near Salona, in Dalma- 
tia, in 245, of most obscure parentage. From 
his mother, Doclea, or Dioclea, who received 
her name from the village where she dwelt, he 
inherited the appellation of Bodes or 2)iocles, 
257 



DIODORUS. 



DIOGENES. 



which, after his assumption of the purple, was 
expanded into Diocletianus, and attached as a 
cognomen to the high patrician name of Vale- 
rius. Having entered the army, he served with 
high reputation under Probus and Aurelian, fol- 
lowed Carus to the Persian war, and, after the 
fate of Numerianus became known at Chalcedon, 
was proclaimed emperor by the troops, 284. He 
slew with his own hands Arrius Aper, who was 
arraigned of the murder of Numerianus, in or- 
der, according to some authorities, that he might 
fulfil a prophecy delivered to liim in early youth 
by a Gaulish Druidess, that he should mount a 
throne as soon as he had slain the wild boar 
(Aper). Next year (285) Diocletian carried on 
war against Cariuus, on whose death he became 
undisputed master of the empire. But as the 
attacks of the barbarians became daily more for- 
midable, he resolved to associate with himself 
a colleague in the empire, and accordingly se- 
lected for that purpose Maximianus, who was in- 
vested with the title of Augustus in 286. 
Maximian had the care of the Western Empire, 
and Diocletian that of the Eastern. But as the 
dangers which threatened the Roman dominions 
from the attacks of the Persians in the East, and 
the German and other barbarians in the West, 
became still more imminent, Diocletian made a 
still further division of the empire. In 292, Con- 
stantius Chlorus and Galerius were proclaimed 
Csssars, and the government of the Roman 
world was divided between the two Augusti 
and the two Csssars. Diocletian had the gov- 
ernment of the East, with Nicomedia as his resi- 
dence ; Maximian, Italy and Africa, with Milan 
as his residence ; Constantius, Britain, Gaul, and 
Spain, with Treves as his , residence ; Gale- 
rius, Illyricum, and the whole line of the Dan- 
ube, with Sirmium as his residence. The wars 
ia the reign of Diocletian are related in the lives 
of his colleagues, since Diocletian rarely com- 
manded the armies in person. It is sufficient 
to state here that Britain, which had maintained 
its independence for some years under Carau- 
sius and Allectus, was restored to the empire 
(296) ; that the Persians were defeated and 
obliged to sue for peace (298); and that the 
Marcommani and other barbarians in the north 
were also driven back from the Roman domin- 
ions. But after an anxious reign of twenty-one 
years Diocletian longed for repose. Accord- 
iugty, on the first of May, 305, he abdicated at 
Nicom-edia, and compelled his reluctant col- 
league Maximian to do the same at Milan. Dio- 
cletian retired to his native Dalmatia, and passed 
the remaining eight years of his life near Salona 
in philosophic retirement, devoted to rural pleas- 
ures and the cultivation of his garden. He died 
313. One of the most memorable events in the 
reign of Diocletian was his fierce persecution of 
the Christians (303) to which he was instigated 
by his colleague Galerius. 

Dioborus (Atodupoc). 1. Surnamed Cronus, 
of Iasus in Caria, lived at Alexandrea in the 
reign of Ptolemy Soter, who is said to have 
given him the surname of Cronus on account 
of Ms inability to solve at once some di?Jectic 
problem proposed by Stilpo, when the t r o phi- 
losophers were dining with the king. lodorus 
is said|to have taken that disgrace sc much to 
heart, that, after his return from the repast, and 
258 



writing a treatise on the problem, he died in 
despair. According to another account, he de- 
rived his surname from his teacher Apollonius 
Cronus. He belonged to the Megaric school 
of philosophy, of which he was the head. He 
was celebrated for his great dialectic skill, for 
which he is called 6 6ia2.eK.TiK.6g, or dia^sKTCicu- 
rarof. — 2. Siculus, of Agyrium in Sicily, was a 
contemporary of Julius Caesar and Augustus, 
In order to collect materials for his history, he 
travelled over a great part of Europe and Asia, 
and lived a long time at Rome. He spent alto- 
gether thirty years upon his work. It was en- 
titled Bi6\iodi}K?] icTopiKi), TJie Historical Libra- 
ry, and was a universal history, embracing the 
period from the earliest mythical ages down t<3 
the beginning of Caesar's Gallic wars. It was 
divided into three great sections, and into forty 
books. The first section, which consisted of 
the first six books, contained the history of the 
mythical times previous to the Trojan war. 
The second section, which consisted of eleven 
books, contained the history from the Trojan 
war down to the death of Alexander the Great. 
The third section, which contained the remain- 
ing twenty-three books, treated of the history 
from the death of Alexander down to the begin 
ning of Caesar's Gallic wars. Of this work only 
the following portions are extant entire : the 
first five books, which contain the early history 
of the Eastern nations, the Egyptians, ^Ethio- 
pians, and Greeks; and from book eleven to 
book twenty, containing the . history from the 
second Persian war, B.C. 480, down to 302. 
Of the remaining portion there are extant a 
number of fragments and the Excerpta, which 
are preserved partly in Photius, aud partly in 
the Eelogae made at the command of Constan- 
tine Porphyrogenitus. The work of Diodorus | 
is constructed upon the plan of annals, and tie 
events of each year are placed one after the ( 
other, without any internal connection. In com- 
piling his work Diodorus exercised no judgment 
or criticism. He simply collected what he found j 
in his different authorities, and thus jumbled to- i 
gether history, mythus, and fiction : he fre- 
quently misunderstood authorities, and not sel- 
dom contradicts in one passage what he has 
stated in another. But, nevertheless, the com- 
pilation is of great importance to us, on account ( 
of the great mass of materials which are there 
collected from a number of writers whose works 
have perished. The best editions are by Wes- , 
seling, Amsterd., 1746, 2 vols, fol., reprinted at 
Bipont, 1793, <fec, 11 vols. 8vo; and by Din- 
dorf, Lips., 1S28, 6 vols. 8vo. — 3. Of Sinope, an 
Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy, 
flourished 353. — 4. Of Tyre, a peripatetic phi- 
losopher, a disciple and follower of Critolaiis, : 
whom he succeeded as the head of the Peripa- 
tetic school at Athens. He flourished B.C. 110. 

Diodotus (Aioo'otoc), a Stoic philosopher and 
a teacher of Cicero, in whose house he lived for 
many years at Rome. In his later years, 
Diodotus became blind : he died in Cicero's 
house, B.C. 59, and left to his friend a property 
of about one hundred thousand sesterces. 

Diogenes (Aioytw/f). 1. Of Afollonia in 
Crete, an eminent natural philosopher, lived in 
the fifth century B.C., and was a pupil of An- | 
aximenes. H<> wrote a work in the Ionic dia 



DIOGENES. 



DIOMEDES. 



leet, entitled Hepl ivaeuc, On Nature, in which 
he appears to have treated of physical science 
in the largest sense of the words. — 2. The Baby- 
lonian, a Stoic philosopher, was a native of 
Seleucia in Babylonia, was educated at Athens 
under Chrysippus, and succeeded Zeno of Tar- 
sus as the head of the Stoic school at Athens. 
He was one of the three ambassadors sent by 
tLe Athenians to Rome in B.C. 155. Vid. Car- 
neades, Critolaus. He died at the age of 
eighty-eight. — 3. The Cynio philosopher, was 
born at Sinopc, in Pontus, about B.C. 412. His 
father was a banker named Icesias or Icetas, 
who was convicted of some swindling transac- 
tion, in consequence of which Diogenes quitted 
Sinope and went to Athens. His youth is said 
to have been spent in dissolute extravagance ; 
but at Athens his attention was arrested by the 
character of Antisthenes, who at first drove him 
away. Diogenes, however, could not be pre- 
vented from attending him even by blows, but 
told him that he would find no stick hard enough 
to keep him away. Antisthenes at last relented, 
and his pupil soon plunged into the most frantic 
excesses of austerity and moroseness. In sum- 
mer he used to roll in hot sand, and in winter 
to embrace statues covered with snow ; he wore 
coarse clothing, lived on the plainest food, slept 
in porticoes or in the street, and finally, accord- 
ing to the common story, took up his residence 
in a tub belonging to the Metroum, or temple 
of the Mother of the Gods. The truth of this 
latter tale has, however, been reasonably dis- 
puted. In spite of his strange eccentricities, 
Diogenes appears to have been much respected 
at Athens, and to have been privileged to re- 
buke any thing of which he disapproved. He 
seems to have ridiculed and despised all intel- 
lectual pursuits which did not directly and ob- 
viously tend to some immediate practical good. 
He abused literary men for reading about the 
evils of Ulysses, and neglecting their own ; mu- 
sicians for stringing the lyre harmoniously while 
they left their minds discordant ; men of science 
for troubling themselves about the moon and 
stars, while they neglected what lay immedi- 
ately before them ; orators for learning to say 
what was right, but not to practice it. On a 
voyage to iEgina he was taken prisoner by pi- 
rates, and carried to Crete to be sold as a slave. 
Here, when he was asked what business he 
understood, he answered, " How to command 
men." He was purchased by Xeniades of Cor- 
inth, over whom he acquired such influence 
that he soon received from him his freedom, 
was intrusted with the care of his children, and 
passed his old age in his house. During his 
residence at Corinth his celebrated interview 
with Alexander the Great is said to have taken 
place. The conversation between them began 
by the king's saying, " I am Alexander the 
Great ;" to which the philosopher replied, " And 
I am Diogenes the Cynic." Alexander then 
asked whether he could oblige him in any way, 
and received no answer except, " Yes, you can 
stand out of the sunshine." We are further 
told that Alexander admired Diogenes so much 
that he said, " If I were not Alexander, I should 
wish to bo Diogenes." Diogenes died at Cor- 
inth at the age of nearly ninety, B.C. 323. — 4. 
Laertius of Laerte in Cilicia, of whose life we 



have no particulars, probably lived in the second 
century after Christ. He wrote the Lives of 
the Philosophers in ten books : the work is en 
titled irepl (3iuv, doy/xdruv, nal anrxpOeyfiuTuv tuv 
kv <piKooo<pLa ev&OKLjj.r)(sdvTuv. According to some 
allusions which occur in it, he wrote it for a 
lady of rank, who occupied herself with phi- 
losophy, and who, according to some, was Ar- 
ria, the friend of Galen. In this work Diogenes 
divides the philosophy of the Greeks into the 
Ionic — which commences with Anaxiniauder 
and ends with Clitomaehus, Chrysippus, and 
Theophrastus — and the Italian, which was 
founded by Pythagoras, and ends with Epicu- 
rus. He reckons the Socratic school, with its 
various ramifications, as a part of the Ionic phi- 
losophy, of which he treats in the first seven 
books. The Eleatics, with Heraclitus and the 
Skeptics, are included in the Italian philosophy, 
which occupies the eighth atid ninth books. Epi- 
curus and his philosophy are treated of in the 
tenth book with particular minuteness, which 
has led some writers to the belief that Diogenes 
himself was an Epicurean. The work is of 
great value to us, as Diogenes made use of a 
great number of writers on the history of phi- 
losophy, whose works are now lost ; but it is 
put together without plan, criticism, or connec- 
tion, and the author had evidently no concep- 
tion of the real value and dignity of philosophy. 
The best editions are by Meibom, Amsterd., 
1692, 2 vols. 4to, and Hiibuer [and Jacobitz, 
with the commentary of Casaubon], Lips., 4 
vols. 8vo, 1828-1833. — 5. (Enomaus, a tragic 
poet, who began to exhibit at Athens B.C. 404. 

Diogenianus (AtoyevELavoc), of Heraclea on 
the Pontus, a distinguished grammarian in the 
reign of Hadrian, wrote a Greek Lexicon, from 
which the Lexicon of Hesychius seems to have 
been almost entirely taken. A portion of it is 
still extant, containing a collection of proverbs 
first printed by Schottus, with the proverbs of 
Zenobius and Suidas, Antv., 1612, 4to, and sub- 
sequently in other editions of the Parcemiographi 
Grceci. 

Diomea (rd Aiofieia : Aio/itiof, Aio/ievc), a 
demus in Attica belonging to the tribe iEgeis, 
with a temple of Hercules ; the Diomean gate in 
Athens led to this demus. Vid. p. 122, b. 

DiomedSjE Insula, five small islands in the 
Adriatic Sea, north of the promontory Garganum 
in Apulia, named after Diomedes. Vid. Dio- 
medes. The largest of these, called Diomedea 
Insula or Trimerus (now Tremiti), was the place 
where Julia, the grand-daughter of Augustus, 
died. 

Diomedes (h.L0[irj6j]c). 1. Son of Tydeus and 
Dei'pyle, whence he is constantly called Tydides 
(Tvdecdric), succeeded Adrastus as king of Ar- 
gos. — Homeric Story. Tydeus fell in the expedi- 
tion against Thebes, while his son Diomedes 
was yet a boy ; but Diomedes was afterward 
one of the Epigoni who took Thebes. He went 
to Troy with eighty ships, and was, next to 
Achilles, the bravest hero in the Greek army. 
He enjoyed the especial protection of Minerva 
(Athena) ; he fought against the most distin- 
guished of the Trojans, such as Hector and 
^Eneas, and even with the gods who espoused 
the cause of the Trojans. He thus wounded 
both Venus (Aphrodite) and Mars (Ares). — LaUr 
259 



DIOMEDES. 



DION" CASSTUS. 



Stories. Diomedes and Ulyssos carried off the 
palladium from the city of Troy, since it was 
believed that Troy could not be taken so long 
as the palladium was within its walls. Diorne- 
des carried the palladium with him to Argos ; 
but, according to others, it was taken from him 
by Demophon in Attica, where he landed one 
night on his return from Troy, without knowing 
where he was. Vid. Demophon. Another tra- 
dition stated that Diomedes restored the pal- 
ladium to iEneas. On his arrival in Argos 
Diomedes found his wife iEgialea living in adul- 
tery with Hippolytus, or, according to others, 
with Oometes or Cyllabarus. This misfortune 
befell him through the anger of Venus (Aphro- 
dite), whom he had wounded before Troy. He 
therefore quitted Argos, either of his own ac- 
cord, or he was expelled by the adulterers, and 
went to iEtolia. He subsequently attempted to 
return to Argos, but'on his way home a storm 
threw him on the coast of Daunia in Italy, where 
he was kindly received by Daunus, the king of 
the country. Diomedes assisted Daunus in his 
war against the Messapians, married Euippe, 
the daughter of Daunus, and settled in Daunia, 
where he died at an advanced age. He was 
buried in one of the islands off Cape Garganum, 
which were called after him the Diomedean 
Islands. His companions were inconsolable at 
his loss, and were metamorphosed into birds 
(Aves Diomedece), which, mindful of their origin, 
used to fly joyfully toward the Greek ships, but 
to avoid those of the Komans. According to 
others, Diomedes returned to Argos, or disap- 
peared in one of the Diomedean islands, or in 
the country of the HenetL A number of towns 
in the eastern part of Italy, such as Beneventum, 
Argos Hippion (afterward Argyripa or Arpi), 
Venusia, Canusium, Venafrum, Brundisium, &c, 
were believed to have been founded by Diome- 
des. A plain of Apulia, near Salapia and Canu- 
sium, was called Diomedei Campi after him. He 
was worshipped as a divine being, especially in 
Italy, where statues of him existed at Argyripa, 
Metapontum, Thurii, and other places. — 2. Son 
of Mars (Ares) and Cyrene, king of the Bistones 
in Thrace, killed by Hercules on account of bis 
mares, which he fed with human flesh. 

Diomedes, a Latin grammarian, probably lived 
in the fourth or fifth century after Christ, and is 
the author of an extant work, Be Oratione et 
Partibus Orationis et Vario Genere Metrorum 
libri III., printed in the Grammaticce Latince 
Auctores Antiqid of Putschius, 4to, Hanov., 1605 ; 
[and in the Scriptores rei rnetricae of Gaisford, 
Oxford, 1837, 8vo ; but only the 3d book.] 

Diomedon (Aio/iiduv), an Athenian command- 
er during the Peloponnesian war. He was one 
of the commanders at the battle of Arginusa? 
(B.C. 406), and was put to death, with five of his 
colleagues, on his return to Athens. 

Dion (Aiuv), a Syracusau, son of Hipparinus, 
and a relation of Dionysius. His sister Aris- 
tomache was the second wife of the elder Di- 
onysius ; and Dion himself was married to 
Arete, the daughter of Dionysius by Aristom- 
ache. Dion was treated by Dionysius with the 
greatest distinction, and was employed by him 
in many services of trust and confidence. Of 
this close connection and favor with the tyrant 
he seems to have availed himself to amass great 
260 



wealth. He made no opposition to the succe» 
sion of the younger Dionysius to his father's 
power, but he became an object of suspicion to 
the youthful tyrant, to whom he also made him- 
self personally disagreeable by the austerity of 
his manners. DioD appears to have been nat- 
urally a man of a proud and stern character, and 
having become an ardent disciple of Plato when 
that philosopher visited Syracuse in the reign 
of the elder Dionysius, he carried to excess the i 
austerity of a philosopher, and viewed with un 
disguised contempt the debaucheries and dis- 
solute pleasures of his nephew. From these he 
endeavored to withdraw him by persuading him 
to invite Plato a second time to Syracuse ; but j 
the philosopher, though received at first with 
the utmost distinction, failed in obtaining a per- 
manent hold on the mind of Dionysius ; and the 
intrigues of the opposite party, headed by Phi- j 
listus, were successful in procuring the banish- 
ment of Dion. Dion retired to Athens, where 
he lived in habitual intercourse with Plato and 
his disciples ; but Plato having failed in pro- 
curing his recall (for which purpose he had a 
third time visited Syracuse), and Dionysius hav- 
ing confiscated his property, and compelled his 
wife to marry another person, he determined 
on attempting the expulsion of the tyrant by 
force. He sailed from Zaeynthus with only a 
small force, and obtained possession of Syracuse 
without opposition during the absence of Dio- I 
nysius in Italy. Dionysius returned shortly aft- 
erward, but found himself obliged to quit Syra- 
cuse and sail away to Italy, leaving Dion un- j 
disputed master of the city, B.C. 356. His | 
despotic conduct, however, soon caused great . 
discontent, and the people complained with jus- 
tice that they had only exchanged one tyrant 
for another. He caused his chief opponent, 
Heraclides, to be put to death, and confiscated 
the property of his adversaries. Callippus, an 
Athenian, who had accompanied him from 
Greece, formed a conspiracy against him, and 
caused him to be assassinated in his own house, 
353. 

Dion Cassius, the historian, was the son of 
a Roman senator, Cassius Apronianus, and was | 
born AD. 155, at Nlcrea in Bithyuia. He also 
bore the surname Coeceianus, which he derived 
from the orator Dion Chrysostomus Coeceianus, j 
his maternal grandfather. He was educated 
with great care ; he accompanied his father to 
Cilicia, of which he had the administration , 
and after liis father's death he went to Borne, 
about 180. He was straightway made a sena- 
tor, and frequently pleaded in the courts of jus- 
tice. He was redile and qucestor under Corn- 
modus, and prsetor under Septimius Severus, 
194. He accompanied Caracalla on his journey j 
to the East ; he was appointed by Macrinus to 
the government of Pergamus and Smyrna, 218 ; 
was consul about 220 ; proconsul of Africa 224, 
under Alexander Severus, by whom he was , 
sent as legate to Dalmatia in 226, and to Pan- 
nonia in 227. In the latter province he restored 
strict discipline among the troops, which ex- 
cited the discontent of the pnetorians at Rome, 
who demanded his life of Alexander Severus. 
But the emperor protected him and raised him 
to his second consulship, 229. Dion, however, 
retired to Campania, and shortly afterward ob- 



DION CHRYSOSTOMUS. 



DIONYSIUS. 



tamed permission of the emperor to return to 
his native town Niesaa, were he passed the re- 
mainder of his life and died. Dion wrote several 
historical works, but the most important was a 
History of Eome ('Puftaiicr/ toropca), in eighty 
books, from the landing of iEneas in Italy to 
A.D. 229, the year in which Dion returned to 
Nicaea. Unfortunately, only a comparatively 
small portion of this work has come down to 
us entire. Of the first thirty-four books we pos- 
sess only fragments ; but since . Zonaras, in his 
Annals, chiefly followed Dion Cassius, we may 
regard the Annals of Zonaras as to some extent 
an epitome of Dion Cassius. Of the thirty-fifth 
book we possess a considerable fragment, and 
from the thirty-sixth book to the fifty-fourth the 
work is extant complete, and embraces the his- 
tory from the wars of Lucullus and Cn. Pom- 
pey against Mithradates, down to the death of 
Agrippa, B.C. 10. Of the remaining books we 
have only the epitomes made by Xiphilinus and 
others. Dion Cassius treated the history of the 
republic with brevity, but gave a more minute 
account of those events, of which he had been 
himself an eye-witness. He consulted original 
authorities, and displayed great judgment and 
discrimination in the use of them. He had ac- 
quired a thorough knowledge of his subject, and 
his notions of the ancient Roman institutions 
were far more correct than those of his prede- 
cessors, such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus. 
The best editions are by Reimarus, Hamb., 
1750-52, 2 vols. foL, and by Sturz, Lips., 1824. 
9 vols. 8vo. 

Dion Ciirysostomus, that is, the golden- 
mouthed, a surname given to him on account 
of his eloquence. He also bore the surname 
Cocceiauus, which he derived from the Emperor 
Cocceius Nerva, with whom he was very in- 
timate. He was born at Prusa, in Bithynia, 
about the middle of the first century of our era. 
He received a careful education, increased his 
knowledge by travelling in different countries, 
and came to Rome in the time of Vespasian, 
but, having incurred the suspicions of Domitiau, 
was obliged to leave the city. On the advice 
of the Delphic oracle, he put on a beggar's dress, 
and in this condition visited Thraee, Mysia, 
Seytbia, and the country of the Gets. After 
the murder of Domitian, A.D. 96, Dion used his 
influence with the army stationed on the fron- 
tier in favor of his friend Nerva, and seems to 
have returned to Rome immediately after his ac- 
cession. Trajan also entertained the highest 
esteem for Dion, and showed him the most 
marked favor. Dion died at Rome about A.D. 
117. Dion Chrysostom is the most eminent of 
the Greek rhetoricians and sophists in the time 
nf the Roman empire. There are extant eighty 
of his orations ; but they are more like essays 
on political, moral, and philosophical subjects 
than real orations, of which they have only the 
form. We find among them loyoL Trepl (3aatX- 
eiac or "koyoL fiaaikuto'i, four orations addressefl 
to Trajan on the virtues of a sovereign ; Aioye- 
vijc i) irepl rvpavvldoc, on the troubles to which 
men expose themselves by deserting the path 
of nature, and on the difficulties which a sover- 
eign has to encounter ; essays on slavery and 
freedom ; on the means of attaining eminence 
as an orator ; political discourses addressed to 



various towns ; on subjects of ethics and prac 
tical philosophy ; and, lastly, orations on myth- 
ical subjects and show-speeches. All these 
orations are written in pure Attic Greek, and, 
although tainted with the rhetorical embellish- 
ments of the age, are distinguished by their re- 
fined and elegant style. The best editions are 
by Reiske, Lips., 1784, 2 vols., and by Emperius, 
Bruns., 1844. 

DionjEa. y~id. Dione. 

Dione (Aiuvrj), daughter of Oceanus and Te 
thys, or of Coelus (Uranus) and Terra (Ge), or 
of jEther and Terra (Ge). She was beloved by 
Jupiter (Zeus), by whom she became the moth- 
er of Aphrodite (Venus). She received her 
daughter in Olympus when ehe was wounded 
by Diomedes. Venus (Aphrodite) is hence call- 
ed DionjEa, and this epithet is frequently ap- 
plied to any thing sacred to Venus (Aphroditf-). 
Hence we find JDionmim antrum (Hor., Carm., ii., 
1, 39), and Dionceus Ccesar (Virg., Eel., ix., 47), 
because Caesar claimed defcent from Venus, who 
is sometimes also called Dione. 

Dionysius (Awvvaioc). I. Historical. 1. The 
Elder, tyrant of Syracuse, son of Hermocrates, 
born B.C. 430. He was bom in a private but 
not low station, and began fife as a clerk iu a 
public office. He was one of the partisans of 
Hermocrates, the leader of the aristocratical par 
ty, and was severely wounded in the attempt 
which Hermocrates made to effect by force 
his restoration from exile. He subsequently 
served in the great war against the Carthaginians, 
who had invaded Sicily under Hannibal, the son 
of Gisco, and successively reduced and destroyed 
Selinus, Himera, and Agrigentum. These dis- 
asters, and especially the failure of the Syra- 
cusan general, Daphnaeus, to relieve Agrigen- 
tum, had created a general spirit of discontent 
and alarm, of which Dionysius skillfully availed 
himself. He succeeded in procuring a decree 
for deposing the existing generals, and appoint- 
ing others in their stead, among whom was 
Dionysius himself, B.C. 406. His efforts were 
from this time directed toward supplanting his 
new colleagues and obtaining the sole direction 
of affairs. These efforts were crowned with 
success. In the following year (405), the other 
generals were deposed, and Dionysius, though 
only twenty-five years of age, was appointed 
sole general, with full powers. From this pe- 
riod we may date the commencement of his 
reign, or tyranny, which continued without in- 
terruption for thirty-eight years. His first step 
was to procure the appointment of a body guard, 
which he speedily increased to the number of 
one thousand men ; at the same time, he in- 
duced the Syraeusans to double the pay of all 
the troops, and took every means to ingratiate 
himself with the mercenaries. By his marriage 
with the daughter of Hermocrates, he secured 
to himself the support of all the remaining par- 
tisans of that leader. He converted the island 
of Ortygia into a strong fortress, in which be 
took up his own residence. After concluding 
a peace with Carthage, and putting down a 
formidable insurrection in Syracuse, he began 
to direct his arms against the other cities of 
Sicily. Naxos, Catana, and Leontini success- 
ively fell into his power, either by force or 
treachery. For several years after this he 
2G1 



DIONYSIUS. 

made preparations for renewing the war with 
Carthage. In 397 he declared war against Car- 
thage. At first he met with great success, but in 
395 his fleet was totally defeated, and he was 
obliged to shut himself up within the walls of 
Syracuse, where he was besieged by the Car- 
thaginians both by sea and land. A pestilence 
shortly after broke out in tie Carthaginian camp, 
and greatly reduced the enemy, whereupon Di- 
onysius suddenly attacked the enemy both by 
sea and land, defeated the army, and burned 
great part of their fleet. The Carthaginians 
were now obliged to withdraw. In 393 they re- 
newed the war with no better success, and 
in 392 they concluded a peace with Dionysius. 
This treaty left Dionysius at leisure to continue 
the ambitious projects in which he had previous- 
ly engaged against the Greek cities in Italy. 
He formed an alliance with the Lucanians, and 
crossed over into Italy. He subdued Caulonia, 
Hipponium and Rhegium, 387. He was in 
close alliance with th» Locrians ; and his power- 
ful fleets gave him the command both of the 
Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas. He was now at 
the summit of his greatness, and during the 
twenty years that elapsed from this period to 
his death, he possessed an amount of power 
and influence far exceeding those enjoyed by 
any other Greek before the time of Alexander. 
During this time he was twice engaged again 
in war with Carthage, namely, in 383, when a 
treaty was concluded, by which the River Haly- 
cus was fixed as the boundary of the two pow- 
ers ; and again in 368, in the middle of which 
war Dionysius died at Syracuse, 367. His last 
illness is said to have been brought on by ex- 
cessive feasting ; but, according to some ac- 
counts, his death was hastened by his medical 
attendants, in order to secure the succession for 
his son. After the death of his first wife, Dio- 
nysius had married almost exactly at the same 
time — some said even on the same day — Doris, 
a Locrian of distinguished birth, and Aristom- 
ache, a Syracusan, the daughter of his supporter 
Hipparinus, and the sister of Dion. By Doris 
he had three children, of which the eldest was 
the successor, Dionysius. The character of 
Dionysius has' been drawn in the blackest colors 
by many ancient writers ; he appears, indeed, to 
have become a sort of type of a tyrant, in its 
worst sense. In his latter years he became ex- 
tremely suspicious, and apprehensive of treach- 
ery even from his nearest friends, and is said to 
have adopted the most excessive precautions 
to guard against it. Many of these stories have, 
however, an air of great exaggeration. (Cic, 
Tusc, v., 20.) He built the terrible prison call- 
ed Lautumise, which was cut out of the solid 
rock in the part of Syracuse named Epipolas. 
Vid. Diet, of Ant., art. Ladiumi^e. Dionysius 
was fond of literature and the arts. He adorn- 
ed Syracuse with splendid temples and other 
public edifices, so as to render it unquestiona- 
bly the greatest of all Greek cities. He was 
himself a poet, and repeatedly contended for 
the prize of tragedy at Athens. Here he sev- 
eral tunes obtained the secoud and third prizes ; 
nd, finally, just before his death, bore away 
che first prize at the Lcnasa, with a play called 
" The. Ransom of Hector." He sought tbj so- 
ciety of meu distinguished in literature and I 
262 



DIONYSIUS. 

I 

pliilosophy, entertaining the poet Philoxeims at 
his table, and inviting Plato to Syracuse. He, 
however, soon after sent the latter away from I 
Sicily in disgrace ; and though the story of his j 
having caused him to be sold as a slave, as well 
as that of his having sent Philoxenus to the ' 
stone quarries for ridiculing his bad verses, are 
probably gross exaggerations, they may well ( 
have been so far founded in fact that his in- j 
tercourse with these persons was interrupted 
by some sudden burst of capricious violence. — 
2. The Younger, son of the preceding, succeed- 
ed his father as tyrant of Syracuse, B.C. 367. ' 
He was at this time under thirty years of age ; \ 
he had been brought up at his father's court in | 
idleness and luxury, and studiously precluded 
from taking any part in public affairs. The as- I 
cendency which Dion, and, through his means, 
Plato, obtained for a time over his mind, was ! 
undermined by flatterers and the companions of I 
his pleasures. Yet his court was at this time a 
great place of resort for philosophers and men 
of letters : besides Plato, whom he induced by 
the most urgent entreaties to pay him a second j 
visit, Aristippus of Cyrene, Eudoxus of Cnidus, 
Speusippus, and others, are stated to have spent 
some time with him at Syracuse ; and he culti 
vated a friendly intercourse with Archytas and 
the Pythagoreans of Magna Graecia. Dion, who 
had been banished by Dionysius, returned to 
Sicily in 357, at the head of a small force, with 
the avowed object of dethroning Dionysius. 1 
The latter was absent from Syracuse at the j 
time that Dion landed in Sicily ; but he instant- 
ly returned to Syracuse, where the citadel still i 
held out for him. But, finding it impossible to | 
retain his power, he sailed away to Italy with 
his most valuable property, and thus lost the 
sovereignty after a reign of twelve years, 356. i 
He now repaired to Locri, the native city of his 
mother, Doris, where he was received in the 
most friendly manner ; but he made himself 
tyrant of the city, and is said to have treated 
the inhabitants with the utmost cruelty. After 
remaining at Locri ten years, he availed him- 
self of the internal dissensions at Syracuse to 
recover possession of his power in that city, 
346. The Locrias took advantage of his ab- 
sence to revolt against him, and wreaked their 
vengeance in the . most cruel manner on his wife ! 
and daughters. He continued to reign in Syra- i 
cuse for the next three years, till Timoleon 
came to Sicily to deliver the Greek cities of the 
island from the tyrants. As he was unable to 
resist Timoleon, he surrendered the citadel into 
the hands of the latter on condition of being al- 
lowed to depart in safety to Corinth, 343. Here 
he spent the remainder of his life in a private 
condition, and is said to have frequented low com- 
pany, and sunk gradually into a very degraded j 
and abject state. According to some writers, 
he was reduced to support himself by keeping a 
school ; others say that he became one of the at- 
tendants on the rites of Cybele, a set of mendi- ; 
cant priests of the lowest class. — 3. Tyrant of 
Heraclga on the Euxine, son of Clearehus, suc- 
ceeded liis brother Timotheus in the tyranny 
about B.C. 338. He is said to have been the 
mildest and justest of all the tyrants that had ever 
lived. He married Amastris, niece of Darius. 
In 306 he assumed the title of king, and died i 



DIONYSIUS. 



DIONISIUS. 



shortly afterward at the age of 55. He is said 
to have been choked by his own fat. 

II. Literary. 1. Surnamed Areofagita, be- 
cause he was one of the council of the Areopa- 
gus, was converted by St. Paul's preaching at 
Athens. There are extant several works under 
his name, which, however, could scarcely have 
been written before the fifth century of our era. 
— 2. Cato. Vid. Oato. — 3. Surnamed Chalcus 
(c> Xa?LKovc), an Attic poet and orator, who de- 
rived his surname from his having advised the 
Athenians to coin brass money for the purpose 
of facilitating traffic. Of his oratory we know 
nothing ; but his poems, chiefly elegies, are 
often referred to and quoted. He was one of 
the leaders of the colony to Thurii in Italy, B.C. 
444. — 4. Of Halicarnassus, a celebrated rhet- 
orician, came to Rome about B.C. 29, for the 
purpose of making himself acquainted with the 
Latin language and literature. He lived at 
Rome on terms of friendship with many dis- 
tinguished men, such as Q. iElius Tubero, and 
the rhetorician Cascilius; and he remained in 
the city for twenty-two years, till his death, 
B.C. 7. His principal work, which he composed 
at Rome at the later period of his life, was a his- 
tory of Rome in twenty-two books, entitled 'Pw- 
uaiK?/ 'Apxawloyiu. It contained the history of 
Rome from the mythical times down to B.C. 
264, in which year the history of Polybius be- 
gins with the Punic wars. The first nine books 
alone are complete ; of the tenth and eleventh 
we have the greater part; and of the remain- 
ing nine we possess nothing but fragments and 
extracts. Dionysius treated the early history 
of Rome with great minuteness. The eleven 
books extant do not carry the history beyond 
B.C. 441, so that the eleventh book breaks off 
,very soon after the deeemviral legislation. 
This peculiar minuteness in the early history, 
however, was, in a great measure, the conse- 
quence of the object he had proposed to him- 
self, and which, as he himself states, was to re- 
move the erroueous notions which the Greeks 
entertained with regard to Rome's greatness. 
Dionysius had no clear notions about the early 
constitution of Rome, and was led astray by the 
nature of the institutions which he saw in his 
own day, and thus makes innumerable mis- 
takes in treating of the history of the constitu- 
tion. He introduces numerous speeches in his 
work, which, though written with artistic skill, 
nevertheless show that Dionysius was a rhet- 
orician, not an historian, and still less a states- 
man. Dionysius also wrote various rhetorical 
and critical works, which abound with the most 
exquisite remarks and criticisms on the works 
of the classical writers of Greece. They show 
that he was a greater critic than historiau. The 
following are the extant works of (his class : 
1. Texyv dyropLKT}, addressed to one Echecratcs, 
part of which is certainly spurious. 2. Tlepl 
avvdeaeug ovo/xdruv, treats of oratorical power, 
and on the combination of words according to 
the different styles of oratory. 3. Tdv upx<uuv 
KpiaiQ, contains characteristics of poets, from 
Homer down to Euripides, of some historians, 
such as Herodotus, Thucydides, Philistus, Xen- 
ophon, and Theopompus, and, lastly, of some 
philosophers and orators. 4. Tlepl ruv apxaiuv 
pnTopuv vKo/nvTjfiaTia/iot, contains criticisms on 



the most eminent Greek orators, of which wa 
now possess only the first three sections, on 
Lysias, Isocrates, and Iseeus. The other three 
sections treated of Demosthenes, Hyperides, 
and iEschines ; but they are lost, with the ex- 
ception of the first part of the fourth section, 
which treated of the oratorical power of Demos- 
thenes.. 5. 'EtugtoA?/ irpdc 'Afi/ialov, a letter to 
his friend Ammasus, in which he shows that 
most of the orations of Demosthenes had been 
delivered before Aristole wrote his Rhetoric, 
and consequently that Demosthenes had de- 
rived no instruction from Aristotle. 6. 'Eiua- 
roXtj irpbg Tvalov Ho/nrr/lov, was written by Di- 
onysius with a view of justifying the unfavora- 
ble opinion which he had expressed upon Plato, 
and which Pompey had censured. % Kepi tov 
Qovitvdidov x a po-K-TTipog nal tuv Xoittuv tov avy- 
ypa^eoic idiofidruv, was written by Dionysius at 
the request of his friend Tubero, for the purpose 
of explaining more minutely what he had writ- 
ten on Thucydides. As Dionysius in this work 
looks at the great historian from his rhetorical 
point of view, his judgment is often unjust and 
incorrect. 8. Tlepl tuv tov QovKvdtSov Idiufzu- 
tuv, addressed to Ammseus. 9. Aecvapxoc, a 
very valuable treatise on the life and orations of 
Dinarchus. The best editions of the complete 
works of Dionysius are by Sylburg, Fraukf., 
1586, 2 vols, fol., reprinted at Leipzig, 1691 ; 
by Hudson, Oxon., 1704, 2 vols. fol. ; and by 
Reiske, Lips., 1774, 6 vols. 8vo.— 5. Of Hera- 
clea, son of Theophantus, was a pupil of Zeno, 
and adopted the tenets of the Stoics ; but, in 
consequence of a most painful complaint, he 
abandoned the Stoic philosophy, and joined the 
Eleatics, whose doctrine, that 7]Sovr/ and the 
absence of pain was the highest good, had more 
charms for him than the austere ethics of the 
Stoa. This renunciation of his former creed 
drew upon him the nickname of p^eTade/ievog, 
i. e., the renegade. He died in his eightieth 
year of voluntary starvation. He wrote several 
works, all of which are lost. Cicero censures 
him for having mixed up verses with his prose, 
and for his want of elegance and refinement. — 
6. Of Magnesia, a distinguished rhetorician, 
taught in Asia between B.C. 79 and 77, when 
Cicero visited the East. — 7. Of Miletus, one 
of the earliest Greek historians, and a contem- 
porary of Hecatseus, wrote a history of Persia. — 
8. of Mytilene, surnamed Scytobrachion, taught 
at Alexandrea in the first century B.C. He 
wrote a prose work on the Argonauts, which 
was consulted by Diodorus Siculus. — 9. Sur- 
named Periegetes, from his being the author 
of a Ttepiiiyriaig tt)c yr/e, which is still extant ; 
probably lived about A.D. 300. The work con- 
tains a description of the whole earth, in hex- 
ameter verse, and is written in a terse and ele- 
gant style. It enjoyed great popularity in an- 
cient times. Two translations or paraphrases 
of it were made by Romans, one by Rufus Fes- 
tus Avienus (vid. Avienus), and the other by 
the grammarian Priscian. Vid. Prisoianus. 
The best edition of the original is by Bernhardy, 
Lips., 1828. — 10. Of Sinope, an Athenian comic 
poet of the middle comedy. — 11. Surnamed 
Thrax, from his father being a Thracian, was 
himself a native either of Alexandrea or By- 
zantium. He is also called a Rhodian, because 
263 



DIONYSODORUS. 

at one time lie resided at Rhodes, and gave in- 
structions there. He also taught at Rome, about 
B.C. 80. He -was a very celebrated grammarian ; 
but the only one of his works which has come 
down to us is a small treatise entitled Texvrj 
ypafifiariK-rj, which became the basis of all subse- 
quent grammars, and was a standard book in 
grammar schools for many centuries. 

III. Artists. 1. Of Argos, a statuary, flour- 
ished B.C. 476. — 2. Of Colophon, a painter, con- 
temporary with Polygnotus of Thasos, whose 
works he imitated in every other respect except 
in grandeur. Aristotle (Poet., 2) says that Po- 
lygnotus painted the likenesses of men better 
than the originals, Pauson made them worse, and 
Dionysius just like them (piioiovg). It seems 
from this that the pictures of Dionysius were de- 
ficient in the ideal. 

[Dionysodorus (AiovvcoSopoe), a Bceotian, who 
is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as the author 
of a history of Greece which came down to the 
time of Philip of Macedon.] 

DionysopSlis (Aiovvaov noXig), a town in 
Phrygia, belonging to the conventus juridicus of 
Apamea, founded by Attalus and Eumenes. 

Dionysus (Aiovvoog or Aiuvvaog), the youth- 
ful, beautiful, but effeminate god of wine. He 
is also called, both by Greeks and Romans, Bac- 
chus (Ba/c^of), that is, the noisy or riotous god, 
which was originally a mere ejjithet or surname 
of Dionysus, and does not occur till after the 
time of Herodotus. According to the common 
tradition, Dionysus (Bacchus) was the son of 
Jupiter (Zeus) and Semele, the daughter of 
Cadmus of Thebes, though other traditions 
give him a different parentage and a different 
birth-place. It was generally believed that 
when Semele was pregnant, she was persuaded 
by Juno (Hera), who appeared to her in disguise, 
to request the father of the gods to appear to 
her in the same glory and majesty in which he 
was accustomed to approach his own wife Juno 
(Hera). Jupiter (Zeus) unwillingly complied, 
and appeared to her in thunder and lightning. 
Semele was terrified and overpowered by the 
sight, and being seized by the flames, she gave 
premature birth to a child. Jupiter (Zeus) 
saved the child from the flames, Sowed him up 
in his thigh, and thus preserved him till he came 
to maturity. Various epithets which are given 
to the god refer to that occurrence, such as 
■nvpiyevTjS, [ir]po{>p'a<j>ris, p.rjpo~pa§riQ, and ignigencv 
After the birth of Bacchus (Dionysus), Jupiter 
(Zeus) intrusted him to Mercury (Hermes), or, 
according to others, to Proserpina (Persephone) 
or Rhea, who took the child to Ino and Athamas 
at Orehomenos, and persuaded them to bring 
him up as a girl. Juno (Hera) was now urged 
on by her jealousy to throw Ino and Athamas 
into a state of madness. 'Jupiter (Zeus), in 
order to save his child, changed him into a ram, 
and carried him to the nymphs of Mount Nysa, 
who brought him up in a cave, and were after- 
ward rewarded by Jupiter (Zeus), by being 
placed as Hyades among the stars. Mount 
Nysa, from which the god was believed to have 
derived his name, was placed in Thrace ; but 
mountains of the same name are found iu dif- 
ferent parts of the ancient world where he was 
worshipped, and where he was believed to 
have introduced the cultivation of the vine. 
264 



DIONYSUS. 

Various other nymphs are also said to hav* 
reared him. When he had grown up, Juno 
(Hera) drove him mad, in which state he wan- 
dered about through various parts of the earth. 
He first went to Egypt, where he was hospita- 
bly received by King Proteus. He thence pro- 
ceeded through Syria, where he flayed Damas- 
cus alive for opposing the introduction of the 
vine. He then traversed all Asia, teaching the 
inhabitants of the different countries of Asia the 
cultivation of the vine, and introducing among 
them the elements of civilization. The most 
famous part of his wanderings in Asia is his 
expedition to India, which is said to have lasted 
several years. On his return to Europe he 
passed through Thrace, but was ill received 
by Lycurgus, king of the Edones, and leaped 
into the sea to seek refuge with Thetis, whom 
he afterward rewarded for her kind reception 
with a golden urn, a present of Vulcan (He- 
phaestus). All the host of Bacchantic women 
and Satyrs who had accompanied him were 
taken prisoners by Lycurgus, but the women 
were soon set free again. The country of the 
Edones thereupon ceased to bear fruit, and Ly- 
curgus became mad and killed his own son, 
whom he mistook for a vine. After this his 
madness ceased, but the country still remained 
barren, and Bacchus (Dionysus) declared that 
it would remain so till Lycurgus died. The 
Edones, in despair, took their king and put him 
in chains, and Bacchus (Dionysus) had him 
torn to pieces by horses. He then returned to 
Thebes, where he compelled the women to quit 
their houses, and to celebrate Bacchic festivals 
on Mount Cithaeron, or Parnassus. Pentheus, 
who then ruled at Thebes, endeavored to check 
the riotous proceedings, and went out to the 
mountains to seek the Bacchic women ; -but his 
own mother, Agave, in her Bacchic fury, mis- 
took him for an animal, and tore him to pieces. 
Bacchus (Dionysus) next went to Argos, where 
the people first refused to acknowledge him, 
but, after punishing the women with phrensy, 
he was recognized as a god, and temples were 
erected to him. His last feat was performed 
on a voyage from Icaria to Naxos. He hired a 
ship which belonged to Tyrrhenian pirates ; but 
the men, instead of landing at Naxos, steered to- 
ward Asia to sell him there as a slave. There- 
upon the god changed the masts and oars into 
serpents, and himself into a Hon ; ivy grew 
around the vessel, and the sound of flutes was 
heard on every side ; the sailors were seized 
with madness, leaped into the sea, and were 
metamorphosed into dolphins. After he had 
thus gradually established his divine nature 
throughout the world, he took his mother out of 
Hades, called her Thyone, and rose with her 
into Olympus. Various mythological beings are 
described as the offspring of Dionysus (Bac- 
chus) ; but among the women, both mortal and 
immortal, who won his love, none is more fa 
nious in ancient history than Ariadne. Vid. Ari- 
adne. The extraordinary mixture of traditions 
respecting the history of Dionysus (Bacchus) 
seems evidently to have arisen from the tradi- 
tions of different times and countries, referring 
to analogous divinities, and transferred to the 
Greek Dionysus. The worship of Dionysus 
(Bacchus) was no part of the original religion 



DIONYSUS. 



DIOPHANTUS. 



of Greece, and his mystic -worship is compara- 
tively of late origin. In Homer he does not 
appear as one of the ,great divinities, and the 
story of his birth by Jupiter (Zeus) and the Bac- 
chic orgies are not alluded to in any way ; Dio- 
nysus_ (Bacchus) is there simply described as 
the god who teaches man the preparation of 
wine, whence he is called the " drunken god" 
(jiatvofievoc), and the sober king Lycurgus will 
not, for this reason, tolerate him in his king- 
dom. (Horn., vi., 132 ; Od, xviii., 406 ; 
comp. xi., 325.) As the cultivation of the vine 
spread in Greece, the worship of Dionysus (Bac- 
chus) likewise spread further ; the mystic wor- 
ship was developed by the Orphici, though it 
probably originated in the transfer of Phrygian 
and Lydian modes of worship to that of Diony- 
sus (Bacchus). After the time of Alexander's 
expedition to India, the celebration of the Bac- 
chic festivals assumed more and more their wild 
and dissolute character. As far as the nature 
and origin of the god Dionysus (Bacchus) are con- 
cerned, he appears in all traditions as the rep- 
resentative of the productive, overflowing, and 
intoxicating power of nature, which carries man 
away from his usual quiet and sober mode of 
living. Wine is the most natural and appropri- 
ate symbol of that power, and it is therefore 
called " the fruit of Dionysus." Dionysus (Bac- 
chus) is, therefore, the god of wine, the inventor 
and teacher of its cultivation, the giver of joy, 
and the disperser of grief and sorrow. As the 
god of wine, he is also both an inspired and an 
inspiring god, that is, a god who has the power 
of revealing the future to man by oracles. 
Thus it is said that he had as great a share in 
the Delphic oracle as Apollo, and he himself 
had an oracle in Thrace. Now, as prophetic 
power is always combined with the healing art, 
Dionysus (Bacchus) is, like Apollo, called iarpdc, 
or iyiarijg, and is hence invoked as a tJeoc ourrip 
against ragiug diseases. The notion of his being 
the cultivator and protector of the vine was 
easily extcuded to that of his being the pro- 
teetor_ of trees in general, which is alluded to 
in various epithets and surnames given him by 
the poets of antiquity, and he thus comes into 
close connection with Ceres (Demeter). This 
character is still further developed in the notion 
of his being the promoter of civilization, a law- 
giver, and a lover of peace. As the Greek dra- 
ma had grown out of the dithyrambic choruses 
at the festivals of Dionysus (Bacchus), he was 
also regarded as the god of tragic art, and as 
the protector of theatres. The orgiastic wor- 
ship of Dionygus (Bacchus) seems to have been 
first established in Thrace, and to have thence 
spread southward to Mount Helicon and Par- 
nassus, to Thebes, Naxos, and throughout Greece, 
Sicily, and Italy, though some writers derived 
it from Egypt. Eespeeting his festivals and 
the mode of their celebration, and especially the 
introduction and suppression of his worship at 
Borne, vid. Diet, of Ant, art. Dionysia. In the 
earliest times the Graces or Charities were the 
companions of Dionysus (Bacchus). This cir- 
cumstance points out the great change which 
took place in the course of time in the mode of 
his worship, for afterward we find him accom- 
panied in his expeditions and travels by Bac- 
chautic women, called Lenas, Maenades, Thyj- 



ades, Mimallones, Clodones, Bassarse or Bass 
rides, all of whom are represented in works o 
art as raging with madness or enthusiasm, it 
vehement motions, their heads thrown back 
ward, with dishevelled hah', and carrying in 
their hands thyrsus-staffs (entwined with ivy, 
and headed with pine-cones), cymbals, swords, 
or serpents. Sileni, Pans, satyrs, centaurs, and 
other beings of a like kind, are also the constant 
companions of the god. The temples and stat- 
ues of Dionysus (Bacchus) were very numerous 
ia the ancient world. The animal most com- 
monly sacrificed to him was the ram. Among 
the things sacred t» him, we may notice the 
vine, ivy, laurel, and asphodel ; the dolphin, 
serpent, tiger, lynx, panther, and ass ; but he 
hated the sight of an owl. In later works of 
art he appears in four different forms : 1. As an 
infant handed over by Mercury (Hermes) to his 
nurses, or fondled and played with by satyrs 
and Baechffl. 2. As a manly god with a beard, 
commonly called the Indian Bacchus. He there 
appears in the character of a wise and dignified 
Oriental monarch ; his beard is long and soft, 
and his Lydian robes (fiaoa&pa) are long and 
richly folded. 3. The youthful or so-called 
Theban Bacchus was carried to ideal beauty by 
Praxiteles. The form of his body is manly and 
with strong outlines, but still approaches to the 
female form by its softness and roundness. 
The expression of the countenance is languid, 
and shows a kind of dreamy longing ; the head, 
with a diadem, or a wreath of vine or ivy, leans 
somewhat on one side ; his attitude , is easy, 
like that of a man who is absorbed in sweet 
thoughts, or slightly intoxicated. He is often 
seen leaning on his companions, or riding on a 
panther, ass, tiger, or lion. The finest statue 
of this kind is in the villa Ludovisi. 4. Bacchus 
with horns, either those of a ram or of a bull. 
This representation occurs chiefly on coins, but 
never in statues. 

Diophanes (Aio(j>dvnc). 1. Of Mytilene, a dis- 
tinguished Greek rhetorician, came to Kome, 
where he instructed Tiberius Gracchus, and be- 
came his intimate friend. After the murder of 
Gracchus, Diophanes was also put to death. — 
2. Of rJicsea, in Bithynia, in the first century B.C., 
abriged the agricultural work of Cassius Diony- 
sius for the use of King Deiotarus. 

Diophanxus (Awtpavrog). 1. An Attic orator 
and contemporary of Demosthenes, with whom 
he opposed the Macedonian party. — 2. Of Alex- 
andria, the only Greek writer on Algebra. His 
period is unknown ; but he probably ought not 
to be placed before the end of the fifth century 
of our era. He wrote Arithmetica in thirteen 
books, of which only six are extant, aud one 
book, De Multangulis Numeris, on polygonal 
numbers. These books contain a system of 
reasoning on numbers by the aid of general 
symbols, and with some use of symbols of opera- 
tion ; so that, though the demonstrations are 
very much conducted in words at length, and 
arranged so as to remind us of Euclid, there is 
no question that the work is algebraical ; not a 
treatise on algebra, but an algebraical treatise 
on the relations of integer numbers, and on the 
solution of equations of more than one variable 
in integers. Editions by Bachet de Meziriac, 
Puis, 1621, and by Format, Toulouse, 1670, foL 
265 



DIOPITHES 



DIOSCURI. 



Diopithes ( Ai07rei.dnc ). 1. A half-fanatic, 
half-impostor, who made at Athens an appar- 
ently thriving trade of oracles : he was much 
satirized by the comic poets. — 2. An Athenian 
general, father of the poet Menander, was sent 
out to the Thracian Chersonesus about B.C. 
344, at the head of a body of Athenian settlers 
or nXrjpovxoL. In the Chei'sonese he became 
involved in disputes with the Cardians, who were 
supported by Philip. The latter sent a letter 
of remonstrance to Athens, and Diopithes was 
arraigned by the Macedonian party, but was 
defended by Demosthenes iu the oration, still 
extant, on the Chersonese, B.C. 341, in conse- 
quence of which he was permitted to retain his 
command. 

[Diores (Atupnc), son of Amarynceus, leader 
of the Epei before Troy : slain by Plrus. — 2. 
Father of Automedon, who was the armor- 
bearer of Achilles. — -3. Son of Priam, brother 
of Amycus, slain with his brother in Italy by 
Turnus. — 4. A Trojan, companion of iEneas, 
gained one of the prizes in the funeral games 
in honor of Anchises.] 

Dioscoridis Insula (Aiocnopidov vr/aoc: now 
Socotra), an island off the southern coast of 
Arabia, near the Promontory Syagrus. The 
island itself was marshy and unproductive, but 
it was a great commercial emporium ; and the 
northern part of the island was inhabited by 
Arabian, Egyptian, and Greek merchants. 

Diosoorides (AiooKopidr/e). 1. A disciple of 
Isocrates, and a Greek grammarian, wrote upon 
Homer. — 2. The author of 39 epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology, seems to have lived in Egypt 
about the time of Ptolemy Euergetes. — 3. Pe- 
dactus or Pedanius, of Anazarba in Cilicia, a 
Greek physician, probably lived in the second 
century of the Christian era. He has left be- 
hind him a .Treatise on Materia Medica (Hepl 
T/I77C 'larpwr/c), in five books, a work of great 
labor and research, and which for many ages 
was received as a standard production. It con- 
sists of a description of all the articles then 
used in medicine, with an account of their sup- 
posed virtues. The other works extant under 
the name of Dioscorides are probably spurious. 
The best edition is by Sprengel, Lips., 1829, 
1830, 2 vols. 8vo. — 4. Surnamed Phacas on ac- 
count of the moles or freckles on his face, prob- 
ably lived in the first century B.C. 

Dioscuri (Aide Kovpoi), that is, sons of Jupiter 
(Zeus), the well-known heroes Castor (Kuorop) 
and Pollux or Polydeuces {JIoXvSsvkvc). The 
two brothers were sometimes called Castores 
by the Romans. According to Homer, they 
were the sons of Leda and Tyndareus, king of 
Lacedaemon, and consequently brothers of Helen. 
Hence they are often called by the patronymic 
Tyndaridx. Castor was famous for his skill 
in taming and managing horses, and Pollux 
for his skill in boxing. Both had disappeared 
from the earth before the Greeks went against 
Troy. Although they were buried, says Ho- 
mer, yet they came to life every other day, 
and they enjoyed honors like those of the gods. 
According to other tiaditions, both were the 
sons of Jupiter (Zeus) and Leda, and were born 
at the same time with their sister Helen out of 
an egg. Vid. Leda. According to others, again, 
Pollux and Helen only were children of Jupiter 
266 



(Zeus), and Castor was the son of Tyndareu*, 
Hence Pollux was immortal, while Castor was 
subject to old age and death like every othei 
mortal. They were born, according to ditferent 
traditions, at different places, such as Amy- 
clae, Mount Taygetus, the island of Peph'ios, or 
Thalama?. The fabulous life of the Dioscuri is 
marked by three great events. 1. Tlteir expe- 
dition against Athens. Theseus had carried off 
their sister Helen from Sparta, and kept her 
in confinement at Aphidnae, under the superin- 
tendence of his mother JSthra. While Thes- 
eus was absent from Attica, the Dioscuri march- 
ed into Attica, and ravaged the country round 
the city. Academus revealed to them that 
Helen was kept at Aphidnae ; the Dioscuri took 
the place by assault, carried away their sister 
Helen, and made iEthra their prisoner. 2. 
Their part in the expedititn of the Argonauts, as 
they had before taken part in the Calydonian 
hunt. During the voyage of the Argonauts, it 
once happened that when the heroes were de- 
tained by a vehement storm, and Orpheus prayed 
to the Samothracian gods, the storm suddenly 
subsided, and stars appeared on the heads 
of the Dioscuri. On their arrival in the coun- 
try of the Bebryces, Pollux fought against 
Amycus, the gigantic son of Neptune (Posei 
don), and conquered him. During the Argo- 
nautic expedition they founded the town of 
Dioscurias. 3. Their battle with the sons of 
Aphareus. Once the Dioscuri, in conjunction 
with Idas and Lynceus, the sons of Aphareus, 
had carried away a herd of oxen from Arcadia. 
Idas appropriated the herd to himself, and drove 
it to his home in Messene. The Dioscuri then 
invaded Messene, drove away the cattle of 
which they had been deprived, and much more 
in addition. Hence arose a war between the 
Dioscuri and the sons of Aphareus, which was 
carried on in Messene or Laconia. Castor, the 
mortal, fell by the hands of Idas, but Pollux 
slew Lynceus, and Jupiter (Zeus) killed Idas 
by a flash of lightning. Pollux then returned 
to his brother, whom he found breathing his 
last, and he prayed to Jupiter (Zeus) to be per- 
mitted to die with him. Jupiter (Zeus) gave 
him the option either to live as his immortal 
son in Olympus, or to share his brother's fate, 
and to live alternately one day under the earth, 
and the other in the heavenly abodes of the 
gods. According to a different form of the 
story, Jupiter (Zeus) rewarded the attachment 
of the two brothers by placing them among the 
stars as Gemini. These heroic youths received 
divine honors at Sparta. Their worship spread 
from Peloponnesus over Greece, Sicily, and Italy. 
Their principal characteristic was that of 
■&sol curi/peg, that is, mighty helpers of man, 
whence they were sometimes called dvaKeg or 
ava/crec. They were worshipped more espe- 
cially as the protectors of travellers by sea, for 
Neptune (Poseidon) had rewarded their brotherly 
love by giving them power over winds and 
waves, that they might assist the shipwrecked 
(fratres Helena;, lucida sidera, Hor., Carm., i., 
3). Whenever they appeared they were seen 
riding on magnificent white steeds. They were 
regarded as presidents of the public games. 
They were further believed to have invented 
the war-dance and warlike music, and poets 



DIOSCURIAS. 



DODONA. 



and bards were favored by them. Owing to 
their warlike character, it was customary at 
Sparta for the two kings, whenever they went 
to war, to be accompanied by symbolic repre- 
sentations of the Dioscuri (dofcava). Respecting 
their festivals, vid. Diet, of Ant., arts. Anaceia, 
Dioscuria. Their usual representation in works 
of art is that of two youthful horsemen with 
egg-shaped helmets, crowned with stars, and 
with spears in their hands. At Rome, the wor- 
ship of the Dioscuri was introduced at an early 
time. They were believed to have assisted 
the Romans against the Latins in the battle of 
Lake Regillus ; and the dictator, A. Postumius 
Albinus, during the battle vowed a temple to 
them. It was erected in the Forum, on the 
spot where they had been seen after the battle, 
opposite the temple of Vesta. It was conse- 
crated on the 15th of July, the anniversary of 
the battle of Regillus. The equites regarded 
the Dioscuri as their patrons. From the year 
B.C. 305, the equites went every year, on the 
15th of July, in a magnificent procession on 
horseback, from the temple of Mars through 
the main streets of the city, across the Forum, 
aud by the ancient temple of the Dioscuri. 

Diosoueias (Awcicovpide : Awcuovpcevc : now 
Iskuria or Isgaur), an important town in Col- 
chis, on the River Anthemus, northwest of the 
Phasis, founded by the Milesians, was a great 
emporium for all the surrounding people: under 
the Romans it was called Sebastopolis. 

Dios-HiERON(Atdf 'lepov : Aiociephrjc), a small 
town on the coast of Ionia, between Lebedus 
and Colophon. 

Diospolis (AiocnoXic : AwcKohfrnc). 1. D. 
Magna, the later name of Thebes in Egypt. 
Vid. Theb/e. — 2. D. Parva, called by Pliny Jo- 
vis t Oppidurn, the capital of the Nomos Diospo- 
lites in Upper Egypt — 3. A town in Lower 
Egypt, in the Delta, near Mendes, in the midst 
of marshes. — 4. (Now Ludd, Lydd), the name 
given by the Greek and Roman writers to the 
Lydda of the Scriptures. — 5. A town in Poutus, 
originally called Cabira. 

Diovis, an ancient Italian (Umbrian) name of 
Jupiter. 

Diphilus (At^iAof), one of the principal Athe- 
nian comic poets of the new comedy, and a con- 
temporary of Menander and Philemon, was a 
native of jSinope. He is said to have exhibited 
one hundred plays. Though, in point of time, 
Diphilus belonged to the new comedy, his poetry 
seems to have had more of the character of the 
middle. This is shown, among other indica- 
tions, by the frequency with which he chose 
mythological subjects for his plays, and by his 
bringing on the stage the poets Archilochus, 
Hipponax, and Sappho. The Roman comic 
poets borrowed largely from Diphilus. The 
Casino, of Plautus is a translation of his KXnpov- 
ftevoi. His XvvaTTodvrjaKOvrec was translated by 
Plautus in the lost play of the Commorientes, and 
was partly followed by Terence in his Adelphi. 
The Rudens of Plautus is also a translation of 
a play of Diphilus, but the title of the Greek 
play is not known. [The fragments of Diphilus 
are edited by Meineke, Fragm. Comic Grose, 
vol. ii., p. 1066-96, edit, minor.] 

Dipojnus and Scyllis (Aittolvoc Kal 2kvXXcc), 
ret 1 }' ancient Greek statuaries, who are always 



mentioned together, flourished about B.C. 560. 
They were natives of Crete, whence they went 
to Sicyon, which was for a long time the chief 
seat of Grecian art. Their disciples were Tec- 
taeus and Angelion, Learchus of Rhegium, Dory- 
clidas and his brother Medou, Dontas, and The- 
ocles, who were all four Lacedemonians. Di- 
poenus and Scyllis are sometimes called sons of 
Daedalus, by which we are only to understand 
that they belonged to the Daedalian style of art. 
Vid. Daedalus. 

Dir^e, a name of the Furiae. Vid. Eumenides. 

Dirce {Aipurj), daughter of Helios and wife 
of Lycus. Her story is related under Amphion. 

[Dire or Dere {Aeiprj). Vid. Berenice, No. 4.] 

Dirphys (Alptyvc), a mountain in Euboea. 

Dis, contracted from Dives, a name some- 
times given to Pluto, and hence also to the low- 
er world. 

Dium (Aiov : Aievc, Acaerrije). 1. An important 
town in Macedonia, on the Thermaio Gulf, so 
called after a temple of Jupiter (Zeus). Here 
were placed the equestrian statues by Lysippus 
of the Macedonians who had fallen at the battle 
of the Granicus. — 2. A town in Chalcidice in 
Macedonia, on the Strymonic Gulf. — 3. A town 
in Euboea, not far from the promontory Cenaeum. 

Divico, the leader of the Helvetians in the 
war against L. Cassius in B.C. 10*7, was at the 
head of the embassy sent to Julius Caesar, near- 
ly fifty years later, B.C. 58, when he was pre- 
paring to attack the Helvetians. 

Divitiacus, an ^Eduan noble and brother of 
Dumnorix, was a warm adherent of the Romans 
and of Caesar, who, in consideration of his en- 
treaties, pardoned the treason of Dumnorix in 
B.C. 58. In the same year he took the most 
prominent part among the Gallic chiefs in re- 
questing Caesar's aid against Ariovistus ; he 
had some time before gone even to Rome to ask 
the senate for their interference, but without 
success. During this visit he was the guest of 
Cicero. 

Divodtjrum (now 3letz,) subsequently Medio- 
matrici, and still later Metis or Mettis, the capi- 
tal of the Mediomatrici in Gallia Belgica. 

Divona. Vid. Cadurci. 

Diyllus (AlvXkoc), an Athenian, who wrote a 
history of Greece and Sicily in twenty-six or 
twenty-seven books, from the seizure of the 
Delphic temple by Philomelus. The exact pe- 
riod at which he flourished can not be ascertain- 
ed, but he belongs to the age of the Ptolemies. 

Doberus (Aodnpoc), a town in Paeonia in Ma- 
cedonia, east of the River Echedorus. 

DooiMiAorDociMEUM(Ao/cf ( uja, AoKLjieiov : Ao 
Kifieve, AoKi/invoe), a town in Phrygia, not far 
from Synnada : in its neighborhood were cele- 
brated marble quarries. 

Dodona (Au66vt)), the most ancient oracle iu 
Greece, was situated in Epirus, and probably at 
the southeastern extremity of the Lake of Joan- 
nina, near Kastritza. It was founded by Pe- 
lasgians, and was dedicated to Jupiter (Zeus). 
The responses of the oracle were given from 
lofty oaks or beech trees, probably from a grove 
consisting of these trees. The will of the god 
was declared by the wind rustling through the 
trees ; and, in order to render the sounds more 
distinct, brazen vessels were suspended on the 
branches of the trees, which, being set in motion 
267 



DOLA BELLA, CORNELIUS. 



DOMITIANUS. 



by the wind, came in contact with oue another. 
These sounds were in early time* interpreted 
by men, but afterward, when the worship of 
Dione became connected with that of Jupiter 
(Zeus), by two or three aged women, who were 
called ireleiddes or niXaiai, because pigeons 
were said to have brought the command to found 
the oracle. There were, however, alsr priests, 
called Selli or Helli, who had the management 
of the temple. The oracle of Dodona had less 
influence in historical times than in the heroic 
ag?. It was chiefly consulted by the neighbor- 
ing tribes, the JStolians, Acarnanians, and Epi- 
rots, and by those who would not go to Delphi 
on account of its partiality for the Dorians. In 
B.C. 219, the temple was destroyed by the ^Eto- 
lians, and the sacred oaks cut down. But the 
town continued to exist, and we hear of a bishop 
of Dodona in the council of Ephesus. 

DOLABELLA, CORNELIUS. 1. P., COUSul B.C. 

283, conquered the Senones — 2. Cn., curule 
ffldile 165, in which year he and his colleague, 
Sextus J ulius Cffisar, had the Hecyra of Terence 
performed at the festival of the Megalesia. In 
159 he was consul. — 3. Cn., a partisan of Sulla, 
by whom he was made consul, 81. He after- 
ward received Macedonia for his province. In 
77 he was accused by the young Julius Caesar 
of having been guilty of extortion in his prov- 
ince, but he was acquitted. — 4 Cn., praetor ur- 
banus 81, when the cause of P. Quintius was 
tried : Cicero charges him with having acted on 
that occasion unjustly. The year after he had 
Cilicia for his province ; C. Malleolus was his 
quaestor, and the notorious Verres his legate. 
Dolabella not only tolerated the extortions and 
robberies committed by them, but shared in 
their booty. On his return to Rome, Dolabella 
was accused by M. iEmilius Scaurus of extor- 
tion in his province, and on that occasion Verres 
deserted his accomplice and furnished the accus- 
er with all the necessary information. Dola- 
bella was condemned, and went into exile. — 
5. P., the son-in-law of Cicero, whose daughter 
Tullia he married after divorcing his wife Fabia, 
51. He was one of the most profligate men of 
his age, and his conduct caused Cicero great 
uneasiness. On the breaking out of the civil 
war he joined Caesar, and fought on his side at 
the battle of Pharsalia (48), in Africa (46), and 
in Spain (45). Caesar raised him to the consul- 
ship in 44, notwithstanding the opposition of 
Antony. After the murder of Caesar, he forth- 
with joined the assassins of his benefactor ; but 
when Antony gave him the province of Syria, 
with the command against the Parthians, all his 
republican enthusiasm disappeared at once. On 
his way to his province he plundered the cities 
of Greece and Asia Minor, and at Smyrna he 
murdered Trebonius, who had been appointed 
by the senate proconsul of Asia. When his 
proceedings became known at Rome, he was 
declared a public enemy ; and Cassius, who had 
received Syria from the senate, marched against 
him. Dolabella threw himself into Laodicea, 
which was besieged by Cassius, who at length 
succeeded in taking it. Dolabella, in order not 
to fall into the hands of his enemies, ordered 
one of his soldiers to kill him, 43. 

Douche (AoMxv)- 1. The ancient name of 
the island Icarus. — 2. A town in Thessaly, on the 
268 



western slope of Olympus. — 3. A town in Com- 
magene, between Zeugma and Germauieia, also 
called Dolichene, celebrated for the worship ol 
Jupiter. — 4. Or Dulichium. Vid. Echinades. 

Dolichiste (AoXix'iotti : now Kdkavd), an isl- 
and off the coast of Lycia, opposite the prom- 
ontory Chimaera. 

Doliones (AoXtovec), a Pelasgic people in 
Mysia, who dwelt between the rivers iEsepus 
and Rhyndacus, and in the neighborhood of Cyz- 
icus, which was called after them Dolionis. 

Dolon (AoKuv), a Trojan, sent by night to spy 
the Grecian camp, was taken prisoner by Ulys- 
ses and Diomedes, compelled to give intelli- 
gence respecting the Trojans, and then slain by 
Diomedes. The tenth book of the Iliad was 
therefore called Aohuveia or AoXuvo^ovla. 

Dolonci (Aoloynoi), a Thracian people in the 
Thracian Chersonesus. Vid. Miltiades. 

Dolopes (Ao/ioTrec), a powerful people in 
Thessaly, dwelt on the Enipeus, and fought be- 
fore Troy. (Horn., R, ix., 484.) At a later 
time they dwelt at the foot of Mount Pindus ; 
and their country, called Dolopia (AoXokIo), 
was reckoned part of Epirus. 

Domitia. 1. Sister of Cn. Domitius Aheno- 
barbus (vid. Ahenobakbus, No. 10), and conse- 
quently an aunt of the Emperor Nero. She was 
the wife of Crispus Passienus, and was mur- 
dered in her old age by Nero, who wished to get 
possession of her property. — 2. Lepida, sister of 
the preceding, wife of M. Valerius Messala Bar- 
batus, and mother of Messalina, was put to 
death by Claudius at the instigation of Agrip- 
pina. — 3. Longina, daughter of Domitius Cor- 
bulo, was first married to L. Lamia ^Emiliauus, 
and afterward to the Emperor Domitian. In 
consequence of her adulterous intercourse with 
Paris, an actor, Domitian repudiated her, Jbut 
was afterward reconciled to her. She was 
privy to Domitian's murder. 

Domitia Gens, plebeian, was divided into the 
two illustrious families of Ahenobakbus and 
Galvinus. 

Domitianus, or, with his full name, T. Flavius 
Domitianus Augustus, Roman emperor A.D. 
81-96, was the younger son of Vespasian, and 
was born at Rome A.D. 51. "When Vespasian 
was proclaimed emperor by the legions in the 
East (69), Domitian, who was then at Rome, 
narrowly escaped being murdered by; Vitellius, 
and concealed himself until the victory of his 
father's party was decided. After the fall of 
Vitellius, Domitian was proclaimed Caesar, and 
obtained the government of the city till the re- 
turn of his father. In this short time he gave 
full proofs of his sanguinary and licentious tem- 
per. Vespasian intrusted Domitian with no 
public affairs, and during the ten years of his 
reign (69-79), Domitian lived as a private per- 
son on an estate near the Alban Mount, sur- 
rounded by a number of courtesans, and devot- 
ing a great part of his time to the composition 
of poetry and the recitation of his productions. 
During the reign of his brother Titus (79-81), 
he was also not allowed to take any part in pub- 
lic affairs. On the death of Titus (81), which 
was in all probability the work of Domitian, he 
was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers. Dur- 
ing the first few years of his reign he kept a 
strict superintendence over the governors of 



DOMITIUS AFER. 



DORlb. 



provinces, enacted several useful laws, endeav- 
ored to correct the licentious conduct of the 
cigher classes ; and though he indulged him- 
self in strange passions, his government was 
much better than had been expected. But his 
conduct was soon changed for the worse. His 
wars were mostly unfortunate ; and his want 
of success both wounded his vanity and excited 
his fears, and thus led him to delight in the mis- 
fortunes and sufferings of others. In 83 he un- 
dertook an expedition against the Chatti, which 
was attended with no result, though on his re- 
turn to Rome in the following year he celebra- 
ted a triumph, and assumed the name of Ger- 
manicus. In 85, Agricola, whose success and 
merits excited his jealousy, was recalled to 
Rome. Vid. Agricola. From 86 to 90 he had 
to carry on war with Decebalus and the Daci- 
ans, who defeated the Romau armies, and at 
length compelled Domitian to purchase peace 
on very humiliating terms. Vid. Decebalus. 
It was after the Dacian war especially that he 
gave full sway to his cruelty and tyranny. No 
man of distinction was safe unless he would 
degrade himself to flatter the tyrant. The silent 
fear which prevailed in Rome and Italy during 
the latter years of Domitian's reign are briefly 
but energetically described by Tacitus in the 
introduction to his Life of Agricola, and his vices 
and tyranny are exposed in the strongest colors 
by the withering satire of Juvenal. All the 
philosophers who lived at Rome were expelled. 
Chi'istian writers attribute to him a persecution 
of the Christians likewise, but there is some 
doubt upon the matter ; and the belief seems 
to have arisen from the strictness with which 
he exacted the tribute from the Jews, and which 
may have caused much suffering to the Chris- 
tians also. Many conspiracies had been formed 
against his life, but had been discovered. At 
length three officers of his court, Parthenius, 
Sigerius, and Entellus, whom Domitian intended 
to put to death, assisted by Domitia, the empe- 
ror's wife, had him murdered by Stephanus, a 
freedman, on the 18th of September, 96. 

DomItius Afer. Vid. Afer. 

DomMcs Corbulo. Vid. Corbulo. 

DomMus Marsus. Vid. Marsus. 

Doiimus Ulpianus. Vid. Ulpianus. 

Domna, Julia, of Emesa, was born of humble 
parents, and married the Emperor Septimius 
Severus when he was in a pi-ivate station. She 
was beautiful and profligate, but, at the same 
time, gifted with strong powers of mind, and 
fond of literature and of the society of literary 
men. ,She had great influence over her hus- 
band, and after his death was intrusted by her 
son Caracalla with the administration of the 
most important affairs of state. After the mur- 
der of Caracalla, she was at first kindly treated 
by Macrinus ; but, having incurred the suspi- 
cions of Macrinus, and being commanded to 
quit Antioch, she put an end to her own life by 
voluntary starvation, A.D. 21Y. 

Donatus. 1. A celebrated grammarian, who 
taught at Rome in the middle of the fourth cen- 
tury, and was the preceptor of Saint Jerome. 
His most famous work is a system of Latin 
Grammar, which has formed the ground-work 
of most elementary treatises upon the same sub- 
ject, from his own time to the present day. It I 



has been usually published in the form ol two 
separate tracts : 1. Ars s. Editio Prima, de Ute- 
ris, syllabis, pedibus, et tonis ; 2. Editio Secunda, 
de octo partibus orationis ; to which are com- 
monly annexed De barbarismo, JDe solcecismo, De 
ceteris vitiis ; De metaplasmo, De schcmatibus ; 
De tropis ; but in the recent edition of Linde- 
manu (in Corpus Gramm. Latin., Lips., 1831) 
these are all combined under one general title, 
Donati Ars Grammatica tribus libriscomprehensa. 
We also possess introductions (enarrationes) and 
scholia, by Donatus, to five out of the six plays 
of Terence, those to the Heautontimorumenos 
having been lost. Thoy are attached to all com- 
plete editions of Terence. — 2. Tiberius Clau- 
dius, the author of a life of Virgil in twenty -five 
chapters, prefixed to many editions of Virgil. 
Nothing is known with regard to this Donatus ; 
but it has been conjectured that some gramma- 
rian, who flourished about the commencement 
of the fifth century, may have drawn up a bi- 
ography which formed the ground-work of the 
piece we now possess. 

DonUsa or Donusia (Aovovala : AovDvaioc : 
now Stenosa), one of the smaller Sporades iu 
the .fEgean Sea, south of Naxos, subject to the 
Rhodians in early times. It produced green 
marble, whence Virgil (^En., iii., 125) calls the 
island viridis. Under the Roman emperors it 
was used as a place of banishment. 

Dora, Dorus, Dorum (to. Aupa, Aupog : Au- 
pirric), called Dor iu the Old Testament, the 
most southerly town of Phoenicia on the coast, 
on a kind of peninsula at the foot of Mount 
Carmel. It was an ancient town, formerly the 
residence of a Canaanitish king, and afterward 
belonged to the tribe of Mauasseh. Under the 
Seleucidae it was a strong fortress, and was in- 
cluded in Ccele-Syria. It subsequently fell into 
decay, but was restored and again made a forti- 
fied place by the Roman general Gabinius. 

Dorieus (Aupievc). 1. Eldest son of Anaxan 
drides, king of Sparta, by his first wife, was, 
however, born after the son of the second mar- 
riage, Cleomenes, and therefore excluded from 
the immediate succession. Vid. Anaxandrides. 
On the accession of Cleomenes to the throne. 
Dorieus left Sparta to establish for himself a 
kingdom elsewhere. He led his colony first to 
Libya ; but, driven away thence, he passed over 
to Eryx in Sicily, where he fell in a battle with 
the Egestseaus and Carthaginians, about B.C. 
508. — 2. Son of Diagoras of Rhodes (vid. Diag- 
oras), was celebrated for his victories in all the 
great Grecian games. He settled in Thurii. 
and from this place, after the defeat of the Athe- 
nians at Syracuse, he led thirty galleys to the 
aid of the Spartan cause in Greece, B.C. 412 
He continued to take an active part in the. war 
till 401, when he was captured by the Athe- 
nians ; but the people, in admiration of his ath- 
letic size and noble beauty, dismissed him with- 
out so much as exacting a ransom. He is said 
at a later time to have been put to death by the 
Spartans. 

Doris (Acjpic). 1. Daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, wife of her brother Nereus, and mother 
of the Nereides. The Latin poets sometimes 
use the name of this divinity for the sea itself. 
(Virg., Eclog., x., 5). — 2. One of the Nereides, 
! daughter of the preceding. — [3. Born at Locri, 
269 



DORIS. 



DRACON. 



daughter of Xenetus, wife of Dionysius the elder, 
and mother of the younger Dionysius of Syra- 
cuse.] 

Doris (Atopic). 1. A small and mountainous 
country in Greece, formerly called Dryopis (Apv- 
ott'ic), -was bounded by Thessaly on the north, 
by iEtolia on the west, by Locris on the south, 
and by Phocis on the east. It contained four 
towus, Bourn, Citinium, EriDeus, and Pindus, 
■which formed the Dorian tetrapolis. These 
towus never attained any consequence, and iu 
the time of the Romans were in ruins ; but the 
3ountry is of importance as the home of the 
Dorians (Aupielc : Dores), one of the great Hel- 
lenic races, who claimed descent from the myth- 
ical Dorus. Vid. Dorus. The Doriaus, how- 
ever, had not always dwelt in this land. He- 
rodotus relates (i., 56) that they first inhabited 
Phthiotis in the time of Deucalion ; that next, 
under Dorus, they inhabited Histiaeotis, at the 
foot of Ossa and Olympus ; that, expelled from 
thence by the Cadmeans, they settled on Mount 
Pindus ; and that they subsequently took up 
their abode in Dryopis, afterward called Doris. 
Their fifth and last migration was to Pelopon- 
nesus, which they conquered, according to tra- 
dition, eighty years after the Trojan war. It 
was related that JSgimius, the king of the Do- 
rians, had been driven from his dominions by 
the Lapitha?, but was reinstated by Hercules ; 
that the children of Hercules hence took refuge 
in this land when they had been expelled from 
Peloponnesus ; and that it was to restore them 
to their rights that the Dorians invaded Pelo- 
ponnesus. Accordingly, the conquest of Pelo- 
ponnesus by the Dorians is usually called the 
Return of the Heraclidae. Vid. Heraclid^:. 
The Dorians were divided into three tribes : the 
Hi/lleis ('T 'X?i etc) , Pamphy I i (n.u/z(j>v?^ot), and Dy- 
manes (Avpuvec). The first derived their name 
from Hyllus, son of Hercules, the two last from 
Pamphylus and Dymas, sons of ./Egimius. The 
Dorians were the ruling class throughout Pelo- 
ponnesus : the old inhabitants were reduced to 
slavery, or became subjects of the Dorians un- 
der the name of Periceci (UepioLKOi). Vid. Diet, 
of Antiq., art Periceci. — 2. A district in Asia 
Minor, consisting of the Dorian settlements on 
the coast of Caria and the neighboring islands. 
Six of these towns formed a league, called the 
Dorian hexapolis, consisting of Lindus, Italysus, 
and Camirus in the island of Rhodes, the island 
Cos, and Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the main 
laud. There were also other Dorian settlements 
in the neighborhood, but they were Dever ad- 
mitted to the league. The members of the 
hexapolis were accustomed to celebrate a fes- 
tival with games on the Triopian promontory 
near Cnidus, in honor of the Triopian Apollo ;« 
the prizes in those games were brazen tripods, 
which the victors had to dedicate in the temple 
of Apollo ; and Halicarnassus was struck out 
of the league because one of her citizens car- 
ried the tripod to his own house instead of leav- 
ing it in the temple. The hexapolis thus be- 
came a pentapolis. 

Doriscus {AopioKoc), a town in Thrace at the 
mouth of the Hebrus, in the midst of an exten- 
sive plain of the same name, where Xerxes re- 
viewed his vast forces. 

[DoRSENNUS. Vid. DOSSENNUS. 

270 



Dorso, C. Fabius, greatly distinguished bini- 
salf when the Capitol was besieged by the Gauls : 
B.C. 890. The Fabian gens was accustomed 
to celebrate a sacrifice at a fixed time on the 
Quiriual Hill, and accordingly, at the appointed 
time, C. Dorso, who was then a young man, de- 
scended from the Capitol, carrying the sacred 
things in his hands, passed in safety through 
the enemy's posts, and, after performing the 
sacrifice, returned in safety to the Capitol. 

Dorus (Aupoc), the mythical ancestor of the 
Dorians, is described either as the son of Hellen 
by the nymph Orse'is, and a brother of Xuthus, 
and ^Eolus, or as a son of Apollo and Phthia, 
and a brother of Laodocus and Polypcetes. 

[Doryclus (AopvuXoc). 1. An illegitimate 
son of Priam, slain by the Telamonian Ajax. — 2. 
Brother of Pheneus, king of Thrace, husband 
of Beroe, who is mentioned bv Virgil (^En., 5, 
620.)] 

Doryljlum (AopvTiawv : Aopv^aevc : now Eshi- 
Shehr), a town in Phrygia Epictetus, on the 
River Thymbris, with warm baths which are 
used at the present day ; important under the 
Romans as the place from which the roads di- 
verged to Pessinus, Ieonium, and Apamea. 

Dosiadas (Auaiddac), of Rhodes, the author 
of two poems in the Greek Anthology, the verses 
of which are so arranged that each poem pre- 
sents the profile of an altar. 

[Dositheus (AuaWeoc), a Greek historian, of 
whom four works are mentioned, 'Zwekind, Av- 
dianu, 'IrakiKa, Tls?^oiTidai.] 

Dositheus (Auctdeoc), surnamed Magister, a 
Greek grammarian, taught at Rome about A.D. 
207. He has left behind him a work entitled 
'Ep/xrjvev/xara, of which the first and second 
books contain a Greek grammar written in Latin, 
and Greek-Latin and Latin-Greek glossaries. 
The third book, which is the most important, 
contains translations from Latin authors into 
Greek, and vice versa, and has been published 
separately by Booking, Bonn, 1832. 

Dossennus Fabius or Dorsennus, an ancient 
Latin comic dramatist, censured by Horace {Ep., 
ii., 1, 173) on account of the exaggerated buf- 
foonery of his characters. It appears that the 
name Dossenus (like that of Macchus) was ap- 
propriated to one of the standard characters in 
the Atellane farces. Hence some have sup- 
posed that Dossennus in Horace is not the name 
of a real person. 

Domum (Autiov : Autievc), a town and plain 
in Tbessaly, south of Mount Ossa, on the Lake 
Bcebeis. 

[Doto (Auru), one of the Nereids (11., 18, 43).] 

[Dotus (Adroc), a. leader of the Paphlago- 
nians in the army of Xerxes, Hcrod.~\ 

Drabescus (ApudTjCKOc, also ApuBwKoc : now 
Drama), a town in the district of Edonis iu 
Macedonia, on the Strymon. 

Dracanon (Apdaavov), a town and promon- 
tory in the island Icaria. 

[Draoius ( Apdiuoc). a leader of the Epeans 
(early inhabitants of Elis) before Troy.] 

Dracon (Apunuv), the author of the first writ- 
ten code of laws at Athens, which were called 
■deafiol, as distinguished from the vofiot of Solon. 
In this code he affixed the penalty of death to 
almost all crimes — to petty thefts, for instance, 
as well as to sacrilege and murder — which gave 



DRACOES. 



DRUSUS. 



occasion to the remark that his laws were writ- 
ten, not in ink, but in blood. We are told that 
he himself defended this extreme harshness by 
saying that small offences deserved death, and 
that he knew no severer punishment for great 
ones. His legislation is placed in B.C. 621. 
After the legislation of Solon (594), most of the 
laws of Dracon fell into disuse ; but some of 
them were still in force at the end of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, as, for instance, the. law which 
permitted the injured husband to slay the adul- 
terer, if taken in the act. We are told that 
Dracon died at iEgina, being smothered by the 
number of hats and cloaks showered upon him as 
a popular mark of houor in the theatre. 

[Drances, an Italian, favorite of Latinus, a 
persevering opponent of the plans of Turnus.] 

Drangiana (Apayyiavjj : now Sedjestdn), a 
part of Ariana, was bounded by Gedrosia, Car- 
mania, Arachosia, and Alia. It sometimes 
formed a separate satrapy, but was more usu- 
ally united, to the satrapies either of Araehosia, 
or of Gedrosia, or of Aria. The chief product 
of the country was tin : the chief river was the 
Brymanthus or Erymandrus (now Hilmend or 
Hindmend). In the north of the country dwelt 
the Drang^e (Apdyyai), a warlike people, from 
whom the province derived its name : their 
capital was Prophthasia. The Zarangaa, Sa- 
rangte, or Darandse, who are also mentioned as 
inhabitants of the country, are probably only 
other forms of the name Drangoe. The Ariaspas 
inhabited the southern part of the province. Vid. 
Ariasp^. 

Draudacum (now Dardasso), a fortress of the 
Penestai in Greek Illyria. 

Dravus (now Brave), a tributary of the Dan- 
ube, rises in the Noric Alps near Aguntum, flows 
through N'oricum and Pannonia, and, after re- 
ceiving the Murius (now Muhr), falls into the 
Danube east of Mursa (now Essech). 

Dreoanuji (Apenavov), a promontory on the 
western side of the island Cos. 

Drepanids, Latinus Paoatus, a friend of 
Ausonius, and a correspondent of Symmachus, 
delivered a panegyric on the Emperor Theodo- 
sius, A.D. 391, after the victory of the latter 
over Maximus. This panegyric, which is ex- 
tant, is the eleventh in the collection of the 
Pancgyrici Veteres. 

Drepanom (Apenavov : Apeiraveve), that is, a 
sickle. 1. Also Drepana (t& Apeirava), more 
rarely Drepane (now Trapani), a sea-port town 
in the northwestern corner of Sicily, so called 
because the land on which it was built was in 
the form of a sickle. It was founded by the 
Carthaginian Hamilcar at the commencement of 
the first Punic War, and was one of the chief 
naval stations of the Carthaginians. Under the 
Romans it was an important commercial town. 
It was here that Anchises died, according to 
Yirgil. — 2. A promontory in Achaia. Vid. Rhium. 
— 3. The ancient name of Corcyra. — i. Also 
Drepane, a town in Bithynia, on the Sinus As- 
tacenus, the birth-place of Helena, mother of 
Constantine the Great, in whose honor it was- 
called Helenopolis, and made an important 
place. In its neighborhood were warm medi- 
cinal baths, wluch Constantine the Great fre- 
quently used in the latter part of his life. 

Drepsa (Apeipa, also "Adpaipa, Adpcnpa, Apdipa- 



ica : now Anderab or Inderab), a town in tS»* 
northeast of Baetriana, on the frontiers of Sog- 
diana. 

Dril^e (AplXai), a brave people in Pontus, oc 
the frontiers of Colchis, near Trapezus. 

Drilo, a river in Blyrieum, flows into the 
Adriatic near Lissus. 

Dromioh^etes (Apo/iixatTr/c), a king of the 
Gete, who took Lysimachus prisoner. Vid. 
Lyseuachus. 

Dromos Achilleus. Vid. Aohilleus Dromos. 

Druentia (now Durance), a large and rapid 
river in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in the Alps, 
and flows into the Rhone near Avenio (now 
Avignon). 

DrCna (now Drome), a small river in Gallia 
Narbonensis, rises in the Alps, and flows into the 
Rhone south of Valencia (now Valence). 

Drusilla. 1. LrviA, mother of the Emperor- 
Tiberius and wife of Augustus. Vid. Livia. — 
2. Daughter of Germanieus and Agrippina, mar- 
ried first to L. Cassius Longinus, and afterward 
to M. iEmilius Lepidus ; but she lived in inces- 
tuous intercourse with her brother Caligula, 
whose passion for her exceeded all bounds. On 
her death in A.D. 38, he commanded that she 
should be worshipped, by the name Panthea, 
with the same honors as Venus. — 3. Daughter 
of Herodes Agrippa L, king of the Jews, mar- 
ried first Azizus, king of Emesa, whom she di- 
vorced, and secondly Felix, the procurator of 
Judasa. She was present with her husband when 
St. Paul preached before Felix in A.D. 60. 

Drusus, the name of a distinguished family 
of the Livia gens. It is said that one of the 
Livii acquired the cognomen Drusus for him- 
self and his descendants by having slain in 
close combat one Drausus, a Gallic chieftain; 
but this statement deserves little credit. — 1. M. 
Livius Drusus, tribune of the plebs with C. 
Gracchus, B.C. 122. He was a staunch ad- 
herent of the aristocracy, and after putting his 
veto upon the laws proposed by Gracchus, he 
brought forward almost the very same meas- 
ures, in order to gain popularity for the senate, 
and to impress the people with the belief that 
the optimates were their best friends. The suc- 
cess of this system earned for him the designa- 
tion patronus senatus. Drusus was consul 112, 
obtained Macedonia as his province, and con- 
quered the Scordisci. — 2. M. Livius Drusus, son 
of No. 1, an eloquent orator, and a man of great 
energy and ability. He was tribune of the 
plebs 91, in the consulship of L. Marcius Philip- 
pus and Sex. Julius Caesar. Although, like his 
father, he belonged to the aristoeratieal party, 
he meditated the . most extensive and organic 
changes in the Roman state. To conciliate the 
people he renewed several of the measures of 
the Gracchi. He proposed and carried laws for 
the distribution of corn or for its sale at a low 
price, and for the assignation of public land. 
He also gained the support of the Latiui and 
the Soeii by promising to secure for them the 
Roman citizenship. Thus strengthened, he pro- 
posed to transfer the judicia from the equites to 
the senate ; but, as a compensation to the former 
order, he further proposed that the senate, now 
reduced below the regular number of three hund- 
red, should be re-enforced by the introduction 
of on equal number of new members selected 
271 



DRUSUS. 



DRYOPE. 



ffom the equites. This measure proved un- 
satisfactory to both parties. The Roman pop- 
ulace also were opposed to the Roman fran- 
chise being given to the Latins and the Soeii. 
The senate, perceiving the dissatisfaction of all 
parties, voted that all the laws of Drusus, be- 
ing carried against the auspices, were null and 
void from the beginning. Drusus now began 
to organize a formidable conspiracy against the 
government ; but one evening, as he was enter- 
ing the hall of his own house, he was stabbed, 
and died a few hours afterward. The assassin 
was never discovered, and no attempts were 
made to discover him. Caepio and Philippus 
were both suspected of haviug suborned the 
crime ; but Cicero attributes it to Q. Varius. 
The death of Drusus destroyed the hopes of the 
Soeii, and was thus immediately followed by the 
Social War. — 3. Livius Drusus Claudianus, 
father of Livia, who was the mother of the Em- 
peror Tiberius. He was one of the gens Clau- 
dia, and was adopted by a Livius Drusus. It 
was through this adoption that the Drusi be- 
came connected with the imperial family. The 
father of Livia, after the death of Caesar, es- 
poused the cause of Brutus and Cassius, and, 
after the battle of Philippi (42), being proscribed 
by the conquerors, he killed himself in his tent. 
— 4. Nero Claudius Drusus, commonly called 
by the moderns Drusus Senior, to distinguish 
him from No. 5, was the son of Tib. Claudius 
Nero and Livia, and younger brother of the 
Emperor Tiberius. He was born in the house 
of Augustus three months after the marriage 
of Livia and Augustus, 38. Drusus, as he grew 
up, was more liked by the people than was his 
brother. His manners were affable, and his 
conduct without reproach. He married Anto- 
nia, the daughter of the triumvir, and his fideli- 
ty to his wife was a theme of admiration in a 
pronigate age. He was greatly trusted by Au- 
gustus, who employed him in important offices. 
He carried on the war against the Germans, 
and penetrated far into the interior of the coun : 
try. In 12 he drove the Sicambri and their 
allies out of Gaul, crossed the Rhine, then fol- 
lowed the course of the river down to the ocean, 
and subdued the Frisians. It was apparently 
during this campaign that Drusus dug a canal 
(Fossa Drusiana) from the Rhine, near Arnheim, 
to the Yssel, near Dcesberg ; and he made use 
of this canal to sail from the Rhine into the 
ocean. In his second campaign (11), Drusus 
subdued the Usipetes, invaded the country of 
the Sicambri, and passed on through the terri- 
tory of the Cherusei as far as the Visurgis (now 
Wescr). On his return he was attacked by the 
united forces of the Germans, and defeated 
them with great slaughter. In his third cam- 
paign (10) he conquered the Chatti and other 
German tribes, and then returned to Rome, 
where he was made consul for the following 
year. In his fourth campaign (9), which he 
carried on as consul, he advanced as far as the 
Albis (now Elbe), sweeping every thing before 
him. It L said that he had resolved to cross 
the Elbe, but was deterred by the apparition of 
a woman of dimensions greater than human, who 
said to him in the Latin tongue, " Whither goest 
thou, insatiable Drusus ! The Fates forbid thee 
to advance. Away ! The end of thy deeds and 
272 



thy life is nigh." On the return of the army 
to the Rhine, Drusus died in consequence of a 
fracture of his leg, which happened through a 
fall from his horse. Upon receiving tidings of 
the dangerous illness of Drusus, Tiberius im 
mediately crossed the Alps, and, after travelling 
with extraordinary speed, arrived in time to 
close the eyes of his brother. Tiberius brought 
the body to Italy : it was burned in the field of 
Mars, and the ashes deposited in the tomb of 
Augustus. — 5. Drusus Caesar, commonly called 
by modern writers Drusus Junior, was the son 
of the Emperor Tiberius by his first wife, Vip- 
sania. He married Livia, the sister of Ger- 
manicus. After the death of Augustus, A.D. 
14, he was sent into Pannonia to quell the mu- 
tiny of the legions. In 15 he was consul, and 
in 16 he was sent into IUyricum : he succeeded 
in fomenting dissension among the Germanic 
tribes, and destroyed the power of Maroboduus. 
In 21 he was consul a second time ; and in 22 
he received the tribunicia potestas, by which he 
was pointed out as the intended successor to the 
empire. But Sejanus, the favorite of Tiberius, 
aspired to the empire. He seduced Livia, the 
wife of Drusus, and persuaded her to become 
the murderer of her husband. A poison was 
administered to Drusus, which terminated his 
life by a lingering disease, that was supposed 
at the time to be the consequence of intemper- 
ance, A.D. 23. — 6. Drusus, second son of Ger- 
manicus and Agrippina. After the death of 
Drusus, the son of Tiberius (vid. No. 5), Drusus 
and his elder brother Nero became the heirs 
to the imperial throne. Sejanus therefore re- 
solved to get rid of them both. He first engaged 
Drusus in the plots against his elder brother, 
which ended in the banishment and death of that 
prince. Vid. Nero. The turn of Drusus came 
next. He was accused in 30, and condemned to 
death as an enemy of the state. Tiberius kept 
him imprisoned for three years, and then starved 
him to death, 33. 

Dryades. Vid. Nymph^e. 

Dryas (Apvas). 1. Son of the Thracian king 
Lycurgus, who is hence called Dryantides. — 
[2. One of the Lapithoe, friend of Pirithous (II., 
vi., 130). — 3. Son of the Thracian king Lycur- 
gus, slain by his own father in a fit of phrensy 
brought upon him by Bacchus.] 

Drymjea or Drymus (Apvfia'ia, Apiyzoc : Apu- 
fiievc, : now Baba ?), a town in Phocis, a little 
south of the Cephisus, was destroyed by 
Xerxes. 

[Drymo, a nymph, a companion of Cyrene.] 
Drymus (Apv/uoc). 1. Vid. Drtmj;.— 2. A 

strong place in Attica, on the frontiers of Bce- 

otia. 

Drymussa (Apvjiovaca : Apvpovaoaioc), an isl- 
and in the HerniEean Gulf, off the coast of Ionia, 
opposite Clazomena? ; given by the Romans to 
Clazomense. 

Dryope (Apvoirn), daughter of King Dryops, 
and the playmate of the Hamadryades on Mount 
CEta. She was beloved by Apoilo, who, to gain 
possession of her, metamorphosed himself into 
'a tortoise. Dryope took the creature into her 
lap, whereupon the god changed himself into a 
serpent. The nymphs fled away in affright, 
and thus Apollo remained alone with Dryope. 
Soon after she married Andrcemon, but became. 



DRYOPES. 



DURIUS. 



bv Apollo, the mother of Amphissus, who built 
the town of (Eta, and a temple to Apollo. Dry- 
ope was afterward carried off by the Hamadry- 
ades, and became a nymph. 

Dryopes (ApvoTrsg), a Pelasgic people, de- 
scended from a mythical ancestor Dryops, dwelt 
first in Thessaly, from the Spercheus to Parnas- 
sus, and afterward in Doris, which was called 
from them Dryopis (Apvontg). Driven out of 
Doris by the Dorians, they migrated to other 
countries, and settled in Peloponnesus, Eubcea, 
and Asia Minor. 

Dryops (Apvoip). 1. Son of the river-god Sper- 
cheus and the Dauaid Polydora, or of Lycaon 
and Dia, the daughter of Lycaon, the mythical 
ancestor of the Dryopes. — [2. An illegitimate 
son of Priam, slain by Achilles. — 3. A compan- 
ion of iEneas, slain by Clausus.] 

Dryos Cephaxje (Apvdg K.£<j>a?.at), a narrow 
pass of Mount Cithceron, between Athens and 
Plataese. 

Dubis (now Doubs), a river in Gaul, rises in 
Mount Jurassus (now Jura), flows past Vesontio 
(now Besangon), and falls into the Arar (now 
Sadne) near Cabillonum (now Chalons). 

DuiiRis Portus (now Dover), a sea-port town 
of the Cantii, in Britain : here was a fortress 
erected by the Romans against the Saxon pi- 
rates. 

Duoas, Michael, a Byzantine historian, held 
a high office under Constantine XIII, the last 
emperor of Constantinople. After the capture 
of Constantinople A.D. 1453, he fled to Lesbos. 
His history extends from the death of John VI. 
Palaeologus, 1355, to the capture of Lesbos by 
the Turks, 1462. The work is written in bar- 
barous Greek, but gives a clear and impartial 
account of events. The best edition is by Bek- 
ker, Bonn, 1834. 

Ducihius (Aovkctloc:), a chief of the Sicelians 
or Sieeli, the native tribes in the interior of 
Sicily, carried on a formidable war in the mid- 
dle of the fifth century B.C. against the Greeks 
in the island. Having been at last defeated in 
a great battle by the Syracusans, he repaired to 
Syracuse as a suppliant, and placed himself at 
their mercy. The Syracusans spared his life, 
but sent him into an honorable exile at Corinth. 
He returned soon afterward to Sicily, and found- 
ed the city of Calacte. He died about B.C. 440. 

Duilius. 1. M., tribune of the plebs B.C. 
471. He was one of the chief leaders of the 
plebeians, and it was on his advice that the 
plebeians migrated from the Aventine to the 
Mons Sacer, just before the overthrow of the 
decemvirs. He was then elected tribune of the 
plebs a second time, 449. — 2. K., one of the de- 
cemvirs, 450, on whose overthrow he went into 
voluntary exile. — 3. C, consul 260, with Cn. 
Cornelius Scipio Asina, in the first Punic War. 
In this year the Romans built their first fleet, 
using for their model a Carthaginian vessel 
which had been thrown on the coast of Italy. 
The command of this fleet was given to Scipio, 
who was defeated by the Carthaginians off Li- 
para. Thereupon Duilius was intrusted with 
the command, and as he perceived the disad- 
vantages under which the clumsy ships of the 
Romans were laboring, he devised the well- 
known grappling irons, by means of which the 
enemy's ehips might be drawn toward his, and 
18 



the sea-fight thus changed into a land-fight. By 
this means he gained a brilliant victory over the 
Carthaginian fleet near Myla?, and then prose- 
cuted the war in Sicily with success, relieving 
Egesta, and taking Maeella by assault. On his 
return to Rome, Duilius celebrated a splendid 
triumph, for it was the first naval victoiy that 
the Romans had ever gained, and the memory 
of it was perpetuated by a column which was 
erected in the forum, and adorned with the 
beaks of the conquered ships (Columna Rostrata). 
It is generally believed that the original inscrip- 
tion which adorned the basis of the column is 
still extant. It was dug out of the ground in 
the sixteenth century, in a mutilated condition, 
and it has since often been printed with at- 
tempts at restoration. There are, however, in 
that inscription some orthographical peculiari- 
ties, which suggest that the present inscription 
is a later restoration of the original one. Du- 
ilius was further rewarded for this victory by 
being permitted, whenever he returned home 
from a banquet at night, to be accompanied by 
a torch and a flute-player. 

Dulgibini, a people in Germany, dwelt south- 
east of the Angrivarii, on the western bank of 
the Weser. 

DuLICHIUM. Vid. EOHINADES. 

Dumnorix, a chieftain of the ^Edui, conspired 
against the Romans B.C. 58, but was then par- 
doned by Cassar in consequence of the entreaties 
of his brother Divitiacus. When Caesar was 
going to Britain in 54, he suspected Dumnorix 
too much to leave him behind in Gaul, and he 
insisted, therefore, on his accompanying him. 
Dumnorix, upon this, fled from the Roman camp 
with the ^Eduan cavalry, but was overtaken and 
slain. 

DUNIUM. Vid. DUROTRIGES. 

Dura (tu. Aovpa : Aovprjvoc). 1. A town iu 
Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, not far from 
Circesium, founded by the Macedonians, and 
hence surnamed Nicanoris ; also called Europus 
(EvpwTvoc) by the Greeks. In the time of Julian 
it was deserted. — 2. (Now Dor), a town in As- 
syria, on the Tigris. 

Duranius (now Dordogne), a river in Aqui- 
tania, which falls into the Garumna. 

Duiua (now Dora Baltca), a river which rises 
in the south of the Alps, flows through the coun- 
try of the Salassi, bringing gold dust with it, and 
falls into the Po. 

Duris (Aovpig), of Samos, the historian, was 
a descendant of Alcibiades, and lived in the 
reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He obtained 
the tyranny of his native island, though it is 
unkown by what means. He wrote a con- 
siderable number of works, of which the most 
important was a history of Greece, from B.C. 
370 to 281. He does not appear to have en- 
joyed any very great reputation as an historian 
among the ancients. His fragments have been 
collected by Hulleman, Duridis Samii gum sii- 
persunt, Traject. ad Rhen., 1841 ; [and by Miil- 
ler, Hist. Grcec. Fragm., vol. ii., p. 466-488.] 

Durius (Aovptoc, Aupioc : now Duero,Douro), 
one of the chief rivers of Spain, rises among the 
Pelendones, at the foot of Mount Idubeda, near 
Numantia, and flows into the Atlantic ; it was 
auriferous, and is navigable a long way from iU 
mouth. 

273 



DUROBRIV^E. 



ECBATANA. 



Dueobrivve (now Rochester), a town of the 
Cantii in Britain. 

Durocasis (now Dreux), a town of the Car- 
uutes in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

DuROCATELAUNI. Vid. CaTALAUNI. 

Durocortorum (now Rheims), the capital of 
the Remi in Gallia Belgica, and subsequently 
called Remi, was a populous and powerful town. 

Duronia, a town in Samnium in Italy, west 
of the Caudine passes. 

Durotriges, a people in Britain, in Dorset- 
shire, and the west of Somersetshire : their 
chief town was Dunium (now Dorchester). 

Duroveenum or Daevernum (now Canter- 
bury), a town of the Cantii in Britain, after- 
ward called Cantuaria. 

Dyardanes or CEdanes (now Brahmaputra), 
a river in India, falls into the Ganges on the 
eastern side. 

Dtmas (Avjiac). 1. Son of iEgimius, from 
whom the Dymanes, one of the three tribes of 
the Dorians, were believed to have derived their 
name. — [2. Father of Asius and of Heeuba, the 
wife of Priam, lived in Phrygia, on the Sanga- 
rius : Hecuba is hence called Dymantis proles 
(Ovid. Her., xi.. 762) and Dymantis (lb., xiii., 
(i20). — 3. A Phasacian, whose daughter was an 
attendant of Nausieaa. — 4. A Trojan, who fought 
by the side of ^Eneas on the night of the capture 
of Troy ; he was killed by his own friends in 
mistake for a Greek whose armor he had put 

OD.] 

Dyme or DyMjE (Avurj, Av/nai : Avfiaioc, Dy- 
masus : ruins near Karauostasi), a town in the 
west of Achaia, near the coast ; one of the 
twelve Achaean towns ; it founded, along with 
Patrse, the second Achaean league ; and was at 
a later time colonized by the Romans. 

Dyras (Avpac), a small river in Phthiotis in 
Thessaly, falls into the Sinus Maliacus. 

Dyrehachlom (Avfifiuxiov : Avfifidxioc, Avfifia- 
XOvbc, Dyrrachlnus : now Durazzo), formerly 
called Epidamnus ('Enidauvor : 'Eiudu/ivwc), a 
town in Greek Ulyria, on a peninsula in the 
Adriatic Sea. It was founded by the Corcy- 
rasans, and received the name Epidamnus ; but 
since the Romans considered this name a bad 
omen, as reminding them of damnum, they 
changed it into Dyrrhachium when they be- 
came masters of the country. Under the Ro- 
mans it became an important place ; it was the 
usual place of landing for persons who crossed 
over from Brundisium. Commerce and trade 
were carried on here with great activity, whence 
it is called Taberna Adrice by Catullus (xxxvi., 
15) ; and here commenced the great Egnatia 
Via leading to the East. In the civil war it was 
the head-quarters of Pompey, who kept all his 
military stores here. In A.D. 345 it was de- 
stroyed by an earthquake. 

Dysorum (to Avoupcv), a mountain in Mace- 
donia with gold mines, between Chalcidice and 
Odomantice. 

Dyspontium (AvdKovriov : AvanovTioc), an an- 
cient town of Pisatis in Elis, north of the Al- 
pheus, was destroyed by the Eleans, whereupon 
its inhabitants removed til Epidamnus and Apol- 
lonia. 

E. 

[Eblana ("E6Xava), a city of the Eblani in 
274 



Hibernia, on the eastern coast, probably answer- 
ing to the modern Dublin.] 

Ebora. 1. Or Ebura Ceeealis, a small town 
in Hispania Baetica, perhaps in the neighbor- 
hood of the modern Sta Cruz. — 2. Surnamed 
Liberalitas Julia (now JEvora), a Roman mu- 
nicipium in Lusitania. — 3. Or Ebura (uow S. 
Lucar de Barrameda), a town in Hispania Baeti- 
ca, near the mouth of the Baatis. — 4. A fortress 
of the Edetani in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Eboracum or Ebueacusi (now York), a town 
of the Brigantes in Britain, was made a Roman 
station by Agricola, and soon became the chief 
Roman settlement in the whole island. It was 
both a municipium and a colony. It was the 
head-quarters of the sixth legion, and the resi- 
dence of the Roman emperors when they visited 
Britain. Here the emperors Septimius Severus 
and Constantius Chlorus died. Part of the an- 
cient Roman walls still exist at York ; and 
many Roman remains have been found in the 
modern city. 

Eboeolacum (now JEvreule, on the river Si- 
oule), a town in Aquitania. 

Ebrodunum (now JSmbrun), a town in Gallia 
Narbonensis, in the Cottian Alps. 

Ebvbm or Hebud^e (now Hebrides), islands in 
the "Western Ocean off Britain. They were 
five in number according to Ptolemy, two called 
Ebudaa, Maleus, Epidium, and Ricina. 

Ebdromagus or Hebromagus (near Bram or 
Villerazons), a town in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Ebueones, a German people who crossed the 
Rhiue and settled in Gallia Belgica, between 
the Rhine and the Mosa (now Maas), in a marshy 
and woody district. They were dependants 
(clientes) of the Treviri, and were in Caesar's 
time under the rule of Ambiorix and Cativol- 
cus. Their insurrection against the Romans, 
B.C. 54, was severely punished by Caesar, and 
from this time they disappear from history. 

Eburovices. Vid. Aulerci. 

Ebusus or Ebusus (now Iviza), the largest of 
the Pityusae Insulae, off the eastern coast of 
Spain, reckoned by some writers among the 
Baleares. It was celebrated for its excellent 
figs. Its capital, also called Ebusus, was a 
civitas fcederata, possessed an excellent harbor, 
was well built, and carried on a considerable 
trade. 

Eobatana (to. 'Endurava, Ion. and Poet. 'Ay- 
Sdrava : now Hamadan), a great city, most 
pleasantly situated, near the foot of Mount 
Orontes, in the north of Great Media, was the 
capital of the Median kingdom, and afterward 
the summer residence of the Persian and Par- 
thian kings. Its foundation was more ancient 
than any historical record : Herodotus ascribes 
it to Deioces, and Diodorus to Semiramis. It 
had a circuit of two hundred and forty stadia, 
and was surrounded by seven walls, each over- 
topping the one before it, and crowned with 
battlements of different colors : these walls no 
longer existed in the time of Polybius. The 
citadel, of great strength, was used as the royal 
treasury. Below it stood a magnificent palace, 
the tiles of which were silver, and the capitals, 
entablatures, and waiuseotings of silver and 
gold ; treasures which the Seleucidos coined into 
money, to the amount of four thousand talents 
The circuit of this place was seven 6tadia. 



ECDIPPA. 



ECPHANTIDES. 



[Ecdippa ("ExdiTnTa), in the Old Testament 
Acksib, a city of Palestine, on the coast, between 
Tyre and Ptolema'is.] 

Ecetra (Ecetranus), an ancient town of the 
Volsei, and, according to Diouysius, the capital 
of this people, was destroyed .by the Romans at 
an early period. ' 

[Echeoles ('ExeK?ir/g). 1. Son of Actor, and 
husband of Polymela. — 2. Of Ephesus, a Cynic 
philosopher, pupil of Theombrotus.] 

[Echeclus ("E^e/c^of). 1. Son of Agenor, 
slam by Achilles. — 2. Another Trojan, men- 
tioned in the Iliad, slain by Patroclus.] 

[Echeceates ('ExsKpdrr/c). 1. Father of Eeti- 
on, grandfather of Oypselus, tyrant of Corinth. — 
2. A philosopher, one of the latest of the Pytha- 
gorean school, a pupil of Archytas at Tareutum. 
When the Pythagoreans were persecuted in 
Magna Grsecia, he went to Rhegium, and thence 
to Phlius. This is the same as the one men- 
tioned in the Phasdon of Plato : by some writers 
he is called a teacher of Plato.] 

[Eohecratides ('Exs/tpa-ld-yc). 1. Father of 
Orestes, king in Tnessaly. — 2. A Sophist, a 
friend of Phocion. — 3. Of Methymna in Lesbos, 
a peripatetic philosopher, pupil of Aristotle.] 

Echedo&us ('EjecSopof, in Herod., Ex E ^ 0) P°c), 
a small river iu Macedonia, rises in Crestonia, 
flows through Mygdonia, and falls iuto the Ther- 
maic Gulf. 

Echelid^e ('Exe?uSat : 'ExeXidnt;), an Attic 
demus east of Munychia, called after a hero 
Echelus. 

[Echemon ('Ex'/fiav), a son of Priam, slain by 
Diomedes.] 

Echejius ("Exefioc ), son of Aeropus and grand- 
son of Cepheus, succeeded Lyeurgus as king of 
Arcadia. In his reign the Dorians invaded Pe- 
loponnesus, aud Echemus slew, in single com- 
bat, Hyllus, the sou of Hercules. In conse- 
quence of this battle, which was fought at the 
Isthmus, the Heraclidae were obliged to promise 
not to repeat their attempt upon Peloponnesus 
for fifty years. 

[Echeneus ('Exsvrjoc Od.), the oldest of the 
Phasacian nobles at the court of Alcinous.] 

[Echepolus (?Ex'eTTo\oc). 1. A Trojan, son 
of Thaiysius, slaiu by Antilochus. — 2. Son of 
Anehises, dwelt in Sicyon; in order to avoid 
going against Troy with the Greeks, he sent to 
Agamemnon the beautiful mare -<Ethe.] 

£cheste,atus ('Exeorparoc ), king of Sparta, 
son of Agis I., and father of Labotas or Leobotes. 

Echetla ('ExMm), a town in Sicily, west of 
Syracuse, in the mountains. 

Echetus ("E^e-of), a cruel king of Epirus. 
His daughter, Metope or Amphissa, who had 
yielded to her love t r ^Echmodieus, was blinded 
by her father, and JSchmodicus was cruelly mu- 
tilated. 

Echidna ('Exidva), daughter of Tartarus and 
Terra (Ge), or of Chrysaor and Callirrhoe, or 
of Peiras and Styx. The upper part of her body 
was that of a beautiful maiden with black eyes, 
while the lower part was that of a serpent, of 
a vast size. She was a horrible and blood- 
thirty monster. She became by Typhon the 
mother of the Chimasra, of the many-headed 
dog Orthus, of the hundred-headed dragon who 
guarded the apples of the Hesperides, of the 
Colchian dragon, of the Sphinx, of Cerberus 



(hence called Echidneus cams), of Scylla, of 
Gorgon, of the Lernajan Hydra (Echidna Ler- 
ncea), of the eagle which consumed the liver of 
Prometheus, and of the Nemean lion. She was 
killed in her sleep by Argus Panoptes. Accord- 
ing to Hesiod, she lived with Typhon in a 
cave, in the couutry of the Arimi, but anoth- 
er tradition transported her to Scythia, where 
she became by Hercules the mother of Aga- 
thyrsus, Gelonus, and Scythes. (Herod., iv., 
8-10.) 

Echtnades ('Exivudec or 'Exlvai : now Cur- 
zolari), a group of small islands at the mouth 
of the Achelous, belonging to Acarnania, said 
to have beeu formed by the alluvial deposits of 
the Achelous. The legend related that they 
were origiually nymphs, who dwelt on the main 
land at the mouth of the Achelous, and that, on 
one occasion, having forgotten to present any 
offerings to the god Achelous when they sac- 
rificed to the other gods, the river-god, in wrath, 
tore them away from the main land with the 
ground on which they were sacrificing, carried 
them out to sea, and formed them into islands. 
The Echinades appear to have derived their 
name from their resemblance to the Echinus 
or sea-urchin. The largest of these islands 
was named Dulichiom (AovX'ixiov). It is men- 
tioned by Homer, and from it Meges, son of 
Phyleus, went to the Trojan war. At the pres- 
ent day it is united to the main land. 

[Echinus ('Ex'ivoc : now Achina), a town and 
promontory iu Phthiotis in Thessaly.] 

Echion ('Ex'tuv). 1. One of the five surviving 
Sparti who had grown up from the dragon's 
teeth which Cadmus had sown. He married 
Agave, by whom he became the father of Peu- 
thejjs : he assisted Cadmus in the building of 
Thebes. — 2. Son of Mercury (Hermes) and Au- 
tianlra, twin-brother of Erytus or Eurytus, with 
whom he took part iu the Calydonian hunt and 
in the expedition of the Argonauts. — 3. A cel- 
ebrated Grecian painter, flourished B.C. 352. 
One of his most noted pictures was Semiramis 
passing from the state of a handmaid to that of 
a queen ; in this picture the modesty of the new 
bride was admirably depicted, The picture in 
the Vatican, known as " the Aldobrandini Mar- 
riage," is supposed by some to be a copy from 
the " Bride" of Echion. 

Echo ('H^w), an Oreade, who, according to 
the legend related by Ovid, used to keep Juno 
engaged by incessantly talking to her while Ju- 
piter was sporting with the nymphs. Juno, 
however, found out the trick that was played 
upon her, and punished Echo by changing her 
into .an echo, that is, a being with no control 
over its tongue, which is neither able to speak 
before any body else has spoken, nor to be silent 
when some body else has spoken. Echo in this 
state fell desperately in love with Narcissus; 
but as her love was not returned, she pined 
away in grief, so that, in the end, there remain- 
ed nothing of her but her voice. (Ov., Met, 
iii., 356-401.) 

[Ecnomus Mons ("Ekvo(ioc Ucj>oe), a mountain 
near Gela, in Sicily, where Phalaris had a castle, 
iu which was kept the celebrated brazen bull ] 

Ecphantides ('EKtyavTidnz), one of the earliest 
poets of the old Attic comedy, flourished about 
B.C. 460, a little before Cratinus. The mean 
275 



ECPHANTUS. 



ELAGABALUS. 



mg of the surname of Kcnzvlac, which was given 
to him by his rivals, seems to imply a mixture 
of subtilty and obscurity. He ridiculed the 
rudeness of the old Megaric comedy, and was 
himself ridiculed on the same ground by Cra- 
tinus and Aristophanes. [The few fragments 
of his plays remaining are given in Meiueke, 
Fragm. Comic Grcec, vol. i., p. 6-7, edit, minor.] 

[Ecphantus ("EfcQavTog), of Thasos, was at the 
head of the party which, in the twenty-third year 
of the Peloponnesian war, aided Thrasybulus in 
gaining Thasos and certain cities of Thrace.] 

Edessa or Antiochia Callirrhoe ('Edeaaa, 
'kvTibx^ta 7/ enl Kallifj/ior/, or 'A. fii^o6dp6apoc : 
in the Old Testament, Ur : now ITrfah), a very 
ancient city in the north of Mesopotamia, the 
capital of Osroene, and the seat of au independ- 
ent kingdom from B.C. 137 to A.D. 216. Vid. 
Abgaeus. It stood on the River Scirtus or Bar- 
desanes, which often inundated and damaged 
the city. It was here that Caracalla was mur- 
dered. Having suffered by an earthquake in 
the reign of Justin I., the city was rebuilt and 
named Justinopolis. The Edessa of Strabo is 
evidently a different place, namely, the city 
usually called Bambyce or Hierapolis. 

Edetani or Sedetani, a people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, east of the Celtiberi. Their 
chief towns were Valencia, Saguntum, Cesar- 
augosta, and Edeta, also called lAria (now 
I/ijria). 

Edoni or Edones ('HSuvol 'HSuvec), a Thra- 
cian people, between the Nestus and the Stry- 
mon. They were celebrated for their orgiastic 
worship of Bacchus ; whence Edonis in the 
Latin poets signifies a female Bacchante, and 
Horace says (Carm., ii., 7, 26), Non ego sanius 
bacchabor Edonis. The poets frequently use 
Edoni as synonymous with Thracians. 

Eetion ('Heriuv). 1. King of the Hypo-Pla- 
cian Thebe in Cilicia, and father of Andromache, 
the wife of Hector. He and seven of his sons 
were slaiu by Achilles when the latter took 
Thebe. — [2. King of Imbros, guest-friend of 
Lycaon, whom Achilles had taken prisoner and 
sold ; Eetion ransomed him and sent him to 
Arisbe — 3. Father of Cypselus, the tyrant of 
Corinth.] 

Egelasta, a town of the Celtiberi in Hispania 
Tarraconerisis. 

Egeria. Vid. jEgeria. 
Egesta. Vid. Segesta. 

Egnatia (now Torre d'Anazzo), a town in 
Apulia, on the coast, called Gnatia by Horace 
(Sat., i., 5, 97), who speaks of it as Lymphis 
(i. e., Nymphis), iratis cxstructa, probably on ac- 
count of its bad or deficient supply of water. 
It was celebrated for its miraculous stone or 
altar, which of itself set on fire frankincense 
and wood; a prodigy which afforded amuse- 
ment to Horace and his friends, who looked 
upon it as a mere trick. Egnatia owed its chief 
importance to being situated on the great high 
road from Rome to Brundisium. This road 
reached the sea at Egnatia, and from this town 
to Brundisium it bore the name of the Via 
Egnatia. The continuation of this road on the 
other side of the Adriatic from Dyrrhachium to 
Byzantium also bore the naree of the Via Egna- 
tia. It was the great military road between 
Italy and the east Commaucing at Dyrrha- 
276 



chium, it passed by Lychnidus, HeraclSa, Lyu 
cestis, Edessa, Thessalonica, Amphipolis, Phi- 
lippi, and, traversing the whole of Thrace, final 
iy reached Byzantium. 

Egnatii, a family of Samnite origin, some of 
whom settled at Teanum. 1. Gellius Egnati 
us, leader of the Samuites in the third Samnite 
war, fell in battle against the Romans B.C. 295. 
— 2. Marius EGKATiuSj one of the leaders of 
the Italian allies in the Social War, was killed 
in battle, 89.-3. M. Egnatius Rufus, aedile 20 
and praetor 19, was executed in the following 
year in consequence of his having formed a 
conspiracy against the life of Augustus.— 1. P 
Egnatius Celer. Vid. Barea. 

Eion ('Hiuv : 'ttiovevc : now Contessa or Ren- 
dina), a town in Thrace, at the mouth of the 
Strymon, twenty-five stadia from Amphipolis, 
of which it was the harbor. Brasidas, after 
obtaining possession of Amphipolis, attempted 
to seize Eion also, but was prevented by the ar- 
rival of Thucydides with an Athenian fleet, B.C. 
424. 

Eiones ('Hiovec), a town in Argolis, with a 
harbor, subject to Mycenae in the time of Homer, 
but not mentioned in later times. 

[EIoneus ('Hiovevc). 1. A Greek, siain by 
Hector before Troy. — 2. A Thracian, father of 
Rhesus. — 3. Son of Magnes, one of the suitors 
of Hippodamia.] 

El/EA ('EAala : now Kazlu), an ancient city 
on the coast of iEolis in Asia Minor, said to 
have been founded by Mnestheus, stood twelvf 
stadia south of the mouth of the Caieus, aud on< 
hundred and twenty stadia (or sixteen Romar, 
miles) from Pergamus, to which city, in the time 
of the Pergameue kingdom, it served for a har- 
bor (kniveiov). It was destroyed by an earth- 
quake iu B.C. 90. The gulf «i which it stood, 
which forms a part of the great Gulf of Adra- 
myttium, was named after it Sinus Elaiticus 
('E&a'iTiKoc /co/Urof, now Gulf of Chandeli). 

ELjEtis ('EAaioSc, -ovvroc : •'EXaiovoioc). 1. 
Or Eleus ('EAeoijc : now Critia), a town on the 
southeast point of the Thracian Chersonese, 
with a harbor and a heroum of Protesilaus. — 
2. (Now Mcsolonghi), a town of jEtolia, south 
of Pleurou. — 3. A town in Argolis. — 4. A de- 
mus in Attica, belonging to the tribe Hippotho- 
ontis. 

Elagabalus, Roman emperor A.D. 218-222, 
son of Julia Scemias and Varius Marcellus, was 
born at Emesa about 205, and was originally call- 
ed Varius Avitus Bassianus. While almost a 
child, he became, along with his first cousin 
Alexander Severus, priest of Elagabalus, the 
Syro-Phcenician Sun-god, to whose worship a 
temple was dedicated iu his native city. It was 
from this circumstauce that he obtained the 
name Elagabalus, by which he is usually known. 
He owed his elevation to the purple to the in- 
trigues of his grandmother Julia Mossa, who 
circulated the report that Elagabalus was the 
offspring of a secret commerce between Scemias 
and Caracalla, aud induced the troops in Syria 
to salute him as their sovereign by the title of 
M. Aurelius Antoninus, the 16th of May, 218. 
Maciinus forthwith marched against Elagliba- 
lus, but was defeated near Autioch, June 8th. 
aud was shortly afterward put to death. Ela 
gabalus was now acknowledged as emperor 



ELAN A. 



ELEUSIS. 



by the senate, and in the following year came 
to Rome. The reign of this prince, who per- 
ished at the age ■ of eighteen, after having oc- 
cupied the throne nearly four years, was char- 
acterized throughout by an accumulation of the 
most fantastic folly and superstition, together 
with impurity so bestial that the particulars 
almost transcend the limits of credibility. In 
221 he adopted his first cousin Alexander Se- 
verus, and proclaimed him Caasar. Having be- 
come jealous of Alexander, he attempted to put 
him to death, but was himself slain, along with 
his mother Scemias, by the soldiers, with whom 
Alexander was a great favorite. 
Elana. Vid. ^Slana. 

Elara ('EAapa), daughter of Orchomenus or 
Minyas, bore to Jupiter (Zeus) the giant Tityus. 
Jupiter (Zeus), from fear of Juno (Hera), con- 
cealed her under the earth. 

[Elasus ("EAaaoj), a Trojan, slain by Patro- 
elus.] 

Elatea ('EAaTEia : 'EAarevc;). 1. (Ruins near 
Elcphtha), a town in Phocis, and the most im- 
portant place in the country next to Delphi, was 
situated near the Cephisus in a fertile valley, 
whicl) was an important pass from Thessaly to 
Bosotia. Elatea was thus frequently exposed 
to hostile attacks. It is said to have been 
founded by Elatus, son of Areas. — 2. A town in 
Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, near GonnL — 3. Or 
Elatrea, a town in Epirus, near the sources 
of the Cocytus. 

Elatus ("E/laroc). 1. Son of Areas and Le- 
anira, king of Arcadia, husband of Laodice, and 
father of Stymphalus, ^Epytus, Cyllen, and Pe- 
reus. He resided on Mount Cyllene, and went 
from thence to Phocis, where he founded the 
town of Elatea. — 2. A prince of the Lapithae at 
Larissa in Thessaly, husband of Hippea, and 
lather of Cseneus and Polyphemus. He is 
sometimes confounded with the Arcadian Ela- 
tus. — [3. An ally of the Trojans, slain by Aga- 
memnon. — 4. One of the suitors of Penelope, 
mentioned in the Odyssey.] 

Elaver, (now Allicr), subsequently Elaris or 
Elauris, a river in Aquitania, a tributary of the 
Liger. 

Elbo ('E2.C6), an island on the coast of the 
Delta in Egypt, in the midst of the marshes be- 
tween the Phatnitic and the Tanitic mouths of 
the Nile, was the retreat of the blind Pharaoh 
Anysis from the ^Ethiopian Sabaco, and after- 
ward of Amyrtaeus from the Persians. 

Elea. Vid. Velia. 

Electra ('RXiKTpa), i. e., the bright or brill- 
iant one. 1. Daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, 
wife of Thaumas, and mother of Iris and the 
Harpies, Aello and Ocypete. — 2. Daughter of 
Atlas and Pleione, one of the seven Pleiades, 
and by Jupiter (Zeus) mother of Iasion and Dar- 
danus. According to an Italian tradition, she 
was the wife of the Italian king Corythus, by 
whom she had a son Iasion ; whereas by Jupi- 
ter (Zeus) she was the mother of Dardanus. It 
was through her means, according to another 
tradition, that the Palladium came to Troy ; and 
when she saw the city of her son Durdanus 
perishing in flames, she tore out her hair for 
grief, and was placed among the stars as a 
comet. According to others, Electra and her 
uix sisters were placed among the stars as the 



seven Pleiades, and lost their brilliancy on see- 
ing the destruction of Ilium. — 3. Sister of Cad 
mus, from whom the Electrian gate at Thebes 
was said to have received its name. — 4. Daugh- 
ter of Agamemnon and Clytaemuestra, also call 
ed Laodice, sister of Iphigenia and Orestes. 
After the murder of her lather by her mother, 
she saved the life of her young brother Orestes 
by sending him, under the protection of a slave, 
to King Strophius at Phanote in Phocis, who had 
the boy educated together with his own son 
Pylades. When Orestes had grown up to man- 
hood, Electra excited him to avenge the death 
of Agamemnon, and assisted him in slaying 
their mother, Clytasmnestra. Vid. Orestes. 
After the death of the latter, Orestes gave her 
in marriage to his friend Pylades. The history 
and character of Electra form the subject of the 
" Choephori" of jEschylus, the " Electra" of 
Euripides, and the " Electra" of Sophocles. 

Electrioes Insula. Vid. Eridanus. 

Electryon ('HAeKrpvav), son of Perseus and 
Andromeda, king of Mycenae, husband of Anaxo, 
and father of Alcmene, the wife of Amphitryon. 
For details, vid. Amphitryon. 

Electryone ('HXeKTpvuvTj). 1. Daughter of 
Helios and Rhodos. — 2. A patronymic from 
Electryon, given to his daughter Alcmene. 

Eleon ('EXeuv), a town in Bceotia, near Ta- 
nagra, 

Eleos ("E/Uoc), the personification of pity or 
mercy, worshipped by the Athenians alone. 

Elephantine or Elephantis ('EAsQavrlvrj, 
'EAe^avric : now Jezirah-el-Zahir or Jezirak-el- 
Assouan), an island in the Nile, with a city of 
the same name, opposite to Syene, and seven 
stadia below the Little Cataract, was the fron- 
tier station of Egypt toward jjEthiopia, and was 
strongly garrisoned under the Persians and the 
Romans. The island was extremely fertile, the 
vine and the fig-tree never shedding their 
leaves : it had also great quarries. Among the 
most remarkable objects in it were the temple 
of Cuuphis and a Nilometer ; and it is still cel- 
ebrated for the ruins of its rock-hewn temples. 

Elephantis, a Greek poetess under the early 
Roman emperors, wrote certain amatory works 
(molles Elephantidos libelli), which are referred 
to by Martial and Suetonius. 

Elephenor ('EXe<p?jvup), son of Chaleodon 
aud of Imenarete or Melanippe, and prince of 
the Abantes in Euboea, whom he led against 
Troy. He was one of the suitors of Helen : he 
was killed before Troy by Agenor. 

Eleusis ('EAevacc, later 'EXevolv : 'Eaevglvios : 
now Leosina or Lessina). 1. A town and demus 
of Attica, belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, 
was situated northwest of Athens, on the coast, 
near the frontiers of Megara. It possessed a 
magnificent temple of Ceres (Demeter), and it 
gave its name to the great festival and myste- 
ries of the Eleusinia, which were celebrated in 
honor of Ceres (Demeter), and Proserpina (Per- 
sephone). The Eleusinia were originally a fes- 
tival peculiar to Eleusis, which was an inde 
pendeut state ; but after the Eleusinians had 
been conquered by the Athenians in the reign 
of Erechtheus, according to tradition, the Eleu- 
sinia became a festival common to both cities, 
though the superintendence of the festival re 
maiued with the descendants of Eumolpus, tho 
277 



ELEUTHERiE. 



ELTMUS. 



I 



king of Eleusis. For an account of the festival, 
vid. Diet, of Antiq., art. Eleusinia.- — [2. A place 
in Egypt, not far from Alexandrea, on the Lake 
Mareotis ; it was so called from Eleusis in 
Attica.] 

EleuthefljE ('EAevdepai : 'Elevdepevg), a town 
in Attica, on the frontiers of Bceotia, originally 
belonged to the Boeotian confederacy, and after- 
ward voluntarily united itself to Attica. 

Eleutheeius ('EXevdepcog), a surname of Ju- 
piter (Zeus) as the Deliverer. Vid. Diet, of Ant, 
art. Eleutheria. 

Eleutherna ('EXevdepva : 'EXevdspvaloc), a 
town in the interior of Crete. 

Eleutherus ('EXsvdepoc : now Nahr-el-Kebir, 
i. e., Great River), a river forming the boundary 
between Syria and Phoenice, rose in Mount Bar- 
gylus, the northern prolongation of Lebanon, 
and fell into the sea between Antaradus and 
Tripolis. 

Elicius, a surname of Jupiter at Rome, where 
King Numa dedicated to Jupiter Elicius an altar 
on the Aventine. The origin of the name is re- 
ferred to the Etruscans, who by certain prayers 
and sacrifices called forth (eliciebant or evoea- 
bant) lightning, or invited Jupiter to send light- 
ning. The object of calling down lightning was, 
according to Livy's explanation, to elicit prodi- 
gies [ad prodigia elicienda, Liv., i., 20). 

Eluiberrum. Vid. Ausci. ' 

Elimea, -ia, or Elimeotis ('EMfieia, 'EXijiia, 
'EXifiiuric), a district of Macedonia, on the fron- 
tiers of Epirus and Thessaly, originally belonged 
to Illyria, and was bounded by the Cambunian 
Mountains on the south and the Tymphaean 
Mountains on the west. Its inhabitants, the 
Elimjei ('EXei/niurai), were Epirots. 

Elis ('HAic, Dor. 7 AXic, 'KXeca : 'HXeloc. Dor. 
'AXiog, whence Alii in Plautus), a country on 
the western coast of Peloponnesus, bounded by 
Achaia on the north, Arcadia on the east, Mes- 
senia on the south, and the Ionian Sea on the 
west. The country was fertile, watered by the 
Alphetis and its tributaries, and is said to have 
been the only country in Greece which produ- 
ced flax. The Peneus is the only other river 
in Elis of any importance. Elis was divided 
into three parts : 1. Elis Propee, or Hollow 
Elis KotAj? T HAic), the northern part, watered 
by the Peneus, of which the capital was also 
called Elis. — 2. Pisatis {r/ Utadrcc), the middle 
portion, of which the capital was Pisa. — 3. Tri- 
phtlia (t/ Tpi<pvXia), the southern portion, of 
which PrLOs was the capital, lay between the 
Alpheus and the Neda. In the horoic times we 
find the kingdom of Nestor and the Pelidffi in 
the south of Elis, while the north of the coun- 
try was inhabited by the Epeans ('EnetoV), with 
whom some JEtolian tribes were mingled. On 
the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Heraclidse, 
the JEtolian chief Oxylus received Elis as his 
share of the conquest ; and it was the union of 
his iEtolian and Dorian followers with the Epe- 
aus which formed the subsequent population of 
the country, under the general name of Eleaus. 
Elis owed its importance in Greece to the wor- 
ship of Jupiter (Zeus) at Olympia near Pisa, in 
honor of whom a splendid festival was held 
every four years. Vid. Olympia. In conse- 
quence of this festival being common to the 
whole of Greece, the country of Elis was de 
278 



clared sacred, and its inhabitants possessed 
priestly privileges. Being exempt from war and 
the dangers of invasion, the Eleans became 
prosperous and wealthy ; their towns were un- 
walled, and their country was richly cultivated. 
The prosperity of their country was ruined by 
the Peloponnesian war ; the Athenians were 
the first to disregard the sanctity of the country ; 
and from that time it frequently bad to take part 
in the other contests of the Greeks. The town 
of Elis was situated on the Peneus, and was 
built at the time of the Persian war by the in- 
habitants of eight villages, who united together, 
and thus formed one town. It originally had 
no walls, being sacred like the rest of the coun- 
try, but subsequently it was fortified. The in- 
habitants of Elis formed a close alliance with 
the Spartans, and by their means destroyed the 
rival city of Pisa, and became the ruling city in 
the country, B.C. 572. In the Peloponnesian 
war they quarrelled with the Spartans because 
the latter had espoused the cause of Leprseum, 
which had revolted from Elis. The Eleans re- 
taliated upon the Spartans by excluding them 
from the Olympic games. 

Eliso. Vid. Aliso. 

Elissa. Vid. Dido. 

Ellopia ('EXXorrca). 1. A district in the north 
of Euboea, near the promontory Centum, with 
a town of the same name, which disappeared at 
an early period : the whole island of Eubcea is 
sometimes called Ellopia. — 2. An ancient name 
of the district about Dodona in Epirus. 

[Ellops {^EXXoip), son of Ion or Tithonus, 
from whom Ellopia was fabled to have derived 
its name.] 

Elone ('HX6vrj), a town of the Perrhjebi iD 
Thessaly, afterward called Limone (Asifiuvn). 

Elpenor ^EXirr/vcdp), one of the companions 
of Ulysses, who were metamorphosed by Circe 
into swine, and afterward back into men, In- 
toxicated with wine, Elpenor one day fell asleep 
on the roof of Circe's residence, and in his at- 
tempt to rise he fell down and broke his neck. 
When Ulysses was in the lower world, he met 
the shade of Elpenor, who implored him to burn 
his body. After his return to the upper world, 
Ulysses complied with this request of his friend. 

Elpinice ('EXirivcK7i), daughter of Miltiades, 
and sister of Cimon, married Callias. Vid. Cal 
lias. 

Elusates, a people in Aquitania, in the in- 
terior of the country. Their chief town was 
Elljsa (near Euse or Eause). It was the birth 
place of Rufinus, the minister of Arcadius. 

ELYMiEi, Elymi. Vid. Elymais. 

Elymais, a district of Susiana, extending from 
the River Eulceus on the west to the Oroatis on 
the east, derived its name from the Elymtei or 
Elymi ('EXv/iaioi, "EXvfiot), a warlike and pred- 
atory people, who are also found in the mount- 
ains of Great Media : in the Persian armies they 
served as archers. These Elyrnaai were prob- 
ably among the most ancient inhabitants of the 
country north of the head of the Persian Gulf: 
in' the Old Testament Susiana is called Elam. 

Elymi. Vid. Elymus, Elymais. 

Elymus ("EXvfioc), a Trojan, natural son of 
Auchises and brother of Eryx. Previous to the 
emigration of JEueas, Elymus and ./Egestus had 
fled from Troy to Sicily, and had settled on the 



ELYRUS. 



EMPORluE 



banks of the River Crimisus. When afterward 
iEneas also arrived there, he built for them the 
towns of JEgesta and Elyme. Tlie Trojans who 
settled in that part of Sicily called themselves 
Elymi, after Elymus. 

Elyrus ("EXvpoc), a town in the west of 
Crete, south of Cydouia. 

Elysium ('HXvaiov ■Kt&iov, later simply 'H/iv- 
atov\ the Elysian fields. In Homer (Od., iv., 
663) Elysium forms no part of the realms of 
the dead ; he places it on the west of the earth, 
near Ocean, and describes it as a happy land, 
where chert- is neither snow, nor cold, nor rain, 
and always fanned by the delightful breezes of 
Zephyrus. Hither favored heroes, like Mene- 
laus., pass without dying, and live happy under 
the rule of Rhadamanthys. The Elysium of 
Hesiod and Pindar are in the Isles of the Bless- 
ed ((landpuv vr/aoc), which they place in the 
Ocean. From these legends arose the fabulous 
island of Atlantis. The Elysium of Virgil is 
part of the lower world, and the residence of 
the shades of the Blessed. 

Emathia ('Hfiadia : 'H/zaOuvc), a district of 
Macedonia, between the Haliacmon and the 
Axius, formerly part of Pajonia, and the original 
seat of the Macedonian monarchy. The poets 
frequently give the name of Emathia to the 
whole of Macedonia, and sometimes even to the 
neighboring Thessaly. 

Emathides, the nine daughters of Pierus, king 
of Emathia. 

Emathion ('H/xadlav). 1. Son of Tithonus and 
Aurora (Eos), brother of Memnon, was slain by 
Hercule9. — [2. An old man, slain by Chromis 
at the nuptials of Perseus. — 3. A Trojan, slain 
by Liges in Italy.] 

Embolima ('EjuGo/U/ia), a city of the Paropa- 
misadae in Northern India, near the fortress of 
Aornos, sixteen days' march from the Indus 
(Q. Curt.). 

[Emerita. Vid. Augusta Emerita.] 

Emesa or Emissa ("E/ieaa, "Efiiaaa : 'E/ueoTj- 
vcjs ■ now Hums or Horns), a city of Syria, on 
the eastern bank of the Orontes, in the prov- 
ince of Apamene, but afterward the capital of 
Phoenice Libanesia, was in Strabo's time the 
residence of independent Arabian princes ; but 
under Caraealla it was made a colony with the 
Jus Italicum. It is a remarkable place in the 
history of the Roman empire, being the native 
city of Julia Domna, the wife of Septimius Se- 
verus, of Elagabalus, who exchanged the high 
priesthood of the celebrated temple of the Sun 
in this city for the imperial purple, and of the 
Emperor Alexander Severus ; and also the scene 
of the decisive battle between Aurelian and 
Zeuobia, AD. 273. 

[Emjiaus ('Efifiaovc : now Amwas, near Lat- 
ron), a town of Palestine, on the road from Je- 
rusalem to Joppa, about ten miles from Lydda : 
under the Romans it was called Nicopolis.] 

EmmeniDjE ('E/ifiev'tdai), a princely family at 
Agrigentum, which traced their origin to the 
mythical hero Polynices. Among its members 
we know Emmenides (from whom the family 
derived its name), the father of JSnesidamus, 
whose sons, Theron and Xenocrates, are cele- 
brated by Pindar as victors at the great games 
of Greece. 

Emodi Montes, or Emodus, or -es, dv -on (ra 



| 'H/ioda uprj, to 'Hpiuddv opoc, or 6 'H/iW(56c . now 
Himalaya Mountains), a range of mountains 
north of India, forming the prolongation ease 
ward of the Paropamisus. 

Empedocles ('Efj.Ked'oicAyi;), of Agrigentum in 
Sicily, flourished about B.C. 444 Although he 
was descended from an ancient and wealthy 
family, he joined the revolution in which Thras- 
ydceus, the son and successor of Theron, was 
expelled. His zeal in the establishment of po- 
litical equality is said to have been manifested 
by his magn'animous support of the poor, by his 
severity in persecuting the overbearing conduct 
of the aristocrats, and in his declining the sov- 
ereignty which was offered to him. His bril- 
liant oratory, his penetrating knowledge of na- 
ture, and the reputation of his marvellous pow- 
ers, which he had acquired by curing diseases, 
by his successful exertions in removing marshy 
districts and in averting epidemics and obnox- 
ious winds, spread a lustre around his name. 
He was called a magician (yo??f), and he appears 
to have attributed to himself miraculous powers. 
He travelled in Greece and Italy, and made 
some stay at Athens. His death is said to have 
been marvellous, like his life. One tradition 
represented him as having been removed from 
the earth like a divine being, and another re- 
lated that he threw himself into the flames of 
Mount iEtna, that by his sudden disappearance 
he might be believed to be a god ; but it was add- 
ed that the volcano threw up one of his sandals, 
and thus reveale^l the manner of his death. The 
rhetorician Gorgias was a disciple of Emped- 
ocles. The works of Empedocles were all in 
verse. The two most important were a didac- 
tic poem on nature (Uepl Qvaeug), of which con- 
siderable fragments are extant, and a poem, 
entitled Kadapfiot, which seems to have recom- 
mended good moral conduct as the means of 
averting epidemics and other evils. Lucretius, 
the greatest of all didactic poets, speaks of Em- 
pedocles with enthusiasm, and evidently makes 
him his model. Empedocles was acquainted 
with the theories of the Eleatics and the Pytha- 
goreans ; but he did not adopt the fundamental 
principles of either school, although he agreed 
with the latter in his belief in the migration of 
souls, and in a few other points. With the 
Eleatics he agreed in thinking that it was im- 
possible to conceive any thing arising out of 
nothing. Aristotle with justice mentions him 
among the Ionic physiologists, and places him 
in very close relation to the atomistic philoso- 
phers and to Anaxagoras. Empedocles first 
established the number of four elements, which 
he called the roots of things. 

[Emporia, also Emporium ('E/mopeia 'Efi- 
7:6pia ; 'Ep-Tcbpiov), the southern and most fruit- 
ful part of Byzacium.] 

EmporLe or Emporium 'Ejnropiai, 'E/xrropelov, 
'Efinopwv : 'EftnopiTTjc : now Ampurizs), a town 
of the Indigetes in Hispania Tarraconensis, near 
the Pyrenees, was situated on the River Clodi- 
anus, which formed the harbor of the town. It 
was founded by the Phoca?ans from Massilia, 
and was divided into two parts, at one time sep- 
arated from each other by a wall ; the part near 
the coast being iuhabifced by the Greeks, and 
the part toward the interior by the Indigetes 
It was subsequently colonized by Julius Caesar 
27<l 



EPULUM. 



ENNIUS. 



Its harbor was much frequented : here Sc ; pio 
Africanus first landed when he came to Spain 
in the second Punic war. 

Empulum (now Ampiglione ?), a small town in 
Latium, near Tibur. 

Empusa ("EfiKovaa), a monstrous spectre, 
which was believed to devour human beings. 
It could assume different forms, and was sent 
by Heeate to frighten travellers. It was be- 
lieved usually to appear with one leg of brass 
and the other of an ass, whence it was called 
bvouK.EA.ig or bvonuhjj. The Lamiae and Mormo- 
lyceia, who assumed the form of handsome 
women for the purpose of attracting young men, 
and then sucked their blood like vampires and 
ate their flesh, were reckoned amoDg the Em- 
pusee. 

[En^esimus ('Evaiaifioc;), a son of Hippocoon, 
slain by the Calydonian boar.] 

Enarephorus ('EvapTjtpopog), son of Hippo- 
coon, a passionate suitor of Helen when she was 
yet quite young. Tyndareus, therefore, intrust- 
ed the maiden to the care of Theseus. Enare- 
phorus had a heroum at Sparta. 

Enueladus ('EyKsAabog), son of Tartarus and 
Terra (Ge), and one of the hundred-armed giants 
who made war upon the gods. He was killed, 
according to .some, by a flash of lightning, by 
Jupiter (Zeus), who buried him under Mount 
.iEtna ; according to others, Minerva (Athena) 
killed him with her chariot, or threw upon him 
the island of Sicily. 

Encheles ('Eyx^elg, also 'HyxsMai 'Eyxe- 
',101), an Illyrian tribe. •y.SjSfr 

[Encolpius, a Latin hisromn, in the early 
part of the third century A.D. : he wrote a life 
of Alexander Severus.] 

Endceus ("Evdoioe), an Athenian statuary, is 
called a disciple of Dsedalus, whom he is said 
to have accompanied on his flight from Crete. 
This statement must be taken to express, not 
the time at which he lived, but the style of art 
which he practiced. It is probable that he lived 
in the time of Pisistratus and his sons, about 
B.C. 560. 

Endymion ('EvbvpiLUv), a youth distinguished 
by his beauty, and renowned in ancient story 
for his perpetual sleep. Some traditions about 
Endymion r.efer us to Elis, and others to Caria, 
and others, again, are a combination of the two. 
According to one set of legends, he was a son 
of Aethlius and Calyce, or of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Calyce, and succeeded Aethlius in the kingdom 
of Elis. Others related that he had come from 
Elis to Mount Latnaus in Caria, whence he is 
called the Latmian (Latmius). As he slept on 
Latmus, his surprising beauty warmed the cold 
heart of Selene (the moon), who came down to 
him, kissed him, and lay by his side. His eter- 
nal sleep on Latmus is assigned to different 
causes ; but it was generally believed that Se- 
lene had sent him to sleep, that she might be 
able to kiss him without his knowledge. By 
Selene he had fifty daughters. There is a beau- 
tiful statue of a sleeping Endymion in the Brit- 
ish Museum. 

Engyum ("Eyvov 'Eyyviov : 'EyyvZvog, En- 
guinus : now Gangi), a town iu the interior of 
Sicily, near the sources of the Monalus, was 
originally a town of the Siculi, but it is said to 
have been colonized by the Cretans under Mi- 
280 



nos : it possessed a celebrated temple of the 
great mother of the gods. 

[Eniopeus ('Hvwrrevg), son of Thebseus, char 
ioteer of Hector, slain by Diomedes.] 

Enipeus ('EvtTrevc). 1. A river in Thessaly, 
rises in mount Othrys, receives the Apidanus 
near Pharsalus, and flows into the Peneus. 
Neptune (Poseidon) assumed the form of the 
god of this river in order to obtain possession 
of Tyro, who was in love with Enipeus. She 
became by Neptune (Poseidon) the mother of 
Pelias and Neleus. Ovid relates (Met, vi., 
116) that Neptune (Poseidon), having assumed 
the form of Enipeus, became by Iphimedia the 
father of Otus and Ephialtes. — 2. A small river 
in Pisatis (Elis), flows into the Alpheus near its 
mouth. — 3. A small river in Macedonia, which 
rises in Olympus. 

[Enipo ('Evnru), a female slave, mother of 
the poet Archilochus.] 

[Enispe ('Evl<j7T7i), an ancient place in Arcadia 
(II., 2, 608) ; entirely destroyed in the time of 
Strabo.] 

Enna or Henna ("Ewa : 'Evvaloc : now Cas- 
tro Giovanni), an ancient and fortified town of 
the Siculi in Sicily, on the road from Catana to 
Agrigentum, said to be the centre of the island 
(b/xfaAbc 2i/££/U'af). It was surrounded by fertile 
plains, which bore large crops of wheat ; it was 
one of the chief seats of the worship of Ceres 
(Demeter), and possessed a celebrated temple of 
this goddess. According to later tradition, it 
was in a flowery meadow in the neighborhood 
of Enna that Pluto carried off Proserpine (Per- 
sephone), and the cave was shown through 
which the god passed as he carried off his prize. 
Its importance gradually declined from the time 
of the second Punic war, when it was severely 
punished by the Romans, because it had at- 
tempted to revolt to the Carthaginians. 

Ennius, Q., the Roman poet, was born at Ru- 
diffi, iu Calabria, B.C. 239. He was a Greek by 
birth, but a subject of Rome, and served in the 
Roman armies. Iu 204, Cato, who was then 
quaestor, found Ennius in Sardinia, and brought 
him in his train to Rome. In 189 Ennius ac- 
companied M. Fulvius Nobilior during the jEto- 
lian campaign, and shared his triumph. Through 
the son of Nobilior, Ennius, when far advanced 
in life, obtained the rights of a Roman citizen. 
He dwelt in a humble house on the Aventine, 
and maintained himself by acting as a preceptor 
to the youths of the Roman nobles. He lived 
on terms of the closest intimacy with the elder 
Scipio Africanus. He died 169, at the age of 
seventy. He was buried in the sepulchre of the 
Scipios, and his bust was allowed a place among 
the effigies of that noble house. Enuius was 
regarded by the Romans as the father of their 
poetry (alter Homerus, Hor., JEpisL, ii., 1, 50). 
Cicero calls him Summits poeta nostcr ; and Vir- 
gil was not ashamed to borrow many of his 
thoughts, and not a few of his expressions. All 
the works of Ennius are lost with the exception 
of a few fragments. His most important work 
was an epic poem, iu dactylic hexameters, en- 
titled Annalium Libri XVIII., being a history 
of Rome, commencing with the loves of Mars 
and Rhea, and reaching down to his own times. 
The beautiful history of the kings iu Livy may 
have b^en taken from Ennius. No great space, 



ENNOMUS. 



EPAMINONDAS. 



howevei, was allotted to the earliest records 
for the contest "with Hannibal, which was de- 
scribed with great minuteness, commenced with 
the seventh book, the first Punic war being pass- 
ed over altogether. He wrote numerous trage- 
dies, which appear to ha.ve been all translations 
or adaptations from the Greek, the metres of 
the originals being in most cases closely imi- 
tated. He wrote also a few comedies, and sev- 
eral other works, such as Satires, composed in 
a great variety of metres, from which circum- 
stance they probably received their name ; a 
didactic poem, entitled Epicharmus ; a pane- 
gyric on Scipio ; Epigrams, &o. The best col- 
lection of the fragments of Ennius is by Hie- 
ronymns Columna, Neapol., 4to, 1590, repriut- 
ed with considerable additions by Hesselius, 
Amstel., 4to, 1707. 

[Ennomus ("Ecto/mc). 1. A seer of Mysia, an 
ally of the Trojans, slain by Achilles. — 2. A Tro- 
jan, slain by Ulysses.] 

Enope ('Evoir-n), a town in Messenia, mention- 
ed by Homer, supposed to be the same as Ger- 
enia. 

[Enops QKvoip). 1. A herdsmau, father, by a 
nymph, of Satnius. — 2. A Greek, father' of Cly- 
tomedes.] 

Entella ("Evre TJka : Entellinus, Entellensis : 
new Entella), an ancient town of the Sicani in 
the interior of the island, on the western side, 
said to have been founded by Entellus, one of the 
companions of the Trojan ^Egestus. It was sub- 
sequently seized and peopled by the Campanian 
mercenaries of Dionysius. 

[Entellus, a Trojan or Sicilian hero, famed 
for his skill in athletic exercises ; a companion 
of iEgestus (Virgil's Acestes), and, though ad- 
vanced in years, encountered and vanquished the 
Trojan Dares.] 

Enyalius ( r Evvd2,ioc), the Warlike, frequent- 
ly occurs in the Iliad (never in the Odyssey) as 
an epithet of Mars (Ares). At a later time 
Enyalius and Mars (Ares) were distinguished 
as two different gods of war ; Enyalius was 
looked upon as a sou of Mars (Ares) and Enyo, 
or of Saturn (Cronos) and Rhea. The name is 
evidently derived from Enyo. 

Enyo ('Evvu), the goddess of war, who de- 
lights in bloodshed and the destruction of towns, 
and accompanies Mars (Ares) in battles. Re- 
specting the Roman goddess of war, vid. Bel- 
lona. 

Eohd^ea ('EopSata, also 'Eopdla), a district 
and towu in the northwest of Macedonia, inhabit- 
ed by the Eordi ( 'EopSo't, also 'Eopdaloc.) 

Eos ('Huf, Att. "Euc), in Latin Aurora, the 
goddess of the morning red, daughter of Hy- 
perion and Thia or Euryphassa ; or of Pallas, 
according to Ovid. At the close of every night 
she rose from the couch of her spouse Tithonus, 
and on a chariot drawn by the swift horses Lam- 
pus and Phaethon she ascended up to heaven 
from the River Oceanus, to announce the com- 
ing light of the suu to the gods as well as to 
mortals. In the Homeric poems Eos not only 
announces the coming Sun, but accompanies 
him throughout the day, and her career is not 
complete till the evening ; hence she came to 
be regarded as the goddess of the daylight, and 
was completely identified by the tragic writers 
with Hemera. She carried off several youths 



distinguished for their beauty, such as Orion, 
Oephalus. and Tithonus, whence she is called by 
Ovid Tithorda conjux. She bore Memnon to Ti- 
thonus. Vid. Memnon. By Astrseus she be- 
came the mother of Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, 
Heosphorus and other stars. 

Epaminondas ('Eira/iEivuvdac, 'Eizafiivuvdac), 
the Theban general and statesman, son of Po- 
lymnis, was born and reared in poverty, though 
his blood was noble. His close and enduring 
friendship with Pelopidas is said to have orig 
inated in the campaign in which they served to- 
gether on the Spartan side against Mantinea, 
where Pelopidas having fallen in a battle, ap- 
parently dead, Epaminondas protected his body 
at the imminent risk of his own life, B.C. 385. 
After the Spartans had been expelled from 
Thebes, 37 9, Epaminondas took an active part 
in public affairs. In 371 he was one of the 
Theban commanders at the battle of Leuetra, 
so fatal to the Lacedaemonians, in which the 
success of Thebes is said to have been owing 
mainly to the tactics of Epaminondas. He it 
was who most strongly urged the giving battle, 
while he employed all the means in his power 
to raise the courage of his countrymen, not ex- 
cluding even omens and oracles, for which, 
when unfavorable, he had but recently express- 
ed his contempt In 369 he was one of the 
generals in the first invasion of Peloponnesus 
by the Thebans ; and before leaving Pelopon- 
nesus he restored the Messenians to their coun- 
try and established a new city, named Messene. 
Ou their return h«me Epaminondas and Pelop- 
idas were impeached by their enemies, on a 
capital charge of having retained their com 
mand beyond the legal term. The fact itself 
was true enough ; but they were both honora- 
bly acquitted, Epaminondas having expressed 
his willingness to die if the Thebans would re 
cord that he had been put to death because he 
had humbled Sparta and taught his countrymea 
to face and to conquer her armies. In 368 he 
again led a Theban army into the Peloponne- 
sus, but did not advance far, and on his return 
was repulsed by Chabrias in an attack which he 
made on Corinth. In the same year we find 
him serving, but not as general, in the Theban 
army which was sent into Thessaly to rescue 
Pelopidas from Alexander of Pherae, and which 
was saved from utter destruction only by the 
ability of Epaminondas. In 367 he was sent at 
the head of another force to release Pelopidas, 
and accomplished his object without even strik- 
ing a blow, and by the mere prestige of his 
name. In 366 he invaded the Peloponnesus 
for the third time, and in 362 for the fourth 
time. In the latter year he gained a brilliant 
victory over the Lacedaemonians at Mantinea, 
but in the full career of victory he received a 
mortal wound. He was told that his death 
would follow directly on the javelin being ex- 
tracted from the wound ; and he would not al- 
low this to be done till he had been assured that 
his shield was safe, and that the victory was 
with his countrymen. It was a disputed point 
by whose hand he fell : among others, the honor 
was assigned to Gryllus, the son of Xenophon. 
Epaminondas was one of the greatest men of 
Greece. He raised Thebes to the supremacy 
of Greece, which she lost almost as soon as he 
281 



EPAPHRODITUS. 



EPHORUS. 



died. Both in public and in private life he was i 
distinguished by integrity and uprightness, and ! 
he carried into daily practice the lessons of phi- 
losophy, of which he was an ardent student. 

Epaphroditus ('EnafpodiToc). 1. A freed- 
man and favorite of the Emperor Nero. He as- 
sisted Nero in killing himself, and he was after- 
ward put to death by Domitian. The philoso- 
pher Epictetus. was his freedman. — 2. M. Met- 
tius Epaphroditus, of Chasronea, a Greek gram- 
marian, the slave and afterward the freedman 
of Modestus, the praefect of Egypt. He subse- 
quently went to Rome, where he resided in the 
reign of Nero and down to the time of Nerva. 
He was the author of several grammatical works 
and commentaries. 

Epaphus ("E^a^oc), sou of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Io, born on the River Nile, after the long wan- 
derings of his mother. He was concealed by 
the Curetes, at the request, of Juno (Hera), but 
was discovered by Io in Syria. He subsequent- 
ly became king of Egypt, married Memphis, a 
daughter of Nilus, or according to others, Cas- 
siopea, and built the city of Memphis. He had 
a daughter Libya, from whom Libya (Africa) re- 
ceived its name. 

Epei. Vid. Elis. 

Epktium ('E-KeTiov : ruins near Strobnccz), a 
town of the Lissii in Dalmatia, with a good har- 
bor. 

Epeus ('Ekewc). 1. Son of Endymion, king 
in Elis, from whom the Epei are said to have 
derived their name. — Son of Panopeus, went with 
thirty ships from the Cyclades to Troy. He built 
the wooden horse with the assistance of Minerva 
(Athena). 

Ephesus ("E0ec7oc : 'Etyeawc : ruins near At/a- 
saluk, i. e., "Aywc QsoXoyog, the title of St. John), 
the chief of the twelve Ionian cities on the coast 
of Asia Minor, was said to have been founded 
by Carians and Leleges, and to have been taken 
possession of by Androclus, the son of Codrus, 
at the tune of the great Ionian migration. It 
Btood a little south of the River Cayster, near 
its mouth, where a marshy plain, extending 
south from the river, is bounded by two hills, 
Prion or Lepre on the east, and Coressus on 
the south. The city was built originally on 
Mount Coressus, but, in the time of Crcesus, the 
people transferred their habitations to the valley, 
whence Lysimachus, the general of Alexan- 
der, compelled them again to remove to Mount 
Prion. On the northern side of the city was 
a lake, communicating with the Cayster, and 
forming the inner harbor, now a marsh ; the 
outer harbor (Ttu.vopp.og) was formed by the 
mouth of the river. In the plain, east of the 
lake, and northeast of the city, beyond its walls, 
stood the celebrated temple of Diana (Artemis), 
which was built in the sixth century B.C., by 
an architect named Chersiphrou, and, after be- 
ing burned down by Herostratus in the night 
on which Alexander the Great was born (Octo- 
ber 13-14, B.C. 356), was restored by the joint 
efforts of all the Ionian states, and was regard- 
ed as one of the wonders of the world : nothing 
now remains of the temple except some traces 
of its foundations. The temple was also cele- 
brated as an asylum till Augustus deprived it 
of that privilege. The other buildings at Ephe- 
bus, of which there are any ruins, are the agora, 
282 



theatre, odeum, stadium, gymnasium, and baths, 
temples of Jupiter (Zeus) Olympius and of Julius 
Caesar, and a large building near the inner har- 
bor : the foundations of the walls may also 
be traced. With the rest of Ionia, Ephesus 
fell under the power successively of Croesus, the 
Persians, the Macedonians, and the Romans. 
It was always very flourishing, and became 
even more so as the other Ionian cities decay- 
ed. It was greatly favored by its Greek rulers, 
especially by Lysimachus, who, in honor of hia 
second wife, gave it her name, Arsinoe, which, 
however, it did not long retain. Attalus IL 
Philadelphus constructed docks for it, and im- 
proved its harbors. Under the Romans it was 
the capital of the province of Asia, and by far 
the greatest city of Asia Minor. It is conspicu- 
ous in the early history of the Christian Church, 
both St. Paul and St. John having labored in it, 
and addressed epistles to the Church of Ephe- 
sus ; and at one time its bishop possessed the 
rank and power of a patriarch over the churches 
in tfie province of Asia. Its position, and the 
excellence of its harbors, made it the chief em- 
porium for the trade of all Asia within the 
Taurus'; and its downfall was chiefly owing to 
the destruction of its harbors by the deposits of 
the Cayster. In the earliest times Ephesus was 
called by various names, Alope, Ortygia, Morges, 
Smyrna Tracheia, Samornia, and Ptelea. 

Ephialtes ('E<pid?iT7ic). 1. One of the Aloida?. 
Vid. Aloeus. — 2. A Malian, who in B.C. 480, 
when Leonidas was defending the pass of 
Thermopylae, guided a body of Persians over 
the mountain path, and thus enabled them to 
fall on the rear of the Greeks. — 3. An Athenian 
statesman, was a friend and partisan of Peri- 
cles, whom he assisted in carrying his political 
measures. He is mentioned in particular as 
chiefly instrumental in that abridgment of the 
power of the Areopagus which inflicted such 
a blow on the oligarchical party, and against 
which the Eumenides of iEschylus was directed. 
His services to the democratic cause excited the 
rancorous enmity of some of the oligarchs, and 
led to his assassination during the night, proba- 
bly in 456. — [4. An Athenian orator, an oppo- 
nent of the Macedonians ; Alexander demanded 
his surrender to him after the destruction of 
Thebes.] 

Ephippus ("E^tTTTToc). 1. An Athenian poet 
of the middle comedy. [A few fragments only 
remain, which are given by Meineke in his 
Fragm. Comic. Grcec, vol. ii., p. 657-66.] — 2. Of 
Olynthus, a Greek historian of Alexander the 
Great. 

Ephorus ('Efopoc), of Cyme in iEoiis, a cele- 
brated Greek historian, was a contemporary of 
Philip and Alexander, aud flourished about B. 
C. 340. He studied rhetoric under Isocrates, 
of whose pupils he aud Theopompus were con- 
sidered the most distinguished. On the advice 
of Theopompus he wrote A History ('laToplai) 
in thirty books, which began with the return of 
the Heraclida;, and came down to the siege of 
Perinthus in 341. It treated of the history of 
the barbarians as well as of the Greeks, and was 
thus the first attempt at writiug a universal his- 
tory that was ever made in Greece. 7« em- 
braced a period of seven hundred and fifty years 
and each of the thirty books contained a com 



EPHYDATIA. 



EPICURUS. 



paetp 'rtion of the history, which formed a com- 
plete whole by itself. Ephorus did not live to 
complete the work, and it was finished by his 
son Demophilus. Diyllus began his history at 
the point at which the work of Ephorus left off. 
Epborus also wrote a few other works of less 
importance, of which the titles only are pre- 
served by the grammarians. Of the history 
likewise we have nothing but fragments. It 
was written in a clear and polished style, but 
was at the same time deficient in power and 
energy. Ephorus appears to have been faithful 
and impartial in the narration of events ; -but he 
did not always follow the best authorities, and 
in the latter part of his work he frequently dif- 
fered from Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xeno- 
phon, on points on which they are entitled to 
credit. Diodorus Siculus made great use of the 
work of Ephorus. The fragments of his work 
have been published by Marx, Carlsruhe, 1815, 
and in Miiller's Fragm. Historicor. Grmc, vol. 
i., Paris, 1841. 

[Ephydatia ('E(j>v6aria), a fountain-nymph, 
who carried off Hylas, the favorite of Hercules.] 

Ephyra ('E(j>vpa). 1. The ancient name of 
Corinth. Vid. Corinthus. — 2. An ancient town 
of the Pelasgi, near the River Selleis, in Elis. — 
3. A town in Thessaly, afterward called Cea- 
non. — 4. A town in Epirus, afterward called 
Ciohyeus. — 5. A small town in the district of 
Agrffia, in iEtolia. 

[Ephyra ('Efvpa), a female companion of-Cy- 
rene, the mother of ArisUeus.] 

Epicaste ('Ettikuc-7]), commonly called Jo- 
caste. 

Epicephesia ('E-7TLKi](j)]](j'ia ; 'EnLKntyrjcrioc), a 
demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe (Eneis. 

[Epicharis ('EitLxaptc), a freedwomau of bad 
repute, implicated in the conspiracy of Piso 
against the life of Nero, A.D. 65 : she was put 
to the severest torture in order to compel her 
to disclose what she knew of the conspiracy, 
but to no purpose : nothing could extort any 
confession from hei', and she finally escaped 
further torture by strangling herself.] 

Epicharmus ('Eirixapfioc), the chief comic 
poet among the Dorians, was born in the island 
of Cos about B.C. 540. His father, Elothales, 
was a physician, of the race of the Asclepiads. 
At the age of three months, Epicharmus was 
carried to Megara, in Sicily ; thence he remov- 
ed to Syracuse when Megara was destroyed 
by Gelon (484 or 483). Here he spent the Te- 
rn ainder of his life, which was prolonged 
throughout the reign of Hieron, at whose court 
Epicharmus associated with the other great 
writers of the time, and among them with 
iEschylus. He died at the age of ninety (450), 
or, according to Lucian, ninety-seven (443). 
Epicharmus was a Pythagorean philosopher, 
and spent the earlier part of his life in the 
study of philosophy, both physical and meta- 
physical. He is said to have followed for 
some time his father's profession of medicine ; 
and it appears that he did not commence writ- 
ing comedies till his removal to Syracuse. 
Comedy had for some time existed at Megara 
in Sicily, which was a colony from Megara on 
the Isthmus, the latter of which towns disputed 
with the Athenians the invention of comedy. 
But the comedy at the Sicilian Megara before 



Epicharmus seems to have been little more 
than a low buffoonery. It was he, together 
with Phormis, who gave it a new form, and in- 
troduced a regular plot. The number of his 
comedies is differently stated at fifty-two, or at 
thirty-five. There are still extant thirty-five 
titles. The majority of them are on mytholog- 
ical subjects, that is, travesties of the heroic 
myths, and these plays no doubt very much 
resembled the satyric dramas of the Athenians. 
But besides mythology, Epicharmus wrote on 
other subjects, political, moral, relating to man- 
ners and customs, Ac. The style of his plays 
appears to have been a curious mixture of the 
broad buffoonery which distinguished the old 
Megarian comedy, and of the sententious wis 
dom of the Pythagorean philosopher. His lan- 
guage was remarkably elegant : he was celebra- 
ted for his choice of epithets : his plays abound- 
ed, as the extant fragments prove, with philo- 
sophical and moral maxims. He was imitated 
by Crates, and also by Plautus, as we learn 
from the line of Horace (Epist, ii., 1, 58), 

" Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi." 

The parasite, who forms so conspicuous a char- 
acter in the plays of the new comedy, is first 
found in Epicharmus. 

Epicnemidii Locri. Vid. Locris. 
Epicrates ('Emicpd-Tig). 1. An Athenian, 
took part in the overthrow of the thirty tyrants ; 
but afterward, when sent on an embassy to the 
Persian king Artaxerxes, he was accused of 
corruption in receiving money from Artaxerxes. 
He appears to have been acquitted this time ; 
but he was tried on a later occasion, on another 
charge of corruption, and only escaped death 
by a voluntary exile. He was ridiculed by the 
comic poets for his large beard, and for this 
reason was called caKeotyopoc. — 2. Of Ambracia, 
an Athenian poet of the middle comedy. 

Epictetus C&TrcKT7]To<;), of Hierapolis in 
Phrygia, a celebrated Stoic philosopher, was a 
freedman of Epaphroditus, who was himself a 
freedman of Nero. Vid. Epaphroditus. He 
lived and taught first at Rome, and, after the 
expulsion of the philosophers by Domitian, at 
Mcopolis in Epirus. Although he was favored 
by Hadrian, he does not appear to have return- 
ed to Rome ; for the discourses which Arrian 
took down in writing were delivered by Epicte- 
tus when an old man at Nicopolis. Only a few 
circumstances of his life are recorded, such as 
his lameness, which is spoken of in different 
ways, his poverty, and his few wants. Epicte- 
tus did not leave any works behind him, and 
the short manual {Enchiridion), which bears his 
name, was compiled from his discourses by his 
faithful pupil Arrian. Arrian also wrote the 
philosophical lectures of his master in eight 
books, from which, though four are lost, we are 
enabled to gain a complete idea of the way in 
which Epictetus conceived and taught the Stoic 
philosophy. Vid. Arriantjs. Being deeply im- 
pressed with his vocation as a teacher, he aim- 
ed in his discourses at nothing else but winning 
the minds of his hearers to that which was 
good, and no one was able to resist the impres 
sion which they produced. 

Epictetus Phrygia. Vid. Phrygia. 
Epicurus VEmKovpoc), a celebrated Greek 
283 



EPICURUS. 



EPIDAURUS. 



philosopher, and the founder of a philosophical 
school, called, after him, the Epicurean. He 
was a son of Neocles and Charestrata, and was 
born B.C. 342, in the island of Samos, where 
his father had settled as one of the Athenian 
cleruchi ; but he belonged to the Attic demos 
of Gargettus, and heuce is sometimes called 
the Gargettian. (Cic, ad Fam., xv., 16.) At 
the age of eighteen Epicurus came to Athens, 
and there probably studied under Xenocrates, 
who was then at the head of the academy. 
After a short stay at Athens he went to Colo- 
phon, and subsequently resided at Mytilene and 
Lampsacus, in which places he was engaged 
for five years in teaching philosophy. In 306, 
when he had attained the age of thirty-five, he 
again came to Athens, where he purchased for 
eighty miuffi a garden — the famous K^ttoi 'E7ri- 
Kovpov — in which he established his philosoph- 
ical school. Here he spent the remainder of 
his life, surrounded by numerous friends and 
pupils. His mode of living was simple, tem- 
perate and cheerful ; and the aspersions of 
comic poets and of later philosophers, who were 
opposed to his philosophy, and describe him as 
a person devoted to sensual pleasures, do not 
seem entitled to the least credit. He took no 
part in public affairs. He died in 270, at the 
age of seventy-two, after a long and painful ill- 
ness, which he endured with truly philosophic- 
al patience and courage. Epicurus is said to 
have written three hundred volumes. Of these 
the most important was one On Nature (Uepl 
*i(7EUf), in thirty-seven books. All his works 
are lost; but some fragments of the work on 
Nature were found among rolls at Hercula- 
neam, and were published by Orelli, Lips., 1818. 
In his philosophical system, Epicurus prided 
himself in being independent of all his prede- 
cessors; but he was iu reality indebted both to 
Demojritus and the Cyrenaics. Epicurus made 
ethics the most essential part of his philosoph- 
ical system, since he regarded human happi- 
ness as {.he ultimate end of all philosophy. His 
ethical theory was based upon the dogma of 
the Cyrenaics, that pleasure constitutes the 
highest happiness, and must consequently be 
the end of all human exertions. Epicurus, 
however, developed and ennobled this theory 
in a manner which constitutes the real merit 
of his philosophy, and which gained for him so 
many friends and admirers both in antiquity 
and in modern times. Pleasure with him was 
not a mere momentary and transitory sensa- 
tion, but he conceived it as something lasting 
and imperishable, consisting in pure and noble 
mental enjoyments, that is, in urapa&a and 
uirovta, or the freedom from pain and from all 
influences which disturb the peace of our mind, 
and thereby our happiness, which is the result 
of it. The summum honum, according to him, 
consisted in tbis peace of mind ; and this was 
based upon ^povqatg, which he described as the 
beginning of every thing good, as the origin of 
all virtues, and which he himself therefore oc- 
casionally treated as the highest good itself. 
In the physical part of his philosophy, he fol- 
lowed the atomistic doctrines of Democritus 
and Diagoras. His views are well known from 
Lucretius's poem De Rerum Naiura. We ob- 
tain oui knowledge and form oui conceptions 
284 



of things, according to him, through elSaXa, i. e.\ 
images of things which are reflected from them, 
and pass through our senses into our minds. 
Such a theory is destructive of all absolute 
truth, and a mere momentary impression upon 
our senses of feelings is substituted for it. The 
deficiencies of his system are most striking in 
his views concerning the gods, which drew 
upon him the charge of atheism. His gods, 
like every thing else, consisted of atoms, and 
our notions of them are based upon the elduAa 
which are reflected from them and pass into 
our minds. They were and always had been 
in the enjoyment of perfect happiness, which 
had not been disturbed by the laborious business 
of creating the world; and as the government 
of the world would interfere with their happi- 
ness, he conceived them as exercising no in- 
fluence whatever upon the world or man. The 
pupils of Epicurus were very numerous, and 
were attached to their master in a manner 
which has rarely been equalled either in an- 
cient or modern times. But notwithstanding 
the extraordinary devotion of his pupils, there 
is no philosopher in antiquity who has been so 
violently attacked as Epicurus. This has been 
owing partly to a superficial knowledge of his 
philosophy, and partly to the conduct of men 
who called themselves Epicureans, and who, 
taking advantage of the facility with which his 
ethical theory was made the hand-maid of a 
sensual life, gave themselves up to the enjoy- 
ment of sensual pleasures. 

Epicydes ('Emicvdrjg), a Syracusan by origin, 
but born and educated at Carthage. He served, 
together with his elder brother Hippocrates, 
with much distinction in the army of Hannibal, 
both in Spain and Italy ; and when, after the 
battle of Cannre (B.C. 216), Hieronymus of 
Syracuse sent to make overtures to Hannibal, 
that general selected the two brothers as his 
envoys to Syracuse. They soon induced the 
young king to desert the Roman alliance. Upon 
the murder of Hieronymus shortly aftei*, they 
were the leaders of the Carthaginian party at 
Syracuse, and eventually became masters of 
the city, which they defended against Marcel- 
lus. Epicydes fled to Agrigentum when he 
saw that the fall of Syracuse was inevitable. 

Epidamnus. Vid. Dyrrhachium. 

Epidaurus CEnidavpos : ''E.-idavpiog). l.(Now 
Epidauro), a town in Argolis, on the Saronic 
Gulf, formed with its territory Epidauria("E7t«- 
davpia), a district independent of Argos, and 
was not included in Argolis till the time of the 
Romans. It was originally inhabited by Ioni- 
ans and Carians, whence it was called Epicarui, 
but it was subdued by the Dorians under Dei- 
phontes, who thus became the ruling race. 
Epidaurus was the chief seat of the worship of 
iEsculapius, and was to this circumstance in- 
debted for its importance. The temple of this 
god, which was one of the most magnificent in 
Greece, was situated about five miles south- 
j west of Epidaurus. A few ruins of it are still 
extant. The worship of ^Esculapius was in- 
troduced into Rome from Epidaurus. Vid. iEs- 
culapids. — 2. Surnamed Limera (y Kifiripd : 
now Moncmbasia or Old Malvasia), a town in 
! Laconia, on the eastern coast, said to have 
! been founded by Epidaurus in Argolis, posses* 



I 



EPIDELIUM. 



EPIRITS. 



ed a good harbor. — 3. (Now Old Ragusa), a 
town in Dalmatia. 

Epidelhjm ('EiudrjXiov), a town in 'Laconia, 
on the eastern coast, south of Epidaurus Limera, 
with a temple of Apollo and an image of the 
god, which, once thrown into the sea at Delos, 
is said to have come to land at this place. 

[Epidii (^EiziSioi), a people in ancient Britain, 
dwelt on Epidium, the long peninsula on the 
western coast (now Gantyre), whose southern 
point forms the Epidium Promontorium ('Ent- 
diov, "kKpov, now Mull of Gantyre'.\ 

Epigenes ('EmyevTjg). 1. An Athenian poet 
of the middle comedy, flourished about B.C. 380. 
— 2. Of Sicyon, who has been confounded by 
6ome with his namesake the comic poet, pre- 
ceded Thespis, and is said to have been the 
most ancient writer of tragedy. It is probable 
that Epigenes was the first to introduce into the 
old dithyrambic and satyrical rpayud'ia other 
subjects than the original one of the fortunes of 
Bacchus (Dionysus). — 3. Of Byzantium, a Greek 
astronomer, mentioned by Seneca, Pliny, and 
Censorinus. He professed to have studied in 
Chaldea, but his date is uncertain. 

[EpIgeus ('E7reiyevg), of Budeum in Thessaly, 
followed Achilles to the Trojan war, and was 
slain by Hector.] 

Epigoni ('Eniyovoi), that is, "the Descend- 
ants," the name in ancient mythology of the 
sons of the seven heroes who perished before 
Thebes. Vid. Adrastus. Ten years after then- 
death, the descendants of the seven heroes 
marched against Thebes to avenge their fathers. 
The names of the Epigoni are not the same in 
all accounts ; but the common lists contain 
Alcma3on, iEgialeus, Diomedes, Promachus, 
Sthenelus, Thersander, and Euryalus. Alcmseon 
undertook the command, in accordance with an 
oracle, and collected a considerable body of 
Argives. The Thebans marched out against 
the enemy, under the command of Laodamas, 
after whose death they fled into the city. 
On the part of the Epigoni, iEgialeus had 
fallen. The seer Tiresias, knowing that the city 
was doomed to fall, persuaded the inhabitants 
to quit it, and take their wives and children 
with them. The Epigoni thereupon took pos- 
session of Thebes, and razed it to the ground. 
They sent a portion of the booty and Manto, 
the daughter of Tiresias, to Delphi, and then 
returned to Peloponnesus. The war of the 
Epigoni' was made the subject of epic and tragic 
poems. 

Epimenides ['Em/ievidjjc). 1. A celebrated 
poet and prophet of Crete, whose history is to 
a great extent mythical. He was reckoned 
among the Curetes, and is said to have been the 
son of a nymph. He was a native of Phaestus 
in Crete, and appears to have spent the greatest 
part of his life at Cnosus, whence he is some- 
times called a Cnosian. There is a legend that, 
when a boy, he was sent out by his father in 
search of a sheep, and that, seeking shelter from 
the heat of the mid-day sun, he went into a 
cave, and there fell into a deep sleep, which 
lasted fi,fty-seven years. On waking and re- 
turning home, he found, to his great amazement, 
that his younger brother had in the mean time 
grown an old man. He is further said to have 
attaiued the age of 154, 157, or even of 229 years. 



His visit to Athens, however, is an historical 
fact, and determines his date. The Athenians, 
who were visited by a plague in consequence of 
the crime of Cylon (vid. Cylon), consulted the 
Delphic oracle about the means of their delivery. 
The god commanded them to get their city puri- 
fied, and the Athenians invited Epimenides to 
come and undertake the purification. Epimen 
ides accordingly came to Athens, about 596, and 
performed the desired task by certain mysterious 
rites and sacrifices, in consequence of which the 
plague ceased. Epimenides was reckoned by 
some among the seven wise men of Greece ; but 
all that tradition has handed down about him 
suggests a very different character from that of 
the seven ; he must rather be ranked in the class 
of priestly bards and sages who are generally 
comprised under the name of the Orphici. Many 
works, both in prose and verse, were attributed 
to him by the ancients, and the Apostle Paul has 
preserved (Titus, i., 12) a celebrated verse of his 
against the Cretans. 

Epimetheus. Vi$. Prometheus and Pan- 
dora. 

Epiphanes, a surname of Antioehus IV. and 
Antiochus XL, kings of Syria. 

EpiphanIa or -ea ('Emftiveia). 1. In Syria 
(in the Old Testament, Hamath : now Hamah), 
in the district of Cassiotis, on the left bank of 
the Orontes, an early colony of the Phoenicians ; 
may be presumed, from its later name, to have 
been restored or improved by Antioehus Epiph- 
anes. — 2. In Asia Minor (now Urziri), on the 
southeastern border of Cilieia, close to the Pylse 
Amanides, was formerly called (Eniandus, and 
probably owed its new name to Antiochus 
Epiphanes. Pompey repeopled this city with 
some of the pirates whom he had conquered. 
There were some other Asiatic cities of the 
name. 

Epiphanius ('Emfuvcog), one of the Greek 
fathers, was born near Eleutheropolis, in Pales- 
tine, about A.D. 320, of Jewish parents. He 
went to Egypt when young, and there appears 
to have been tainted with Gnostic errors, but 
afterward fell into the hands of some monks, 
and by them was made a strong advocate for 
the monastic life. He returned to Palestine, 
and lived there for some time as a monk, having 
founded a monastery near his native place. In 
A.D. 367 he was chosen bishop of Constantia, 
the metropolis of Cyprus, formerly called Sala- 
mis. His writings show him to have been a 
man of great reading, for he was acquainted 
with Hebrew, Syriac, Greek, Egyptian, and 
Latin. But he was entirely without critical or 
logical power ; of real piety, but also of a very 
bigoted and dogmatical turn of mind. He dis- 
tinguished himself by his opposition to heresy, 
and especially to Origen's errors. He died 402. 
His most important work is entitled Panarium, 
being a discourse against heresies. The best edi- 
tion of his works is by Petavius, Paris, 1622, and 
Lips., 1682, with a commentary by Valesius. 

Epipol^e. Vid. Syracuse. 

Epirus ("Hnetpoc : 'HneipuTijc, fern. 'K7VEipd. 
rig : now Albania), that is, " the main land," a 
country in the northwest of Greece, so called to 
distinguish it from Corcyra and the other i&b 
ands off the coast. Homer gives the name of 
Epirus to the whole of the western coast of 
285 



EPIRUS NOVA. 



ERASISTRATUS. 



Greece, thus including Acarnania in it. Epirus 
was bounded by Ulyria and Macedonia in the 
north, by Thessaly on the east, by Acarnania 
and the Ambracian Gulf on the south, and by 
the Ionian Sea on the west. The principal 
mountains were the Acroceraunii, forming the 
northwestern boundary ; besides which there 
were the mountains Tomarus in the east, and 
Crania in the south. The chief rivers were the 
Celydnus, Thyamis, Acheron, and Arachthus. 
The inhabitants of Epirus were numerous, but 
were not ol pure Hellenic blood. The original 
population appears to have been Pelasgic ; and 
the ancient oracle of Dodona in the country was 
always regarded as of Pelasgic origin. These 
Pelasgians were subsequently mingled with Illy- 
rians who at various times invaded Epirus and 
settled in the country. Epirus contained four- 
teen different tribes. Of these the most im- 
portant were the Chaoses, Thesproti, and. 
Molossi, .who gave their names to the three 
principal divisions of the country, Chaonia, 
Thesprotia, and Molossis. The different tribes 
were originally governed by their own princes. 
The Molossian princes, who traced their de- 
scent from Pyrrhus (Neoptolernus), son of Achil- 
les, subsequently acquired the sovereignty over 
the whole country, and took the title of kings of 
Epirus. The first who bore this title was 
Alexander, who invaded Italy to assist the Ta- 
rentines against the Lucanians and Bruttii, and 
perished at the battle of Pandosia, B.C. 326. 
The most celebrated of the later kings was Pyr- 
ehus, who carried on war with the Romans. 
About B.C. 200 the Epirots established a repub- 
lic : and the Romans, after the conquest of Phil- 
ip, 197, guaranteed its independence. But in 
consequence of the support which the Epirots 
afforded to Antiochus and Perseus, ^Emilius 
Paulus received orders from the senate to punish 
them with the utmost severity. He destroyed 
seventy of their towns, and sold one hundred 
and fifty thousand of the inhabitants for slaves. 
In the time of Augustus the country had not yet 
recovered from the effects of this devastation. 

Epirus Nova. Vid. Illyeicum. 

[Episi'henes ('Emadt-vrjc), of Amphipolis, 
commander of the Greek peltastae in the army 
of the younger Cyrus at the battle of Cunaxa.] 

[Epistor ('ETu'crrwp), a Trojan, slain by Patro- 
clus arrayed in the armor of Achilles.] 

[Epistrophus ('EmoTpotyog). 1. Son of Iphi- 
tus, leader of the Phocians in the Trojan war. — 
2. Of Alybe, an ally of the Trojans.— 3. Son of 
Euenus, king of Lyrnessus.] 

Epona (from cpus, that is, equus), a Roman 
goddess, the protectress of horses. Images of 
her, either statues or paintings, were frequently 
seen in the niches of stables. 

Epopeus ('ETTwiTEiif). 1. Son of Neptune (Po- 
seidon) and Canace, came from Thessaly to 
Sicyon, of which place he became king. He car- 
ried away from Thebes the beautiful Antiope, 
daughter of Nycteus, who therefore made war 
upon Epopeus. The two kings died of the 
wounds which they received in the war. — 2. One 
of the Tyrrhenian pirates, who attempted to 
carry off Bacchus (Dionysus), but were changed 
by the god into dolphins. 

Eporedia (now Ivrea), a town in Gallia Cisal- 
pina, on the Duria in the territory of the Salassi, 
286 



colonized by the Romans, B.C. 100, on the com 
mand of the Sibylline books, to serve as a bul- 
wark against the neighboring Alpine tribes. 

Eporedorix, a chieftain of the jEdui, was one 
of the commanders of the ^Eduan cavalry which 
was sent to Cassar's aid against Vercingetorix in 
B.C. 52, but he himself revolted soon afterward 
and joined the enemy. 

[Epulo, a Rutulian hero in the ^Eneid, slain by 
Achates.] 

[Epyaxa ('E7n;ufa), queen of Cilicia, wife o 
King Syennesis, brought large sums of money to 
Cyrus to aid him in paying his troops.] 

Epytus, a Trojan, father of Periphas, who was 
a companion of lulus, and is called by the 
patronymic Epytides. 

Equester ("i7T7uoc), a surname of several di 
vinities, but especially of Neptune (Poseidon), 
who had created the horse, and in whose honor 
horse-races were held. 

Equus Tuticus or jEqtjum Tuticum, a small 
town of the Hirpini in Samnium, twenty-one miles 
from Beneventum. The Scholiast on Horace 
(Sat, i., 5, 87) supposes, but without sufficient 
reasons, that it is the town, quod versu dicere non 
est. 

Er^e ("Epai : now Sighajik?), a small but 
strong sea-port town on the coast of Ionia, north 
of Teos. 

Erana, a town in Mount Amanns, the chief 
seat of the Eleutheroeilices in the time of Cicero. 

Erannoboas ('EpavvoSoac : now Gunduk), a 
river of India, one of the chief tributaries of the 
Ganges, into which it fell at Palimbothra. 

Erasinides (EpaaLvidTjg), one of the Athenian 
commanders at the battle of the Arginusae. He 
was among the six commanders who returned to 
Athens after the victory, and were put to death. 
B.C. 406. 

Erasinus ('Epaolvoc). 1. (Now Kephalari), 
the chief river in Argolis, rises in the Lake Stym- 
phalus, then disappears under the earth, rises 
again out of the mountain Chaon, and, after re 
ceiving the River Phrixus, flows through the 
Lernaaan marsh into the Argolic Gulf. — 2. A 
small river near Brauron in Attica. 

Erasistratus ('EpaaiaTparog). 1. A celebra- 
ted physician and anatomist, was born at Iulis in 
the island of Ceos. He was a pupil of Chrysip- 
pus of Cnidos, of Metrodorus, and apparently of 
Theophrastus. He flourished from B.C. 300 to 
260. He lived for some time at the court of 
Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria, where he ac- 
quired great reputation by discovering that the 
illness of Antiochus, the king's eldest son, was 
owing to his love for his mother-in-law, Strato- 
nice, the young and beautiful daughter of De- 
metrius Poliorcetes, whom Seleucus had lately 
married. Erasistratus afterward lived at Alex- 
andrea, which was at that time beginning to be 
a celebrated medical school. He gave up prac- 
tice in his old age, that he might pursue his an- 
atomical studies without interruption. He pros- 
ecuted his experiments in this branch of medi- 
cal science with great success, and with such 
ardor that he is said to have dissected criminals 
alive. He had numerous pupils and followers, 
and a medical school bearing his name continued 
to Exist at Smyrna, in Ionia, about the beginning 
of the Christian era. — 2. One of the thirty ty- 
rants in Athens.] 



ERATID^E. 



ERICHTHONIUS. 



Eratid^e ('EpaTcSai), an illustrious family of 
Ialysus in Rhodes, to which Damagetus and his 
son Diagoras belonged. 

Erato ('Eparu). 1. Wife of Areas, and moth- 
er of Elatus and Apbidas. Vid. Arcas. — 2. One 
of the Muses. Vid. Mus^e. 

Eratosthenes ('Eparoadevr;c), of Cyrene, was 
born B.C. 276. H,e first studied in his native 
city and then at Athens. He was taught by 
Ariston of Chios, the philosopher : Lysanias of 
Cyrene, the grammarian ; and Callimachus, the 
poet. He left Athens at the invitation of Ptole- 
my Evergetes, who placed him over the library 
at Alexandrea, Here he continued till the reign 
of Ptolemy Epiphanes. He died at the age of 
eighty, about B.C. 196, of voluntary starvation, 
having lost his sight, and being tired of life. 
He was a man of very extensive learning, and 
wrote on almost all the branches of knowledge 
then cultivated — astronomy, geometry, geogra- 
phy, philosophy, history, and grammar. He is 
supposed to have constructed the large armillce 
or fixed circular instruments which were long 
in use at Alexandrea. His works have perish- 
ed, with the exception of some fragments. His 
most celebrated work was a systematic treatise 
on geography, entiled TeuypcKpind, in three 
books. The first book, which formed a sort of 
introduction, contained a critical review of the 
labors of his predecessors from the earliest to 
his own times, and investigations concerning 
the form and nature of the earth, which, accord- 
ing to him, was an immovable globe. The sec- 
cond book contained what is now called mathe- 
matical geography. He was the first person 
who attempted to measure the magnitude of the 
earth, in which attempt he brought forward and 
ysed the method which is employed to the pres- 
ent day. The third book contained jwlitical 
geography, and gave descriptions of the various 
countries, derived from the works of earlier trav- 
ellers and geographers. In order to be able to 
determine the accurate site of each place, he 
drew a line parallel with the equator, running 
from the pillars of Hercules to the extreme east 
of Asia, and dividing the whole of the inhabited 
earth into two halves. Connected with this 
work was a new map of the earth, in which 
towns, mountains, rivers, lakes, and climates 
were marked according to his own improved 
measurements. This important work of Era- 
tosthenes forms an epoch in the history of an- 
cient geography. Strabo, as well as other wri- 
ters, made great use of it. Eratosthenes also 
wrote two poems on astronomical subjects : one 
entitled 'Ep//^c or KaTaaTEpia/aoi, which treat- 
ed of the constellations ; and another entitled 
'RpiyovT] ; but the poem YLaraarepLauol, which 
is still extant under his name, is not the work 
of Eratosthenes. He wrote several historical 
works, the most important of which was a chro- 
nological work entitled Xpovoypafia, in which 
he endeavored to fix the dates of all the import- 
ant events in literary as well as political his- 
tory. The most celebrated of his grammatical 
works was On the Old Attic Comedy (Tlepl rijc 
'Apxaiac Ku/xudiac). The best collection of his 
fragments is by Bernhardy, Eratosthenica, Be- 
rol., 1822. 

Erbessus ('EpGqcTGoc), a town in Sicily, north- 
east of Agrigentum, near the sources of the 



Acragas, which must not be confounded with 
the town Herbessus, uear Syracuse. 

Ercta (Etpicrij or EipKrai), a fortress in Sici- 
ly, on a hill, with a harbor near Panormus. 

Erebus ("Epefioc), son of Chaos, begot ^Ether 
and Hemera (Day) by Nyx (Night), his sister. 
The name signifies darkness, and is therefore 
applied to the dark and gloomy space un 
der the earth, through which the shades pass 
into Hades. 

Erechtheum. Vid. Erichthonius. 

Erechtheus. Vid. Erichthonius. 

[Erembi ('Epefi6oi), a people mentioned in the 
Odyssey (iv., 84) in connection with the Sidoni- 
ans and ^Ethiopians ; according to Strabo, a 
Troglodytic people in Arabia.] 

Eresus or Eressus ("Epeaoc, "Epeaaog : 'Ept - 
aioc), a town on the western coast of the island 
of Lesbos, the birth-place of Theophrastus and 
Pbanias, and, according to some, of Sappho. 

[Eretmeus ('EpeTfievc, i. e., " rower"), a Phas- 
aeian engaged in the games celebrated during 
the stay of Ulysses in Phseacia.] 

Eretria ('Eperpia : 'Eperoievc; : now PaUeo- 
Castro), an ancient and important town in Eu- 
boea, on the Euripus, with a celebrated harbor 
Porthmos (now Porto Bufalo), was founded by 
the Athenians, but had a mixed population, 
among which was a considerable number of 
Dorians. Its commerce and navy raised it in 
early times to importance ; it contended with 
Chalcis for the supremacy of Eubcea; it ruled 
over several of the neighboring islands, and 
planted colonies in Macedonia and Italy. It 
was destroyed by the Persians, B.O, 490, and 
most of its inhabitants were carried away into 
slavery. Those who were left behind built, at 
a little distance from the old city, the town of 
New Eretria, which, however, never became a 
place of importance. — 2. A town in Phthiotis, in 
Thessaly, near Pharsalus. 

[Eretum ("HprjTov, now Crestone?), an ancient 
city of the Sabines on the Tiber, which, under 
the Roman rule, sank into comparative insig- 
nificance : in Strabo's time it was little more 
than a village.] 

[Ereuthalion ('EpEvdaXiov), leader of the 
Arcadians against the Pylians, fought in the 
armor of Are'ithous ; he was slain by Nestor.] 

Erginus ('Epyivoc), son of Clymenus, king of 
Orehomenos. After Clymenus had been killed 
at Thebes, Erginus, who succeeded him, march- 
ed against Thebes, and compelled them to pay 
him an annual tribute of one hundred oxen. 
The Thebans were released from the payment 
of this tribute by Hercules, who killed Erginus. 

[Eribcea ('EpiBoia, poet. 'Hep'i6oia). 1. Sec 
ond wife of Aloeus, consequently step-mother 
of the Aloidse : when these had confined Mars 
in chains, Eribcea disclosed to Mercury the place 
where he was imprisoned. — 2. Wife of Tela- 
mon, mother of Ajax ; is sometimes called Per 
ibcea.] 

Erichthonius ('Epixdovioc) or Erechtheus 
('Epexdevc). In the ancient myths these two 
names indicate the same person ; but later 
writers mention two heroes, one of whom is 
usually called Erichthonius or Erechtheus I., 
aud the other Erechtheus II. Homer knows 
only one Erechtheus, as an autochthon and kinj-; 
of Athens ; and the first writer who distinguish 
287 



ERICHTHONIUS. 

es two personages is Plato. 1. Eiucothonius 
or Erkchthel-s I, son of Vulcan (Hephaestus) 
and Attbis, the daughter of Cranaus. Minerva 
(Athena) reared the child -without the knowl- 
edge of the other gods, and intrusted him to 
Agraulos, Paudrosos, and Herse, concealed in 
a chest. They were forbidden to open the 
chest, but they disobeyed the command. Upon 
opening the chest they saw the child in the form 
of a serpent, or entwined by a serpent, where- 
upon they were seized with madness, and threw 
themselves down the rock of the Acropolis, or, 
according to others, into the sea. "When Erich- 
thonius had grown up, he expelled Amphictyon, 
and became king of Athens. His wife Pasithea 
bore bim a son, Pandion. He is said to have 
introduced the worship of Minerva (Athena), to 
have instituted the festival of the Panathenasa, 
and to have built a temple of Minerva (Athena) 
on the Acropolis. When Minerva (Athena) and 
Neptune (Poseidon) disputed about the posses- 
sion of Attica, Erichthonius declared in favor 
of Minerva (Athena). He was, further, the first 
who used a chariot with four horses, for which 
reason he was placed among the stars as auriga. 
He was buried in the temple of Minerva (Athe- 
na), and was worshipped as a god after his death. 
His famous temple, the Erechtheum, stood on 
the Acropolis, and contained three separate tem- 
ples : one of Minerva (Athena) Polias, or the 
protectress of the state ; the Erechtheum proper, 
or sanctuary of Erechtheus ; and the Pandrosi- 
wn, or sanctuary of Paudrosos. — 2. Erechtheus 
II, grandson of the former, son of Pandion by 
Zeuxippe, and brother of Butes, Procne, and 
Philomela. After his father's death, he suc- 
ceeded him as king of Athens, and was regard- 
ed in later times as one of the Attic epouymi. 
He was married to Praxithea, by whom he be- 
came the father of Cecrops, Pandoros, Metion, 
Orueus, Proeris, Creusa, Chthonia, and Orithyia. 
In the war between the Eleusinians and Athe- 
nians, Eumolpus, the son of Neptune (Posei- 
don), was slain ; whereupon Neptune (Poseidon) 
demanded the sacrifice of one of the daughters 
of Erechtheus. When one was drawn by lot, 
her three sisters resolved to die with her ; and 
Erechtheus himself was killed by Jupiter (Zeus) 
with a flash of lightning at the request of Nep- 
tune (Poseidon). 

Erichtho.nius, son of Dardanus and Batea, 
husband of Astyoche or Callirrhoe, and father 
of Tros or Assaracus. He was the wealthiest 
of all mortals ; three thousand mares grazed in 
his fields, which were so beautiful that Boreas 
fell in love with them. He is mentioned, also, 
among the kings of Crete. 

Ericinium, a town in Thessaly, near Gom- 
phi. 

Eridanus ('Hpidavoc), a river god, a son of 
Oceanus and Tethys, and father of Zeuxippe. 
He is called the king of rivers, and on his banks 
amber was found. In Homer the name does 
not occur, and the first writer who mentions it 
is Hesiod. The position which the ancient po- 
ets assign to the River Eridanus differed at 
different times. In later times the Eridanus 
was supposed to be the same as the Padus, 
because amber was found at its mouth. Hence 
the Electrides Insula; or " Amber Islands," are 
placed at the mouth of the Po, and here Phae- 
288 



ERIS. 

thou was supposed to have fallen when struck 
by the lightning of Jupiter (Zeus). The Latin 
poets frequently give the name of Eridanus to 
the Po. Vid. Padus. 

Erigon ('Epiyuv), a tributary of the Axius in 
Macedonia, the Agrianus of Herodotus. Vid. 
Axius. 

ErIgone ('Hpr/ovri). 1. Daughter of Iearius 
beloved by Bacchus. For the legend respect- 
ing her, vid. Icarius. — 2. Daughter of iEgisthus 
and Clytffimnestra, and mother of Penthilus by 
Orestes. Another legend relates that Orestes 
wanted to kill her with her mother, but that Di- 
ana (Artemis) removed her to Attica, aud there 
made her her priestess. Others state that Erig- 
one put an end to herself when she heard that 
Orestes was acquitted by the Areopagus. 

Erineus ('Epiveoc or 'Epiveov : 'Epivevc, 'Epiv- 
euTrjc). 1. A small but ancient town in Doris, 
belonging to the Tetrapolis. Vid. Doris. — 2. 
A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly. 

Erinna ("Hpivva), a Greek poetess, a con- 
temporary and friend of Sappho (about B.C. 
612), who died at the age of nineteen, but left 
behind her poems which were thought worthy 
to rank with those of Homer. Her poems were 
of the epic class : the chief of them was entitled 
'H/tdKurr), the Distaff: it consisted of three hun- 
dred lines, of which only four are extant. It 
was written in a dialect which was a mixture 
of the Doric aud iEolie, and which was spoken 
at Rhodes, where, or in the adjacent island of 
Telos, Erinna was born. She is also called a 
Lesbian and a Mytilenaaan, on account of her 
residence in Lesbos with Sappho. There are 
several epigrams upon Erinna, in which her 
praise is celebrated, and her untimely death ie 
lamented. Three epigrams in the Greek An ; 
thology are ascribed to her, of which the first 
has the genuine air of antiquity ; but the other 
two, addressed to Baucis, seem to be a later 
fabrication. Eusebius mentions another Erin- 
na, a Greek poetess, contemporary with De 
mosthenes and Philip of Macedon, B.C. 352 ; 
but this statement ought probably to be rejected. 

Erinyes. Vid. Eumenides. 

[Eriopis ('Epiumc). 1. Wife of O'ileus, moth- 
er of Ajax the Locrian.— 2. Daughter of Jason 
and Medea.] 

Eriphus ("Epi<poc), an Athenian poet of the 
middle comedy. 

Eriphyle ('Epi(j>v?i7j), daughter of Talaus and 
Lysimaebe, and wife of Amphiaraus, whom she 
betrayed for the sake of the necklace of Harmo 
Dia. Eor details, vid. Amphiaraus, Alcmaon, 
Harmonia. 

Eris ('Epic), the goddess of discord. Homer 
describes her as the friend and sister of Mars 
(Ares), and as deh'ghting with him in the tumuli 
of war and the havoc and anguish of the battle- 
field. According to Hesiod she was a daughter 
of Night, and the poet describes her as the 
mother of a variety of allegorical beings, which 
are the causes or representatives of man's mis- 
fortunes. It was Eris who threw the apple into 
the assembly of the gods, the cause of so much 
suffering and war. Vid. Paris. Virgil intro- 
duces Discordia as a being similar to the Ho 
meric Eris ; for Discordia appears in company 
with Mars, Bcllona, and the Furies, and Virgil 
is evidently imitating Homer. 



ERTTHUS. 



ERYTHINT. 



[Eriihus, a friend of Phineus, slain by Per- 
seus.] 

ErIza (rti "Epi& : 'Eptfyvoc), a city of Caria, 
on the borders of Lycia and Phrygia, on the 
River Chaiis (or rather Caiis). The surrounding 
district was called Asia Erizena. 

Eros (Epoc), in Latin Amor or Cupido, the 
god of Love. In order to understand the an- 
cients properly, we must distinguish three gods 
of this name : 1. The Eros of the ancient cos- 
mogonies ; 2. The Eros of the philosophers and 
mysteries, who bears great resemblance to the 
first ; and, 3. The Eros whom we meet with 
in the epigrammatic and erotic poets. Homer 
does not mention Eros, and Hesiod, the earliest 
author who speaks of him, describes him as the 
eosmogonic Eros. First, says Hesiod, there 
was Chaos, then came Ge, Tartarus, and Eros, 
the fairest among the gods, who rules over the 
minds and the council of gods and men. By 
the philosophers and in the mysteries Eros was 
regarded as one of the fundamental causes in 
the formation of the world, inasmuch as he was 
the uniting power of love, which brought order 
and harmony among the conflicting elements 
of which Chaos consisted. The Orphic poets 
described him as the son of Cronus (Saturn), 
or as the first of the gods who sprang from the 
world's egg ; and in Plato's Symposium he is 
likewise called the oldest of the gods. The 
Eros of later poets, who gave rise to that notion 
of the god which is most familiar to us, is one 
of the youngest of all the gods. The parentage 
of this Eros is very differently described. He 
is usually represented as a son of Aphrodite 
(Venus), ;but his father is either Ares (Mars), 
Zeus (Jupiter), or Hermes (Mercury). He was 
at first represented as a handsome youth ; but 
shortly after the time of Alexander the Great 
the epigrammatists and erotic poets represent- 
ed him as a wanton boy, of whom a thousand 
tricks and cruel sports were related, and from 
whom neither gods nor men were safe. In this 
stage Eros had nothing to do with uniting the 
discordant elements of the universe, or with 
the higher sympathy of love which binds human 
kind together ; but he is purely the god of sen- 
sual love, who bears sway over the inhabitants 
of Olympus as well as over men and all living 
creatures. His arms consist of arrows, which 
he carries in a golden quiver, and of torches 
which no one can touch with impunity. His 
arrows are of different power : some are golden, 
and kindle love in the heart they wound ; others 
are blunt and heavy with lead, and produce 
aversion to a lover. Eros is further represent- 
ed with golden wings, and as fluttering about 
like a bird. His eyes are sometimes covered, 
so that he acts blindly. He is the usual com- 
panion of his mother Aphrodite (Venus), and 
poets and artists represent him, moreover, as 
accompanied by such allegorical beings as Po- 
thos, Himeros, Tyehe, Peitho, the Charites or 
Muses. Anteros, which literally means re- 
turn-love, is usually represented as the god who 
punishes those who do not return the love of 
others ; thus he is the avenging Eros, or a deus 
ultor (Ov., Met, xiii., 150). But in some ac- 
counts he is described as a god opposed to Eros 
and struggling against him. The number of 
Erotes (Amores and Cupidinee) is playfully ex- 
19 



tended ad libitum by later poets, and these 
Erotes are described either as sons of Aphro- 
dite (Venus) or of nymphs. Among the places 
distinguished for the worship of Eros, Thespias 
in Beeotia stands foremost : there a quinquen- 
nial festival, the Erotidia or Erotia, was cele- 
brated in his honor. In ancient works of art, 
Eros is represented either as a full-grown youth 
of the most perfect beauty, or as a wanton and 
sportive boy. Respecting the connection be- 
tween Eros and Psyche, vid. Psyche. 

[Eros ("Epoc). 1. A slave of Marc Antony, 
who, when Antony, having determined to de- 
stroy himself, handed him his sword for that 
purpose, plunged it into his own breast. — 2. A 
comic actor, was at first hissed from the stage ; 
but afterward, under the instruction of Roscius, 
became one of the most celebrated actors of 
Rome.] 

Erotianus (EpuTiavoc), a Greek grammarian 
or physician in the reign of Nero, wrote a work 
still extant, entitled Tuv 7rap' 'InnoKpaTeL Aetjeov 
~Zvvay(jyrj, Vocum, guce apud Hippocratern sunt, 
Collectio, which is dedicated to Andromachus, 
the archiater of the emperor. The best edition 
is by Franz, Lips., 1780. 

Erubrus (now Ruber), a small tributary of the 
Moselle, near Treves. 

[Ertcina, surname of Venus (Aphrodite). 
Vid. Eryx.] 

[Erymanthe ('Epv/idvd-rj), wife of Berosus, and 
mother of Sabba, one of the Sibyls.] 

Erymanthus ('EpvfiavOoc). 1. A lofty mount- 
ain in Arcadia, on the frontiers of Achaia and 
Elis, celebrated in mythology as the haunt of 
the savage Erymanthian boar destroyed by Her- 
cules. Vid. Hercules. The Arcadian nymph 
Callisto, who was changed into a she-bear, is 
called Erymanthis ursce, and her son Areas Ery- 
manthidis ursce eustos. Vid. Arctos. — 2. [(Now 
Dogana, or, according to Leake, Dhimitzana),~\ 
a river in Arcadia, which rises in the above- 
mentioned mountain, and falls into the Alpheus. 

Erymanthus or Etymandrus ('Epv/iavdoc, 
'Erv/j.av6poc, Arrian : now Helmund), a consid- 
erable river in the Persian province of Aracho- 
sia, rising in Mount Paropamisus, and flowing 
southwest and west into the lake called Aria 
(now Zarah). According to other accounts, it 
lost itself in the sand, or flowed on through 
Gedrosia into the Indian Ocean. 

[Erymas ('Epifzac). 1. A Trojan, slain by 
Idomeneus. — 2. Another Trojan, slain by Pa- 
trocius. — 3. A companion of ./Eneas, slain by 
Turnus.] 

Erysichthon ('Epvatxdov), that is, " the Tear- 
er up of the Earth." L Son of Triopas, cut 
down trees in a grove sacred to Ceres (Deme- 
ter), for which he was punished by the goddess 
with fearful hunger. — 2. Son of Cecrops and 
Agraulos, died without issue in his father's life- 
time on his return from Delos, whence he brought 
to Athens the ancient image of Llithyia. 

[Erythia ('Epvffeia), daughter of Geryones, 
after whom the island Erythea or Erythia, near 
Gades was said to have been named. Vid. 
Gades.] 

Erythiki ('Epvdlvoi), a city on the coast of 
Paphlagonia, between Cromna and Amastris. 
A range of cliffs near it was called by the same 
name. 

289 



ERYTHRjE. 



ETEONETJS. 



Erythr.e ('Epvffpa'i : 'Epvdpaloe). I. (Ruins 
Dear Pigadia), an ancient town in Bceotia, not 
fav from Platasa3 and Hysia, and celebrated as 
the mother city of Erythrae in Asia Minor. — 
2. A town of the Locri Ozolse, but belonging to 
the ^Etolians, east of Naupaetus. — 3. (Ruins at 
Ritri), one of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia 
Minor, stood at the bottom of a large bay, on the 
west side of the peninsula which lies opposite 
to Chios. Tradition ascribed its foundation to 
a mixed colony of Cretans, Lycians, Carians, 
and Pamphylians, under Erythros, the son of 
Rhadamanthys ; and the leader of the Ionians, 
who afterward took possession of it, was said 
to have been Cnopus, the son of Codrus, after 
whom the city was also called Cnopopolis 
(KvutiovttoXic). The little river Aleos (or, 
rather, Axus, as it appears on coins), flowed 
past the city, and the neighboring sea-port towns 
of Cyssus or Casystes, and Phoenicus, formed 
its harbors. Erythrae contained a temple of 
Hercules and Minerva (Athena) Polias, remark- 
able for its antiquity ; and on the coast, near the 
city, was a rock called Nigrum Promontorium 
(uKpa fieXaiva), from which excellent mill-stones 
were hewn. 

Erythr^uji Mare (rj 'Epvdpa ■frdXauaa, also 
rarely 'Epvdpaloe ttovtoc), was the name applied 
originally to the whole expanse of sea between 
Arabia and Africa on the west, and India on the 
east, including its two great gulfs (the Red Sea 
and Persian Gulf). In this sense it is used by 
Herodotus, who also distinguishes the Red Sea 
by the name of 'Apd6wc koXitoc. Vid. Arabicus 
Sinus. Supposing the shores of Africa and 
Arabia to trend more and more away from each 
other the further south you go, he appears to 
have called the head of the sea between them 
6 'Apd6wc koXttoc, and the rest of that sea, as 
far south as it extended, and also eastward to 
the shores of India, fj 'Epvdpi/ duXaaoa, and also 
17 Nor'tr/ -frdXaooa ; though there are, again, some 
indications of a distinction between these two 
terms, the latter being applied to the whole ex- 
panse of ocean south of the former ; in one pas- 
sage, however, they are most expressly identi- 
fied (ii., 158). Afterward, when the true form 
of these seas came to be better known, through 
the progress of maritime discovery under the 
Ptolemies, their parts were distinguished by 
different names, the main body of the sea be- 
ing called Indicus Oceanus, the Red Sea Arab- 
icus Sinus, the Persian Gulf Persicus Sinus, 
and the name Erythrseum Mare being confined 
by some geographers to the gulf between the 
Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and the Indian Ocean, 
but far more generally used as identical with 
Arabicus Sinus, or the corresponding genuine 
Latin term, Mare Rubrum (Red Sea). Still, 
however, even long after the commencement 
of our era, the name Erythraeum Mare was 
sometimes used in its ancient sense, as in the 
TlspiTrXovc rr/c 'Epvdpuc ■&a'Kdacrjc, ascribed to 
Arrian, but really the work of a later period, 
which is a description of the coast from Myos 
Hermos on the Red Sea to the shores of India. 
The origin of the name is doubtful, and was dis- 
puted by the ancients : it is generally supposed 
that the Greek 'Epvdpa dukaaaa is a significant 
name, identical in meaning with the Latin and 
English names of the Red Sea ; but why red no 
390 



very satisfactory reason has been given ; the He- 
brew name signifies the sedgy sea. 

[Erythras ('Epvdpac), an ancient king (Stra 
bo in one place calls him a Persian, in another a 
son of Perseus), after whom the Erythraean Sea 
was said to have been named.] 

[Eryx ("Epuf), son of Neptune (Apollod.), or 
of Butes and Venus, consequently half brother 
of jEneas ; king of the Elymi in Sicily ; founded 
the city Eryx (q. v.), and built a temple in honor 
of his mother. He was a famous boxer, and 
challenged Hercules, but was slain by him.] 

Eryx ("Epv£). 1. Also Erycus Mo.xs (now 
S. Giuliano), a steep and isolated mountain in 
the northwest of Sicily, near Drepanum. On 
the summit of this mountain stood an ancient 
and celebrated temple of Venus (Aphrodite), 
said to have been built by Eryx, king . of the 
Elymi, or, according to Virgil, by iEneas, but 
more probably by the Phoenicians, who intro- 
duced the worship of Venus (Aphrodite) into 
Sicily. Vid. Aphrodite. From this temple the 
goddess bore the surname Erycina, under which 
name her worship was introduced at Rome about 
the beginning of the second Punic war. At 
present there is standing on the summit of the 
mountain the remains of a castle, originally 
built by the Saracens. — 2. The town of this name 
was on the western slope of the mountain. It 
was destroyed by the Carthaginians in the time 
of Pyrrhus ; was subsequently rebuilt ; but was 
again destroyed by the Carthaginians in the 
first Punic war, and its inhabitants removed to 
Drepanum. 

Esdraela ('EcdpaTjXd) and Esdraelon or Es- 
drelon or -on ('EodprjAuv or -uu), the Greek 
names for the city and valley of Jezreel in Pal- 
estine. 

EsquilLe. Vid. Roma. 

Essui, a people in Gaul, west of the Sequana, 
probably the same as the people elsewhere call- 
ed Esubii and Sesuvii. 

Estiones, a people in Raetia Secunda or Vin- 
delicia, whose capital was Campodunum (now ; 
Kempten), on the lller. 

[Etearchus ('Ercapxoc). 1. An ancient king 
of Crete, father of Phronima, and, through her, 
grandfather of Battus, according to the legend of 
the Cyreneans. — 2. A king of the Ammonians. 
Both mentioned by Herodotus. 

Eteocxes ('EreoKTitjc). 1. Son of Andreus and I 
Evippe, or of Cephisus ; said to have been the 
first who offered sacrifices to the Charites at 
Orchomenos in Bceotia. — 2. A son of (Edipua j 
and Joeaste. After his father's flight from 
Thebes, he and his brother Polynices undertook 
the government of Thebes by turns ; but dis- 1 
putes having arisen between them, Polynices 
fled to Adrastus, who then brought about the 
expedition of the Seven against Thebes. Vid. 
Adrastds. AVhen many of the heroes had fall- 
en, Eteocles and Polynices resolved upon de- 
ciding the contest by single combat, aud both the 
brothers fell. 

Eteoclus ('ErcqKAof), a son of Iphis, was, ac- 
cording to some traditions, one of the seven he- 
roes who went with Adrastus against Thebes. I 
He had to make the attack upon the Neltian 
gate, where he was opposed by Megarcus. 

[Eteoneus ('Ereavevc), son of Boethus, at- ! 
teDdant of Menelau<] 



I 



• 



T3TE0OT0US. 

[j 

[Eteokicus ('Eteovikoc), a LacecUemoman, 
harinost iD Thasos, was driven out B.C. 410 ; 
in 389 he was harmost in iEgiua.] 

Eteonus ('Ereuvoc), a town in Bceotia, be- 
longing to the district Parasopia, mentioned by 
Homer, subsequently called Scarphe. 

EtesI/E ('Erna'iai, sc. uvepoi), the Etesian 
Winds, derived from Itoc, " year," signified any 
periodical winds, but the word was used more 
particularly by the Greeks to indicate the north- 
' erly winds, which blew in the ^Egean for forty 
j days from the rising of the dog star. 

[Ethehon, a friend of Phineus, from JSTaba- 
ta?a m Arabia, slain by Perseus.] 

Etis or Etia ('Hrtf, "Hreia : "Krcog, 'Hrsioc), 
a town in the south of Laconia, near Boeas, said 
to have been founded by .^Eneas, and named 
after his daughter Etias. Its inhabitants were 
transplanted at an early time to Boese, and the 
place disappeared. 

Etovissa, a town of the Edetani, in Hispania 
Tarraconensis. 

Etruria or Tuscta, called by the Greeks 
Tyrrhenia or TyrsenLv (Tvfyrjvla, Tvparjvla), 
a country in central Italy. The inhabitants 
were called by the Romans Etrusci or Tusci, 
by the Greeks Tyrrheni or Tyrseni (Tv^tjvoI, 
! Tvpanvoi), and by themselves Rasena. Etruria 
was bounded on the north and northwest by the 
Apennines and the River Macra, which divided 
it from Liguria, on the west by the Tyrrhene 
Sea or Mare Iuferum, on the east and south by 
the River Tiber, which separated it from Um- 
bria and Latium, thus comprehending almost 
the whole of modern Tuscany, the Duchy of 
Lucca, and the Transtiberine portion of the Ro- 
man states. It was intersected by numerous 
mountains, offshoots of the Apennines, consist- 
ing of long ranges of hills in the north, but in 
the south lying in detached masses, and of 
smaller size. The land was celebrated in an- 
tiquity for its fertility, and yielded rich harvests 
of corn, wine, oil, and flax. The upper part of 
the country was the most healthy, namely, the 
part at the foot of the Apennines, near the 
sources of the Tiber and the Arnus, in the 
neighborhood of Arretium, Oortona, and Peru- 
6ia. The lower part of the country on the 
coast was ; marshy and unhealthy, like the Ma- 
remma at the present day. The early history 
of the population of Etruria has given rise to 
much discussion in modern times. It is admit- 
ted on all hands that the people known to the 
Romans under the name of Etruscans were not 
the original inhabitants of the country, but a 
mixed race. The most ancient inhabitants ap- 
pear to have been Ligurians in the north and 
Sieulians in the south, both of whom were sub- 
sequently expelled from the country by the Um- 
brians. So far most accounts agree ; but from 
this point there is great difference of opinion. 
The ancients generally believed that a colony 
of Lydians, led by Tyrsenus, son of the king of 
Lydia, settled in the country, to which they 
gave the name of their leader ; and it has been 
maintained by some modern writers that the 
Oriental character of many of the Etruscan in- 
stitutions is in favor of this account of their ori- 
gin. But most, modern critics adopt an entire- 
ly different opinion. They believe that a Pe- 
lasgic race, called Tyrrheni, subdued the Um- 



ETRURIA. 

brians, and settled in the country, and that 
these Tyrrhene-Pelasgians were in their turn 
conquered by a powerful Rastian race, called 
Rasena, who descended from the Alps and the 
valley of the Po. Hence it was from the union 
of the Tyrrhene-Pelasgians and the Rasena that 
the Etruscan nation was formed. It is impos- 
sible, however, to come to any definite conclu- 
sion respecting the real origin of the Etrus- 
cans, since we are entirely ignorant of the 
language which they spoke : and the language 
of a people is the only means by which we can 
pronounce with certainty respecting their ori- 
gin. But, whatever may have been the origin 
of the Etruscans, we know that they were a 
very powerful nation when Rome was still in 
its infancy, and that they had at an early period 
extended their dominion over the greater part 
of Italy, from the Alps and the plains of Lorn- 
bardy on the one hand, to Vesuvius and the 
Gulf of Sarento on the other. These domin- 
ions may be divided into three great districts : 
Circumpadane Etruria in the north, Etruria 
Proper in the centre, and Campanian Etruria 
in the south. In each of these districts there 
were twelve principal cities or states, which 
formed a confederacy for mutual protection. 
Through the attacks of the Gauls in the north, 
and of the Sabines, Samnites, and Greeks in the 
south, the Etruscans became confined within 
the limits of Etruria Proper, and continued long 
to flourish in this country, after they had disap- 
peared from the rest of Italy. Of the twelve 
cities which formed the confederacy in Etruria 
Proper, no list is given by the ancients. They 
were most probably Cortona, Arretium, Ci.u- 
sium, Perusia, Volaterr^e, Vetulonia, Rusel 

LjE, VOLSINII, TaRQUINII, VALERU, VeII, CjERE, 

more anciently called Agylla. Each state was 
independent of all the others. The government 
was a close aristocracy, and was strictly eon- 
fined to the family of the Lucumones, who 
united in their own persons the ecclesiastical 
as well as the civil functions. The people were 
not only rigidly excluded from all share in the 
government, but appear to have been in a state 
of vassalage or serfdom. From the noble and 
priestly families of the Lucumones a supreme 
magistrate was chosen, who appears to have 
been sometimes elected for life, and to have 
borne the title of king ; but his power was much 
fettered by the noble families. At a later time 
the kingly dignity was abolished, and. the gov- 
ernment intrusted to a senate. A meeting of 
the confederacy of the twelve states was held 
annually in the spring, at the temple of Vol- 
tumna, near Volsinii. The Etruscans were a 
highly-civilized people, and from them the Ro^ 
mans borrowed many of their religious and po- 
litical institutions. The three last kings of 
Rome were undoubtedly Etruscans, and they 
left in the city enduring traces of Etruscan 
power and greatness. The Etruscans paid the 
greatest attention to religion, and their relig- 
ious system was closely interwoven with all 
public and private affairs. The principal deities 
were divided into two classes. The highest 
class were the " Shrouded Gods," who did not 
reveal themselves to man, and to whom all the 
other gods were subject. The second class 
consisted of the twelve great gods, six male 
291 



ETJjEMON. 



EUCLIDES. 



and six female, called by the Romans Dii Con- 
sentes. They formed the council of Tina or 
Tinia. the Roman Jupiter,- and the two other 
most powerful gods of the twelve were Cupra, 
corresponding to Juno, and Menrva or Menerva, 
corresponding to the Roman Minerva. Besides 
these two classes of gods, there was a great 
number of other gods, penates and lares, to 
whom worship was paid. The mode in which 
the gods were worshipped was prescribed in 
certain sacred books, said to have been written 
by Tages. These books contained the " Etrus- 
can Disciplina," and gave minute directions re- 
specting the whole of the ceremonial worship. 
They were studied in the schools of the Lueu- 
unones, to which the Romans also were accus- 
tomed to send some of their noblest youths for 
instruction, since it was from the Etruscans 
that the Romans borrowed most of their arts 
of divination. In architecture, statuary, and 
painting, the Etruseans attained a great emi- 
uence. They were acquainted with the use of 
the arch at an early period, and they employed 
it in constructing the great cloaeas at Rome. 
Their bronze candelabra were celebrated at 
Athens even in the times of Pericles ; and the 
beauty of their bronze statues is still attested 
by the She "Wolf of the Capitol and the Orator 
of the Florence Gallery. The beautiful vases, 
which have been discovered in such numbers 
in Etruscan tombs, can not be cited as proofs 
of the excellence of Etruscan workmanship, 
since it is now admitted by the most compe- 
tent judges that these vases were either made 
in Greece, or by Greek artists settled in Italy. 
Of the private life of the Etruscans we have a 
lively picture from the paintings discovered in 
their tombs ; but into this subject our limits 
forbid us to enter. The later history of Etruria 
is a struggle against the rising power of Rome, 
to which it was finally compelled to yield. Aft- 
er the capture of Veii by the dictator Oamillus, 
B.C. 396, the Romans obtained possession of 
the eastern part of Etruria, and the Ciminian 
forest, instead of the Tiber, now became the 
boundary of the two people. The defeat of the 
Etruscans by Q. Fabius Maximus in 310 was 
a great blow to their power. They still en- 
deavored to maintain their independence, with 
the assistance of the Samnites and the Gauls ; 
but after their decisive defeat by Cornelius Dol- 
abella in 283, they became the subjects of Rome. 
In 91 they received the Roman franchise. The 
numerous military colonies established in Etru- 
ria by Sulla and Augustus destroyed to a great 
extent the national character of the people, and 
the country thus became in course of time com- 
pletely Romanized. 

[Eu^emon (Evai/iuv). 1. One of the sons of 
Lycaon, slain by the lightning of Jupiter (Zeus). 
— 2. Father of Eurypylus, whence the latter is 
called by Homer Euasmonides (EvaiftovldTft).'] 

[Euagrus, one of the Lapithae, slain by the 
centaur Rhcetus at the nuptials of Pirithous.] 

[Eubius, a writer, author of erotic stories, 
mentioned by Ovid in his Tristia.] 

Eubcea (Ev6oia : Ev6oiev£, Evtjoeiig, fem. E£>- 
Co(f). 1. (Now Negropont), the largest island 
of the .Jigean Sea, lying along the coasts of 
Attica, Bceotia, and the southern part of Thes- 
6aly, from whicli countries it is separated by 
292 



the Euboean Sea, called the Euripus in its nat- 
rowest part. Eubcea is about ninety miles in j 
length : its extreme breadth is thirty miles, but i 
in the narrowest part it is only four miles across. 
Throughout the leugth of the island runs a lofty f f 
range of mountains, which rise in one part as ! 
high as seven thousand two hundred and sixty - 
six feet above the sea. It contains, neverthe- j ; 
less, many fertile plains, and was celebrated iD f 
antiquity for the excellence of its pasturage and r 
corn-fields. According to the ancients, it was ' 
once united to Bceotia, from which it was sep- f 
arated by an earthquake. In Homer the itJhab- f 
itants are called Abantes, and are represented 1 
as taking part in the expedition against Troy. 
In the north of Eubcea dewelt the Histisei, from 
whom that part of the island was called His- 
tisea; below these were the Ellopii, who gave 
the name of Ellopia to the district, extending 
as far as ./Egas and Cerinthus ; and in the south 
were the Dryopes. The centre of the island 
was inhabited chiefly by Ionians. It was in this | 
part of Eubcea that the Athenians planted the 
colonies of Chalcis and Eretria, which were ' 
the two most important cities in the island. ' 
After the Persian wars Eubcea became subject 
to the Athenians, who attached much import- , 
ance to its possession : and, consequently, Per- : 
icles made great exertions to subdue it, when 
it revolted in B.C. 445. Under the Romans i 
Eubcea formed part of the province of Achaia. 
Sinee Cumas in Italy was a colony from Chal- i 
cis in Eubcea, the adjective JEuboicus is used by 
the poets in reference to the former city. Thus j 
Virgil (^£n., vi., 2) speaks of Euboieis Cumarum j 
oris. — 2. A town in the interior of Sicily, found- 
ed by Chalcis in Eubcea, but destroyed at an 
early period. 

Eobulides (Ev6ovXi6i]s), of Miletus, a phi I 
losopher of the Megarie school. He was a con- 
temporary of Aristotle, against whom he wrote 
with great bitterness ; and he is stated to "have 
given Demosthenes instruction in dialectics. 
He is said to have invented the forms of sev- 
eral of the most celebrated false and captious j 
syllogisms. 

Eubulus (Ei6ov?.o<;). 1. An Athenian, of the | 
demus Anaphlystus, a distinguished orator and j 
statesman, was one of the most formidable op- 
ponents of Demosthenes. It was with him that I 
JEschines served as secretary in the earlier part 
of his life. — 2. An Athenian, son of Euphranor, 
of the Cettian demus, a distinguished poet of 
the middle comedy, flourished B.C. 376. He ' 
wrote one hundred and four plays, of which 
there are extant more than fifty titles. His 
plays were chiefly on mythological subjects. 
Several of them contained parodies of passages 
from the tragic poets, and especially from Eu- | 
ripides. [The fragments of Eubulus have been 
collected and edited by Meiueke, Fragm. Comic 
Grcec, vol. i., p. 594-629, edit, minor.] 

[Euchenor (Evxyvup), a son of the Corinthian 
seer Polyidus, with whom he went to the Trojan 
war, although his father had foretold that he 
would thereby lose his life; he was slain by 
Paris.] 

Euolides (EvKXe'id'jjs). 1. The celebrated 
mathematician, who has almost given his own 
name to the science of geometry, in every coun- | 
try in which his writings are studied ; but we 



EUCRATES. 



EUELTHON. 



know next to nothing of his private history. 
The place of his birth is uncertain. He lived 
at Alexandrea. in the time of the first Ptolemy, 
B.C. 323-283, and was the founder of the Alex- 
andrean mathematical school. He was of the 
Platonic sect, and well read in its doctrines. 
It was his answer to Ptolemy, who asked if 
geometry could not be made easier, that there 
was no royal road. Of the numerous works at- 
tributed to Euclid, the following are still extant : 
1. Srot^eia, the Elements, in thirteen books, 
j with a fourteenth and fifteenth added by Hyp- 
sioles. 2. Aedopeva, the Data, containing one 
hundred propositions, with a preface by Marinus 
of Naples. 8. Elc ayayi) 'ApfioviKy, a Treatise on 
Music ; and, 4. KaraTopi) Kavovoc, the Division of 
the Scale : one of these works,' most- likely the 
former, must be rejected. 5. Qaivopeva, the 
Appearances (of the heavens). 6. 'OtttikiI, on 
Optics ; and, 7. KaronTpiKd, on Catoptrics. The 
only complete edition of all the reputed works 
of Euclid is that published at Oxford, 1703, folio, 
by David Gregory, with the title ¥,vK%eidov rd 
ou&peva. The Elements and the Data were 
published in Greek, Latin, and French, in 3 
vols. 4to, Paris, 1814-16-18, by Peyrard. The 
most convenient edition for scholars of the 
Greek text of the Elements is the one by Au- 
gust, Berol., 1826, 8vo. — 2. Of Megara, was one 
of the chief of the disciples of Socrates, but be- 
fore becoming such he had studied the doc- 
trines, and especially the dialectics, of the Ele- 
aties. Socrates on one occasion reproved him 
for his fondness for subtle and captious dis- 
putes. On the death of Socrates (B.C. 399), 
Euclides took refuge in Megara and there es- 
tablished a school which distinguished itself 
chiefly by the cultivation of dialectics. The 
doctrines of the Eleaties formed the basis of 
his philosophical system. With these he blend- 
ed the ethical and dialectical principles of So- 
crates. He was the author of six dialogues, 
none of which, however, have come down to 
us. He has frequently been erroneously con- 
founded with the mathematician of the same 
name. The school which he founded was call- 
ed sometimes the Megaric, sometimes the Dia- 
lectic or Eristic. 

[Eucrates {EvnpdT7ic). 1. An Athenian dem- 
agogue, who, after the death of Pericles, exer- 
cised for a time a considerable influence. — 2. 
Brother of Nicias, the general, refused to be- 
come one of the thirty tyrants, and was put to 
death by them.] 

Euoeatides (EvKpaTidric), king of Bactria 
i'rom about B.C. 181 to 161, was one of the 
most powerful of the Bactrian kings, and made 
great conquests in the north of India. 
Euotemon, the astronomer. Vid. Meton. 
Eudamidas (EvSajuSac). 1. I., King of Sparta, 
reigned from B.C. 330 to about 300. He was 
the younger son of Archidamus III., and suc- 
ceeded his brother Agis III. — 2. II., King of 
Sparta, was son of Archidamus IV., whom he 
succeeded, and father of Agis IV. — [3. A Spar- 
tan general, brother of Phcebidas, sent at the 
head of two thousand men to aid the Chaleidi- 
ans, B.C. 883 : in consequence of his brother's 
delay in bringing him re-enforcements, he did : 
not effect much : he was slain in the course of ! 
the war.] I 



Eudemus {Evdnpoc). 1. Of Cyprus, a Peripa- 
tetic philosopher, to whom Aristotle dedicated 
the diidogue Evdr/poc i) nepl ipvxyc, which is lost. 
— 2. Of Rhodes, also a Peripatetic philosopher, 
and one of the most important of Aristotle's 
disciples. He edited many of Aristotle's writ- 
ings ; and one of them even bears the name of 
Eudemus, namely, the 'HdiKa Ebdr/peia, which 
work was in all probability a recension of Aris- 
totle's lectures edited by Eudemus. Vid. p. 
102, a. — 3. The physician of Livilla, the wife of 
Drusus Ca3sar, who assisted her and Sejanus in 
poisoning her husband, A.D. 23. 

Eudooia (EvdoKia). 1. Originally called Athe- 
nais, daughter of the sophist Leontius, was dis- 
tinguished for her beauty and attainments. She 
married the Emperor Theodosius II, A.D. 421 ; 
and on her marriage she embraced Christianity, 
and received at her baptism the name of Eudo- 
cia. She died at Jerusalem, A.D. 460. She 
wrote several works ; and to her is ascribed by 
some the extant poem Homero-Centones, which 
is composed of verses from Homer, and relates 
the history of the fall and of the redemption of 
man by Jesus Christ; but its genuineness is 
very doubtful. — 2. Of Macrembolis, wife of the 
Emperors Constantine XI. Ducas and Romanus 
IV. Diogenes (A.D. 1059-1071), wrote a dic- 
tionary of history and mythology, which she 
called 'luvia, Violarium, or Bed of Violets. It 
was printed for the first time by Villoison, in his 
Anecdota Grroica, Venice, 1781. The sources 
from which the work was compiled are nearly 
the same as those used by Suidas. 

[Eudorus (EvSopoc), son of Mercury and Poly- 
mela, reared by liis grandfather Phylas ; was 
one of the leaders of the Myrmidons under 
Achilles.] 

Eudoses, a people in Germany, near the Va 
rini, probably in the modern Mecklenburg. 

Eudoxus (EiiSofof.) 1. Of Cnidus, son of 
JEschines, a celebrated astronomer, geometer, 
physician, and legislator, lived about B.C. 366. 
He was a pupil of Archytas and Plato, and also 
went to Egypt, where he studied some time 
with the priests. He afterward returned to 
Athens, but it would appear that he must have 
spent some time in his native place, for Strabo 
says that the observatory of Eudoxus at Cnidus 
was existing in his time. He died at the age 
of fifty-three. He is said to have been the first 
who taught in Greece the motions of the plan- 
ets ; and he is also stated to have made sep- 
arate spheres for the stars, sun, moon, and 
planets. He wrote various works on astronomy 
and geometry, which are lost ; but the substance 
of his Qaivopeva is preserved by Aratus, who 
turned into Terse the prose work by Eudoxus 
with that title. — 2. An Athenian comic poet of 
the new comedy, was by birth a Sicilian and 
the son of Agathocles. — 3. Of Cyzicus, a geog- 
rapher, who went from his native place to 
Egypt, and was employed by Ptolemy Evergetes 
and his wife Cleopatra in voyages to India ; but 
afterward, being robbed of all his property by 
Ptolemy Lathyrus, he sailed away down the 
Red Sea, and at last arrived at Gades. He aft- 
erward made attempts to circumnavigate Africa 
in the opposite direction, but without success. 
He lived about B.C. 130. 

Euelthon (Ev£?iduv), a king of Salamis in 
293 



EUGAMON. 



EUMENES. 



Cyprus, under whom the Persians reduced this 
island.] 

Eugamon (Evyu/iov), one of the Cyclic poets, 
was a native of Cyrene, and lived about B.C. 
508. His poem (TrjXeyov'ia) was a continuation 
of the Odyssey, and formed the conclusion of 
the Epic cycle. It concluded with the death of 
Ulysses. 

Euganei, a people who formerly inhabited 
\ r enetia on the Adriatic Sea, and were driven 
toward the Alps and the Lacus Benacus by the 
Heneti or Veneti. According to some tradi- 
tions, they founded Patavium and Verona, in 
the neighborhood of which were the Euganei 
Colles. They possessed numerous flocks of 
sheep, the wool of which was celebrated (Juv., 
viii., 15.) 

Euhemerus (Evjjfiepoc), probably a native of 
Messene in Sicily, lived at the court of Cas- 
sander in Macedonia about B.C. 316. Cassan- 
dcr furnished him with the means to undertake 
a voyage of discovery. He is said to have sail- 
ed down the Red Sea and round the southern 
coasts of Asia, until he came to an island called 
Panchaea. After his return he wrote a work en- 
titled 'lepd, 'kvaypaiprj, or a Sacred History, in 
nine books. He gave this title to his work be- 
cause he pretended to have his information from 
' kvaypatyai, or inscriptions in temples, which 
he had discovered in his travels, especially in 
the island of Panchasa. Euhemerus had been 
trained in the school of the Cyrenaies, who were 
notorious for their skepticism in matters con- 
nected with the popular religion ; and the ob- 
ject of his work was to exclude every thing 
supernatural from the popular religion, and to 
dress up the myths as so many plain histories. 
In his work the several gods were represented 
as having originally been men who had distin- 
guished themselves either as warriors or bene- 
factors of mankind, and who after their death 
were worshipped as gods by the grateful people. 
Jupiter (Zeus), for example, was a king of 
Crete, who had been a great conqueror ; and 
he asserted that he had seen in the temple of 
Jupiter (Zeus) Triphylius a column with an in- 
scription detailing all the exploits of the kings 
Ccelus (Uranus), Saturn (Cronus), and Jupiter 
(Zeus). The book was written in an attractive 
style, and became very popular, and many of 
the subsequent historians, such as Diodorus, 
adopted his mode of dealing with myths. The 
great popularity of the work is attested by the 
circumstance that Ennius made a Latin trans- 
lation of it. But the pious believers, on the 
other hand, called Euhemerus an atheist. The 
Christian writers often refer to him to prove 
that the pagan mythology was nothing but a 
heap of fables invented by men. 

Eul-eus (Ei laloc : Old Testament, Ulai : now 
Karoon), a river in Susiana, on the borders of 
Elymais, rising in Great Media, flowing south 
through Mesobatene, passing east of Susa, and, 
after uniting with the Pasitigris, falling into the 
head of the Persian Gulf. Some of the ancient 
geographers make the Eulaeus fall into the Cho- 
aspes, and others identify the two rivers. 

EumjEUS (Ev/iaioc), the faithful swineherd of 
Ulysses, was a son of Ctesius, king of the isl- 
and of Syrie ; he had been carried away from 
lus father's house by a Phoenician slave, and 
294 



Phoenician sailors sold him to Laertes, the father 
of Ulysses. 

[Eumedes (Ei'/i^c). 1. A herald of the Tro- 
jans, father of Dolon. — 2. Grandson of the pre- 
ceding, accompanied iEneas to Italy, and wag 
slain by Turnus.] 

Eumelus (Ei/wfAof). 1. Son of Admetus and 
Alcestis, went with eleven ships from Pherae to 
Troy. He was distinguished for his excellent 
horses, which had once been under the care of 
Apollo, and with which Eumelus would have 
gained the prize at the funeral games of Patro- 
clus if his chariot bad not been broken. His 
wife was Ipthima, daughter of Iearius. — 2. of 
Corinth, one of the Bacchiadoe, an ancient Epic 
poet, belonged, according to some, to the Epic 
cycle. His name is significant, referring to his 
skill in poetry. He flourished about B.C. 1 60. 
His principal poem seems to have been his Co- 
rinthian History. 

Eumenes (Evfiivqc). 1. Of Cardia, served as 
private secretary to Philip and Alexander, whom 
he accompanied throughout his expedition in 
Asia, and who treated him with marked con- 
fidence and distinction. After the death of 
Alexander (B.C. 323), Eumenes obtained the 
government of Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and 
Pontus, which provinces had never yet been 
conquered by the Macedonians. Eumenes en- 
tered into a close alliance with Perdiccas, who 
subdued these provinces for him. When Per- 
diccas marched into Egypt against Ptolemy, he 
committed to Eumenes the conduct of the war 
against Antipater and Craterus in Asia Minor, 
Eumenes met with great success ; he defeated 
Neoptolemus, who had revolted from Perdiccas ; 
and subsequently he again defeated the com- 
bined armies of Craterus and Neoptolemus ; 
Craterus himself fell, and Neoptolemus was 
slain by Eumenes with his own hand, after- a 
deadly struggle in the presence of the two 
armies. Meantime the death of Perdiccas in 
Egypt changed the aspect of affairs. Antigonus 
now employed the whole force of the Macedo- 
nian army to crush Eumenes. The struggle 
was carried on for some years (320-316). It 
was conducted by Eumenes with consummate 
skill, and, notwithstanding the numerical in- 
feriority of his forces, he maintained his ground 
against his enemies till he was surrendered by 
the Argyraspids to Antigonus, by whom he was 
put to death, 316. He was forty-five years old 
at the time of his death. Of his ability, both as 
a general and a statesman, no doubt can be en- 
tertained ; and it is probable that he would have | 
attained a far more important position among 
the successors of Alexander, had it not been for ' 
the accidental disadvantage of his birth. But 
as a Greek of Cardia, and not a native Macedo- 
nian, he was constantly looked upon with dis- 
like both by his opponents and companions in 
arms. — 2. I., King of Pergamus, reigned B.C. 
263-241, and was the successor of his uncle 
Phileterus. He obtained a victory near Sardis 
over Antiochus Soter, and thus established his 
dominion over the provinces in the neighbor- 
hood of his capital. — 3. II., King of Pergamus, 
reigned B.C. 197-159, and was the son and 
successor of Attalus L He inherited from his 
predecessor the friendship and alliance of the 
Romans, which he took the utmost pains to 



EUMENTA. 



EUIOSUS. 



| cultivate. He supported the Romans in their 
war against Antiochus ; and, after the conquest 
of the latter (190), he received from the senate 
Mysia, Lydia, both Phrygias, and Lycaonia, as 
well as Lysimachia, and the Thracian Cherso- 
nese. By this means he was at once raised 
from a state of comparative insignificance to be 
the sovereign of a powerful monarchy. Subse- 
quently he was involved in war with Pharnaces, 
king oi Pontus, and Prusias, king of Bithynia, 
but both wars were brought to a close by the 
interposition of the Romans. At a later period 
Eumenes was regarded with suspicion by the 
Roman senate, because he was suspected of 
having corresponded secretly with Perseus, king 
of Macedonia, during the war of the latter with 
the Romans. Eumenes assiduously cultivated 
all the arts of peace ; Pergamus became under 
his rule a great and flourishing city, which he 
adorned with splendid buildings, and in whicli 
he founded that celebrated library which rose 
to be a rival even to that of Alexaudrea. 

Eujienia (Evjueveia or Evfievia : now Ishekli), 
a city of Great Phrygia, on the rivers Glaucus 
and Oludrus, north of the Masander, named by 
Attalus II. after his brother and predecessor 
Eumenes II. There are indications which 
seem to connect the time of its foundation with 
that of the destruction of Corinth. 

Eumenides (Eifievidec), also called Erinyes, 
not Erinnyes ('Epivvec, 'Epcvvc), and by the Ro- 
mans Furl* or Dir^e, the Avenging Deities, 
were originally only a personification of curses 
pronounced upon a criminal. The name Erinys 
is the more ancient one ; its etymology is un- 
certain, but the Greeks derived it from kpivu or 
eptvvdu, I hunt up or persecute, or from the Ar- 
cadian epivvu, I am angry ; so that the Erinyes 
were either the angry goddesses, or the god- 
desses who hunt up or search after the criminal. 
The name Eumenides, which signifies " the well- 
meaning" or " soothed goddesses," is a mere 
euphemism, because people dreaded to call 
these fearful goddesses by their real name. It 
was said to have been first given them after the 
acquittal of Orestes by the Areopagus, when 
•the anger of the Erinyes had become soothed. 
It was by a similar euphemism that at Athens 
the Erinyes were called ve/iv/xI deal, or the re- 
spected goddesses. Homer sometimes men- 
tions an Erinys, but more frequently Erinyes in 
the plural. He represents them as inhabitants 
of Erebos, where they remain quiet until some 
curse pronounced upon a criminal calls them 
into activity. The crimes which they punish 
are disobedience toward parents, violation of 
the respect due to old age, perjury, murder, 
violation of the law of hospitality, and improper 
conduct toward suppliants. They took away 
from men all peace of mind, and led them into 
misery and misfortune. Hesiod says that they 
were the daughters of Terra (Ge), and sprung 
from the drops of blood that fell upon her from 
the body of Ccelus (Uranus). ^Esehylus calls 
them the daughters of Night, and Sophocles 
of Darkness and Terra (Ge). In the Greek 
tragedians neither the names nor the number 
of the Erinyes are mentioned. ^Eschylus de- 
scribes them as divinities more ancient than 
the Olympian gods, dwelling in the deep dark- 
ness of Tartarus, dreaded by gods and men ; I 



with bodies all black, serpents twined in their 
hair, and blood dripping from their eyes. Eu- 
ripides and other later poets describe them as 
winged. With later writers their number is 
usually limited to three, and their names are 
Tisiphone, Alecto, aud Meg^eka. They grad- 
ually assumed the character of goddesses who 
punished men after death, and they seldom ap- 
peared upon earth. The sacrifices offered to 
them consisted of black sheep and nephala, i. e., 
a drink of honey mixed with water. They were 
worshipped at Athens, where they had a sanc- 
tuary aud a grotto near the Areopagus : their 
statues, however, had nothing formidable, and 
a festival Eumenidea was there celebrated in 
their honor. Another sanctuary, with a grove 
which no one was allowed to enter, existed at 
Colonus. 

Euhenius, a Roman rhetorician of Augusto- 
dunum (now Autun) in Gaul, held a high office 
under Constantius Chlorus. He is the author 
of four orations in the " Panegyrici Veteres," 
namely, 1. Oratio pro instaurandis scholis, a 
lecture delivered on the re-establishment by 
Constantius Chlorus of the school at Autun, 
A.D. 296 or 297. 2. Panegyricus Constantio 
Ocesari dictus, delivered 296 or 297. 3. Pane 
gyricus Constantino Augusto dictus, delivered 
310. 4. Gratiarum actio Constantino Augusto 
Fiaviensiwn nomine, delivered 311. 

Eumolpus (EvftoXwoc), that is, " the good sing 
er," a Thracian bard, usually represented as a 
son of Neptune (Poseidon) and Chione, the 
daughter of Boreas. As soon as he was born, 
he was thrown into the sea by his mother, who 
was anxious to conceal her shame, but was 
preserved by his father Neptune (Poseidon), 
who had him educated in ^Ethiopia by his 
daughter Benthesicyma. When he had grown 
up, he married a daughter of Benthesicyma; 
but as he made an attempt upon the chastity 
of his wife's sister, he was expelled, together 
with his son Ismarus. They went to the 
Thracian king Tegyrius, who gave his daugh- 
ter in marriage to Ismarus ; but as Eumolpus 
drew upon himself the suspicion of Tegyrius, 
he was again obliged to take to flight, and came 
to Eleusis in Attica, where he formed a friend- 
ship with the Eleusinians. After the death of 
his son Ismarus, he returned to Thrace at the 
request of Tegyrius. The Eleusinians, who 
were involved in a war with Athens, called Eu- 
molpus to their assistance. Eumolpus came 
with a numerous band of Thracians, but he was 
slain by Erechtheus. Eumolpus was regarded 
as the founder of the Eleusinian mysteries, aud 
as the first priest of Ceres (Demeter) and Bac- 
chus (Dionysus). He was succeeded in the 
priestly office by his son Ceryx (who was, ac- 
cording to some accounts, the son of Mercury 
(Hermes), and his family, the Eumolpidce, con- 
tinued till the latest times the priests of Ceres 
(Demeter) at Eleusis. The legends connected 
Eumolpus with Hercules, whom he is said to 
have instructed in music, or initiated into the 
mysteries. There were so many different tra- 
ditions about Eumolpus that some of the an- 
cients supposed that there were two or three 
persons of that name. 

[EuNvEus, sou of Clytius, a Trojan, slain by 
Camilla in Italy.] 

295 



EUNAPIUS. 



EUPHRANOR. 



Eunapius (JZvvd-iog), a Greek sophist, was 
born at Sardis A.D. 347, and lived and taught 
at Athens as late as the reign of Theodosius 
II He -wrote, 1. Lives of Sophists (Bloi §iko- 
cotpuv koI uo<jiiGT(jv,) still extant, containing 
twenty-three biographies of sophists, most of 
whom were contemporaries of Eunapius, or had 
lived shortly before him. Though these biog- 
raphies are extremely brief, and the style is 
intolerably inflated, yet they supply us with im- 
portant information respecting a period on 
which we have no other information. Eunapi- 
us was an enthusiastic admirer of the philos- 
ophy of the New Platonists, and a bitter enemy 
of Christianity. Edited by Boissonade, Am- 
sterdam, 1822. 2. A continuation of the his- 
tory of Dexippus (Mera Ae^nmov xpovinri itjro- 
o'ta), in fourteen books, began with A.D. 270, 
and went down to 404. Of this work we have 
only extracts, which are published along with 
Dexippus. Vid. Dexippus. 

Euneus {Evvrjog or TSvvevc), a son of Jason 
and Hypsipyle in Lemnos, supplied the Greeks 
with wine during their war against Troy. He 
purchased Lycaon of Patroclus for a silver urn. 

Eunomia. Vid. HoEiE. 

Eunomus (Evvofiog). 1. King of Sparta, is 
described by some as the father of Lycurgus 
and Poiydectes. Herodotus, on the contrary, 
places him in his list after Poiydectes. In all 
probability, the name was invented with refer- 
ence to the Lycurgean Evvofiia, and Eunomus, 
if not wholly rejected, must be identified with 
Poiydectes. — [2. An Athenian naval command- 
er, sent out in command of thirteen ships in 
B.C. 388 to act against the Lacedaemonians.] 

Euncs (Evvovt;), s. Sicilian slave, and a native 
of Apamea in Syria, was the leader of the Sicil- 
ian slaves in the servile war. He first attract- 
ed attention by pretending to the gift of proph- 
ecy, and by interpreting dreams ; to the effect 
of which he added by appearing to breathe 
flames from his mouth and other similar jug- 
gleries. He was proclaimed king, and soon 
collected formidable forces, with which he de- 
feated several Roman armies. The insurrec- 
tion now became so formidable, that for three 
successive years (B.C. 134-132) three consuls 
were sent against the insurgents, and it was 
not till the third year (132) that the revolt was 
finally put down by the consul Rupilius. Eu- 
nus was taken prisoner, and died in prison at 
Morgantia, of the disease called morbus pedicu- 
laris. 

Eupalium or Eupolium (Eira/Uov, ~Ev7i6Xiov : 
~Evnalievs), a town of the Loeri Ozolee, north of 
Naupactus, subsequently included in JEtolia 
Epictetus. 

Eupatob (Ei'-urop), a surname assumed by 
many of the kings in Asia after the time of Al- 
exander the Great. Vid. Antiochus, Mithra- 

DATES. 

EuPATOfiiuii or Eupatokia (EvTraropiov, Ei- 
iraTopia), a town in the Chersonesus Tauriea, 
founded by Mithradates Eupator, and named 
after him. 

Edphaes (Ei'^u^c), king of the Messenians, 
fell in battle against the Spartans in the first 
Messeniau war. He was succeeded by Aris- 
ropEMUs. 

ErPHE.vus (Ev<pij/io<;). 1. Son of Neptune (Po- 
OQ6 



seidon) by Europe, the daughter of Tityus, or by 
Meeionice or Oris, a daughter of Orion or Eu- 
rotas. According to one account he was an 
inhabitant of Panopeus on the Cephisus in Pho- 
cis, and according to another of Hyria in Bceo- 
tia, and afterward lived at Tsenarus. He was 
married to Laonome, the sister of Hercules; 
he was one of the Calydonian hunters, and the 
helmsman of the vessel of the Argonauts, and, 
by a power which his father had granted to him, 
he could walk on the sea just as on firm ground. 
He is mentioned also as the ancestor of Brutu?, 
the founder of Cyrene. — [2. Son of Trcezeuus, 
an ally of the Trojans, leader of the Cicones. — 
3. An Athenian, sent by the Athenian com- 
manders at Syracuse to negotiate alliance with 
Camarina.] 

Euphorbus (EfyopSos). 1. Son of Panthous, 
one of the bravest of the Trojans, was slain by 
Menelaus, who subsequently dedicated the 
shield of Euphorbus in the temple of Juno 
(Hera), near Mycence. Pythagoras asserted 
that he had once been the Trojan Euphorbus, 
and in proof of his assertion took down at first 
sight the shield of Euphorbus from the temple 
of J uno (Hera) (clipeo Trojana refixo tempore, tes- 
tatus, Hor., Carm., i., 28, 11). — 2. Physician of 
Juba II., king of Mauretania, about the end of 
the first century B.C., and brother to Antonius 
Musa, the physician to Augustus. 

Euphorion (Evtpopiov). 1. Father of the poet 
^Esehylus. — 2. Son of ^Eschylus, and himself 
a tragic poet, — 3. Of Chalcis in Eubcea, an 
eminent grammarian and poet, son of Polymne- 
tus, was born about B.C. 274. He became the 
librarian of Antiochus the Great, 221, and died 
in Syria, either at Apamea or at Antioch. The 
following were the most important of the poems 
of Euphorion in heroic verse : 1. 'Heri'odof, prob- 
ably an agricultural poem. 2. Motpo-iria, so call- 
ed from an old name in Attica, the legends of 
which country seem to have been the chief 
subject of the poem. 3. XiJUafof, a poem writ- 
ten against certain persons, who had defrauded 
Euphorion of money which he had intrusted to 
their care. It probably derived its title from 
each of its books consisting of 1000 verses. 
He also wrote epigrams, which were imitated 
by many of the Latin poets, and also by the 
Emperor Tiberius, with whom he was a great 
favorite. Euphorion likewise wrote many his 
torical and grammatical works. All his worky 
are lost, but the fragments are collected by 
Meineke, in his Analecta Alexandrina, BeroL 
1843. 

Euphranob (Evtppdvop). 1. A distinguished 
statuary and painter, was a native of the Co- 
rinthian isthmus, but practiced his art at Athens 
He flourished about B.C. 336. His most cele- 
brated statue was a Paris, which expressed 
alike the judge of the goddesses, the lover of 
Helen, and the slayer of Achilles ; the veiy 
beautiful Sitting figure of Paris, in marble, in 
the Museo Pio-Clementino is, no doubt, a copy 
of this work. His best paintings were preserv- 
ed in a porch in the Ceramicus at Athens. On 
the one side were the twelve gods, and on the 
opposite wall, Theseus, with Democracy and 
Demos. Euphranor also wrote works on pro- 
portion and on colors (efe Symmetria et Colori- 
bits), the two points in which his own excel- 



EUPHRATES. 



EURIPIDES. 



lence seems chiefly to have consisted. Pliny 
says that he was the first who properly ex- 
pressed the dignity of heroes by the proportions 
he gave to then - statues. He made the bodies 
somewhat more slender, and the heads and 
limbs larger. — [2. Admiral of the Rhodian fleet, 
aided Csesar in defeating the Egyptian fleet in 
the Alexandrine war : he perished some time 
after in a naval combat.] 

Euphrates (Ei^par^c), an eminent Stoic 
philosopher, was a native of Tyre, or, according 
to others, of Byzantium. He was an intimate 
friend of the younger Pliny. In his old age he 
became tired of fife, and asked and obtained 
from Hadrian permission to put an end to him- 
self by poison. 

Euphrates (Ei0pu'n?c : in the Old Testament, 
Phrat : now El Frat), a great river of western 
Asia, forming the boundary of Upper and Lower 
Asia, consists, in its upper course, of two 
branches, both of which rise in the mountains 
of Armenia. The northern branch (now Kara- 
Sou), which is the true Euphrates, rises in the 
mountain above Erzeroum (the Mount Abus or 
Capotes of the ancients), and flows west and 
southwest to a little above latitude 39° and east 
of longitude 39°, where it breaks through the 
chain of the Anti-Taurus, and, after receiving 
the southern branch (now Mourad-Chai), or, as 
the ancients called it, the Arsanias, it breaks 
through the main chain of the Taurus between 
Melitene and Samosata, and then flows in a gen- 
eral southern direction till it reaches latitude 
36°, whence it flows in a general southeast di- 
rection till it approaches the Tigris opposite to 
Seleueia, where the distance between the two 
rivers was reckoned at only two hundred stadia. 
Then it flows through the Plain of Babylonia, at 
first receding further from the Tigris, and after- 
ward approaching it again, till it joins it about 
sixty miles above the mouth of the Persian Gulf, 
having already had its waters much diminished 
by numerous canals, which irrigated the country 
in ancient times, but the neglect of which at 
present has converted much of the once fertile 
district watered by the Euphrates into a marshy 
desert. The whole length of the Euphrates is 
between five hundred and six hundred miles. 
In its upper course, before reaching the Taurus, 
its northern branch and a part of the united 
stream divided Armenia Major from Colchis 
and Armenia Minor, and its lower course di- 
vided Mesopotamia from Syria. Its chief trib- 
utary, besides the Arsanias, was the Aborrhas. 

Euphron (Evippuv). [1. A native of Sicyon, 
who, in the time of Epaminondas, made himself 
master of that city by the aid of the lower or- 
ders : being driven out by the opposite party, he 
betook himself to Thebes, and was there mur- 
dered by his opponents, who had followed him 
thither.] — 2. An Athenian poet of the new com- 
edy, whose plays, however, partook largely of 
the character of the middle comedy. [His frag- 
ments are collected in Meineke, Fragm. Comic. 
Grax., vol. ii., p. 1128-33, edit, minor.] 

Euphrosyne, one of the Charities or Graces. 
Vid. Charis. 

[Eupithes (EvneiOric), father of Antinous, who 
was one of the suitors of Penelope ; attempting 
to avenge the death of his son, he was slain by 
Laertes.] 



Eupolis (EvxoXcc), son of Sosipolis, an Athe- 
nian poet of the old comedy, and one of the three 
who are distinguished by Horace in his well- 
known line, "Eupolis, atque Cratinus, Aristo- 
phanesque poete," above all the . . . " alii quo- 
rum comcedia prisca virorum est." He was 
born about B.C. 446, and is said to have exhib- 
ited his first drama in his seventeenth year, 429, 
two years before Aristophanes. The date of 
his death is uncertain. The common story was, 
that Alcibiades, when sailing to Sicily, (415), 
threw Eupolis into the sea, in revenge for an 
attack which he had made upon him in his Butt- 
rat ; but this can not be true, as we know that 
Eupolis produced plays after the Sicilian expe- 
dition. He probably died in 411. The chief 
characteristic of the poetry of Eupolis seems tv 
have been the liveliness of his fancy, and the 
power which he possessed of imparting its im- 
ages to the audience. In elegance he is said 
to have even surpassed Aristophanes, while in 
bitter jesting and personal abuse he emulated 
Cratinus. Among the objects of his satire was 
Socrates, on whom he made a bitter, though less 
elaborate attack than that in the Clouds of Aris- 
tophanes. The dead were not exempt from his 
abuse, for there are still extant some lines of 
his in which Cimon is most unmercifully treat- 
ed. A close relation subsisted between Eupolis 
and Aristophanes, not only as rivals, but as im- 
itators of each other. Cratinus attacked Aris- 
tophanes for borrowing from Eupolis, and Eu- 
polis in his BuKrai made the same charge, es- 
pecially with reference to the Knights. The 
Scholiasts specify the last Parabasis of the 
Knights as borrowed from Eupolis. On the 
other hand, Aristophanes, in the second (or 
third) edition of the Clouds, retorts upon Eupo- 
lis the charge of imitating the Knights in his 
Maricas, and taunts him with the further indig- 
nity of jesting on his rival's baldness. [The 
fragments of his plays have been edited by Run- 
kel, Pherecratis ei Eupolidis Fragm., Lips.,1829 ; 
and by Meineke, Comic. Grcec. Fragm., vol. i, 
p. 158-228, edit, minor.] 

Eupompus (EvirouTroc), of Sicyon, a distin- 
guished Greek painter, was the contemporary 
of Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Timanthes, and the 
instructor of Pamphilus, the master of Apelles. 
The fame of Eupompus led to the creation of a 
third school of Greek art, the Sicyonian, at the 
head of which he was placed. 

Euripides (Evpcirid7]c). 1. The distinguished 
tragic poet, was the son of Mnesarchus and 
Clito, and is said to have been born at Salamis, 
B.C. 480, on the very day that the Greeks de- 
feated the Persians off that island, whither his 
parents had fled from Athens on the invasion of 
Xerxes. Some writers relate that his parents 
were in mean circumstances, and his mother is 
represented by Aristophanes as a herb-seller, 
and not a very honest one . either ; but much 
weight can not be accorded to these statements. 
It is more probable that his family was respect- 
able. "We are told that the poet, when a boy, 
was cup-bearer to a chorus of noble Athenians 
at the Thargelian festival, an office for which 
nobility of blood was requisite. "We know also 
that he was taught rhetoric by Prodicus, who 
was certainly not moderate in his terms for in- 
struction, and who was in the habit of seeking 
297 



EURIPIDES. 

his pupils among youths of high rank. It is said 
that the future distinction of Euripides was pre- 
dicted by an oracle, promising that he should be 
crowned with " sacred garlands,'' in conse- 
quence of which his father had him trained to 
gymnastic exercises ; and we learn that, while 
yet a boy, he won the prize at the Eleusinian 
and Thesean contests, and offered himself, when 
seventeen years old, as a candidate at the Olym- 
pic games, but was not admitted because of 
some doubt about his age. But he soon aban- 
doned gymnastic pursuits, and studied the art 
of painting, not, as we learn, without success. 
To philosophy and literature he devoted him- 
self with much interest and energy, studying 
physics under Anaxagoras, and rhetoric, as we 
have already seen, under Prodicus. He lived 
on intimate terms with Socrates, and traces of 
the teaching of Anaxagoras have been remarked 
in many passages of his plays. He is said to 
have written a tragedy at the age of eighteen ; 
but the first play, which is exhibited in his 
own name, was the Peliades, when he was twen- 
ty-five years of age (B.C. 455). In 441 he gain- 
ed for the first time the first prize, and he con- 
tinued to exhibit plays until 408, the date of the 
Orestes. Soon after this he left Athens for the 
court of Arehelaiis, king of Macedonia, his rea- 
sons for wlrich step can only be matter of con- 
jecture. Traditionary scandal has ascribed it 
to his disgust at the intrigue of his wife with 
Cephisophon, and the ridicule which was show- 
ered upon him in consequence by the comic 
poets. But the whole story has been refuted 
by modern writers. Other causes more proba- 
bly led him to accept an invitation from Arehe- 
laiis, at whose court the highest honors awaited 
him. The attacks of Aristophanes and others 
had probably not been without their effect ; and 
he must have been aware that his philosophical 
tenets were regarded with considerable suspi- 
cion. He died in Macedonia in 406, at the age 
of seventy-five. Most testimonies agree in stat- 
ing that he was torn in pieces by the king's 
dogs, which, according to some, were set upon 
him through envy by Arrhida?us and Crateuas, 
two rival poets. The regret of Sophocles for 
his death is said to have been so great, that at 
the representation of his next play he made his 
actors appear uncrowned. The accounts which 
we find in some writers of the profligacy of Eu- 
ripides are mere idle scandal, and scarcely 
worthy of serious refutation. Nor does there 
appear to be any better foundation for that other 
charge which has been brought against him, of 
hatred to the female sex This is said to have 
been occasioned by the infidelity of his wife ; 
but, as has been already remarked, this tale does 
not deserve credit. He was a man of a serious 
and austere temper ; and it was in consequence 
of this that the charge probably originated. It 
is certain that the poet who drew such charac- 
ters as Antigone, Iphigenia, and, above all, Al- 
cestis, was not blind to the gentleness, the 
strong affection, the self-abandoning devoted- 
ness of women. With respect to the world and 
the Deity, he seems to have adopted the doc- 
trines of Anaxagoras, not unmixed, apparent- 
ly, with pantheistic views. Vid. Anaxagoeas. 
To class him with atheists, as some have done, 
.s undoubtedlv unjust. At the same time, it 
298 



EURIPIDES. 

must be confessed that we look in vain in t his 
plays for the high faith of JEschylus ; nor can 
we fail to admit that the pupil of Anaxagoras 
could not sympathize with the popular religious 
system around him, nor throw himself cordially 
into it. He frequently altered in the most arbi- 
trary manner the ancient legends. Thus, in 
the Orestes, Menelaiis comes before us as a sel- 
fish coward, and Helen as a worthless wanton ; 
in the Helena, the notion of Stesichorus is adopt- 
ed, that the heroine was never carried to Troy r 
at all, and that it was a mere elduXov of her for 
which the Greeks and Trojans fought ; Androm- 
ache, the widow of Hector and slave of Neop- 
tolemus, seems almost to forget the past in her 
quarrel with Hermione and the perils of her 
present situation ; and Eleetra, married by the 
policy of JEgisthus to a peasant, scolds her hus- 
band for inviting guests to dine without regard 
to the ill-prepared state of the larder. In short, 
with Euripides tragedy is brought down into 
the sphere of every-day life ; men are repre- 
sented, according to the remark of Aristotle, not 
as they ought to be, but as they are ; under the 
names of the ancient heroes, the characters of 
his own time are set before us ; it is not Medea, 
or Iphigenia, or Alcestis that is speaking, but 
abstractedly a mother, a daughter, or a wife. 
All this, indeed, gave fuller scope, perhaps, for 
the exhibition of passion and for those scenes 
of tenderness and pathos in which Euripides 
especialy excelled ; and it will serve also to 
account, in great measure, for the preference 
given to his plays by the practical Socrates, 
who is said to have never entered the theatre 
unless when they were acted, as well as for the 
admiration felt for him by Menander and Phile- 
mon, and other poets of the new comedy. The 
most serious defects in his tragedies, artistically 
speaking,, are, his constant employment of the 
" Deus ex machina ;" the disconnection of the 
choral odes from the subject of the play ; the 
extremely awkward and formal character of his 
prologues ; and the frequent introduction of 
frigid yvti/iai and of philosophical disquisitions, 
making Medea talk like a sophist, and Hecuba 
like a free-thinker, and aiming rather at subtil- 
ty than simplicity. On the same principles on 
which he brought his subjects and characters 
to the level of common life, he adopted also in 
his style the every-day mode of speaking. Ac- 
cording to some accounts, he wrote, in all, sev- 
enty-five plays ; according to others, ninety-two. 
Of these, eighteen are extant, if we omit the 
Rhesus, which is probably spurious. A list is 
subjoined of the extant plays of Euripides, with 
their dates, ascertained or probable : Alcestis, 
B.C. 438. This play was brought out as the 
last of a tetralogy, aod stood, therefore, in the 
place of a satyric drama, to which indeed it 
bears, in some parts, great similarity, partic- 
ularly in the representation of Hercules in his 
cups. Medea, 431. Hippolytus Coronifer, 428, 
gained the first prize. Hecuba, exhibited before 
423.' Heraclidce, about 421. Suppliccs, about 
421. Jon, of uncertain date. Hercules Furens, 
of uncertain date. Andromache, about iiO-ill. 
Troades, 415. Elcctra, about 415-413. Helena, 
412. Iphigenia among the Tauri, of uncertain 
date. Orestes, 408. Phcenissce, of uncertain 
date. Bacchx ; this play was apparently writ 



EURIPUS. 



EURYCLES. 



ten for representation in Macedonia, and there- 
fore at a very late period of the life of Euripi- 
des. Iphigenia at Aulis : this play, together 
with the Bacchee and the Alcmceon, was brought 
out at Athens, after the poet's death, by the 
younger Euripides. Cyclops, of uncertain date : 
it is interesting as the only extant specimen of 
the Greek satyric drama. Besides the plays, 
there are extant five letters, purporting to have 
been written by Euripides, but they are spuri- 
ous. Editions: By Musgrave, Oxford, 1778; 
by Beck, Leipzig, 1778-88; by Matthise, Leip- 
zig, 1813-29 ; and a variorum edition, Glasgow, 
1821, 9 vols. 8vo. Of separate plays there have 
been many editions, e. g., by Porson, Elmsley, 
Valckenaer, Monk, Pflugk, and Hermann. — 2 
The youngest of the three sons of the above. 
After the death of his father he brought out 
three of his plays at the great Dionysia, viz., the 
Alcmmon (no longer extant), the Iphigenia at 
Awlis, and the Bacchx. 

EurIpus (Evpiiroc) any part of the sea where 
the ebb and flow of the tide were remarkably 
violent, is the name especially of the narrow 
strait which separates Euboea from Bceotia, in 
which the ancients asserted that the sea ebbed 
and flowed seven times in the day. The extra- 
ordinary tides of the Euripus have been noticed 
by modern observers ; the water sometimes runs 
as much as eight miles an hour. At Chalcis there 
was a bridge over the Euripus, uniting Eubcea 
with the main land. 

Eueomus (Evpufioc : now Jaklys), a small town 
of Caria, at the foot of Mount Grion (a ridge par- 
allel to Mount Latmus), in the conventus juridicus 
of Alabanda. It lay eight English miles north- 
west of Mylasa. 

Europa (EvpuTTT]), according to the Iliad (xiv., 
321) a daughter of Phcenix, but according to the 
common tradition a daughter of the Phoenician 
king Agenor. Her surpassing beauty charmed 
Jupiter (Zeus), who assumed the form of a bull 
and mingled with the herd as Europa and her 
maidens were sporting on the sea-shore. Encour- 
aged by the tameness of the animal, Europa ven- 
tured to mount his back ; whereupon Jupiter 
(Zeus) rushed into the sea and swam with her in 
safety to Crete. Here she became by Jupiter 
(Zeus) the mother of Minos, Radamantbys, and 
Sarpedon. She afterward married Asterion, 
king of Crete, who brought up the children whom 
she had had by the king of the gods. 

Europa (Evpci-KTi), one of the three divisions 
of the ancient world. The name is not found in 
the Iliad and Odyssey, and first occurs in the 
Homeric hymn to Apollo (251), but even there it 
does not indicate the continent, but simply the 
main land of Hellas proper, in opposition to Pelo- 
ponnesus and the neighboring islands. Herod- 
otus is the first writer who uses it in the sense 
of one of the divisions of the world. The origin 
of the name is doubtful ; but the most prob- 
able of the numerous conjectures is that which 
supposes that the Asiatic Greeks called it Euro- 
pa (from evpvc, " broad," and the root dir, " to 
see"), from the wide extent of its coast. Most 
of the ancients supposed the name to be de- 
rived from Europa, the daughter of Agenor. 
The boundaries of Europe on the east differed 
at various periods. In earlier times the River 
Phasis was usually supposed to be its boundary 



and sometimes even the Araxes and the Cas- 
pian Sea : but at a later period the River Tanais 
and the Palus Maabtis were usually regarded as 
the boundaries between Asia and Europe. Tht 
north of Europe was little known to the ancients, 
but it was generally believed, at least in later 
times, that it was bounded oh the north by the 
Ocean. 

Europus. Vid. Titaresius. 

Europus (Evpanoc). 1. A city of Caria, aft- 
erward named Idrias.— 2. (Now Yerabolus, or 
Kulat-el-Nejin ?), a city in the district of Cyr- 
rhestice in Syria, on the western bank of the 
Euphrates, a few miles south of Zeugma ; called 
after the town of the same name in Macedonia. — 
3. Europus was the earlier name of Dura Nica- 
noris in Mesopotamia ; and, 4. It was also given 
by Seleucus Nicat;or to Rhagee in Media. Vid. 
Arsaoia. 

Eurotas (Evpurag). 1. (Now Basilipotamo). 
the chief river in Laconia, but not navigable, rises 
in Mount Boreum in Arcadia, then disappears un- 
der the earth, rises again near Sciritis, and flows 
southward, passing Sparta on the east, through a 
narrow and fruitful valley, into the Baconian 
Gulf. — 2. Vid. Titaresius. 

[Eurotas (Evpurac), son cf Myles, grandson 
of Lelex (according to Apollodorus, son of Le- 
lex), father of Sparta, who married Lacedasmon : 
is said to have led, by means of a canal, the wa- 
ters that had stagnated in Laconia into the sea, 
and to have called the stream that was thus 
formed the Eurotas.] 

[Euryades (Evpv&Sris), one of the suitors of 
Penelope, slain by Telemachus.] 

[Eur yale (EvpvdXrj). 1. One of the Gor- 
gons. — 2. Daughter of Minos or Minyas, mother 
of Orion by Neptune (Poseidon) — 3. A queen of 
the Amazons, who aided jEetes against the Argo- 
nauts.] 

Euryalus (Evpva\og). 1. Son of Meeisteus, 
one of the Argonauts, and of the Epigoni, ac- 
companied Diomedes to Troy, where he slew 
several Trojans. — 2. One of the suitors of Hip- 
podamia. — [3. A young Phasacian hero, victor 
in wrestling ; he presented Ulysses with a beau- 
tiful sword.— 4. Son of Opheltes, a companion of 
iEneas, famed for his strong friendship for Ni- 
sus.] 

Euryanassa. Vid. Pelops. 

Eurybates (E-bpyddrnc). 1. Called Erihotes 
by Latin writers, son of Teleon, and one of the 
Argonauts. — 2. The herald of Ulysses, whom ha 
followed to Troy. 

Eurybatus (EiipvSaroc), an Ephesian whom 
Croesus sent with a large sum of money to the 
Peloponnesus to hire mercenaries for him in his 
war with Cyrus. He, however, went over to Cy 
rus, and betrayed the whole matter to him. In 
consequence of this treachery, his name passed 
into a proverb among the Greeks. 

Eurybia (EipvBta), daughter of Pontus and 
Terra (Ge), mother by Crius of Astrseus, Pallas, 
and Perses. 

Eurybiades. Vid. Themistocles. 

Euryclea (EipvKXeia), daughter of Ops, was 
purchased by Laertes and brought up Telema- 
chus. When Ulysses returned home, Bhe recog- 
nized him by a scar, and afterward faithfully as- 
sisted him against the suitors. 

[Eubycles (EvpvuXris). 1. A ventriloquist and 
299 



EURYCRATES. 



EURTSACES. 



diviner at Athens (kyyaarptfivdoc:). — 2. A Spar- 
tan architect who constructed a celebrated bath 
at Corinth.] 

[Eurycrates (Efyw/cpar^c). 1. Son of King 
Polydorus, king of Sparta, the twelfth of the 
Agidjine : his son and successor was Anaxan- 
der ; his grandson was — 2. Eurycrates II, call- 
ed also Eurycratidas, reigned during the earlier 
and disastrous part of the war with Tegea.] 

[Eurydamas (Evpvdd/iae). 1. Son of Irus and 
Demonassa, one of the Argonauts ; according 
to Apollonius Rhodius he was a son of Ctime- 
nus. — 2. A Trojan skilled in the interpretation 
of dreams, whose two sons, Abas and Polyidus, 
were slain before Troy by Diomedes. — 3. One 
of the suitors of Penelope, slain by Ulysses.] 

Eurydice (Evpvd'cKri). 1. Wife of Orpheus. 
Vid. Orpheus. — 2. An Illyrian princess, wife of 
Amyntas II, king of Macedonia, and mother of 
the famous Philip. — 3. An Illyrian, wife of Philip 
of Macedon, and mother of Cynane or Cynna. 
— 4. Daughter of Amyntas, son of Perdiccas 
III, king of Macedonia, and Cynane, daughter 
of Philip. After the death of her mother in 
Asia {via. Cynane), Perdiccas gave her in mar- 
riage to the king Arrhidasus. She was a woman 
of a masculine spirit, and entirely ruled her 
weak husband. On her return to. Europe with 
her husband, she became involved in war with 
Polysperchon and Olympias, but she was de- 
feated in battle, taken prisoner, and compelled 
by Olympias to put an end to her life, B.C. 317. 
— 5. Daughter of Antipater, and wife of Ptole- 
my the son of Lagus. She was the mother of 
three sons, viz, Ptolemy Ceraunus, Meleager, 
and a third (whose name is not mentioned) ; 
and of two daughters, Ptolemais, afterward 
married to Demetrius Polioreetes, and Lysan- 
dra, the wife of Agathocles, son of Lysimachus. 
• -6. An Athenian, of a family descended from 
the great Miltiades. She was first married to 
Ophelias, the conqueror of Gyrene, and after 
his death returned to Athens, where she mar- 
ried Demetrius Polioreetes, on occasion of his 
first visit to that city. 

Euryloohus (EvpvTioxoi). 1. Companion of 
Ulysses in his wanderings, was the only one 
that escaped from the house of Circe, when his 
friends were metamorphosed into swine. An- 
other personage of the same name is mention- 
ed among the sons of ^Egyptus.- — 2. A Spartan 
commander in the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 
426, defeated and slain by Demosthenes at 01- 
pse. — [3. Of Lusiffi in Arcadia, an officer in the 
Greek army of Cyrus the. younger ; on one oc- 
casion protected Xenophon, whose shield-bearer 
had deserted him. — 4. A Macedonian, son of 
Arseas, detected a conspiracy against Alexan- 
der the Great.] 

Eurymedon (Evpvfzedav). 1. One of the Ca- 
biri, son of Vulcan (Hephaestus) and Cabiro, and 
brother of Alcon. — 2. An attendant of Nestor. 
—3. Son of Ptolemaeus, and charioteer of Aga- 
memnon. — 4. Son of Thucles, an Athenian gen- 
eral in the Peloponnesian war. He was one of 
the commanders in the expedition to Corcyra, 
B.C. 428, and also in the expedition to Sicily, 
425. In 414 he was appointed, in conjunction 
with Demosthenes, to the command of the sec- 
ond Syracusan armament, and fell in the first 
of the two sea-fights in the harbor of Syracuse. 
300 



Eurymedon (EipvfieSov : now Kapri-Su), a 
small river in Pamphylia, navigable as far up as 
the city of Aspendus, through which it flowed ; 
celebrated for the victory which Cimon gained 
over the Persians on its banks (B.C. 469). 

[Eurymedusa (Evpvfiidovaa), a female slave 
of the Phseacian king Alcinous, attendant upon 
Nausicaa.] 

EuRYMEN^fi (Evpvfievai), a town in Magnesia 
in Thessaly, east of Ossa. 

Eurynome (EvpvvofiT]). 1. Daughter of Oee- 
ahus. "When Vulcan (Hephaestus) was expell- 
ed by Juno (Hera) from Olympus, Eurynome 
and Thetis received him in the bosom of the 
sea. Before the time of Saturn (Cronos) and 
Rhea, Eurynome and Ophion had ruled in Olym- 
pus over the Titans. — 2. A surname of Diana 
(Artemis) at Phigalea in Arcadia, where she 
was represented half woman and half fish. — [3. 
An old and faithful female attendant in the 
house of Ulysses, mentioned in the Odyssey.] 

[Eurynomus (Evpvvo/iog). 1. A centaur slain 
by Dryas at the nuptials of Pirithous. — 2. Son 
of the Ithaean jEgyptius, one of the suitors of 
Penelope.] 

[Euryphaessa CEipv^deaoa), sister and wife 
of Hyperion ; by him mother of Helios, Selene, 
and Eos (Aurora).] 

Euryphon (Evpv<j>uv), a celebrated physician 
of Cnidos in Caria, was a contemporary of Hip- 
pocrates, but older. He is quoted by Galen, 
who says that he was considered to be the au- 
thor of the ancient medical work entitled Kvi- 
diai Tvufiat, and also that some persons at- 
tributed to him several works included in the 
Hippocratic Collection. 

Eurypon, otherwise called Eurytion (Evpv- 
n&v, TZvpvTLOv), a grandson of Procles, was the 
third king of that house at Sparta, and thence- 
forward gave it the name of Eurypontidae. 

Eurypylus (EvpvTrvloc;). 1. Son of Eusemon 
and Ops, appears in different traditions as king 
either of Ormenion, or Hyria, or Cyrene. In 
the Iliad he is represented as having come from 
Ormenion to Troy with forty ships. He slew 
many Trojans, and when wounded by Paris he 
was nursed and cured by Patroelus. Among 
the heroes of Hyria, he is mentioned as a son 
of Neptune (Poseidon) and Celseno, who went 
to Libya, where he ruled in the country after- 
ward called Cyrene, and there became connect- 
ed with the Argonauts. He married Sterope, 
the daughter of Helios, by whom he became the 
father of Lyeaon and Leucippus. — 2. Son of 
Neptune (Poseidon) and Astypatea, king of Cos, 
was killed by Hercules, who, on his return from 
Troy, landed in Cos, and, being taken for a pirate, 
was attacked by its inhabitants. According to 
another tradition, Hercules attacked the island 
of Cos in order to obtain possession of Chal- 
ciope, the daughter of Eurypylus, whom he 
loved. — 3. Son of Telephus and Astyoehe, king 
of Mysia or Cilicia, was induced by the presents 
which Priam sent to his mother or wife to as- 
sist the Trojans against the Greeks. Eurypylus 
killed Maehaon, but was himself slain by Ne- 
optolemus. 

Eurysaces (EipvauKrig), son of the Telamoni- 
an Ajax and Tecmessa, named after the " broad 
shield" of his father. An Athenian tradition re- 
lated that Eurysaces and his brother Philaeus 



EURYSTHENES. 



EUSEBIUS. 



had given up to the Athenians the island of Sal- 
amis which they had inherited from their grand- 
father, and that the two brothers received in re- 
turn the Attic franchise. Eurysaces was hon- 
ored like his father, at Athens, with an altar. 

Eurysthenes (Evpvcdevnc) and Procles (IIpo- 
k?J/c), the twin sons of Aristodemus, were born, 
according to the commou account before, but 
according to the genuine Spartan story, after 
their father's return to Peloponnesus and occu- 
pation of his allotment of Laconia. He died 
immediately after the birth of his children, and 
had not even time to decide which of the two 
should succeed him. The mother professed to 
be unable to name the elder, and the Lacedae- 
monians applied to Delphi, and were instructed 
to make them both kings, but give the greater 
honor to the elder. The difficulty thus remain- 
ing was at last removed at the suggestion of 
Panites, a Messenian, by watching which of 
the children was first washed and fed by the 
mother ; and the first rank was accordingly 
given to Eurysthenes and retained by his de- 
scendants. From these two brothers the two 
royal families in Sparta were descended, and 
were called respectively the Eurysthenidce and 
Proclidce. The former were also called the 
Agidce from Agis, son of Eurysthenes ; and the 
latter Eurypontidce from Eurypon, grandson of 
Procles. 

Eurystheus: Vid. Hercules. 

[Eurytion (EvpvTiuv). 1. Son of Irus and 
Demonassa, and grandson of Actor, one of the 
Argonauts. — 2. One of the centaurs, escaped from 
the fight with Hercules, but was afterward slain 
by that hero. — 3. Son of Lycaon, brother of Pan- 
darns, a celebrated archer ; accompanied iEneas 
on his voyage to Italy.] 

Eurytus (Evpvroc). 1. Son of Melaneus and 
Stratonice, was king of (Echalia, probably the 
Thessalian town of this name. He was a skill- 
ful archer and married to Antioche, by whom 
lie became the father of Iole, Iphitus, Molion 
or De'ion, Olytius, and Toxeus. He was proud 
of his skill in using the bow, and is 6aid to have 
instructed even Hercules in his art. He offer- 
ed his daughter Iole as a prize to him who should 
conquer him and his sons in shooting with the 
bow. Hercules won the prize, but Eurytus and 
his sons, with the exception of Iphitus, refused 
to give up Iole, because they feared lest Her- 
cules should kill the children he might have by 
her. Hercules accordingly marched against 
(Echalia with an army, took the place, and killed 
Eurytus and his sons. According to Homer, on 
the other hand, Eurytus was killed by Apollo, 
whom he presumed to rival in using the bow. 
(Od., viii., 226.) — 2. Son of Actor and Molione 
of Elis. Vid. Moliones. — 3. Son of Mercury 
(Hermes) and Antianira, and brother of Echion, 
was one of the Argonauts. — 4. An eminent Py- 
thagorean philosopher, a disciple of Philolaus. 

Eusebius (Eifft'fiioc), surnamed Pamphili to 
commemorate his devoted friendship for Pam- 
philus, bishop of Caesarea. Eusebius was born 
in Palestine about A.D. 264, was made bishop 
of Cassarea 315, and died about 340. He had a 
strong leaning toward the Arians, though he 
signed the ereed of the Council of Nieaea. He ' 
was a man of great learning. His most im- ! 
portant works are, 1. The Chronicon (xpovinil ' 



•xavToda-rtTis laropiac), a work of great value to 
us in the study of ancient history. It is in two 
books. The first, entitled xp°voypa<pia, contains 
a sketch of the history of several ancient na- 
tions, as the Chaldasans, Assyrians, Medes, Per- 
sians, Lydians, Hebrews, and Egyptians. It is 
chiefly taken from the work of Ai'ricanus (vid. 
Africanus), and gives lists of kings and other 
magistrates, with short accounts of remarkable 
events from the creation to the time of Euse- 
bius. The second book consists of synchrono- 
logical tables, with similar catalogues of rulers 
and striking occurrences from the time of Abra- 
ham to the celebration of Constantino's Vicen- 
nalia at Nicomedia, A.D. 327, and at Rome, A, 
D. 328. The Greek text of the Chronicon is 
lost, but there is extant part of a Latin transla- 
tion of it by Jerome, published by Scaliger, Ley- 
den, 1606, of which another enlarged edition ap- 
peared at Amsterdam, 1658. There is also ex- 
tant an Armenian translation, which was dis- 
covered at Constantinople, and published by 
Mai and Zohrab at Milan, 1818, and by Aueher, 
Venice, 1818. — ; 2. The Prceparatio Evangclica 
(eiayys?iiKf}c airodei^euc nonapaaKEVrj) in fifteen 
books, is a collection of various facts and quota- 
tions from old writers, by which it was supposed 
that the mind would be prepared to receive the 
evidences of Christianity. This book is almost 
as important to us in the study of ancient phi- 
losophy as the Chronicon is with reference to 
history, since in it are preserved specimens 
from the writings of •almost every philosopher 
of any note whose works are not now extant. 
Edited by R. Stephens, Paris, 1544, and again 
in 1628, and by F. Viger, Cologne, 1688 : [more 
recently by Heinichen, Lips., 1842, 2 vols. 8vo.] 
— 3. The Demonstratio Evangelica (svayye^iKi) 
airodei^ic), in twenty books, of which ten are ex- 
tant, is a collection of evidences, chiefly from 
the Old Testament, addressed principally to the 
Jews. This is the completion of the preceding 
work, giving the arguments which the Prcepara- 
tio was intended to make the mind ready to 
receive. Edited with the Prmparatio in the edi- 
tions both of R. Stephens and Viger. — 4. The 
Ecclesiastical History (kKKknaiaariKri laropia), in 
ten books, containing the history of Christianity 
from the birth of Christ to the Death of Licinius, 
A.D. 324. Edited with the other Ecclesiastical 
historians by Reading, Cambridge, 1720, and 
separately by Burton, Oxford, 1838, [and by 
Heinichen, Lips., 1827, 3 vols. 8vo.] — 5. Be 
Martyribus Palcestince, being an account of the 
persecutions of Diocletian and Maximin from 
A.D. 303 to 310. It is in one book, and gener- 
ally found as an appendix to the eighth of the 
Ecclesiastical History. — 6. Against Hierocles 
Hierocles had advised Diocletian to begin his 
persecution, and had written two books, called 
TioyoL (fiiXaXijdetc, comparing our Lord's mira- 
cles to those of Apollonius of Tyana. In an- 
swering this work, Eusebius reviews the life of 
Apollonius by Philostratus. — 7. Against Marcel- 
lus, bishop of Ancyra, in two books. — 8. De Ec- 
clesiastica Thcologia, a continuation of the form- 
er work. — 9. De Vita Constantini, four books, a 
panegyric rather than a biography. It has gen- 
erally been published with the Ecclesiastical 
History, but edited separately by Heinichen, 
1830. — 10. Onomasticon de Locis Hebraicis, a 
301 



EUSTATHIUS. 



EVAGORAS. 



description of the towns <md places mentioned in 
Holy Scripture, arranged in alphabetical order. 
It was translated into Latin by Jerome. 

Eustathius (EvGTudws.) 1. Of Cappadocia, 
a JS'eo-Platonic philosopher, was a pupil of Iam- 
bliehus and -<Edesius. In A.D. 358 he was sent 
by Constantius as ambassador to King Sapor, 
and remained in Persia, where he was treated 
with the greatest honor. — 2. Or Eumathius. 
probably lived as late as the twelfth century of 
our era. He wrote a Greek romance in eleven 
books, still extant, containing an account of the 
loves of Hysminias and Hysmine. The tale is 
wearisome and improbable, and shows no power 
of invention on the part of its author. Edited 
by Gaulmin, Paris, 1617, and by Teucher, Lips., 
1792. — 3. Archbishop of Thessalonica, was a na- 
tive of Constantinople, and lived during the lat- 
ter half of the twelfth century. He was a man 
of great learning, and wrote numerous works, 
the most important of which is his commentary 
on the Iliad and Odyssey (HapeK.6o7i.al eig rr/v 
'Ofir/pov 'lAidSa nal 'Odvooeiav), or rather his 
collection of extracts from earlier commentators 
on those two poems. This vast compilation 
was made from the numerous and extensive 
works of the Alexandrian grammarians and 
critics ; and as nearly all the works from which 
Eustathius made his extracts are lost, his com- 
mentary is of incalculable value to us. Edi- 
tions: At Rome, 1542-1550, 4 vols. fol. ; at 
Basle, 1559-60; at Leipzig, 1825-26, contain- 
ing the commentary on k the Odyssey, and at 
Leipzig, 1827-29, the commentary on the Iliad, 
in all 7 vols. 4to. There is also extant by Eu- 
stathius a commentary on Dionysius Periegetes, 
which is published with most editions of Dionys- 
ius. Eustathius likewise wrote a commentary on 
Pindar, which seems to be lost. — 4. Usually call- 
ed Eustathius Romanus, a celebrated Gteeco- 
Roinan jurist, filled various high offices at Con- 
stantinople from A.D. 960 to 1000. 

Eusteatius (Eva-pdriog), one of the latest 
commentators on Aristotle, lived about the be- 
ginning of the twelfth century after Christ, un- 
der the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, as metro- 
politan of Nicsea. Of his writings only two are 
extant, and these in a very fragmentary state : 
viz., 1. A Commentary on the second book of 
the Analytica. 2. A Commentary on the Ethica 
Niconiacliea. 

Euterpe. Vid. Mus^e. 

[Euthy crates (Ev8vKpuT?j(), a Greek statuary, 
probably about B.C. 300 ; a son and the most 
distinguished pupil of Lysippus.] 

Euthydemus (Evdvdr>uog). A sophist, was born 
lit Chios, and migrated, with his brother Diony- 
rodorus, to Tlrarii in Italy. Being exiled thence, 
iiey came to Athens, where they resided many 
jears. The pretecsions of Euthydemus and 
4is brother are exposed by Plato in the dia- 
logue which bears the mime of the former, — 2, 
King of Bactria, was a native of Magnesia. We 
know nothing of the circumstances attending his 
elevation to the sovereignty of Bactria. He ex- 
tended his power over the neighboring provinces, 
so as to become the founder of the greatness 
of the Baetrian monarch}'. His dominions were 
invaded about B.C. 212, by Antiochus the Great, 
with whom he eventually concluded a treaty of 
•peace. 

302 



Euthymus (EvBv/xog), a hero of Locri in Italy 
son of Astycles or of the river-god Ca;cinus 
He was famous for his strength and skill in box- 
ing, and delivered the town of Temesa from the 
evil spirit Polites, to whom a fair maideu was 
sacrificed every year. Euthymus himself dis- 
appeared at an advanced age in the River Cae- 
cinus. 

Euxocius (EvruKioe), of Ascalon, the com- 
mentator on Apollonius of Perga and on Archi- 
medes, lived about A.D. 560. His commentar- 
ies are printed in the editions of Apollonius and 
Archimedes. 

Eutrapelus, P. Volumnius, a Roman knight, 
obtained the surname of Eutrapelus (EvrpaTre- 
Tiog) on account of his liveliness and wit. He 
was an intimate friend of Antony, and a com- 
panion of his pleasures and debauches. Cythe- 
ris, the mistress of Antony, was originally the 
freedwoman and mistress of Volumnius Eutrap- 
elus, whence we find her called Volumnia, 
and was surrendered to Antony by his friend. 
Eutrapelus is mentioned by Horace (JSpist., i., 
18, 31). 

Eutresii (EvTp?j<jwi), the inhabitants of a dis- 
trict in Arcadia, north of Megalopolis. 

Eutresis (EvTpTjoic), a small town in Bceotia, 
between Thespiae and Plataeae, with a temple and 
oracle of Apollo, who hence had the surname Eu- 
tresites. 

Eutropius. 1. A eunuch, the favorite of Ar- 
cadius, became the virtual governor of the East 
on the death of Rufinus, A.D. 395. He was 
consul in 399, but in that year was deprived 
of his power by the intrigues of the Empress 
Eudoxia and Gainas the Goth ; he was first 
banished to Cyprus, was shortly afterward re- 
called, and put to death at Ohalcedon. The 
poet Claudian wrote an invective against Eu- 
tropius. — 2. A Roman historian, held the office 
of a secretary under Constantine the Great, 
was patronized by Julian the Apostate, whom 
he accompanied in the Persian expedition, and 
was alive in the reign of Valentinian and Valens. 
He is the author of a brief compendium of Ro- 
man history in ten books, from the foundation 
of the city to the accession of Valens, A.D. 364, 
to whom it is inscribed. In drawing up this 
abridgment Eutropius appears to have consulted 
the best authorities, and to have executed his 
task in general with care. The style is in per- 
fect good taste and keeping with the nature of 
the undertaking, beiug plain, precise, and simple. 
The best editions are by Tzschueke, Lips., 1796, 
and by Grosse, Hal., 1813. 

Eutychides (Evrvxtfivs), of Sicyon, a statu- 
ary, and a disciple of Lysippus, flourished B.C. 
300. 

Euxinus Pontus. Vid. Pontus Euxinus. 

Evadne (Evadvij). 1. Daughter of Neptune 
(Poseidon) and Pitaue, who was brought up by 
the Arcadian kiug jEpy tus, and became by Apol- 
lo the mother of Iamus. — 2. Daughter of Ipliis 
(hence called Iphias) or Philax, and wife of Ca- 
psneus. For details, vid. Capaneus. 

EvagSraj (Evayopag), king of Salamis in Cy- 
prus. He was sprung from a family which 
claimed descent from Teucer, the reputed found- 
er of Salamis ; &nd his ancestors appear to have 
been, during a long pt.:iod, the hereditary rulers 
of that city under the rnpremacy of Persia. 



EVAGRIUS. 



FABIA GENS. 



Thay bad, however, been expelled by a Phoeni- 
cian exile, "who obtained the sovereignty for 
himself, and transmitted it to his descendants. 
Evagoras succeeded in recovering his hereditary 
kingdom, and putting the reigning tyrant to 
death, about B.C. 410. His rule was distin- 
guished for its mildness and equity, and he 
greatly increased the power of Salamis, special- 
ly by the formation of a powerful fleet. He 
gave a friendly reception to Conon, when the 
latter took refuge at Salamis after the defeat of 
the Athenians at JSgospotami, 405 ; and it was 
at his intercession that the King of Persia allow- 
ed Conon the support of the Phoenician fleet. 
But his growing, power excited the jealousy of 
the Persian court, and at length war was de- 
clared against him by Artaxerxes. Evagoras 
received the assistance of an Athenian fleet un- 
der Chabrias, and at first met with great suc- 
cess ; but the fortune of war afterward turned 
against him, and he was glad to conclude a 
peace with Persia, by which he resigned his con- 
quests in Cyprus, but was allowed to retain 
possession of Salamis, with the title of king. 
This war was brought to a close in 385. Evag- 
oras was assassinated in 3*74, together with his 
eldest son Pnytagoras. He was succeeded by 
his son Nicocles. There is still extant an ora- 
tion of Isocrates in praise of Evagoras, addressed 
to his son Nicocles. 

Evagrius (EvdypLoc), of Epiphania in Syria, 
born about A.D. 536, was by profession a "scho- 
lasticus" (advocate or pleader), and probably 
practiced at Antioch. He wrote An Ecclesiasti- 
cal History, still extant, which extends from A. 
D. 431 to 594. It is published with the other 
ecclesiastical historians by Reading, Camb., 
1720. 

Evander (EvavSpoc). 1. Son of Mercury 
(Hermes) by an Arcadian nymph, called Themis 
or Nicostrata, and in Roman traditions Car- 
menta or Tiburtis. About sixty years before 
the Trojan war, Evander is said to have led a 
Pelasgian colony from Pallantium in Arcadia 
into Italy, and there to have built a town, Pal- 
lantium, on the Tiber, at the foot of the Pala- 
tine Hill, which town was subsequently incorpo- 
rated with Rome. Evander taught his neigh- 
bors milder laws and the arts of peace and of 
social life, and especially the art of writing, with 
which he himself had been made acquainted by 
Hercules, and music ; he also introduced among 
them the worship of the Lycsean Pan, of Ceres 
(Demeter), Neptune (Poseidon), and Hercules. 
Virgil (JEn., viii., 51) represents Evander as still 
alive at the time when iEneas arrived in Italy, 
and as forming an alliance with him against the 
Latins. Evander was worshipped at Pallantium 
in Arcadia as a hero. At Rome he had an altar 
at the foot of the Aventine. — 2. A Phocian, was 
the pupil and successor of Lacydes as the head of 
the Academic School at Athens, about B.C. 215. 

[Evangelus (EvuyyeXoc). 1. A Greek comic 
poet of the new comedy, a fragment of one of 
whose plays is preserved by Athenaeus ; edited 
by Meineke, Fragm. Comic. Grose, vol. ii., p. 
1173, edit, minor. — 2. A slave of Pericles, who 
distinguished himself by his abilities ; he is said 
to have written a work on the science of war 
(Tn/cTi/ca), which was highly prized by Philo- 
poemen.] 



Evenus (Einjvog). 1. Son of Mars (Ares) and 
Demonice, and father of Marpessa. For de- 
tails, vid. Marpessa. — 2. Two elegiac poets of 
Paros. One of these poets, though it is uncer- 
tain whether the elder or the younger, was a 
contemporary of Socrates, whom he is said to 
have instructed in poetry ; and Plato in several 
passages refers to Evenus, somewhat ironically, 
as at once a sophist or philosopher and a poet. 
There are sixteen epigrams in the Greek An- 
thology bearing the name of Evenus, but it is 
difficult to determine which of them should be 
assigned to the elder and which to the younger 
Evenus. 

Evenus (Evtjvoc : now Fidhari). 1. Formerly 
called Lycormas, rises in Mount OEta, and flows 
with a rapid stream through iEtoha into the 
sea, one hundred and twenty stadia west of An- 
tirrhium. — 2. (Now Sandarll), a river of Mysia, 
rising in Mount Temnus, flowing south through 
Mo\\s, and falling into the Sinus Ela'itieus near 
Pitane. The city of Adramyttium. which stood 
nearly due west of its sources, was supplied with 
water from it by an aqueduct. 

Evergetes {Evepyerrjc), the " Benefactor," a 
title of honor, frequently conferred by the Greek 
states upon those from whom they had received 
benefits. It was assumed by many of the Greek 
kings in Egypt and elsewhere. Vid. Ptolem^eus. 

Evius (Evtoc), an epithet of Bacchus, given 
him from the cheering and animating cry cva, 
evol (Lat. evoe), in the festivals of the god. 

Exadius ('Ef udioc), one of the Lapithae. fought 
at the nuptials of Pirithoiis. 

Exsuperantius, Julius, a Roman historian, 
who lived perhaps about the fifth or sixth cen- 
tury of our era. He is the author of a short 
tract entitled De Marii, Lepidi, ac Sertorii bellis 
civilibus, which many suppose to have been 
abridged from the Histories of Sallust It is 
appended to several editions of Sallust. 

EzlONGEBER. Vid. BERENICE, No. 1. 

F. 

Fabaris or Farfarus (now Far/a), a small 
river in Italy, in the Sabine territory, between 
Reate and Cures. 

Fabatus, L. Rosoius, one of Caesar's lieuten- 
ants in the Gallic war, and praetor in B.C. 49. 
He espoused Pompey's party, and was twice 
sent with proposals of accommodation to Caesar. 
He was killed in the battle at Mutina, B.C. 43. 

Fabatus Calpurnius, a Roman knight, ac- 
cused in A.D. 64, but escaped punishment. He 
was grandfather to Calpurnia, wife of the young- 
er Pliny, many of whose letters are addressed to 
him. 

Faberius. 1. A debtor of M. Cicero. — 2. One 
of the private secretaries of C. Julius Caesar. 

Fabia, two daughters of M. Fabius Ambus- 
tus. The elder was married to Ser. Sulpieius, 
a patrician, and one of the miUtary tribunes 
B.C. 376, and the younger to the plebeian C. Li- 
cinius Stolo. 

Fabia Gens, one of the most ancient patri- 
cian gentes at Rome, which traced its origin to 
Hercules and the Arcadian Evander. The Fabii 
occupy a prominent part in history soon after 
the commencement of the republic ; and thre6 
brothers belonging to the gens are said to have 
. 303 



FABIANUS. 



FALERNUS AGER. 



been invested with seven successive consul- 
ships, from B.C. 485 to 4/79. The house de- 
rived its greatest lustre from the patriotic cour- 
age and tragic fate of the three hundred and sis 
Fabii in the battle on the Cremera, B.C. 47*7. 
Vid. Vibulanus. The principal families of this 
gens bore the names of Ambustds, Buteo, Dor- 
so, Labeo, Maximus, Piotor, and Vibulanus. 

Fabianus, Papirius, a Roman rhetorician and 
philosopher in the time of Tiberius and Calig- 
ula. He wrote works on philosophy and physics, 
which are referred to by Seneea and Pliny. 

Fabrateria (Fabraternus : now Fahaterra), a 
town in Latium, on the right bank of the Trerus, 
originally belonged to the Volscians, but was 
subsequently colonized by the Romans. 

FabrMi belonged originally to the Hernician 
town of Aletrium, where some of this name 
lived as late as the time of Cicero. 1. C. Fa- 
bricius Luscints, was probably the first of his 
family who quitted Aletrium and settled at Rome. 
He was one of the most popular heroes in the 
Roman annals, and, like Cincinnatus and Curius, is 
the representative of the purity and honesty of 
the good old times. In his first consulship, B.C. 
282, he defeated the Lucanians, Bruttians, and 
Samnites, gained a rich booty, and brought into 
the treasury more than four hundred tal- 
ents. Fabricius probably served as legate in 
the unfortunate campaign against Pyrrhus in 
280, and at its close he was one of the Roman 
ambassadors sent to Pyrrhus at Tarentum to 
negotiate a ransom or exchange of prisoners. 
The conduct of Fabricius on this occasion form- 
ed one of the most celebrated stories in Roman 
history, and was embellished in every possible 
way by subsequent writers. So much, how- 
ever, seems certain, that Pyrrhus used every 
effort to gain the favor of Fabricius ; that he 
offered him the most splendid presents, and en- 
deavored to persuade him to enter into his serv- 
ice, and accompany him to Greece ; but that 
the sturdy Roman was proof against all his se- 
ductions, and rejected all his offers. On the 
renewal of the war in the following year (279), 
Fabricius again served as legate, and shared in 
the defeat at the battle of Asculum. In 278 
Fabricius was consul a second time, and had 
the conduct of the war against Pyrrhus. The 
king was anxious for peace ; and the generosity 
with which Fabricius sent back to Pyrrhus the 
traitor who had offered to poison him, afforded 
an opportunity for opening negotiations, which 
resulted in the evacuation of Italy by Pyrrhus. 
Fabricius then subdued the allies of the king in 
the south of Italy. He was censor in 275, and 
distinguished himself by the severity with which 
he attempted to repress the growing taste for 
luxury. His censorship is particularly cele- 
brated from his expelling from the senate P. 
Cornelius Rufinus on account of his possessing 
ten pounds' weight of silver plate. The love 
of luxury and the degeneracy of morals which 
had already commenced, brought out still more 
prominently the simplicity of life and the integ- 
rity of character which distinguished Fabricius 
as well as his contemporary Curius Dentatus ; 
and ancient writers love to tell of the frugal 
way in which they lived on their hereditary 
farms, and how they refused the rich presents 
which the Samnite ambassadors offered them. 
304 



Faoricius lied as poor as he had lived ; he left 
no dowry for his daughters, which the senate, 
however, furnished ; and, in order to pay the 
greatest possible respect to his memory, the 
state interred him within the pomsarium, al- 
though this was forbidden by the Twelve Ta- 
bles. — 2. L. Fabricius, curator viarum in B.C. 
62, built a new bridge of stone, which con- 
nected the city with the island in the Tiber, and 
which was, after him, called pons Fabricius. 
The name of its author is still seen on the rem- 
nants of the bridge, which now bears the name 
of ponte quattro capi. — 3. Q. Fabricius, tribune 
of the plebs 57, proposed, as early as the month 
of January of that year, that Cicero should be 
recalled from exile ; but this attempt was frus- 
trated by P. Clodius by armed force. 

Fabus, Cuspius, appointed by the Emperor 
Claudius procurator of Judaea in A.D. 44. He 
was succeeded by Tiberius Alexander. 

FjESUl^e (Fsesulanus : now Fiesole), a city of 
Etruria, situated on a hill three miles northeast 
of Florence, was probably not one of the twelve 
cities of the League. Sulla sent to it a military 
colony ; and it was the head-quarters of Cati- 
line's army. There are still to be seen the re- 
mains of its ancient walls, of a theatre, &e. 

Falacrine or Fai-acrinum, a Sabine town at 
the foot of the Apennines, on the Via Salaria, 
between Asculum and Reate, the birth-place of 
the Emperor Vespasian. 

Falerii or Falerium, a town in Etruria, sit- 
uated on a steep and lofty height near Mount 
Soracte, was an ancient Pelasgic town, and is 
said to have been founded by Halesus, who set- 
tled with a body of colonists from Argos. Its 
inhabitants were called Falisci, and were re- 
garded by many as of the same race as the 
jEqui, whence we find them often called iEqui 
Fafisci. Falerii afterward became one of the 
twelve Etruscan cities ; but its inhabitants con- 
tinued to differ from the rest of the Etruscans 
both in their language and customs in the time 
of Augustus. After a long struggle with Rome, 
the Faliscans yielded to Camillus, B.C. 394. 
They subsequently joined their neighbors sev- 
eral times in warring against Rome, but were 
finally subdued. At the close of the first Punic 
war, 241, they again revolted. The Romans 
now destroyed Falerii, and compelled the Fa- 
liscans to build a new town in the plain. The 
ruins of the new city are to be seen at Falleri, 
while the remains of the more ancient one are 
at Civita Castellana, The ancient town of Fa- 
lerii was afterward colonized by the Romans 
under the name of " Colonia Etruscorum Fa- 
lisca," or " Colonia Junonia Faliscorum," but 
it never became again a place of importance. 
The ancient town was celebrated for its worship 
of Juno Curitis or Quiritis, and it was in honor 
of her that the Romans founded the colony 
Minerva and Janus were also worshipped in the 
town. Falerii had extensive linen manufactories, 
and its white cows were prized at Rome as vic- 
tims for sacrifice. 

Falernus Ager, a district in the north of 
Campania, extending from the Massic hills to 
the River Vulturnus. It produced some of the 
finest wine in Italy, which was reckoned only 
second to the wine of Setia. Its choicest va- 
riety was called Faustianum. It became fit for 



FALESIA PORTUS. 



FA VOMITS. 



drinking in ten years, and might be used wheD 
twenty years old. 

Falesia Poetus, a harbor in Etruria, south of 
Populonium, opposite the island Ilva. 

Falisoi. Vid. Faleeii. 

Fahscus, Gkatius, a contemporary of Ovid, 
and the author of a poem upon the chase, en- 
titled Cynegeticon Liber, in five hundred and 
forty hexameter lines. Printed in Burmann's 
and Wernsdorf 's Poet. Lat. Min. ; [and "with 
Olympius Nernesianus, by Stern, Halae, 1832, 
j 8vo.] 

Fannia. 1. A woman of Miuturna?, who hos- 
! pitably entertained Marius Avhen he came to 
Minturnae in his flight, B.C. 88, though he had 
I formerly pronounced her guilty of adultery. — 2. 
The secon d wife of Helvidius Priscus. 

Fannius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs, B.C. 
187. — 2. L., deserted from the Roman army in 
84, with L. Magius, and went over to Mithra- 
dates, whom they persuaded to enter into nego- 
tiations with Sertorius in Spain. Fannius after- 
ward commanded a detachment of the army of 
Mithradates against Lucullus. — 3. C, one of the 
persous who signed the accusation brought 
against P. Clodius in 61. In 59 he was men- 
tioned by L. Vettius as an accomplice in the al- 
i leged conspiracy against Pompey. — 4. C, tribune 
of the plebs 59, opposed the lex agraria of 
Cassar. He belonged to Pompey's party, and in 
49 went as prffitor to Sicily. — 5. 0., a contem- 
porary of the younger Pliny, the author of a 
work, very popular at the time, on the deaths of 
persons executed or exiled by Nero. 

Fannius O^epio. Vid. C^epio. 

Fannius Steabo. Vid. Steabo. 

Fannius Quadeatus. Vid. Quadeatus. 

Fanum Foetun;e (now Fano), an important 
town in Umbria, at the mouth of the Metaurus, 
with a celebrated temple of Fortuna, whence the 
town derived its name. Augustus sent to it a 
colony of veterans, and it was then called " Co- 
lonia Julia Fanestris." Here was a triumphal 
arch in honor of Augustus. 

Faefaeus. Vid. Fabaeis. 

Fascinus, an early Latin divinity, and iden- 
tical with Mutinus or Tutinus. He was wor- 
shipped as the protector from sorcery, witch- 
craft, and evil dsemons ; and represented in the 
form of a phallus, the genuine Latin for which 
is faseinum, as this symbol was believed to be 
most efficacious in averting all evil influences. 

Faula or Fauna, according to some, a concu- 
bine of Hercules in Italy ; according to others, 
the wife or sister of Faunus. Vid. Faunus. 

Faunus, son of Picus, grandson of Saturnus, 
and father of Latinus, was the third in the series 
of the kings of the Laurentes. Faunus acts a 
very prominent part in the mythical history of 
Latium, and was in later times worshipped in 
two distinct capacities : first, as the god of fields 
and shepherds, because he had promoted agri- 
culture and the breeding of cattle ; and sec- 
ondly as an oracular divinity, because he was 
one of the great founders of the religion of the 
country. The festival of the Faunalia, cele- 
brated on the fifth of December by the country 
people, had reference to him as the god of ag- 
riculture and cattle. As a prophetic god, he 
was believed to reveal the future to man, partly 
in dreams, and partly by voices of unknown or- 
20 



igin, in certain sacred groves, une near Tibur, 
around the well Albunea, and another on the 
Aventine, near Rome. What Faunus was to 
the male sex, his wife Faula or Fauna was to 
the female. At Rome there was a round tem- 
ple of Faunus, surrounded with columns, on 
Mount Caslius ; and another was built to him, 
in B.C. 196, on the island in the Tiber, where 
sacrifices were offered to him on the ides of Feb- 
ruary. As the god manifested himself in various 
ways, the idea arose of a plurality of Fauns 
(Fauni), who are described as half men, half 
goats, and with horns. Faunus gradually came 
to be identified with the Arcadian Pan, and the 
Fauni with the Greek Satyrs. 

Fausta. 1. Coenelia, daughter of the dic- 
tator Sulla, and twin sister of Faustus Sulla, 
was born about B.C. 88. She was first married 
to C. Memmius, and afterward to Milo. She 
was infamous for her adulteries, and the histo- 
rian Sallust is said to have been one of her par- 
amours, and to have received a severe flogging 
from Milo when he was detected on one occasion 
in the house of the latter. Villius was another 
of her paramours, whence Horace calls him 
" Suite gener" (Sat., i., 2, 64).— 2. Flavia Max- 
imiana, daughter of Maximianus, and wife of 
Constantine the Great, to whom she bore Con- 
stantinus, Constantius, aad Constans. 

Faustina. 1. Annia Galeeia, commonly dis- 
tinguished as Faustina Senior, the wife of An- 
toninus Pius, died in the third year of his reign, 
A.D. 141. Notwithstanding the profligacy of 
her life, her husband loaded her with honors 
both before and after her decease. It was in 
honor of her that Antoninus established a hospi- 
tal for the education and support of young fe- 
males, who were called after her puellce alinien- 
tarice Famtinianoe. — 2. Annia, or Faustina Ju- 
nior, daughter of the elder Faustina, was mar- 
ried to M. Aurelius in A.D. 145 or 146, and she 
died in a village on the skirts of Mount Taurus 
in 175, having accompanied the emperor to Syr- 
ia. Her profligacy was so open and infamous, 
that the good nature or blindness of her hus- 
band, who cherished her fondly while alive, and 
loaded her with honors after her death, appears 
truly marvellous. — 3. Annia, grand-daughter or 
great-grand-daughter of M. Aurelius, the third 
of the numerous wives of Elagabalus. 

Faustulus. Vid. Romulus. 

Faventia (Faventlnus : now Faenze), a town 
in Gallia Cisalpina, on the River Anemo and on 
the Via ^Emilia, celebrated for its linen manu- 
factories. 

Favonii Poetus (now Porto Favone), a harbor 
on the coast of Corsica. 

Favonius, M., an imitator of Cato Uticensis, 
whose character and conduct he copied so ser- 
vilely as to receive the nickname of Cato's ape. 
He was always a warm supporter of the party 
of the optimates, and actively opposed all the 
measures of the first triumvirate. On the break- 
ing out of the civil war in B.C. 49, he joined 
Pompey, notwithstanding his personal aversion 
to the latter, and opposed all proposals of rec- 
onciliation between Caasar and Pompey. He 
served in the campaign against Ca?sar in Greece 
in 48, and after the defeat of his party at Phar- 
salus he accompanied Pompey in Ins flight, and 
showed him the greatest kindness and atten- 
305 



FAV0R1NUS. 



FESTUS. 



bon. Upon Pompey's death, he returned to Italy, 
and was pardoned by Caesar. He took no 
part in the conspiracy against Caesar's life, but 
after the murder of the latter he espoused the 
side of Brutus and Cassius. He was taken pris- 
oner in the battle of Philippi in 42, and was put 
U> death by Octavianus. 

Favorinus, a philosopher and sophist in the 
reign of Hadrian, was a native of Aries in Gaul. 
He resided at different periods of his life in 
Rome, Greece, and Asia Minor, and obtained 
digh distinctions. He was intimate with some 
jf his most distinguished contemporaries, among 
uthers with Plutarch, who dedicated to him his 
treatise on the principle of cold, and with He- 
rodes Atticus, to whom he bequeathed his li- 
brary and house at Rome. He wrote several 
works on various subjects, but none of them are 
extant. 

Febris, the goddess, or, rather, the averter of 
fever. She had three sanctuaries at Rome, in 
which amulets were dedicated which people had 
worn during a fever. 

Februus, an ancient Italian divinity, to whom 
the month of February was sacred, for in the 
latter half of that month general purifications 
and lustrations were celebrated. The name is 
connected with februare (to purify), and februce 
(purifications). Februus was also regarded as a 
god of the lower world, and the festival of the 
dead (Feralia) was celebrated in February. 

Felioitas, the personification of happiness, to 
whom a temple was erected by Lucullus in B.C. 
75, which was burned down in the reign of 
Claudius. Felicitas is frequently seen on Ro- 
man medals in the form of a matron, with the 
staff of Mercury (caduceus) and a cornucopia. 

Felix, Antonius, procurator of Judaea in the 
reigns of Claudius and Nero, was a brother of 
the freedman Pallas, and was himself a freed- 
man of the Emperor Claudius. Hence he is 
also called Claudius Felix. In his private and 
his public character alike Felix was unscrupu- 
lous and profligate. Having fallen in love with 
Drusilla, daughter of Agrippa I, and wife of 
Azizus, king of Emesa, he induced her to leave 
her husband ; and she was still living with him 
in 60, when St. Paul preached before him " of 
righteousness, temperance, and judgment to 
come." His government, though cruel and op- 
pressive, was strong ; he suppressed all distur- 
bances, and cleared the country of robbers. He 
was recalled in 62, and succeeded by Porcius 
Festus ; and the Jews having lodged accusations 
against him at Rome, he was saved from condign 
punishment only by the influence of his brother 
Pallas with Nero. 

Felix, M. Minucius, a Roman lawyer, who 
flourished about AD. 230, wrote a dialogue en- 
titled Octavius, which occupies a conspicuous 
place among the early Apologies for Christian- 
ity. Edited byGronovius, Lugd. Bat., 1707 ; by 
Erncsti, ibid., 1773 ; and by Muralto, Turic., 
1836. 

Felsina. Vid. Bononia. 

Feltria (Feltrinus: now Fcltre), a town in 
Rsetia, a little north of the River Plavis. 

Fenestella, a Roman historian, who lived in 
the time of Augustus, and died A.D. 21, in the 
seventieth year of his age. His work, entitled 
Annates, extended to at least twenty-two books. 
306 



The few fragments preserved relate to events 
subsequent to the Carthaginian wars ; and we 
know that it embraced the greater part of Cic- 
ero's career. A treatise De Sacerdotiis et Ma- 
gistratibus Romanorum Libri 11^ ascribed to 
Fenestella, is a modern forgery. [The genuine 
fragments are published in Popma's Fragmenta 
Historicorum Vet. Lat„ Amst., 1692, and in Hav- 
ercamp's and Frotscher's editions of Sallust.] 

Fenni, a savage people living by the chase, 
whom Tacitus {Germ., 46) reckons among the 
Germans. They appear to have dwelt in the 
further part of Eastern Prussia, and to have been 
the same as the modern Finns. 

FerentInum (Ferentinas, Ferentinus). 1. (Now 
Ferento), a town of Etruria, south of Volsinii, the 
birth-place of the Emperor Otho. It is called 
both a colonia and a municipium. There are 
still remains of its walls, of a theatre, and of se- 
pulchres at Ferento. — 2. (Now Ferentino), an 
ancient town of the Hernici in Latium, southwest 
of Anagnia, colonized by the Romans in the sec- 
ond Punic war. There are still remains of its 
ancient walls. In its neighborhood was the 
source of the sacred brook Ferentina, at which 
the Latins used to hold their meetings. 

Ferentum. Vid. Forentcm. 

Feretrius, a surname of Jupiter, derived 
from ferire, to strike ; for persons who took an 
oath called upon Jupiter to strike them if they 
swore falsely, as they struck the victim which 
they sacrificed to him. Others derived it from 
fcrre, because he was the giver of peace, or be- 
cause people dedicated (ferebant) to him spolia 
opima. 

Feronia, an ancient Italian divinity, who ori- 
ginally belonged to the Sabines and Faliseans ; 
and was introduced by them among the Ro- 
mans. It is difficult to form a definite notion 
of the nature of this goddess. Some consider 
her to have been the goddess of liberty ; others 
look upon her as the goddess of commerce and 
traffic, and others, again, regard her as a goddess 
of the earth or the lower world. Her chief 
sanctuaries were at Terracina, and near Mount 
Soracte. 

Ferox, Urseius, a Roman jurist, who proba- 
bly flourished between the time of Tiberius and 
Vespasian. 

Ferratus Mons (now Jebel-Jurjurah), one of 
the principal mountain-chains in the Lesser 
Atlas system, in North Africa, on the borders 
of Mauretania Cassariensis and Mauretania Si- 
tifensis. 

Fescennidm or Fescennia (Fescennlnus), a 
town of the Falisci in Etruria, and consequently, 
like Falerii, of Pelasgic origin. Vid. Falerii. 
From this town the Romans are said to have 
derived the Fescennine songs. The site of 
the town is uncertain ; it may perhaps be placed 
at S. Silvesto. Many writers place it at Civita 
Caxtellana, but this was the site of Falerii. 

Festus, Sext. Pompeius, a Roman gramma- 
rian, probably lived in the fourth century of our 
era. His name is attached to a dictionary or 
glossary of Latin words and phrases, divided 
into twenty books, and commonly called Sexti 
Pompeii Festide Verborum Signijicatione. It was 
abridged by Festus from a work with the same 
title by M. Verrius Flaccus, a celebrated gram- 
marian in the reign of Augustus. Festus made 



FESTUS, PORCIUS. 



FIRMICUS MATERNUS, JULIUS. 



a tew alterations and criticisms of his own, 
and inserted numerous extracts from other 
writings of Verrius, but altogether omitted 
those words which had fallen into disuse, in- 
tending to make these the subject of a separate 
volume. Toward the end of the eighth century, 
Paul, son of Warnefrid, better known as Paulus 
Diaconus, from having officiated as a deacon of 
the church at Aquileia, abridged the abridgment 
of Festus. The original work of Verrius Flac- 
cus has perished with the exception of one or 
two inconsiderable fragments. Of the abstract 
by Festus, one imperfect MS. only has come 
down to us. The numerous blanks in this MS. 
have been ingeniously filled up by Scaliger and 
Ursinus, partly from conjecture and partly from 
the corresponding paragraphs of Paulus, whose 
performance appears in a complete form in 
many MSS. The best edition of Festus is by 
K. O. Miiller, Lips., 1849, in which the text 
of Festus is placed face to face with the cor- 
responding text of Paulus, so as to admit of 
easy comparison. The work is one of great 
value, containing a rich treasure of learning 
upon many points connected with antiquities, 
mythology, and grammar. 

Festus, Porcius, succeeded Antonius Felix 
as procurator of Judaea in A.D. 62, and died not 
long after his appointment. It was he who bore 
testimony to the innocence of St. Paul, when 
he defended himself before him in the same year. 

Fibrenus. Vid. Arpinum. 

Ficana (Fieanensis), one of the ancient Latin 
towns destroyed by Ancus Mareius. 

Fioulea (Ficuleas, -atis, Ficolensis), an an- 
cient town of the Sabiues, east of Fidense, said 
to have been founded by the Aborigines, but 
early sunk into decay. 

Fiden.b, sometimes Fidena (Fidenas, -atis : 
(how Castel Giubileo), an ancient town in the 
land of the Sabines, forty stadia (five miles) 
northeast of Rome, situated on a steep hill, be- 
tween the Tiber and the Auio. It is said to 
have been founded by Alba Longa, and also to 
have been conquered and colonized by Romu- 
lus ; but the population appears to have been 
partly Etruscan, and it was probably colonized 
by the Etruscan Veii, with which city we find 
it in close alliance. It frequently revolted and 
was frequently taken by the Romans. Its last 
revolt was in B.C. 438, and in the following 
year it was destroyed by the Romans. Subse- 
quently the town was rebuilt ; but it is not 
mentioned again till the reign of Tiberius, 
when, in consequence of the fall of a temporary 
wooden theatre in the town, twenty thousand, 
or, according to some accounts, fifty thousand 
persons lost their lives. 

Fidentia (Fidentinus : now Borgo S. Domino), 
a town in Cisalpine Gaul, on the Via ./Emilia, 
between Parma and Placentia, memorable for 
the victory which Sulla's generals gained over 
Carbo, B.C. 82. 

Fides, the personification of fidelity or faith- 
fulness. Ntima is said to have built a temple 
to Fides publica on the Capitol, and another 
<vas built there in the consulship of M. JSmilius 
Scaurus, B.C. 115. She was represented as a 
matron wearing a wreath of olive or laurel 
leaves, and carrying in her hand corn ears, or a 
basket with fruit 



Fidius, an ancient form of films, occurs in 
the connection of Dius Fidius or Medius Fidius 
that is, me Dius (Awe) filius, or the son of Jupi- 
ter, that is, Hercules. Hence the expression 
medius fidius is equivalent to me Hercules, scil. 
juvet. Sometimes Fidius is used alone. Some 
of the ancients connected fidius with fides. 

Figulus, C. Maucius. 1. Consul B.C. 162, 
and again consul 156, when he carried on war 
with the Dalmatae in Illyrieum. — 2. Consul 64, 
suppported Cicero in his consulship. 

Figulus, P. Nigidius, a Pythagorean philos- 
opher of high reputation, who flourished about 
B.C. 60. Mathematical and physical investiga- 
tions appear to have occupied a large share of ' 
his attention ; and such was his fame as an as- 
trologer, that it was generally believed, in later 
times at least, that he had predicted the future 
greatness of Octavianus on hearing the an- 
nouncement of his birth. He, moreover, pos- 
sessed considerable influence in political af- 
fairs ; was one of the senators selected by Cic- 
ero to take down the depositions of the wit- 
nesses who gave evidence with regard to Cati- 
line's conspiracy, B.C. 63 ; was praetor 59 : 
took an active part in the civil war on the side 
of Pompey ; was compelled by Caesar to live 
abroad, and died in exile 44. 

Fimbria, C. Flavius. 1. A homo novus, who 
rose to the highest honors through his own 
merits and talents. Cicero praises him both 
as a jurist and an orator. He was consul B.C. 
104, and was subsequently accused of extortion 
in his province, but was acquitted. — 2. Probably 
son of the preceding, was one of the most vio- 
lent partisans of Marius and Cinna during the 
civil war with Sulla. In B.C. 86 he was sent 
into Asia as legate of Valerius Flaecus, and 
took advantage of the unpopularity of his com- 
mander with the soldiers to excite a mutiny 
against him. Flaecus was killed at Chalcedon, 
and was succeeded in the command by Fimbria, 
who carried on the war with success against 
the generals of Mithradates. In 84 Sulla cross- 
ed over from Greece into Asia, and, after con- 
cluding peace with Mithradates, marched against 
Fimbria. The latter was deserted by his troops, 
and put an end to his life. 

Fines, the name of a great number of places, 
either on the borders of Roman provinces or 
of different tribes. These places are usually 
found only in the Itineraries, and are not of 
sufficient importance to be enumerated here. 

Firmanus Tarutius, a mathematician and 
astrologer, contemporary with M. Varro and 
Cicero. At Varro's request Firmanus took the 
horoscope of Romulus, and from the circum- 
stances of the life and death of the founder de- 
termined the era of Rome. 

Firmianus Symposius, C*lius, of uncertain 
age and country, the author of one hundred in- 
sipid riddles, each comprised in three hexame- 
ter lines, collected, as we are told in the pro- 
logue, for the purpose of promoting the festivi- 
ties of the Saturnalia. Printed in the Poet. Lat 
Min. of Wensdorf, vol. vi. 

Firmicus Maternus, Julius, or perhaps Vil- 
lius, the author of a work entitled Matheseos 
Libri VIII., which is a formal introduction to 
judicial astrology, according to the discipline 
of the Egyptians and Babylonians. The writer 
307 



FIRMTJM. 



FLACcrrs. 



Ih ed in the time of Constautine the Great, and [ 
had during a portion of his life practiced as a 
forensic pleader. There is also ascribed to this 
Firmicus Materials a work in favor of Christian- 
ity, entitled De Frrore Profanarum Religionum 
ad Constantium. et Constantem. This work was, 
however, probably written by a different per- 
son of the same name, since the author of the 
work on astrology was a pagan. 

Firmuji (Firnianus : now Fermo), a town in 
Pieenum, three miles from the coast, and south 
of the River Tinna, colonized by the Romans 
at the beginning of the first Punic war. On the 
coast was its strongly fortified harbor, Castel- 
i.uii Firmanum or Firmanoruai (now JPorto di 
Fermo.) 

Firmcs, M., a native of Seleucia, the friend 
and ally of Zenobia, seized upon Alexandrea, 
and proclaimed himself emperor, but was de- 
feated and slain by Aurelian, AD. 273. 

Flaccus, Calpurnius. a rhetorician in the 
reign of Hadrian, whose fifty-one declamations 
are frequently printed with those of Quintiliun. 

Flaccus, Fulvius. 1. M., consul with App. 
Claudius Caudex, B C. 264, in which year the 
first Punic war broke out. — 2. Q., son of No. 
1, consul 237, fought against the Ligurians in 
Italy. In 224 he was consul a second time, 
and conquered the Gauls and Insubrians in the 
north of Italy. In 215 he was praetor, after 
having been twice consul ; and in the following 
year (214) he was re-elected prastor. In 213 
he was consul for the third time, and carried 
on the war in Campania against the Carthagin- 
ians. He and his colleague, Appius Claudius 
Puleher, took Hanno's camp by storm, and then 
laid siege to Capua, which they took in the fol- 
lowing year (212). In 209 he was consul for 
the fourth time, and continued the war against 
the Carthaginians in the south of Italy. — 3. Cn., 
brother of No. 2, was praetor 212, and had Apu- 
lia for his province : he was defeated by Han- 
nibal near Herdonea. In consequence of his 
cowardice in this battle he was accused before 
the people, and went into voluntary exile before 
the trial. — 4. Q., son of No. 2, was prastor 182, 
and carried on war in Spain against the Celti- 
berians, whom he defeated in several battles. 
He was consul 179 with his brother L. Manlius 
Acidinus Fulvianus, who had been adopted by 
Manlius Acidinus. In his consulship he de- 
feated the Ligurians. In 174 he was censor 
with A. Postumius Albinus. Shortly afterward 
he became deranged, and hung himself in his 
bed-chamber. — 5. M., nephew of No. 4, and a 
friend of the Gracchi, was consul 125, when he 
subdued the Transalpine Ligurians. He was 
one of the triumvirs for carrying into execution 
the agrarian law of Tiberius Gracchus, and was 
slain together with C. Gracchus in 121. He 
was a man of bold and determined character, 
and was more ready to have recourse to vio- 
lence and open force than C. Gracchus. — 6. Q., 
praetor in Sardinia 187, and consul 180. — 7. 
See., consul 135, subdued the Vardaeans in Illyr- 
icum. 

Flaccus, Gramus, a contemporary of Julius 
Caesar, wrote a book, De Jure Papiriano, which 
was a collection of the laws of the ancient kings 
of Rome, made by Papirius. Vid. Papirius. 

Flaccus, Horatius. Vid. Horatius. 
308 



Flaccus, Hordeonius, consular legate of Ujr 
per Germany at Nero's death, A.D. 68. He was 
secretly attached to the cause of Vespasian, for 
which reason he made no effectual attempt to 
put down the insurrection of Civilis. Vid. Civi- 
lis. His troops, who were in favor of ViteHi 
us, compelled him to give up the command to 
Vocula, and shortly afterward put him to death. 

Flaccus, C. Norbanus, a general of Oetavi- 
anus and Antony in the campaign against Bru- 
tus and Cassius, B.C. 42. He was consul in 38. 

Flaccus, Persius. Vid. Persius. 

Flaccus Siculus, an agrimensor by profes- 
sion, probably lived about the reign of Nerva. 
He wrote a treatise entitled Be Conditionibm 
Agrorum, of which the commencement is pre- 
served in the collection of Agrimensores. Vid. 
Frontinus. 

Flaccus, Valerius. 1. L., curule aedile B.C. 
201, praetor 200, and consul 195, with M. Porci- 
us Cato. In his consulship, and in the follow- 
ing year, he carried on war, with great success, 
agaiDst the Gauls in the north of Italy. In 184 
he was the colleague of M. Cato in the censor- 
ship, aud in the same year was made princeps 
senatus. _ He died 180. — 2. L., consul 131, with 
P. Licinius Crassus. — 3. L., consul 100, with 
C. Marius, when he took an active part in put- 
ting down the insurrection of Saturninus. In 
97 he was censor with M. Antonius, the orator. 
In 86 he was chosen consul in place of Marius, 
who had died in his seventh consulship, aud 
was sent by Cinna into Asia to oppose Sulla, 
and to bring the war against Mithradates to a 
close. The avarice and severity of Flaccus 
made him unpopular with the soldiers, who at 
length rose in mutiny at the instigation of Fim- 
bria. Flaccus was then put to death by order 
of Fimbria. Vid. Fimbria. — 4. L., the interrex, 
who proposed that Sulla should be made dicta 
tor, 82, and who was afterward made by Sulla 
his magister equitum— 5. 0, prastor 98, consul 
93, and afterward proconsul in Spain. — 6. L., 
praetor 63, and afterward proprietor in Asia, 
where he was succeeded by Q Cicero In 59 
he was accused by D. Laalius of extortion in 
Asia ; but, though undoubtedly guilty, he was 
defended by Cicero (in the oration pro Flacco, 
which is still extant) and Q. Hortensius, and 
was acquitted. — 7. -C, a poet, was a native of 
Padua, and lived in the time of Vespasian. He 
-is the author of the Argonautica, an unfinished 
heroic poem in eight books, on the Argonautic 
expedition, in which he follows the general plan 
and arrangement of Apollonius Rhodius. The 
eighth book terminates abruptly at the point 
where Medea is urging Jason to make her the 
companion of his homeward journey. Flaccus 
is only a second-rate poet. His diction is pure ; 
his general style is free from affectation ; his 
versification is polished and harmonious ; his 
descriptions are lively and vigorous ; but he dis- 
plays no originality, nor any of the liigher attri- 
butes of genius. Editions by Burmannus, Leid., 
1724; by Hades, Altenb., 17S1 ; and by Wag- 
ner, Gotting., 1805. 

Flaccus, Verrius, a frc-edman by birth, and a 
distinguished grammarian in the reign of Au- 
gustus, who intrusted him with the education 
of his grandsons Caius and Lucius Caesar. He 
died at an advanced age, in the reign of Tibe- 



FLAMINTN'US, QUINTIUS. 



FLORA. 



rius. At the lower end of the market-place at 
Praeneste was a statue of Verrius Flaccus, front- 
ing the Hemicyelium, ou the inner curve, of 
which were set up marble tablets, inscribed 
with the Fasti Verriani. These Fasti were a 
calendar of the days and vacations of public 
business — dies fasti, nefasti, and intercisi — of 
religious festivals, triumphs, cfec., especially in- 
cluding such as were peculiar to the family of 
the Caesars. In 1770 the foundations of the 
Hemicyelium of Prseneste were discovered, and 
among the ruius were found fragments of the 
Fasti Verriani. They are given at the end of 
Wolfs edition of Suetonius, Lips., 1802. Flac-' 
cus wrote numerous 'works ou philology, history, 
and archaeology. Of these the most celebrated 
was his work Be Verborum Significatione, which 
was abridged by Festus. Vid. Festcs. 

Flamininus, Quintius. 1. T., a distinguish- 
ed general, was consul B.C. 198, and had the 
conduct of the war against Philip of Macedonia, 
which he carried on with ability and success. 
He pretended to have come to Greece to liberate 
the country from the Macedonian yoke, and thus 
induced the Aehasan league, and many of the 
other Greek states, to give him their support. 
The war was brought to a close in 197, by the 
defeat of Philip by Flamininus, at the battle of 
CynoscephaleE iu Thessaly ; and peace was 
shortly afterward concluded with Philip. Fla- 
mininus continued in Greece for the next three 
years, in order to settle the affairs of the coun- 
try. At the celebration of the Isthmian games 
at Corinth in 196, he caused a herald to pro- 
claim, in the name of the Roman senate, the 
freedom and independence of Greece. In 195 
he made war against Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, 
whom he soon compelled to submit to the Ro- 
mans ; and in 194 he returned to Rome, having 
won the affections of the Greeks by his prudent 
and conciliating conduct. In 192 he was again 
sent to Greece as ambassador, and remained 
there till 190, exercising a sort of protectorate 
over the country. In 183 he was sent as am- 
bassador to Prusias of Bithyuia, in order to de- 
mand the surrender of Hannibal. He died 
about 174. — 2. L., brother of the preceding, was 
curule aedile 200, prastor 199, and afterward 
served under his brother as legate in the war 
against Macedonia. He was consul iu 192. and 
received Gaul as his province, where he behav- 
ed with the greatest barbarity. On one occa- 
sion he killed a chief of the Boii who had taken 
refuge in his camp, in order to afford amusement 
to a profligate favorite. For this and similar 
acts of cruelty he was expelled from the senate 
iu 184 by M. Cato, who was then censor. He 
died in 170. — 3. T., consul 150, with M'. Acilius 
Balbus. — 4. T, consul 123, with Q. Metellus 
Balearicus. Cicero says that he spoke Latin 
with elegance, but that he was an illiterate man. 

Flaminius. 1. C, was tribune of the plebs 
B.C. 232, iu which year, notwithstanding the 
violent opposition of the senate, he carried an 
agrarian law, ordaining that the Ager Oaliicus 
Picenus, which had recently been conquered, 
should be distributed among the plebeians. In 
227, iu which year four praetors were appointed 
for the first time, he was one of them, and re- 
ceived Sicily for his province, where he earned 
the good will of the provincials by his integrity 



and justice. In 223 he was consul, and march- 
ed against the Insubrian Gauls. As the senate 
were anxious to deprive Flaminius of his office, 
they declared that the consular election was 
not valid on account of some fault in the auspi- 
ces, and sent a letter to the consuls, with orders 
to return to Rome. But as all preparations had 
been made for a battle against the Insubrians, 
the letter was left unopened until the battle 
was gained. In 220 he was censor, and exe- 
cuted two great works, which bore his name, 
viz., the Circus Flaminius and the Via Flaminia. 
In 217 he was consul a second time, and march- 
ed against Hannibal, but was defeated by the 
latter at the fatal battle of the Trasimene Lake, 
on the twenty -third of June, in which he perish- 
ed with the greater part of his army. — 2. O, son 
of No. 1, was quaestor of Scipio Africanus in 
Spain, 210 ; curule aedile 196, when he distrib- 
uted among the people a large quantity of grain 
at a low price, which was furnished him by the 
Sicilians as a mark of gratitude toward his fa- 
ther and himself ; was praetor 193, and obtained 
Hispania Citerior as his province, where he 
carried on the war with success ; and was con- 
sul 185, when he defeated the Ligurians. 

Flanaticus or Flanonicus Sinus (now Gulf 
of Quarnaro), a bay of the Adriatic Sea, on the 
coast of Liburnia, named after the people Fla- 
nates and their town Flanona (now Fianona). 

Flavia, a surname given to several towns in 
the Roman empire in honor of the Flavian 
family. 

Flavia gens, celebrated as the house to which 
the Emperor Vespasian belonged. During the 
later period of the Roman empire, the name 
Flavius descended from one emperor to anoth- 
er, Constantius, the father of Constantine the 
Great, being the first in the series. 

Flavia Domitilla, first wife of Vespasian. 

Flavius, On., the son of a freedmau, became 
secretary to Appius Claudius Caecus, and, in eon- 
sequence of this connection, attained distin- 
guished honors in the commonwealth. He is 
celebrated in the annals of Roman law for hav- 
ing been the first to divulge certain technicali- 
ties of procedure, which previously had been 
kept secret as the exclusive patrimony of the 
pontiffs and the patricians. He was elected 
curule asdile B.C. 303, iu spite of his ignomini- 
ous birth. 

Flavius Fimbria. Vid. Fimbria. 

Flavius Josephus. Vid. Josephus. 

Flavius Vopisous. Vid. Vopiscus. 

Flavus, L. C^esetius, tribune of the plebs 
B.C. 44, was deposed from his office by 0. J u- 
lius Cossar, because, in concert with C. Epidius 
Marullus, one of his colleagues in the tribunate, 
he had removed the crowns from the statues 
of the dictator, and imprisoned a person who 
had saluted Caesar as " king." 

Flavus or Flavius, Subrius, tribune in the 
Praetorian guards, was the most active agent in 
the conspiracy against Nero, A.D. 66, which, 
from its most distinguished member, was called 
Piso's conspiracy. 

Flevo. Vid. Rhenus. 

Flevum, a fortress in Germany at the mouth 
of the Amisia (now Ems). 

Flevum, Flevo. Vid. Rhenus. 
Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers avid 
309 



FLORENTIA 



FORTUNA. 



Bpi'ing. The writers, whose object was to bring 
the Roman religion into contempt, relate that 
Flora was a courtesan, who had accumulated a 
large property, and bequeathed it to the Roman 
people, in return for which she was honored 
with the annual festival of the Fioralia. But 
her worship was established at Rome in the 
very earliest times, for a temple is said to have 
been vowed to her by King Tatius, and Numa 
appointed a fiamen to her. The resemblance 
between the names of Flora and Chloris led the 
later Romans to indentify the two divinities. 
Her temple at Rome was situated near the 
Circus Maximus, and her festival was celebra- 
ted from the 28th of April till the 1st of May. 
with extravagant merriment and lasciviousness. 
Vid. Diet, of Ant, art. Floralia. 

Florentia (Florentinus). 1. (Now Firenze, 
Florence), a town in Etruria, on the Arnus, was 
a Roman colony, and was probably founded by 
the Romans during their wars with the Liguri- 
ans. In the time of Sulla it was a flourishing 
municipium, but its greatness as a city dates 
from the Middle Ages. — 2. (Now Fiorenzuola), a 
town in Cisalpine Gaul, on the JEmilia Via, be- 
tween Plaeentia and Parma. 

Florentinus, a jurist, one of the council of 
the Emperor Severus Alexander, wrote InUitu- 
tiones in twelve books, which are quoted in the 
Corpus Juris. 

Florianus, M Annius, the brother, by a dif- 
ferent father, of the Emperor Tacitus, upon 
whose decease he was proclaimed emperor at 
Rome, A.D. 276. He was murdered by his 
own troops at Tarsus, after a reign of about 
two months, while on his march against Probus, 
who had been proclaimed emperor by the le- 
gions in Syria. 

Florus, ANNiEus. 1. L., a Roman historian, 
lived under Trajan and Hadrian, and wrote a 
summary of Roman history, divided into four 
books, extending from the foundation of the 
city to the establishment of the empire under 
Augustus, entitled Rerum Romanarum IAhri IV, 
or Fpitome Gestis Romanorum. This com- 
pendium presents within a very moderate com- 
pass a striking view of the leading events com- 
prehended by the above limits. It is written 
in a declamatory style, and the sentiments fre- 
quently assume the form of tumid conceits ex- 
pressed in violent metaphors. The best edi- 
tions arebyDuker, Lugd. Bat., 1722, 1744, re- 
printed Lips., 1832 ; by Titze, Prag., 1819 ; and 
by Seebode, Lips., 1821. — 2. A Roman poet in 
the time of Hadrian. 

Florus, Gessius, a native of Clazomenae, suc- 
ceeded Albinus as procurator of Judaea, A.D. 64- 
65. His cruel and oppressive government was 
the main cause of the rebellion of the Jews. He 
is sometimes called Festus and Cestius Florus. 

Florus, Julius, addressed by Horace in two 
epistles (i., 3 ; ii., 2), was attached to the suite 
of Claudius Tiberius Nero when the latter was 
dispatched by Augustus to place Tigranes upon 
the throne of Armenia. He was both a poet 
and an orator. 

Foca or Phocas, a Latin grammarian, author 
of a dull, foolish life of Virgil in hexameter 
verse, of which one hundred and nineteen lines 
are preserved. Printed in the Anthol. Lat. of 
Burmann and Wernsdorf. 
310 



Fcenicularius Campus, i. e., the Fennel 
Fields, a plain covsred with Fennel, near Tar- 
raco, in Spain. 

Fonteius M., governed rs propraetor Nar 
bonnesse Gaul, between B.C. 76-73, and was 
accused of extortion ia his ptTwic^e by M. Piae- 
torius in 69. He wa3 defended by Cicero in an 
oration (pro M. Fontelo), part of which ie sxtant. 

Fonteius Capito. Vid. Capito. 

Fontus, a Roman divinity, son of Janus, had 
an altar on the Janiculus, which derived its 
name from his father, and on which Numa was 
believed to be buried. The name of this di- 
vinity is connected with fans, a fountain ; anc 
he was the personification of the flowing waters 
On the 13th of October the Romans celebratea 
the festival of the fountains called Fontinalia, 
at which the fountains were adorned with gar 
lands. 

Forentum or Ferentum (Forentanus: now 
Forenza), a town in Apulia, surrounded by fer 
tile fields and in a low situation, according tc 
Horace (arvum pingue humilis Forenti, Carm. 
iii., 4, 16). Livy (ix., 20) describes it as a for- 
tified place, which was taken by C. Junius Bu 
bulcus, B.C. 317. The modern town lies on a 
hill. * 

FormLe (Formianus : ruins near Mola di 
Ga'eta), a town in Latium, on the Appia Via, in 
the innermost corner of the beautiful Sinus 
Caietanus (now Gulf of Gaeta). It was a very 
ancient town, founded by the Pelasgic Tyrrhe- 
nians ; and it appears to have been one of the 
head-quarters of the Tyrrhenian pirates, whence 
later poets supposed the city of Lamus, inhab- 
ited by the Laestrygones, of which Homer speaks 
(Od., x., 81), to be the same as Formiaa. For- 
miae became a municipium and received the 
Roman franchise at an early period. The beau- 
ty of the surrounding country induced many of 
the Roman nobles to build villas at this spot : 
of these the best known is the Formianum of 
Cicero, in the neighborhood of which he was 
killed. The remains of Cicero's villa are still 
to be seen at the Villa Marsana, near Castigli- 
one. The hills of Formiae produced good wine 
(Hor., Carm., i., 20). 

Formio (now Formione, Rusano), a small riv- 
er, forming the northern boundary of Istria. 

Fornax, a Roman goddess, said to have been 
worshipped that she might ripen the corn, and 
prevent its being burned in baking in the oven 
{fornax). Her festival, the Fornacalia, was an- 
nounced by the curio masdmus. 

Fortuna (Tvxv), the goddess of fortune, was 
worshipped both in Greece and Italy. Hesiod 
describes her as a daughter of Oceanus ; Pindar 
in one place calls her a daughter of Jupiter 
(Zeus) the Liberator, and in another place one 
of the Moerae or Fates. She was represented 
with different attributes. With a rudder, she 
was conceived as the divinity guiding and con- 
ducting the affairs of the world ; with a ball, 
she represents the varying unsteadiness of for- 
tune ; with Plutos or the hom of Amalthea, 
she was the symbol of the plentiful gifts of for- 
tune. She was worshipped in most cities in 
Greece. Her statue at Smyrna held with one 
hand a globe on her head, and in the other car 
ried the horn of Amalthea. Fortuna was still 
more worshipped by the Romans than by tha 



FORTUNATE. 

Greeks. Her worship is traced to the reigns of 
Ancus Marcius and Servius Tullius, and the latter 
is said to have built two temples to her, the one 
in the forum boarium, and the other on the banks 
of the Tiber. The Romans mention her with a 
■variety of surnames and epithets, as publica, pri- 
vata, muiiebris (said to have originated at the 
time when Coriolanus was prevented by the en- 
treaties of the women from destroying Rome), 
regina, conservatrix, primigenia, virilis, &c. 
Fortuna Virgiuensis was worshipped by newly- 
married women, who dedicated their maiden 
garments and girdle in her temple. Fortuna Vi- 
rilis was worshipped by women, who prayed to 
her that she might preserve their charms, and 
thus enable thein to please their husbands. Her 
surnames, in general, express either particular 
kinds of good fortune, or the persons or classes 
of persons to whom she granted it. Her worship 
was of great importance also at Antium and Prae- 
neste, where her sortes or oracles were very cel- 
ebrated. 

Foetunam or -oeum Insul/e (ai tuv fiaKilpuv 
vrjBoi, i. e., the Islands of the Blessed). The 
early Greeks, as we learn from Homer, placed 
the Elysian fields, into which favored heroes 
passed without dying, at the extremity of the 
earth, near the River Oceanus. Vid. Elysium. 
In poems later than Homer, an island is clearly 
spoken of as their abode ; and though its position 
was of course indefinite, both the poets, and the 
geographers who followed them, placed it beyond 
the Pillars of Hercules. Hence when, just after 
the time of the Marian civil wars, certain islands 
were discovered in the ocean, off the western 
coast of Africa, the name of Fortunatse Insulae 
was applied to them. As to the names of 
the individual islands, and the exact identifi- 
cation of them by their modern names, there 
are difficulties ; but it may be safely said, gen- 
erally, that the Fortunatas Insulae of Pliny, Pto- 
lemy, and others 'are the Canary Islands, and 
probably the Madeira group; the latter being, 
perhaps, those called by Pliny (after Juba) Pur- 
purariffi. 

Foktunatianus, Atilius, a Latin grammarian, 
author of a treatise (Ars) upon prosody, and the 
metres of Horace, printed in the collection of 
Putschius. 

Foktunatianus, Curius or Chieius, a Roman 
lawyer, flourished about A.D. 450. He is the 
author of a compendium of technical rhetoric, in 
three books, under the title Curii Fortunatiani 
Conndti Artis Rhetorical Scholica; Libri tres, 
which at one period was held in high esteem as a 
manual. Printed in the Rhetores Latini Antiqui 
of Pithou, Paris, 1599. 

[Foeuli (now Rocca di Cerno), a village of 
the Sabiues, at the point of passage over the Ap- 
ennines.] 

Forum, ac open space of ground, in which 
the people met for the transaction of any kind 
of business. At Rome the number of fora in- 
creased with the growth of the city. They 
were level pieces of ground of an oblong form, 
and were surrounded by buildings, both private 
and public. They were divided into two class- 
es: fora civiiia, in which justice was adminis- 
tered and public business transacted, and fora 
venalia, in which provisions and other things 
were sold, and which were distinguished as the 



FORUM. 

forum boarium, olitorium, suarium, piscarium, 
&c. The principal fora at Rome were, 1. Fo- 
eum Romanum, also called simply (be Forum, 
and at a later time distinguished by the epithets 
vetus or magnum. It is usually described as 
lying between the Capitoline and Palatine hills ; 
but, to speak more correctly, it lay between the 
Capitoline and the Velian ridge, which was a 
hill opposite the Palatine. It ran lengthwise 
from the foot of the Capitol or the arch of Sep- 
timius Severus in the direction of the arch of 
Titus ; but it did not extend so far as the latter, 
and came to an end at the commencement of 
the ascent to the Velian ridge, where was the 
temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Its shape 
was that of an irregular quadrangle, of which 
the two longer sides were not parallel, but were 
much wider near the Capitol than at the other 
end. Its length was six hundred and thirty 
French feet, and its breadth varied from one 
hundred and ninety to one hundred feet, an ex- 
tent undoubtedly small for the greatness of 
Rome ; but it must be recollected that the lim- 
its of the forum were fixed in the early days 
of Rome, and never underwent any alteration. 
The origin of the forum is ascribed to Romulus 
and Tatius, who are said to have filled up the 
swamp or marsh which occupied its site, and to 
have set it apart as a place for the administra- 
tion of justice and for holding the assemblies of 
the people. The forum, in its widest sense, in- 
cluded the forum properly so called, and the 
Coinitium. The Comitium occupied the nar- 
row or upper end of the forum, and was the 
place where the patricians met in their comitia 
curiata: the forum, in its narrower sense, was 
originally only a market-place, and was not used 
for any political purpose. At a later time, the 
forum, in its narrower sense, was the place of 
meeting for the plebeians in their comitia tri- 
bute, and was separated from the comitium by 
the Rostra or platform, from which the orators 
addressed the people. The most important of 
the public buildings which surrounded the forum 
in early times was the Curia Hostilia, the place 
of meeting of the senate, which was said to have 
been erected by Tullus Hostilius. It stood on 
the northern side of the Comitium. In the time 
of Tarquin the forum was surrounded by a range 
of shops, probably of a mean character, but they 
gradually underwent a change, and were event- 
ually occupied by bankers and money-changers. 
The shops on the northern side underwent this 
change first, whence they were called Novw or 
Argentarice Tabemm; while the shops on tho 
southern side, though they subsequently ex- 
perienced the same change, were distinguished 
by the name of Veteres Tabernai. As Rome 
grew in greatness, the forum was adorned with 
statues of celebrated men, with temples and 
basilicae, and with other public buildings. The 
site of the ancient forum is occupied by the 
Campo Vaccino. — 2. Foeum Julium or Foeum 
Cesaeis, was built by Julius Ctesar because 
the old forum was found too small for the trans- 
action of public business. It was close by the 
old forum, behind the church of St. Martina. 
Caasar built here a magnificent temple of Venus 
Genitrix. — 3. Foeum Augusti, built by Augus- 
tus because the two existing fora were not 
found sufficient for the great increase of busi- 
3U 



FORUM. 



FREGENJE. 



ness which had taken place. It stood behind 
the Forum Julium, and its entrance at the other 
end was by an arch, now called Arco de Pantani. 
Augustus adorned it with a temple of Mars Ul- 
tor, and with the statues of the most distinguished 
men of the republic. This forum was used for 
causa; publico; and sortitiones judicum. — i. Forum 
NervjE or Forum Transitorium, was a small 
forum lying between the Temple of Peace and 
the fora of Julius Csesar and Augustus. The 
Temple of Peace was built by Vespasian ; and 
as there were private buildings between it and 
the fora of Csesar and Augustus, Domitian re- 
solved to pull down those buildings, and thus 
form a fourth forum, which was not, however, 
intended, like the other three, for the transaction 
of public business, but simply to serve as a 
passage from the Temple of Peace to the fora 
of Csesar and Augustus : hence its name Trans- 
itorium, The plan was carried into execution 
by JSTerva, whence the forum is also called by 
the name of this emperor.— 5. Forum Trajani, 
built by the Emperor Trajan, who employed the 
architect Apollodorus for the purpose. It lay 
between the forum of Augustus and the Campus 
Martius. It was the most splendid of all the 
fora, and considerable remains of it are still 
extant. Here were the Basilica Ulpia and 
Bibliotheca Ulpia, the celebrated Columna Tra- 
jani, an equestrian statue and a triumphal arch 
of Trajan, and a temple of Trajan built by Ha- 
drian. 

Forum, the name of several towns in various 
parts of the Roman empire, which were origin- 
ally simply markets or places for the adminis- 
tration of justice. 1. Alieni (now Ferrara?), 
in Cisalpine Gaul. — 2. Appii (ruins near S. Do- 
nate), in Latium, on the Appia Via, in the midst 
of the Pomptine marshes, forty-three miles 
southeast of Rome, founded by the censor Ap- 
pius Claudius when he made the Appia Via. 
Here the Christians from Rome met the Apos- 
tle Paul (Acts, xxviii., 15). — 3. Amelii or Aiie- 
lium (now Montalto), in Etruria, on the Aurelia 
Via.— 4. Cassii, in Etruria on the Cassia Via, 
near Viterbo. — 5. Clodii (now Oriulo), in Etru- 
ria. — 6. Cornelii (now Irnola), in Gallia Cispa- 
dana, on the iEmilia Via, between Bononia and 
Faventia, a colony founded by Cornelius Sulla. 
— 7. Flaminii, in Umbria, on the Flaminia Via. 
— 8. Fulvii, surnamed Valentinum (now Va- 
lenza), in Liguria, on the Po, on the road from 
Dertona to Asta. — 9. Gallorum (now Castel 
Franco), in Gallia Cisalpina, on the JEmilia Via, 
between Mutina and Bononia, memorable for 
the two battles fought between Antonius and the 
consuls Pansa and Hirtius. — 10. Hadriani (now 
Voorburg), in the island of the Batavi, in Gallia 
Belgica, where several Roman remains have 
been found. — 11. Julii or Julium (Forojuliensis: 
now Frejus), a Roman colony founded by Julius 
Csesar, B.C. 44, in Gallia Narbonensis, on the 
River Argenteus and on the coast, six hundred 
stadia northeast of Massilia. It possessed a 
good harbor, and was the usual station of a part 
of the Roman fleet. It was the birth-place of 
Agricola. At Frejus are the remains of a Ro- 
man aqueduct, circus, arclv&e. — 12. Julii or 
Julium (now Friaul), a fortified town and a Ro- 
man colony in the country of the Carui, north- 
east of Aquileia : in the Middle Ages it became 
312 



a place of importance. — 13. Julium. Vid. Illi- 
turgis. — 14. Livii (now Forli), in Cisalpine Gaul, 
in the territory of the Boii, on the ^Emilia Via, 
southwest of Ravenna : here the Gothic king 
Athaulf married Galla Placidia. — 15. Popilii 
(now Forlimpopoli), in Gallia Cisalpina, east of 
No. 14, and on the same road. — 16. Popilii (now 
Polla), in Lucania, east of Pssstum, on the Tana- 
ger and on the Popilia Via. On the wall of au 
inn at Polla was discovered an inscription re- 
specting the praetor Popilius. — 17. Segusianorum. 
(now Feurs), in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the Liger. 
and west of Lugdunum, a town of the Segusiani, 
and a Roman colony with the surname Julia Fe- 
lix. — 18. Sempronii (Forosemproniensis : now 
Fossombrone), a municipium in Umbria, on the 
Flaminia Via. — 19. Vocontii (now Vidauban, 
east of Canet), a town of the Salyes in Gallia 
Narbonensis. 

Fosi, a people of Germany, the neighbors and 
allies of the Cherusci, in whose fate they shared. 
Vid. Cherusci. It is supposed that their name 
is retained in the River Fuse in Brunswick. 

Fossa or Fossae, a canal. 1. Clodia, a canal 
between the mouth of the Po and Altinum, in 
the north of Italy ; there was a town of the same 
name upon it. — 2. Cluilia or Cluillje, a trench 
about five miles from Rome, said to have been 
the ditch with which the Alban king Cluilius 
protected his camp when he marched against 
Rome in the reign of Tullus Hostilius. — 3. Cos- 
bulonis, a canal in the island of the Batavi, 
connecting the Maas and the Rhine, dug by 
command of Corbulo in the reign of Claudius. 
— 4. Drusian^; or Drusin^e, a canal which Dru 
sus caused his soldiers to dig in B.C. 11, unit- 
ing the Rhine with the Yssel. It probably com- 
menced near Arnheim on the Rhine, and fell 
into the Yssel near Doesberg. — 5. Mariana or 
Marianne, a canal dug by command of Marius 
during his war with the Cimbri, iu order to con- 
nect the Rhone with the Mediterranean, and thus 
make an easier passage for vessels into the 
Rhone, because the mouths of the river were fre- 
quently choked up with saud. The canal com- 
menced near Arelate, but, in consequence of the 
frequent changes in the course of the Rhone, it is 
impossible now to trace the course of the canal. 
— [6. Philistina, also called Fossioncs Philistinm 
(now Po Grande), a very considerable canal, hav- 
ing seven arms or cuts, commonly known by the 
name of Septem Maria, undertaken by the Etru- 
rians to drain the marshy lands about Hadria.] 
— 7. Xerxis. Vid. Athos. 

Fran ci, i. e., " the Free men," a confederacy of 
German tribes, formed on the Lower Rhine in 
the place of the ancient league of the Cherusci, 
and consisting of the Sigambri, the chief tribe, 
the Chamavi, Ampsivarii, Bructeri, Chatti, (fee. 
They are first mentioned about A.D. 240. After 
carrying on frequent wars with the Romans, 
they at length settled permanently in Gaul, of 
which they became the rulers under their great 
king Clovis, A.D. 496. 

Fregell^e (Fregellanus : now Ceprano), an 
ancient and important town of the Volsci, on 
the Liris in Latium, conquered by the Romans, 
and colonized B.C. 328. It took part with the 
allies in the Social war, and was destroyed by 
Opimius. 

Fregen^e, sometimes called Fregeli^e (now 



FRENTANT. 



FULGENTIUS. 



Torre Maccarese), a town of Etruria, on the coast, 
between Alsium and the Tiber, on a low, swampy 
shore, colonized by the Romans B.C. 245. 

Frentant, a Samnite people, inhabiting a fer- 
tile and well-watered territory on the coast of 
the Adriatic, from the River Sagrus on the north 
(and subsequently almost as far north as from 
the Aternus) to the River Frento on the south, 
from the latter* of which rivers they derived 
their name. They were bounded by the Mar- 
rucini on the north, by the Peligni and by Sam- 
I nium on the west, and by Apulia on the south. 
They submitted to the Romans in B.C. 304, and 
concluded a peace with the republic. 

Frento (now Fortore), a river in Italy, form- 
I ing the boundary between the Frentani and Apu- 
lia, rises in the Apennines and falls into the 
Adriatic Sea. 

Friniates, a people in Liguria, probably the 
same as the Briniates, who, after being subdued 
by the Romans, were transplanted to Samnium. 

Frisiabones, probably a tribe of the Frisii, in- 
habiting the islands at the mouth of the Rhine. 

Frisii, a people in the northwest of Ger- 
many, inhabited the coast from the eastern 
mouth of the Rhine to the Amisia (now Ems), 
and were bounded on the south by the Bruc- 
I teri, consequently in the modern Friesland, Grb- 
ninyen, &c. Tacitus divided them into Majores 
and Minores, the former probably in the east, 
and the latter in the west of the countiy. The 
Frisii were on friendly terms with the Romans 
from the time of the first campaign of Drusus 
till A.D. 28, when the oppressions of the Ro- 
man officers drove them to revolt. In the fifth 
century we find them joining the Saxons and 
Angli in their invasion of Britain. 

Frontinus, Sex. Julius, was praetor A.D. 70, 
and in 75 succeeded Cerealis as governor of 
Britain, where he distinguished himself by the 
conquest of the Silures, and maintained the Ro- 
man power unbroken until superseded by Agric- 
ola in 78. In 97 Frontinus was nominated 
curator aquarum. He died about 106. Two 
works undoubtedly by this author are still ex- 
tant : 1. Stratcgematicon Libri IV, a sort of 
treatise on the art of war, developed in a col- 
lection of the sayings and doings of the most 
renowned leaders of antiquity. 2. De Aquozduc- 
tibus Urbis Roma; Libri II, which forms a valu- 
able contribution to the history of architecture. 
The best editions of the Strategematica are by 
Oudendorp, Lugd. Bat., 1779, and by Schwebel, 
Lips., 1772 ; of the De Aquccductibus by Polenus, 
Patav., 1722. In the collection of the Agri- 
mensores, or Rei Agrarioe Auctores (ed. Goesius, 
Amst., 1674; ed. Lachmann, Berlin, 1848), are 
preserved some treatises usually ascribed to 
Sex. Julius Frontinus. The collection consists 
of fragments connected with the art of measur- 
ing land and ascertaining boundaries. It was 
put together without skill, pages of different 
works being mixed up together, and the writ- 
ings of one author being sometimes attributed 
to another. 

Fronto, M. Cornelius, was born at Cirta in 
Numidia, in the reign of Domitian, and came to 
Rome in the reign of Hadrian, where he attain- 
ed great celebrity as a pleader and a teacher of 
rhetoric. He was intrusted with the education 
of the future emperors M. Aurelius and L. Ve- 



rts, and was rewarded with wealth and honors. 
He was raised to the consulship in 143. Sc 
great was his fame as a speaker that a sect of 
rhetoricians arose who were denominated Fron- 
toniani. Following the example of their found- 
er, they avoided the exaggeration of the Greek 
sophistical school, and bestowed especial care 
on the purity of their language and the simplicity 
of their style. Fronto lived till the reign of 
•M. Aurelius. The latest of his epistles belongs 
to the year 166. Up to a recent period no work 
of Fronto was known to be in existence, with 
the exception of a corrupt and worthless tract 
entitled De Differentiis Vocabulorum, and a few 
fragments preserved by the grammarians. But 
about the year 1814 Angelo Mai discovered on 
a palimpsest in the Ambrosian library at Milan a 
considerable number of letters which had pass- 
ed between Fronto, Antoninus Pius, M. Aure- 
lius, L. Verus, and various friends, together with 
some short essays. These were published by 
Mai at Milan in 1815, and in an improved form 
by Kiebuhr, Buttmann, and Heindorf, Berlin, 
1816. Subsequently Mai discovered, on a pa- 
limpsest in the Vatican library at Rome, upward 
of one hundred new letters ; and he published 
these at Rome in 1823, together with those 
which had been previously discovered. 

Fronto, Papieius, a jurist, who probably lived 
about the time of Antoninus Pius, or rather 
earlier. 

Feusino (Frusinas, -atis: now Frosinone), a 
town of the Hernici in Latium, in the valley of 
the River Cosas, and subsequently a Roman 
colony. It was celebrated for its prodigies, 
which occurred here almost more frequently 
than at any other place. 

Fucentis, Fucentia. Vid. Alba, No. 4. 

Fuoinus Lacus (now Lago di Celano or Cap- 
istrano), a large lake iu the centre of Italy and in 
the country of the Marsi, about thirty miles in 
circumference, into which all the mountain 
streams of the Apennines flow. As the water 
of this lake had no visible outlet, and frequently 
inundated the surrounding country, the Emperor 
Claudius constructed an emissarium or artificial 
channel for carrying off the waters of the lake 
into the River Liris. This emissarium is still 
nearly perfect : it is almost three miles in length. 
It appears that the actual drainage was relin- 
quished soon after the death of Claudius, for it 
was reopened by Hadrian. 

Fufius Calenus. Vid. Calenus. 

FufIdius, a jurist, who probably lived between 
the time of Vespasian and Hadrian. 

Fulgentius, Fabius Planciades, a Latin 
grammarian of uncertain date, probably not ear- 
lier than the sixth century after Christ, appears 
to have been of African origin. He is the au- 
thor of, 1. Mythologiarum Libri III. ad Oatum 
Presbyterum, a collection of the most remark- 
able tales connected with the history and ex- 
ploits of gods and heroes. 2. Fxpositio Sermo- 
num Antiquorum cum Tcstimoniis ad Chalcidi- 
cum Grammaticum, a glossary of obsolete words 
and phrases : of very little value. 3. Liber de 
ExpositioneVirgilianoi Continentim ad Chalcidi- 
cum Grammaticum, a title which means an ex- 
planation of what is contained in Virgil, that is 
to say, of the esoteric truths allegorically con- 
veyed in the Virgilian poems. The best edition 
313 



'FULGINIA. 



GABINIUS. 



I 



of these works is in the Mythographi Latini of 
Muncker, Auct., 1681, and of Van Staveren, 
Lngd. Bat., 1742. 

FulginIa, FulgMuh (Fulginas, -atis : now 
Foligno), a town in the interior of Uinbria, on 
the Via Flaminia, was a municipium. 

FulvIa. 1. The mistress of Q. Curius, one 
of Catiline's conspirators, divulged the plot to 
Cicero. — 2. A daughter of M. Fulvius Barubalio 
of Tuseulum, thrice married, first to the cele- 
brated P. Clodius, by whom she had a daughter, 
Clodia, afterward the wife of Oetavianus ; sec- 
ondly to C. Scribonius Curio, and thirdly to 
M. Antony, by whom she had two sons. She 
was a bold and ambitious woman. In the pro- 
scription of B.C. 43 she acted with the greatest 
arrogance and brutality : she gazed with delight 
upon the head of Cicero, the victim of her hus 
band. Her turbulent and ambitious spirit ex- 
cited a new war in Italy in 41. Jealous of the 
power of Oetavianus, and anxious to withdraw 
Antony from the East, she induced L. Antonius, 
the brother of her husband, to take up arms 
against Oetavianus. But Lucius was unable to 
resist Oetavianus, and threw himself into Peru- 
sia, which he was obliged to surrender in the 
following year (40). Fulvia fled to Greece and 
died at Sicyon in the course of the same year. 

Fulvia Gens, a plebeian, but one of the most 
illustrious Roman gentes. It originally came 
from Tuseulum. The principal families in the* 
gens are those of Centujialus, Flaccus. Hobil- 
ior, and PjEtinus. 

Fundanius. 1. C, father of Fuudania, the 
wife of M. Terentius Varro, is one of the speak- 
ers in Varro's dialogue, De He Rustica. — 2. M., 
defended by Cicero, B.C. 65 ; but the scanty 
fragments of Cicero's speech do not enable us 
to understand the nature of the charge. — 3. A 
writer of comedies praised by Horace (Sat, i., 
10, 41, 42). 

Fondi (Fundanus : now Fondi), an ancient 
town in Latium, on the Appia Via, at the head 
of a narrow bay of the sea, running a consider- 
able way into the land, called the Lacus Fun- 
danus. Fundi was a municipium, and was sub- 
sequently colonized by the veterans of Augus- 
tus. The surrounding country produced good 
wine. There are still remains at Fondi of the 
walls of the ancient town. 

FurctjljE Caudin^e. Vid. Caudium. 

FubIa Gens, an ancient patrician gens, prob- 
ably came from Tuseulum. The most cele- 
brated families of the gens bore the names of 
Camillus Medullinus, Pacilus, and Philus. 
For others of less note, vid. Bibacuujs, Cras- 
sipes, Purpureo. • 

FURI^E. Vid. EUMENIDES. 

Furina, an ancient Roman divinity, who had 
a sacred grove at Rome. Her worship seems 
to have become extinct at an early time. An 
annual festival (Furinalia or Furinalesferice) had 
been celebrated in honor of her, and a flamen 
(Jlamen Furinalis) conducted her worship. She 
had also a temple in the neighborhood of Satri- 
cum. 

Furnius, O, a friend and correspondent of 
Cicero, was tribune of the plebs B.C. 50 ; sided 
with Caesar in the civil war ; and after Caesar's 
death was a stanch adherent of Antony. After 
tJie battle of Actium, 31, he was reconciled to 
314 



Augustus through the mediation of hie son, was 
appointed consul in 29, and was prefect of Hither 
Spain in 21. 

Fusous. 1. Arellius, a rhetorician at Rome 
in the latter years of Augustus, instructed in 
rhetoric the poet Ovid. He declaimed more fre- 
quently in Greek than in Latin, and his style of 
declamation is described by Seneca as more 
brilliant than solid, antithetical father than elo- 
quent. His rival in teaching and declaiming 
was Porcius Latro. Vid. Latro. — 2. Aristius, 
a friend of the poet Horace, who addressed to 
him an ode (Carm., i., 22) and an epistle (Ep., i, 
10), and who also introduces him elsewhere 
(Sat, i., 9, 61 ; 10, 83). — 3. Cornelius, one of 
the most active adherents of Vespasian in his 
contest for the empire, A.D. 69. In the reign 
of JDomitian he was sent against the Dacians, 
by whom he was defeated. Martial wrote an 
epitaph on Fuscus (Ep., vi., 76), in which he re- 
fers to the Dacian campaign. 

G. 

I 

Gabje (Td6ai). 1. (Now Darabgherd ?), a-for- 
tress and royal residence in the interior of Per- 
sis, southeast of Pasargadae, near the borders 
of Carmania. — 2. Or Gabaza, or Cazaba, a for- 
tress in Sogdiana, on the confines of the Massa- 
getaa. 

Gabala (TdSa/ia), a sea-port town of Syria 
Seleucis, south of Laodioea, whence good sto- 
rax was obtained. 

Gabali, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, whose 
country possessed silver mines and good pas- 
turage. Their chief town was Anderitum (now 
Antericux). 

Gabiana or -ene (Ta.6ia.v7], Ta6i7;v7}), a fertile 
district in the Persian province of Susiana, west j 
of Mount Zagros. 

Gablt (Gabinus : ruins near Castiglione), a 
town in Latium, on the Lacus Gabinus (now 
Lago di Gavi), between Rome and Praeneste, ; 
was in early times one of the most powerful j 
Latin cities ; a colony from Alba Longa ; and 
the place, according to tradition, where Romulus 
was brought up. It was taken by Tarquinius 
Superbus by stratagem, and it was in ruius in i 
the time of Augustus ( Gabiis deseriior vicus, Hor. r 
Ep., i., 11, 7). The ductus Gabinus, a peculiar 
mode of wearing the toga at Rome, appears to 
have been derived from this town. In the 
neighborhood of Gabii are the immense stone 
quarries from which a part of Rome was built. j 

Gabinius, A., dissipated his fortune in youth 
by his profligate mode of fife. He was tribune 
of the plebs B.C. 66, when he proposed and car- 
ried a law conferring upon Pompey the com- 
mand of the war against the pirates. He was 
praetor in 61, and consul 58 with L. Piso. ! 
Both consuls supported Clodius in his measures 
against Cicero, which resulted in the banish- 
ment of the orator. In 57 Gabinius went to 
Syria as proconsuL His first attention was di- 
rected to the affairs of Judea. He restored 
Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood, of which he 
had been dispossessed by Alexander, the son of 
Aristobulus. He next marched into Egypt, and 
restored Ptolemy Auletes to the throne. The 
restoration of Ptolemy had been forbidden by a 
decree of the senate, and by the Sibylline books ; 



GADARA. 



GJ3TULIA. 



I but Gabinius had been promised by the king a I 
sum of ten thousand talents for this service and 
accordingly set at naught both the senate and 
the SibyL His government of the province 
•was marked in other respects by the most 
shameful venality and oppression. He returned 
to Rome in 64. He was accused of majestas or 
high treason, on account of his restoration of 
Ptolemy Auletes, in defiance of the Sibyl and 
the authority of the senate. He was acquitted 
on this charge ; but he was forthwith accused 

j of repetundce, for the illegal receipt of ten thou- 
sand talents from Ptolemy. He was defended 
by Cicero, who had been persuaded by Pompey, 

j much against his will, to undertake the defence. 

I Gabinius, however, was condemned on this 
charge, and went into exile. He was recalled 
from exile by Caesar in 49, and in the following 
year (48) was sent into Illyricum by Caesar with 
some newly-levied troops, in order to re-enforce 
Q. Cornificius. He died in Illyricum about the 
end of 48, or the beginning of the following 

year ; 

Gadara (Tudapa : Ta6apr]voc : now Um-Keis), 
a large fortified city of Palestine, one of the ten 
which formed the Decapolis in Perasa, stood a 
little south of the Hieromax (now Yarmuk), an 

I eastern tributary of the Jordan. The surround- 

; ing district, southeast of the Lake of Tiberias, 
was called Gadaris, and was very fertile. Ga- , 
dara was probably favored by the Greek kings 
of Syria, as it is sometimes called Antiochia 
and Seleucia ; it was restored by Pompey : 
Augustus presented it to King Herod, after 

j whose death it was assigned to the province of 
Syria. It was made the seat of a Christian bish- 
opric. There were celebrated baths in its neigh- 
borhood, at Amatha. 

Gades (to. Tddeipa : Tatietpevc, Gaditanus : 
now Cadiz), a very ancient town in Hispania 
Baetica, west of the Pillars of Hercules, found- 
ed by the Phoenicians, and one of the chief seats 
of their commerce in the west of Europe, was 
situated on a small island of the same name 
(now Isle de Leon), separated from the main 
land by a narrow channel, which in its narrowest 
part was only the breadth of a stadium, and 
over which a bridge was built. Herodotus says 
(iv., 8) that the island of Erythia was close to 
Gadeira ; whence most later writers supposed 
the island of Gades to be the same as the myth- 
ical island of Erythia, from which Hercules car- 
ried off the oxen of Geryon. A new town was 
built by Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades, 
and the circumference of the old and new towns 
together was only twenty stadia. There were, 
however, many of the citizens dwelling on the 
main land opposite the island, as well as on a 
smaller island (S. Sebastian or Trocadero) in 
the immediate neighborhood of the larger one. 

i After the first Punic war Gades came into the 
hands of the Carthaginians ; and in the second 
Punic war it surrendered of its own accord to 
the Romans. Its inhabitants received the Ro- 
man franchise from Julius Caesar. It became a 
municipium, and was called Augusta urbs Julia 
Gaditana. Gades was from the earliest to the 
latest times . an important commercial town. 
Its . inhabitants were wealthy, luxurious, and 
licentious ; and their lascivious dances were 
celebrated at Rome. (Juv., xi., 162.) Gades 



I possessed celebrated temples of Saturn (Cronus) 
and Hercules. Its drinking water was as bad 
in antiquity as it is in the present day. Gades 
gave its name to the Fretum Gaditanum, the 
straits at the entrance of the Mediterranean, be- 
tween Europe and Africa (now Straits of Gib- 
raltar.) 

GjEA or Ge (Taia or Ty), the personification 
of the earth. Homer describes her as a divine 
being, to whom black sheep were sacrificed, and 
who was invoked by persons taking oaths ; and 
he calls her the mother of Erechtheus and Tity- 
us. In Hesiod she is the first being that sprang 
from Chaos, and gave birth to Uranus (Coelus) 
and Pontus. By Uranus (Coelus) she became 
the mother of Oceanus, Cceus, Crius, Hyperion, 
Iapetus, Thia, Rheia, Themis, Mnemosyne, 
Phoebe, Tethys, Saturn (Cronos), the Cyclopes, 
Brontes, Steropes, Arges, Cottus, Briareus, and 
Gyges. These children were hated by their fa- 
ther, and Ge (Terra) therefore concealed them 
in the bosom of the earth ; but she made a large 
iron sickle, gave it to her sons, and requested 
them to- take vengeance upon their father. 
Cronos (Saturn) undertook the task, and mu- 
tilated Uranus (Ccelus). The drops of blood 
which fell from him upon the earth (Ge) be- 
came the seeds of the Erinnyes, the Gigantes, 
and the Melian nymphs. Subsequently Ge (Ter- 
.ra) became, by Pontus, the mother of Nereus, 
Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and Eurybia. Ge 
(Terra) belonged to the deities of the nether 
world (&eol xSbvioi) and hence she is frequent- 
ly mentioned where they are invoked. The 
surnames and epithets given to her have more 
or less reference to her character as the all- 
producing and all-nourishing mother (mater om- 
niparens et alma). Her worship appears to have 
been universal among the Greeks, and she had 
temples or altars in almost all the cities of 
Greece. At Rome the earth was worshipped 
under the name of Tellus (which is only a 
variation of Terra). • She was regarded by the 
Romans also as one of the deities of the nether 
world (Inferi), and is mentioned in connection 
with Dis and the Manes. A temple was built to 
her by the consul P. Sempronius Sophus, in B. 
C. 304. Her festival was celebrated on the 
15th of April, and was called Fordicidia or Hor- 
dicidia. The sacrifice, consisting of cows, was of- 
fered up in the Capitol in the presence of the 
Vestals. 

G-eson, GjEsus, or Gessus (Talaav ) a river 
of Ionia in Asia Minor, falling into the Gulf of 
Mseander near the promontory of Mycale. 

G^etulia (TairovMa), the interior of Northern 
Africa, south of Mauretania, Nuniidia, and the 
region bordering on the Syrtes, reaching to the 
Atlantic Ocean on the west, and of very in- 
definite extent toward the east and the south. The 
people included under the name Gaatiili (Tai- 
tovIoi), in its widest sense, were the inhabit- 
ants of the region between the countries just 
mentioned and the Great Desert, and also in 
the Oases of the latter, and nearly as far south 
as the River Niger. They were a great nomad 
race, including several tribes, the chief of whom 
were the Autololes and Pharusii on the western 
coast, the Darae, or Gaetuli-Darae, in the steppes 
of the Great Atlas, and the Melanogaetuli, a 
black race resulting from the intermixture of 
315 



GAINAS. 



GALBA. 



the Gaetuli with their southern neighbors, the 
Nigritae. The pure Gostulians were not an 
iEthiopic (i. <?., negro), but a Libyan race, and 
were most probably of Asiatic origin. They are 
supposed to have been the ancestors of the 
Berbers. 

Gainas. Vid. Arcadtos. 

Gaius or Caius, a celebrated Roman jurist, 
wrote under Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius. 
His works were very numerous, and great use 
was made of them in the compilation of the 
Digest. One of his most celebrated works was 
an elementary treatise on Eoman law, entitled 
Institutiones, in four books. This work was for 
a long time the ordinary text book used by those 
who were commencing the study of the Roman 
law ; but it went out of use after the compila- 
tion of the Institutiones of Justinian, and was 
finally lost. This long lost work was discov- 
ered by Niebuhr in 1816 in the library of the 
Chapter at Verona. The MS. containing Gaius 
was a palimpsest one. The original writing of 
Gaius had on some pages been washed out, and 
nn others scratched out, and the whole was re- 
written with the Letters of St. Jerome. The 
task of deciphering the original MS. was a very 
difficult one and some parts were completely 
destroyed. It was first published by Goschen 
in 1821 : a second edition appeared in 1824, and 
a third in 1842. 

Qagjk (Tdyai), a town on the coast of Lycia, 
east of Myra, whence was obtained, the mineral 
Balled Gagates lapis, that is jet, or, as it is still 
called in German, gagat. 

Galanthis. Vid. Galinthias. 

Galatea (TaXdreia), daughter of Nereus and 
Doris. For details, vid. Aois. 

Galatia (TaXaria : TaXdrr/c : in the eastern 
part of modern Anadoli and the western part of 
Rumili), a country of Asia Minor, composed of 
parts of Phrygia and Cappadocia, and bounded 
on the west, south, and southeast by those coun- 
tries, and on the northeast, north, and northwest 
by Pontus, Paphlagonia, and Bithynia. It de- 
rived its name from its inhabitants, who were 
Gauls that had invaded and settled in Asia 
Minor at various periods during the third cen- 
tury B.C. First, a portion of the army which 
Brennus led against Greece, separated from the 
main body, and marched into Thrace, and, hav- 
ing pressed forward as far as the shores of the 
Propontis, some of them crossed the Hellespont 
on their own account, while others, who had 
reached Byzantium, were invited to pass the 
Bosporus by Nicomedes I, king of Bithynia, 
who required their aid against his brother Zi- 
pcetus (B.C. 279.) They speedily overran all 
Asia Minor within the Taurus, and exacted 
tribute from its various princes, and served as 
mercenaries not only in the armies of these 
princes, but also of the kings of Syria and 
Egypt ; and, according to one account, a body 
of them found their way to Babylon. During 
their ascendency, other bodies of Gauls follow- 
ed them into Asia. Their progress was at 
length checked by the anus of the kings of 
Pergamus : Eumenes fought against them with 
various fortune ; but Attalus I. gained a com- 
plete victory over them (B.C. 230), and com- 
pelled them to settle down within the limits of 
the country thenceforth called Galatia and also, 
316 



on account of the mixture of Greeks with the 
Celtic inhabitants, which speedily took place, 
Grasco-Galatia and Gallogreecia. The people of 
Galatia adopted to a great extent Greek habits 
and manners and religious observances, but pre- 
served their own language, which is spoken of as 
resembling that of the Treviri. They retained, 
also, their political divisions and forms of gov- 
ernment. They consisted of three great tribes, 
the Tolistobogi, the Trocrni, and the Tectosages, 
each subdivided into four parts, called by the 
Greeks rerpapxlai. At the head of each of these 
twelve tetrarchies was a chief, or tetrarch, 
who appointed the chief magistrate (SiKaarrjc;), 
and the commander of the army (oTpaTO<j>vXal), 
and two lieutenant generals (vnonrpaTo^vAaKec). 
The twelve tetrarchs together had the general 
government of the country, but their power was 
checked by an assistant senate of three hund- 
red, who met in a place called Drynsemetum (or 
probably, Drysenetum, i. e., the oak-grove), and 
had jurisdiction in all capital cases. This form 
of government had a natural tendency to mon- 
archy, according as either of the twelve te- 
trarchs became more powerful than the rest, 
especially under the protection of the Romans, 
to whom Galatia became virtually subject as 
the result of the campaign which the consul Cn. 
Maulius undertook against the Gauls, to punish 
them for the assistance they had given to An- 
tiochus the Great (B.C. 189). At length one 
of the tetrarchs, Deiotarus, was rewarded for 
his services to the Romans in the Mithradatic 
war by the title of king, together with a grant 
of Pontus and Armenia Minor ; and after the 
death of his successor Amyntas, Galatia was 
made by Augustus a Roman province (B.C. 25). 
It was soon after enlarged by the addition 
of Paphlagonia. Under Constantine it was 
restricted to its old limits, and under Valens 
it was divided into two provinces, Galatia Prima 
and Galatia Secunda. The country was beau- 
tiful and fertile, being watered by the rivers 
Halys and Sangarius. Its only important cities 
were, in the southwest, Pessinus, the capital 
of the Tolistobogi ; in the centre, Anctra, the 
capital of the Tectosages ; and in the north- 
east, Tavium, the capital of the Trocmi. From 
the Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians, we learn 
not only that many Christian churches had been 
formed in Galatia during the apostolic age, but 
also that those churches consisted, in great part, 
of Jewish converts. 

Galaxius (Takdiioc), a small river in Bceotia, 
on which stood a temple of Apollo Galaxios : it 
derived its name from its milky color, which was 
owing to the chalky nature of the soil through 
which it flowed. 

Galba, Sulpioius, patricians. 1. P., consul 
B.C. 211, received Macedonia as his province., 
where he remained as proconsul till 204, and 
carried on the war against Philip. In 200 he 
was consul a second time, and again obtained 
Macedonia as his province ; but he was unable 
to accomplish any thing of importance against 
Philip, and was succeeded in the command in 
the following year by "Villius Tappulus. He was 
one of the ten commissioners sent to Greece in 
196, after the defeat of Philip by Flamiuius, and 
was one of the ambassadors sent to Autiochus 
; n 193, — 2. Ser., was prcetor 151, and received 



GALBA, SER. SULPICIUS. 



GALETJS. 



Spain as his province. His name is infamous 
on account of his treacherous and atrocious mur- 
der of the Lusitanians, -with their wives and 
children, who had surrendered to him on the 
promise of receiving grants of land. Viriathus 
was one of the few Lusitanians who escaped 
from the bloody scene. Vid. Vibjathds. On 
his return to Rome in 149, he was brought to 
trial on account of his horrible massacre of the 
Lusitanians. His conduct was denounced in 
the strongest terms by Cato, who was then 
eighty-five years old, but he was nevertheless 
acquitted. He was consul 144. Cicero praises 
his oratory in the highest terms. — 3. See., great- 
grandfather of the Emperor Galba, served un- 
der Ciesar in the Gallic war, and was prastor in 
54. After Caesar's death he served against An- 
tony in the war of Mutina. — 4. C, father of the 
Emperor Galba, was consul in A.D. 22. 

Galba, See. Sulpicius, Roman emperor from 
June, A.D. 68, to January, A.D. 69. He was 
born near Terracina, on the 24th of December, 
B.C. 3. Both Augustus and Tiberius are said 
to have told him that one day he would be at 
the head of the Roman world, from which we 
must infer that he was a young man of more 
than ordinary talents. From his parents he in- 
herited great wealth. He was invested with 
the curule offices before attaining the legitimate 
age. He was prastor A.D. 20, and consul 33. 
After his consulship he had the government of 
Gaul, 39, where he carried on a successful war 
against the Germans, and restored discipline 
among the troops. On the death of Caligula 
many of his friends urged him to seize the em- 
pire, but he preferred living in a private station. 
Claudius intrusted him, in 45, with the admin- 
istration of Africa, which he governed with 
wisdom and integrity. In the reign of Nero he 
lived for several years in retirement, through 
fear of becoming the victim of the tyrant's sus- 
picion ; but in 61 Nero gave him the govern- 
ment of Hispania Tavraconensis, where he re- 
mained for eight years. In 68 Vindex rebelled 
in Gaul. About the same time Galba was in- 
formed that Nero had sent secret orders for his 
assassination. He therefore resolved at once 
to follow the example of Vindex ; but he did 
not assume the imperial title, and professed to 
act only as the legate of the Roman senate and 
people. Shortly afterward Nero was murdered ; 
and Galba thereupon proceeded to Rome, where 
he was acknowledged as emperor. But his 
severity and avarice soon made him unpopular 
with his new subjects, and especially with the 
soldiers. His powers had also become enfee- 
bled by age, and he was completely under the 
sway of favorites, who perpetrated many enor- 
mities in his name. Perceiving the weakness of 
his government, he adopted Piso Licinianus, 
a noble young Roman, as his successor. But 
this only hastened his ruin. Otho, who had 
hoped to be adopted by Galba, formed a con- 
spiracy among the soldiers, who rose in rebel- 
lion six days after the adoption of Piso. Galba 
was murdered, and Otho was proclaimed em- 
peror. 

Galenus, Claudius, commonly called Galen, 
a very celebrated physician, whose works have 
had a longer and more extensive influence on 
the different branches of medical science than 



those of any other individual either in ancient 
or modern tunes. He was born at Pergamum 
in A.D. 130. His father Nicon, who was an 
architect and geometrician, carefully superin- 
tended his education. In his seventeenth year 
(146), his father, who had hitherto destined 
him to be a philosopher, altered liis intentions, 
and, iu consequence of a dream, chose for him 
the profession of medicine. He at first studied 
medicine in his native city. In his twentieth 
year (149) he lost his father, and about the 
same time he went to Smyrna for the purpose 
of studying under Pelops the physician, and 
Albinus the Platonic philosopher. He after 
ward studied at Corinth and Alexandrea. He 
returned to Pergamum in his twenty-ninth year 
(158), and was immediately appointed physician 
to the school of gladiators, an office which he 
filled with great reputation and success. In 
164 he quitted his native country on account 
of some popular commotions, and went to Rome 
for the first time. Here he stayed about four 
years, and gained great reputation from his skill 
in anatomy and medicine. He returned to Per- 
gamum in 168, but had scarcely settled there 
when he received a summons from the emper- 
ors M. Aurelius and L. Verus to attend them at 
Aquileia in Venetia. From Aquileia Galen fol- 
lowed M. Aurelius to Rome in 170. When the 
emperor again set out to conduct the war on 
the Danube, Galen with difficulty obtained per- 
mission to be left behind at Rome, alleging that 
such was the will of iEsculapius. Before leav- 
ing the city the emperor committed to the med- 
ical care of Galen his son Commodus, who was 
then nine years of age. Galen stayed at Rome 
some years, during which time he employed 
himself in lecturing, writing, and practicing 
with great success. He subsequently returned 
to Pergamum, but whether he again visited 
Rome is uncertain. He is said to have 'died in 
the year 200, at the age of seventy, in the reign 
of Septimius Severus ; but it is not improbable 
that he lived some years longer. Galen wrote 
a great number of works on medical and philo- 
sophical subjects. The works still extant under 
the name of Galen consist of eighty-three 
treatises acknowledged to be genuine ; nine- 
teen whose genuineness has been doubted ; 
forty-five undoubtedly spurious ; nineteen frag- 
ments ; and fifteen commentaries on different 
works of Hippocrates. Galen attached himself 
exclusively to none of the medical sects into 
which the profession was divided, but chose 
from the tenets of each what he believed to be 
good and true, and called those persons slaves 
who designated themselves as followers of 
Hippocrates, Praxagoras, or any other man. 
The best edition of his works is by Kiihn, Lips., 
1821-1833, 20 vols. 8vo. 

Galepsus (VaXrppog : Tal^ioc), a town in 
Macedonia, on the Toronaic Gulf. 

Galerius Maximianus. Vid. Maximianus. 

Galeeius Teachalus. Vid. Teachalus. 

Galesus (now Galeso), a river in the south 
of Italy, flows into the Gulf of Tarenturn, 
through the meadows where the sheep fed 
whose wool was so celebrated in antiquity 
(duke pellitis cwibus Oaloesi jlumen, Hor., Carm., 

a., 6, io). 

Galeus (raAeoc), that is, " the lizard," son 
317 



GALILiGA. 



GALLIA. 



of Apollo and Themisto, the daughter of the 
Hyperborean king Zabius. In pursuance of an 
oracle of the Dodonean Zeus, Galeus emigrated 
to Sicily, where he built a sanctuary to his 
father Apollo. The Galeotmj, a family of Sicil- 
ian soothsayers, derived their origin from him. 
The principal seat of the Galeotse was the town 
of Hybla, which was hence called Galeotis 
or Galeatis. 

GaliljEa (Ta2.t2.ma), at the birth of Christ, 
was 'the northernmost of the three divisions of 
Palestine west of the Jordan. It lay between 
the Jordan and the Mediterranean on the east 
and west, and the mountains of Hermon and 
Carmel on the north and south. It was divided 
into Upper or North Galilee, and Lower or South 
Galilee. It was very fei-tile and densely peo- 
pled ; but its inhabitants were a mixed race of 
Jews, Syrians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and others, 
and were therefore despised by the Jews of 
Judasa. Vid. Pal^estina. 

Galinthias or Galanthis (Ov., Met, ix., 306), 
daughter of Proetus of Thebes and a friend of 
Alcmene. When Alcmene was on the point 
of giving birth to Hercules, and the Mcerse and 
Bitbyia?, at the request of Juno (Hera), were 
endeavoring to delay the birth, Galinthias sud- 
denly rushed in with the false report that Alc- 
mene had given birth to a son. The hostile 
goddesses were so surprised at this information 
that they dropped their arms. Thus the charm 
was broken, and Alcmene was enabled to give 
birth to Hercules. The deluded goddesses 
avenged the deception practiced upon them by 
metamorphosing Galinthias into a weasel or cat 
(ya?iT/). Hecate, however, took pity upon her, 
and made her her attendant, and Hercules after- 
ward erected a sanctuary to her. At Thebes it 
was customary at the festival of Hercules first to 
offer sacrifices fo Galinthias. 

Galla. 1. Wife of Constantius, son of the 
Emperor Constantius Chlorus. She was the 
mother of Gailus Caesar Vid. Gallus. — 2. 
Daughter of the Emperor Valentinian I., and 
second wife of Theodosius the Great. — 3. Gal- 
la Placidia, or simply Placidia, daughter of 
Theodosius the Great by No. 2. She fell into 
the hands of AJaric when he took Rome, A.D. 
410 ; and Ataulphus, the Gothic king, married 
her in 414. Alter the death of Ataulphus she 
was restored to Honorius ; and in 417 she was 
married to Constantius, to whom she bore the 
Emperor Valentinian III. During the minority 
of the latter she governed the Western empire. 
She died about 450. 

Gall^cia, the country of the Gall^eci (KaA- 
\ainoL), in the north of Spain, between the As- 
tures and the Durius, was in earlier times in- 
cluded in Lusitania. Galkecia was sometimes 
used in a wider sense to include the country of 
the Astures and the Cantabri. It produced tin, 
gold, and a precious stone called gemma Galla- 
ica. Its iuhabitants were some of the most un- 
civilized in Spain. They were defeated with 
great slaughter by D. Brutus, consul B.C. 138, 
who obtained in consequence the uvrname of 
Galtecus. 

Gallia (// Ke?^iK^, Talarlu), was wed before 
the time of Julius Caesar to indictve all the 
land inhabited by the Galli or Celta. f-nd con- 
sequently included not only the latex Onul and 
318 



the north of Italy, but a part of Spain, the 
greater part of Germany, the British isles, and 
other countries. The early history of the Celtic 
race, and their various settlements in different 
parts of Europe, are related under Celt^g. 1. 
Gallia, also called Gallia Transalpina or 
Gallia Ulterior, to distinguish it from Gallia 
Cisalpina, or the north of Italy. Gallia Brac- 
cata and Gallia Comata are also used in con- 
tradistinction to Gallia Togata or the north of 
Italy, but these names are not identical with 
the whole of Gallia Transalpina. Gallia Brac- 
cata was the part of the country first subdued 
by the Romans, the later Proviueia, and was so 
called because the inhabitants wore braccce oi 
trowsers. Gallia Comata was the remainder of 
the country, excluding Gallia Braccata, and 
derived its name from the inhabitants wearing 
their hair long. The Romans were acquainted 
with only a small portion of Transalpine Gaul 
till the time of Caasar. In the time of Augus- 
tus it was bounded on the south by the Pyre- 
nees and the Mediterranean ; on the east by 
the River Varus and the Alps, which separated 
it from Italy, and by the River Rhine, which 
separated it from Germany ; on the north by 
the German Ocean and the English Channel ; 
and on the west by the Atlantic ; thus includ- 
ing not only the whole of France and Belgium, 
but a part of Holland, a great part of Switzer- 
land, and all the provinces of Germany west of 
the Rhine. The greater part of this country 
is a plain, well watered by numerous rivers. 
The principal mountains were Mons Cebenna 
or Gebenna in the south ; the lofty range of 
Mons Jura in the east, separating the Sequani 
and the Helvetii ; Mons Vosegus or Voge- 
sus, a continuation of the Jura. The chief, 
forest was the Silva Arduenna, extending from 
the Rhine and the Treviri as far as the Scheldt. 
The principal rivers were, in the east and north, 
the Rhenus (now Rhine), with its tributaries 
the Mosa (now Maas) and Mosella (now Mt- 
selle) ; the Sequana (now Seine), with its tribu- 
tary the Matrona : in the centre the Ligeris 
(now Loire) ; in the west, the Garcmna (now 
Garonne) ; and in the south the Rhodanus (now 
Rhone). The country was celebrated for its 
fertility in ancient times, and possessed a nu- 
merous and warlike population. The Greeks, 
at a Very early period, became acquainted with 
the southern coast of Gaul, where they founded, 
in B.C. 600, the important town of Massilia, 
which in its turn founded several colonies, and 
exercised a kind of supremacy over the neigh- 
boring districts. The Romans did not attempt 
to make any conquests in Transalpine Gaul till 
they had finally conquered not only Africa, but 
Greece and a great part of Western Asia. In 
B.C. 125 the consul M. Fulvius Flaccus com- 
menced the subjugation of the Salluvii in the 
south of Gaul. In the next three years (124- 
122) the Salluvii were completely subdued by 
Sextius Calvinus, and the colony of Aquas Sex- 
tise (now Aix) was founded in their country. 
In 121 the Allobroges were defeated by the 
proconsul Domilius Ahenobarbus ; and in the 
same year Q. Fabius Maximus gained a great 
victory over the united forces of the Allobroges 
and Arvcrni, at the confluence of the Isara and 
the Rhone. The south of Gaul was now madi 



GALLIA. 

I a Roman province ■ and in 118 -was founded 
the colony of Narbo Martius (now Narbonne,) 
which was the chief town of the province. In 
Caesar's Commentaries the Roman province is 
called simply Provincia, in contradistinction to 
the rest of the country : hence comes the mod- 
ern name of Provence. The rest of the country 
was subdued by Caesar after a struggle of sev- 
eral years (58-50.) At this time Gaul was di- 
vided into three parts, Aquitania, Celiica, and 
Belgica, according to the three different races 
| by which it was inhabited. The Aquitani dwelt 
in the southwest, between the Pyrenees and the 
Garumna ; the Celtaa, or Galli proper, in the 
I centre and west, between the Garumna and the 
Sequana and the Matrona ; and the Belgae in the 
northeast, between the two last-mentioned riv- 
ers and the Rhine. The different tribes inhab- 
iting Aquitania and Belgica are given else- 
where. Vid. Aquitania, Belg^. The most 
important tribes of the Celtae or Galli were, 
L Between the Sequana and the lAger : the Ar- 
morici, the name of all the tribes dwelling on 
the coast between the mouths of these two riv- 
ers ; the Auleroi, dwelling inland close to the 
Armorici ; the Namnetes, Andecavi or Andes, 
on the banks of the Liger ; east of them the 
Caknutes ; and on the Sequana, the Parish, 
Senones, and Tricasses. — 2. Between the Liger 
and the Garumna : on the coast the Pictones 
and Santones ; inland the Turones, probably 
on both sides of the Liger, the Bitoriges Cubi, 
Lejiovioes, Petrocorii, and Cadurci ; east of 
these, in the mountains of Cebenna, the power- 
ful Arverni (in the modern Auvergne) ; and 
south of them the Ruteni. — 3. On the Rhone 
and in the surrounding country : between the 
Bhone and the Pyrenees, the Volc^e ; between 
the Rhone and the Alps, the Salyes or Sallu- 
vii ; north of them the Cavares ; between the 
Rhone, the Isara, and the Alps, the Allobro- 
ges ; and further north the Mdui, Sequani, and 
Helvetii, three of the most powerful people in 
all Gaul. Augustus divided Gaul into four 
provinces : 1. Gallia Narbonensis, the same as 
the old Provincia. 2. G. Aquitanica, which ex- 
tended from the Pyrenees to the Liger. 3. G. 
Lugdunensis, the country between the Liger, 
the Sequana and the Arar, so called from the 
colony of Lugdunum (now Lyon), founded by 
Munatius Plancus. 4. G. Belgica, the country 
between the Sequana, the Arar, and the Rhine. 
Shortly afterward the portion of Belgica bord- 
ering on the Rhine, and inhabited by Ger- 
man tribes, was subdivided into two new prov- 
inces, called Germania Prima and Secunda, or 
Germania Superior and Inferior. At a later 
time the provinces of Gaul were still further 
subdivided, till at length, under the Emperor 
Gratian, they reached the number of seventeen. 
Gallia Narbonensis belonged to the senate, and 
Was governed by a proconsul ; the other prov- 
inces belonged to the emperor, and were gov- 
erned by imperial legati. After the time of 
Claudius, when a formidable insurrection of the 
Gauls was suppressed, the country became 
more and more Romanized. The Latin lan- 
guage gradually became the language of the in- 
habitants, and Roman civilization took deep 
root in all parts of the country. The rhetori- 
cians and poets of Gaul occupy a distinguished 



GALLIENUS. 

place in the later history of Roman literature 
and Burdigala, Narbo, Lugdunum, and other 
towns, possessed schools, in which literatHre 
and philosophy were cultivated with success. 
On the dissolution of the Roman empire, Gaul, 
like the other Roman provinces, was overrun 
by barbarians, and the greater part of it finally 
became subject to the Franci or Franks, under 
their king Clovis, about A.D. 496. — 2. Gallia 
Cisalpina, also called G. Citerior and G. To- 
gata, a Roman province in the north of Italy, 
was bounded on the west by Liguria and Gal- 
lia Narbonensis (from which it was separated 
by the Alps), on the north by Rastia and Nori- 
cum, on the east by the Adriatic and Venetin 
(from which it was separated by the Athesis), 
and on the south by Etruria and Umbria (from 
which it was separated by the River Rubico). 
It was divided by the Po into Gallia Transpa- 
dana, also called Italia TranspadAna, in the 
north, and Gallia Cispadana in the south. 
The greater part of the country is a vast plain, 
drained by the Padus (now Po) and its afflu- 
ents, and has always been one of the most fer 
tile countries of Europe. It was originally in- 
habited by Ligurians, Umbrians, Etruscans, and 
other races ; but its fertility attracted the Gauls, 
who at different periods crossed the Alps, and 
settled in the country, after expelling the orig- 
inal inhabitants. We have mention of five 
distinct immigrations of Gauls into the north 
of Italy. The first was in the reign of Tarquin- 
ius Priscus, and is said to have been led by 
Bellovesus, who settled with his followers in 
the country of the Insubres, and built Milan. 
The second consisted of the Cenomani, who 
settled in the neighborhood of Brixia and Vp- 
roua. The third of the Salluvii, who pressed 
forward as far as the Ticinus. The fourth of 
the Boii and Lingones, who crossed the Po, and 
took possession of the country as far as the Ap- 
ennines, driving out the Etruscans and Um- 
brians. The fifth immigration was the most 
important, consisting of the warlike race of the 
Senones, who invaded Italy in immense num- 
bers, under the command of Brennus, and took 
Rome in B.C. 390. Part of them subsequently 
recrossed the Alps and returned home ; but a 
great number of them remained in the north of 
Italy, and were for more than a century a 
source of terror to the Romans. After the first 
Punic war the Romans resolved to make a 
vigorous effort to subdue their dangerous neigh- 
bors. In the course of four years (225-222) the 
whole country was conquered, and upon the 
conclusion of the war (222) was reduced to the 
form of a Roman province. The inhabitants, 
however, did not bear the yoke patiently, and it 
was not till after the final defeat of the Boii, iu 
191, that the country became submissive to the 
Romans. The most important tribes were : In 
Gallia Transpadana, in the direction of west to 
east, the Taurini, Salassi, Libici, Insubres, Ce- 
nomani : in G. Cispadana, in the same direction, 
the Bon, Lingones, Senones. 

Gallienus, with his full name, P. Lioinius 
Valerianus Egnatius Gallienus, Roman em- 
peror A.D. 260-268. He succeeded his father 
Valerian when the latter was taken prisoner 
by the Persians in 260, but he had previously 
reigned in conjunction with his father from 
319 



GALLINARIA. 



GALLTJS. 



ais accession m 253. Gallienus was indolent, 
profligate, and indifferent to the public welfare, 
and bis reign was one of the most ignoble and 
disastrous in the history of Rome. The barba- 
rians ravaged the fairest portion of the empire, 
and the inhabitants were swept away by one of 
the most frightful plagues recorded in history. 
This pestilence followed a long-protracted fam- 
ine. When it was at its greatest height, five 
thousand sick are said to have perished daily 
at Rome ; and, after the scourge had passed 
away, it was found that the inhabitants of Alex- 
andrea were diminished by nearly two thirds. 
The complete dissolution of the empire was avert- 
ed mainly by a series of internal rebellions. In 
every district able officers sprang up, who as- 
serted and strove to maintain the dignity of inde- 
pendent princes. The armies levied by these 
usurpers, who are commonly distinguished as TJie 
Thirty Tyrants, in many cases arrested the pro- 
gress of the invaders, and restored order in the 
provinces which they governed. Gallienus was 
at length slain by his own soldiers in 268, while 
besieging Milan, in which the usurper Aureolus 
had taken refuge. 

Gallinaria. 1. (Now Galinara), an island off 
the coast of Liguria, celebrated for its number 
of hens ; whence its name. — 2. Silva, a forest of 
pine-trees near Cumae in Campania. 

Gallio, Junius. 1. A Roman rhetorician, 
and a friend of M. Annaeus Seneca, the rhetori- 
cian, whose son he adopted. He was put to 
death by Nero. In early life he had been a 
friend of Ovid (Ex Pont., iv., 11.)— 2. Son of 
the rhetorician M. Annaeus Seneca, and an elder 
brother of the philosopher Seneca, was adopted 
by No. 1. 

Gallius, Q., was a candidate for the praetor- 
ship in B.C. 64, and was accused of ambit"s or 
bribery by M. Calidius. He was defended on 
that occasion by Cicero in an oration of which 
a few fragments have come down to us. He 
was praetor urbanus B.C. 63, and presided at 
the trial of C. Cornelius. He left two sons, 
Q. Gallius, who was praetor in 43, and was put 
to death by the triumvirs ; and M. Gallius. 
who is mentioned as one of Antony's partisans, 
in 43. 

Gallogr^ecia. Vid. Galatia. 

Gallonius, a public crier at Rome, probably 
contemporary with the younger Scipio, whose 
wealth and gluttony passed into the proverb " to 
live like Gallonius." He was satirized by Hor- 
ace (Sat, ii., 2, 46). 

Gallus, ^Elius. 1. A jurist, contemporary 
with Cicero and Varro, though probably rather 
older than either. He was the author of a trea- 
tise, De Verborurn, qicce ad Jus Civile pertinent, 
Significatione, which is frequently cited by the 
grammarians. — 2. Au intimate friend of the ge- 
ographer Strabo, was praefect of Egypt in the 
reign of Augustus. In B.C. 24 he invaded Ara- 
bia, and after his army had suffered dreadfully 
from the heat and want of water, he was obliged 
to retreat with great loss. 

Gallus, L. Anicius, praetor B.C. 168, con- 
ducted the war against Gentius, king of the Bly- 
rians, whom he compelled to submit to the Ro- 
mans. 

Gallus, C. Aquillius, a distinguished Ro- 
uian jurist, was a pupil of Q. Mucius Sca>vola, 
320 



and the instructor of Serv. Sulpicius. He wa« 
praetor along with Cicero B.C. 66. He is often 
cited by the jurists in the Digest, but there is 
no direct extract from his own works in the 
Digest. 

Gallus Saloninus, L. Asinius, son of C. 
Asinius Pollio, was consul B.C. 8. He was 
hated by Tiberius because he had married Vip- 
sania, the former wife of Tiberius. In A.D. 30, 
Tiberius got the senate to sentence him to death, 
and kept him imprisoned for three years on the 
most scanty supply of food. He died in prison 
of starvation, but whether his death was com- 
pulsory or voluntary is unknown. Gallus wrote 
a work, entitled De Comparatione patris ac Cic- 
eronis, which was unfavorable to the latter, and 
against which the Emperor Claudius wrote his 
defence of Cicero. 

Gallus, L. Caninius, was tribune of the plebs 
B.C. 56, when he supported the views of Pom- 
pey. During the civil war he appears to have 
remained neutral. He died in 44. 

Gallus, Cestius, governor of Syria (legatus 
A.D. 64, 65), under whom the Jews broke out 
into the rebellion which ended in the destruction 
of their city and temple by Titus. 

Gallus, Constantius, son of Julius Constan- 
tius and Galla, grandson of Constantine Chlo- 
rus, nephew of Constantine the Great, and elder 
brother, by a different mother, of Julian the Apos- 
tate. In A.D. 351 he was named Caesar by 
Constantius II, and was left in the command of 
the East, where he conducted himself with the 
greatest haughtiness and cruelty. In 354 he 
went to the West to meet Constantius at Milan, 
but was arrested at Petovio in Pannonia, and 
sent to Pola in Istria, where he was beheaded 
in a prison. 

Gallus, C. Cornelius, was born at Eorum 
Julii (now Frejus) in Gaul, of poor parents, 
about B.C. 66. He went to Italy at an early 
age, and began his career as a poet when he 
was about twenty. He had already attained 
considerable distinction at the time of Caesar's 
death, 44 ; and upon the arrival of Octavianus 
in Italy after that event, Gallus embraced his 
party, and soon acquired great influence with 
him. In 41 he was one of the triumviri ap- 
pointed by Octavianus to distribute lands in the 
north of Italy among his veterans, and on that 
occasion he afforded protection to the inhabit- 
ants of Mantua and to Virgil. He afterward 
accompanied Octavianus to the battle of Actium,' 
31, and commanded a detachment of the army. 
After the battle, Gallus was sent with the army 
to Egypt, in pursuit of Antony; and when Egypt 
was made a Roman province, Octavianus ap- 
pointed Gallus the first prefect of the province. 
He remained in Egypt for nearly four years ; 
but he incurred at length the enmity of Octavi- 
anus, though the exact nature of his offence is 
uncertain. According to some accounts, he 
spoke of the emperor in an offensive and in- 
sulting manner ; he erected numerous statues 
of himself in Egypt, and had his own exploits 
inscribed on the pyramids. The senate de- 
prived him of his estates, and sent him into ex- 
ile ; whereupon he put an end to his life by 
throwing himself upon his own sword, B.C. 
26. The intimate friendship existing between 
Gallus and the most eminent men of the time, 



GALLUS. 



GANYMEDES. 



as Asinius Pollio, Virgil, Varus, and Ovid, and 
the high praise they bestow upon him prove 
that he was a man of great intellectual powers 
and acquirements. Ovid (Trist., iv., 10, 5) as- 
signs to him the first place among the Roman 
elegiac poets ; and we know that he wrote a 
collection of elegies in four books, the principal 
subject of which was his love of Lycoris. But 
all his productions have perished; for the four 
epigrams in the Latin Anthology attributed to 
Gallus could not have been written by a content 
porary of Augustus. Gallus translated into Latin 
the poems of Euphorion of Chalcis, but this trans- 
lation is also lost. Some critics attribute to him 
the poem Ciris, usually printed among the works 
of Virgil, but the arguments do not appear satis- 
factory. 

Gallus, Sulpicius, a distinguished orator, was 
prastor B.C. 169, and consul 166, when he fought 
against the Ligurians. In 168 he served as tri- 
bune of the soldiers under ^Emilius Paulus in 
Macedonia, and during this campaign predicted 
an eclipse of the moon. 

Gallus, Trebonianus, Roman emperor A.D. 
251-254. His full name was C. Vibius Tre- 
bonianus Gallus. He served under Decius in 
the campaigns against the Goths, 251, and he 
is said to have contributed by his treachery to 
the disastrous issue of the battle, which proved 
fatal to Decius and his son Herennius. Gallus 
was thereupon elected emperor, and Hostilia- 
nus, the surviving son of Decius, was nominated 
his colleague. He purchased a peace of the 
Goths by allowing them to retain their plunder, 
and promising them a fixed annual tribute. In 
253 the Goths again invaded the Roman do- 
minions, but they were driyen back by iEuiili- 
anus, whose troops proclaimed him emperor in 
Moesia. ^Emilianus thereupon marched into 
Italy; and Gallus was put to death by his own 
soldiers, together with his son Volusianus, be- 
fore any collision had taken place between the 
opposing armies. The name of Gallus is asso- 
ciated with nothing but cowardice and dishonor. 
In addition to the misery produced by the in- 
roads of the barbarians during this reign, a dead- 
ly pestilence broke out 252, and continued its 
ravages over every part of the empire for fifteen 
years. 

Gallus. 1. A river in Bithynia, rising near 
Modra, on the borders of Phrygia, and falling 
into the Sangarius near Leuese (now Lefkeh). — 
2. A river in Galatia, which also fell into the 
Sangarius near Pessinus. From it the priests 
of Cybele are said to have obtained their name 
of Galli. 

Gamelii {yajir/XLoi iJeoi), that is, the divinities 
protecting and presiding over marriage. These 
divinities are usually regarded as the protectors 
of marriage. Respecting the festival of the Ga- 
melia, vid. Bict. of Antiq., s. v. 

Gandar^e (Tavdupat ), an Indian people in the 
Paropamisus, on the northwest of the Punjab, 
between the rivers Indus and Suastus. Under 
Xerxes they were subjects of the Persian em- 
pire. Their country was called Gandarltis (Tav- 
dapiris). 

Gandarid^ or Gandarit/e {Tavdapidai, Tav- 
dapirai), an Indian people, in the middle of the 
Punjab, between the rivers Acesines (now Che- 
nab) and Hydraotes (bow Ravce), whose king, 
21 



at the time of Alexander's invasion, was a cous 
in and namesake of the celebrated Porus 
Whether they were different from .the Ganda- 
b.m is uncertain. Sanscrit writers mention the 
Ghanddra in the centre of the Punjab. 

Gangarim: (Tayyapidat.), an Indian people 
about the mouths of the Ganges. 

Ganges (Tdyyrjc : now Ganges or Ganga), the 
greatest river of India, which it divided into the 
two parts named by the ancients India intra 
Gangem (now Hindustan) and India extra Gan- 
gem (now Burmah, Cochin China, Biam, and the 
Malay Peninsula). It rises in the highest part 
of the Emodi Montes (now Himalaya) and flows 
in a general southeastern direction till it falls 
by several mouths into the head of the Gange- 
ticus Sinus (now Bay of Bengal). Like the 
Wile, it over-flows its banks periodically, and 
these inundations render its valley the most 
fertile part of India. The knowledge of the an- 
cients respecting it was very imperfect, and they 
give very various accounts of its source, its 
size, and the number of its mouths. The 
breadth which Diodorus Siculus assigns to it in 
the lower part of its course, thirty-two stadia, 
or about three miles, is perfectly correct. The 
following rivers are mentioned as its tributaries : 
Cainas, Jomanes or Diamunas, Sarabus, Con- 
dochates, G3danes, Cosoagus or Cossoanus, 
Erannoboas, Sonus or Soas, Sittocestis, Soloma- 
tis, Sambus, Magon, Agoranis, Omalis, Comme- 
nases, Cacuthis, Andomatis, Amystis, Oxymagis, 
and Errhenysis. The name is also applied to a 
city in the interior of India, on the Ganges, where 
it makes its great bend to the eastward, perhaps 
Allahabad. 

Gangra (Tuyypa : now Kankari), a city of 
Paphlagonia, near the confines of Galatia, was 
originally a fortress ; in the time of King Deio- 
tarus, a royal residence ; and under the later 
emperors, the capital of Paphlagonia. 

Ganos (Tdvoc), a fortress in Thrace, on the Pro- 
pontis. 

Ganymedes (VavvfiTjdTjc), son of Tros and Cal- 
lirrhoe, and brother of Ilus and Assaracus, was 
the most beautiful of all mortals, and was car- 
ried off by the gods that he might fill the cup of 
Jupiter (Zeus), and live among the eternal gods. 
This is the Homeric account ; but other tradi- 
tions give different details. Some call him son 
of Laomedon, others son of Ilus, and others, 
again, of Erichthonius or Assaracus. The man- 
ner in which he was carried away from the 
earth is likewise differently described ; for 
while Homer mentions the gods in general, later 
writers state that Jupiter (Zeus) himself carried 
him off, either in his natural shape, or in the 
form of an eagle, or by means of his eagle. 
There is, further, no agreement as to the place 
where the event occurred ; though later writers 
usually represent him as carried off from Mount 
Ida (captus ab Ida, Hor., Carm., iv., 4). The 
early legend simply states that Ganymedes was 
carried off that he might be the cup-bearer of 
Jupiter (Zeus), in which office he was conceived 
to have succeeded Hebe ; but later writers de- 
scribe him as the beloved and favorite of Jupi- 
ter (Zeus), without allusion to his office. Jupi- 
ter (Zeus) compensated the father for his loss 
by a pair of divine horses. Astronomers have 
placed Ganymedes among the stars under the 
321 



GARAMA. 



GE. 



name of Aquarius. The Romans called him by 
a corrupt form of his name, Catamitus. 

Garama. Vid. Garamantes. 

Garamantes (Tapuftavrec), the southernmost 
people known to the ancients in Northern Afri- 
ca, dwelt far south of the Great Syrtis, in the 
region called Phazania (now Fezzan), where 
they had a capital city, Garama (Tdpa/ia : now 
Mourzouk, latitude 25° 53' north, longitude 14° 
10' east). They are mentioned by Herodotus 
as a weak, unwarlike people ; he places them 
nineteen days' journey from ^Ethiopia and the 
shores of the Indian Ocean, fifteen days' journey 
from Ammonium, and thirty days' journey 
from Egypt. The Romans obtained fresh knowl- 
edge of them by the expedition of Cornelius 
Balbus into their country in B.C. 43. 

[GaraSas (Tapd/iag), son of Apollo and Aca- 
callis (daughter of Minos), from whom the Ga- 
ramantes were fabled to have derived their 
name.] 

Gaeganus Mons (now Monte Gargano), a 
mountain and promontory in Apulia, on which 
were oak forests (querceta Gargani, Hor., Carm., 
ii., 9, V). 

[Gargaphta (Tapyafia), a fountain in a valley 
near Plataea? in Bceotia ; in the second Persian 
war Mardonius caused its waters to be poisoned 
in order to destroy the Greeks who had encamp- 
ed in its vicinity.] 

Gargara, -on or -us Tupyaoa, ov, oc : Tapya- 
peve). 1. (Now Kaz-Dagh), the southern' sum- 
mit of Mount Ida, in the Troad. — 2. A city at 
the foot of Mount Ida, on the shore of the Gulf 
of Adramyttium, between Assus and Antandrus ; 
said to have been founded originally on the sum- 
mit of the mountain by the Leleges ; afterward 
colonized from Miletus ; and removed to the low- 
er site on account of the inclemency of its situa- 
tion on the mountain. Its neighborhood was rich 
in corn. 

Gargettds {TapyrjTTOQ : Tapyrjrrioc) a demus 
in Attica, belonging to the tribe iEgeis, on the 
northwestern slope of Mount Hymettus; the 
birth-place of the philosopher Epicurus. 

Garites, a people in Aquitania, neighbors of 
the Ausei, in the modern Comte de Gauve. 

Garoceli, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, near 
Mount Cenis, in the neighborhood of St. Jean de 
Maurienne. 

Garsauria or -itis (Tapaaovpla or -trie), a 
prcefectura in Cappadocia, on the borders of Ly- 
caonia and Tyanitis. Its chief town was called 
Tapcuovpa. 

Garuli, a people of Liguria in the Apennines. 

Garumna (now Garonne), one of the chief 
rivers of Gaul, rises in the Pyrenees, flows 
northwest through Aquitania, and becomes a bay 
of the sea below Burdigala (now Bordeaux). 

Garumni, a people in Aquitania, on the Ga- 
rumna. 

Gather (Tafiiai), a town in Arcadia, on the 
Gatheatas, a river which flows into Alpheus, 
west-southwest of Megalopolis. 

[Cauda, a Numidian, son of Mastanabal, half 
brother to Jugurtha, had been named by his un- 
cle Micipsa as heir to the kingdom should Ad- 
herbal, Hiempsal, and Jugurtha die without 
issue.] 

[Gaudos. Vid. Gauxos ] 
Gaugamela (ra Vavydfiri'ka : now Karmelis), a 
322 



village in the district of Aturia in Assyria, the 
scene of the last and decisive battle between Alex- 
ander and Darius Codomannus, B.C. 331, common- 
ly called the battle of Arbela. 

Gaulaxitis (Tavla- or -ovItlq : now Jaulan), 
a district in the north of Palestine, on the east- 
ern side of the Lake of Tiberias, as far south as 
the River Hieromax, named from the town of 
Golan (Tavlava). 

Gatjlos {TavXoc : Tav21rnc: now Gozzo). 1. 
An island in the Sicilian Sea, near Melite (now 
Malta). — [2. Or Gaudos, an island opposite Hie- 
rapytna in Crete, supposed by some to be the 
island of Calypso.] 

Gaureleon, Gaurion. Vid. Akdros. 

Gaurus Mons, Gauranus or -ni M. (now 
Monte Gauro), a volcanic range of mountains in 
Campania, between Cumaa and Neapolis, in the 
neighborhood of Puteoli, which produced good 
wine, and was memorable for the defeat of the 
Samnites by M. Valerius Corvus, B.C. 343. 

[Gavius, P., a citizen of Cosa, arrested by Ver- 
res, and crucified at the city of Messana in Sicily, 
although this punishment was permitted only in 
the case of slaves ; the account of his death is one 
of the most eloquent passages in the Verrine ora- 
tions of Cicero.] 

Gaza (Td^a). 1. (Now Ghuzzeh), the last city 
on the southwestern frontier of Palestine, and 
the key of the country on the side of Egypt, 
stood on an eminence about two miles from the 
sea, and was, from the very earliest timss of 
which we have any record, very strongly forti- 
fied. It was one of the five cities of the Philis- 
tines ; and, though taken from them more than 
once by the Jews, was each time recovered. 
It was taken by Cyrus the Great, and remained 
in the hands of the Persians till the time of Al- 
exander, who only gained possession of it after 
an obstinate defence of several months. In 
B.C. 315 it fell into the power of Ptolemy, the 
son of Lagus, as the result of his victory over 
Demetrius before the city, and was destroyed 
by him. But it again recovered, and was pos- 
sessed alternately by the kings of Syria and 
Egypt, during their prolonged wars, and after- 
ward by the AsmonaBan princes of Judaea, one 
of whom, Alexander Jannseus, again destroyed 
it, B.C. 96. It was rebuilt by Gabinius ; given 
by Augustus to Herod the Great ; and, after 
Herod's death, united to the Roman province of 
Syria. In A.D. 65 it was again destroyed in 
an insurrection of its Jewish inhabitants ; but 
it recovered once more, and remained a flourish- 
ing city till it fell into the hands of the Arabs in 
A.D. 634. In addition to its importance as a 
military post, it possessed an extensive com- 
merce, carried on through its port, Majuma or 
Constantia. — 2. (Now Ghaz), a city in the Per- 
sian province of Sogdiana, between Alexandrca 
and Cyropolis ; one of the seven cities which re- 
belled against Alexander in B.C. 328. 

Gazaca (Td&Ka : now Tabreez). a city in the 
north of Media Atropatene, equidistant from Ar- 
taxata and Ecbatana, was a summer residence of 
the kings of Media. 

Gaziura (TaCtovpa), a city in Pontus Galati- 
cus, on the River Iris, below Amasia, was the 
ancient residence of the kings of Pontus ; but io 
Strabo's time it had fallen to decay. 

[Ge (rij) Vid. G-ea.] 



GEBALENE. 



GELONI. 



Gebalene (TefoXrjvri), the district of Arabia 
Petraea around the city of Petra. 

Gebenna Mons. Vid. Cebenna. 

Gedrosia (Tedpucia and Tadpuala : south- 
eastei-n part of Belooclristan), the furthest prov- 
ince of the Persian empire on the southeast, and 
one of the subdivisions of Ariana, was bounded 
on the west by Carmania, on the north by Dran- 
giana and Arachosia, on the east by India (or, 
as the country about the lower course of the 
Indus was called, Indo-Scythia), and on the 
south by the Mare Erythrasum, or Indian Ocean. 
It is formed by a succession of sandy steppes, 
rising from the sea-coast toward the table-land 
of Ariana, and produced little besides aromatic 
shrubs. The slip of land between the coast and 
the lowest mountain range is watered by sev- 
eral rivers, the chief of which was called Arabis 
(now Doosee?); but even this district is for the 
most part only a series of salt marshes. Ge- 
drosia is known in history chiefly through the 
distress suffered for want of water, in passing 
through it, by the armies of Cyrus and of Alex- 
ander. The inhabitants were divided by the 
Greek writers into two races, the Iehthyophagi 
on the sea-coast, and the Gedrosi in the interior. 
The latter were a wild nomade people, whom 
even Alexander was only able to reduce to a 
temporary subjection. The whole country was 
divided into eight districts. Its chief cities were 
Rhambacia and Pura, or Parsis. 

Gegania Gens, traced its origin to the myth- 
ical Gyas, one of the companions of iEneas. It 
was one of the most distinguished Alban houses, 
transplanted to Rome on the destruction of 
Alba by Tullus Hostilius, and enrolled among 
the Roman patricians. There appears to have 
been only one family in this gens, that of Mace- 
rinus, many members of which filled the highest 
offices in the state in the early times of the re- 
public. < 

Gela (rj Te?ia, Ion. TeXij : TcTitioc, Gelensis : 
ruins at Terra Nuova), a city on the southern 
coast of Sicily, on a river of the same name 
(now Fiume di Terra Nuova), founded by Rhodi- 
ans from Lindos, and by Cretans, B.C. 690. It 
soon obtained great power and wealth ; and in 
582 it founded Agrigentum, which, however, be- 
came more powerful than the mother city. Like 
the other cities of Sicily, it was subject to ty- 
rants, of whom the most important were Hip- 
pocrates, Gelon, and Hieron. Gelon trans- 
ported half .of its inhabitants to Syracuse ; the 
place gradually fell into decay, and in the time 
of Augustus was no longer inhabited. The poet 
JSschylus died here. North of Gela were the 
celebrated Campi Geloi, which produced rich 
crops of wheat. 

Gel^e. Vid. Cadusii. 

Gelanor {Te'kdvup), king of Argos, was ex- 
pelled by Danaus. 

[Gelbis (now Kyll), a small river of Gallia 
Belgica, which empties into the Mosella (now 
Moselle).'] 

Gelduba (now Gelb, below Cologne), a forti- 
fied place of the Ubii, on the Rhine, in Lower 
Germany. 

Gellia Gens, plebeian, was of Samnite origin, 
and afterward settled at Rome. There were 
two generals of this name in the Samnite wars, 
Gellius Statius in the second Samnite war, who 



was defeated and taken prisoner B.C. 305, and 
Gellius Egnatius in the third Samnite war. 
Vid. Egnatius. The chief family of the Gellii 
at Rome bore the name of Publicola. 

Gellius. 1. Cn., a contemporary of the 
Gracchi, the author of a history of Rome from 
the earliest epoch down to B.C. 145 at least. 
The work is lost, but it is frequently quoted by 
later writers. — 2. Aulus, a Latin grammarian 
of good family, was probably a native of Rome. 
He studied rhetoric under T. Castricius and 
Sulpicius Apollinaris, philosophy under Calvisius 
Taurus and Peregrinus Proteus, and enjoyed 
also the friendship and instructions of Favori- 
nus, Herodes Atticus, and Cornelius Fronto. 
While yet a youth, he was appointed by the prze- 
tor to act as umpire in civil Causes. The pre- 
cise date of his birth and death is unknown ; but 
he must have lived under Hadrian, Antoninus 
Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, A.D. 117-180. He 
wrote a work entitled Noctes Attica^, because it 
was composed in a country house near Athens 
during the long nights of winter. It is a sort 
of miscellany, containing numerous extracts from 
Greek and Roman writers, on a variety of topics 
connected with history, antiquities, philosophy, 
and philology, interspersed with original remarks, 
the whole thrown together into twenty books, 
without any attempt at order or arrangement 
The eighth book is entirely lost with the ex- 
ception of the index. The best editions are by 
Jae. Gronovius, Lugd. Bat., 1706 (reprinted by 
Conradi, Lips., 1762), and by Lion, Gotting., 1824. 
— 3. Publicius, a jurist, one of the disciples of 
Servius Sulpicius. 

Gelon (Tehov). 1. Son of Dinomenes, tyrant 
of Gela, and afterward of Syracuse, was de- 
scended from one of the most illustrious fami- 
lies in Gela. He held the chief command of 
the cavalry in the service of Hippocrates, tyrant 
of Gela, shortly after whose death he obtained 
the supreme power, B.C. 491. In 485 he avail- 
ed himself of the internal dissensions of Syra- 
cuse to make himself master of this city also. 
From this time he neglected Gela, and bent all 
his efforts to the aggrandizement of Syracuse, 
to which place he removed many of the inhab- 
itants of the other cities of Sicily. In 480 he 
gained a brilliant victory at Himera over the 
Carthaginians, who had invaded Sicily with an 
army, amounting, it is said, to the incredible 
number of three hundred thousand men. Scarce- 
ly any of this vast host survived to carry the 
news to Carthage. The victory is said to have 
been gained on the very same day as that of 
Salamis. He died in 478 of a dropsy, after 
reigning seven years at Syracuse. He was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Hieron. He is repre- 
sented as a man of singular leniency and moder- 
ation, and as seeking in every way to promote 
the welfare of his subjects ; and his name even 
appears to have become almost proverbial as an 
instance of a good monarch. A splendid tomb 
was erected to him by the Syraeusans at the 
public expense, and heroic honors were decreed 
to his memory. — 2. Son of Hieron II., king of 
Syracuse, who died before his father, at the age 
of more than fifty years. He received the title 
of king in the lifetime of his father. 

Geloni (VeXuvoi), a Scythian people, who 
dwelt in Sarmatia Asiatica, to the east of the 
32.1 



GELONUS. 

River Tanais (now Don). They were said to 
have been of Greek origin, and to have migrated 
from the shores of the Euxine ; but they inter- 
mixed with the Scythians so as to lose all traces 
of their Hellenic race. Their chief city was 
called G-elonus (TeXavoc). 

[Gelonus (Tehavoc). 1. Son of Hercules, 
and brother of Agathyrsus, said to have given 
name to the Geloni. — 2. (?) TeXuvog). Vid. Ge- 
loni.] 

Geminus (Te/itvoc ), an astronomer, was a na- 
tive of Ehodes, and flourished about B.C. T7. He 
is the author of an extant work, entitled Eira- 
yuyfj etc ril Qaivofieva, which is a descriptive 
treatise on elementary astronomy, with a great 
deal of historical allusion. It is printed in the 
Uranologion of Petavius, Paris, 1630, and in 
Raima's edition of Ptolemy, Paris, 1819. 

Geminus, Servilius. 1. P., twice consul 
with C. Aurelius Cotta in the first Punic war, 
namely, in B.C. 252 and 248. In both years he 
carried on war against the Carthaginians. — 2. 
Cn., son of No. 1, was consul 21*7 with C. Ela- 
minius, in the second Punic war, and ravaged the 
coast of Africa. He fell in the battle of Cannes, 
216. — 3. M., also surnamed Pulex, consul 202 
with Tib. Claudius Nero, obtained Etruria for his 
province. He is mentioned on several occasions 
subsequently. 

GemonLe (scalse) or Gemonii (gradus), a 
flight of steps cut out of the Aventine, down 
which the bodies of the criminals strangled in the 
prisons were dragged, and afterward thrown into 
the Tiber. 

Genabum or Cenabum (now Orleans), a town 
in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the northern bank of 
the Ligeris, was the chief town of the Carnutes ; 
it was plundered and burnt by Cassar, but sub- 
sequently rebuilt. In later times it was called 
Civitas Aurelianorum or Aurelianensis Urbs, 
whence its modern name. 

Genauni, a people in Vindelicia, the inhab- 
itants of the Alpine valley, now called Valle di 
Non, were subdued by Drusus. (Hor, Carm., 
iv., 14, 10). 

Genesius, Josephus, lived about A.D. 940, 
and wrote in four books a history of the Byzan- 
tine emperors, from A.D. 813 to 886, consequent- 
ly of the reigns of Leo V., Michael IL, Theoph- 
ilus, Michael IIL, and Basil I. Edited by Lach- 
mann, Bonn, 1834. 

Genet\eus (TevTiralos), a surname of Jupiter 
(Zeus,) from Cape Genetus on the Euxine, 
where he was worshipped as ev^sivog, i. e., " the 
hospitable." 

. Genettlus (TevetvMic), the protectress of 
births, occurs both as a surname of Venus 
(Aphrodite), and as a distinct divinity and a 
sompanion of Venus (Aphrodite). "We also find 
the plural TevervWldeg or Tevvaidec, as a class 
of divinities presiding over generation and birth, 
and as companions of Venus (Aphrodite) Colias. 

Geneva or Genava (Genevensis : now Gene- 
va,) the last town of the Allobroges, on the fron- 
tiers of the Helvetii, was situated on the south- 
ern bank of the Rhone, at the spot where the 
river flowed out of the Lacus Lemannus. There 
was a bridge here over the Rhone. 

Genitrix, that is, " the mother," is used by 
Ovid (Met, xiv., 536) as a surname of Cybele, in j 
the place of mater, or magn-a mater; but it is I 
324 



GENSERIC. 

better known as a surname of Venus, to whom 
Cassar dedicated a temple at Rome as the 
mother of the Julia Gens. 

Genius, a protecting spirit, analogous to the 
guardian angels invoked by the Church of Rome 
The belief in such spirits existed both in Greece 
and at Rome. The Greeks called them 6a'i/xovec, 
Dsemons, and appear to have beheved in them 
from the earliest times, though Homer does not 
mention them Hesiod says that the Daemons 
were thirty thousand in number, and that they 
dwelled on earth unseen by mortals, as the min- 
isters of Jupiter (Zeus), and as the guardians of 
men and of justice. He further conceives them 
to be the souls of righteous men who lived in 
the Golden Age of the world. The Greek phi- 
losophers took up this idea, and developed a 
complete theory of daemons. Thus we read in 
Plato that daemons are assigned to men at the 
moment of their birth, that they accompany 
men through life, and after death conduct their 
souls to Hades. Pindar, in several passages, 
speaks of yevedAwc daifiuv, that is, the spirit 
watching over the fate of man from the hour 
of his birth. The daemons are further described 
as the ministers and companions of the gods, 
who carry the prayers of men to the gods, and 
the gifts of the gods to men, and accordingly 
float in immense numbers in the space between 
heaven and earth. There was also a distinct 
class of daemons, who were exclusively the min- 
isters of the gods. The Romans seem to have 
received their notions respecting the genii from 
the Etruscans, though the name Genius itself 
is Latin (it is connected with gi-gn-o, gen-ui, 
and equivalent in meaning to generator or fa- 
ther). The genii of the Romans are the powers 
which produce life (dii genitales), and accom- 
pany man through it as his second or spiritual 
self. They were further not confined to man, 
but every living being, animal as well as man, 
and every place, had its genius. Every human 
being at his birth obtained (sortitur) a genius, 
whom he worshipped as sanctus et sanctissimus 
deus, especially on his birth-day, with libations 
of wine, incense, and garlands of flowers. The 
bridal bed was sacred to the genius, on account 
of his connection with generation, and the bed 
itself was called lectus genialis. On other merry 
occasions, also, sacrifices were offered to the 
genius, and to indulge in merriment was not 
unfrequently expressed by genio indulgere, geni- 
um curare or placare. The whole body of the 
Roman people had its own genius, who is often 
seen represented on coins of Hadrian and Trajan. 
He was worshipped on sad as well as joyous 
occasions ; thus sacrifices were offered to him 
at the beginning of the second year of the 
war with Hannibal. The genii are usually rep- 
resented in works of art as wiuged beings. The 
genius of a place appears in the form of a ser- 
pent eating fruit placed before him. 

Genseeic, king of the Vandals, and the most 
terrible of all the barbarian invaders of the em- 
pire. In A.D. 429 he crossed over from Spain 
to Africa, and ravaged the country with fright- 
ful severity. Hippo was taken by him in 431, 
but Carthage did not fall into his hands till 439. 
Having thus become master of the whole of the 
northwest of Africa, he attacked Italy itself 
In 455 he took Rome and plundered it for four 



GENTIUS. 



GERMANIA. 



teea days, and in the same year lie destroyed 
Capua, Nola, and Neapolis. Twice the empire 
endeavored to revenge itself, and twice it fail- 
ed : the first was the attempt of the Western 
emperor Majorian (45V), whose fleet was de- 
stroyed in the Bay of Carthagena. The second 
was the expedition sent by the Eastern emperor 
Leo (468), which was also baffled by the burn- 
ing of the fleet off Bona. Genseric died in 477, 
at a great age. He was an Arian ; and in the 
cruelties exercised under his orders against his 
Catholic subjects he exhibited the first instance 
of persecution carried on upon a large scale by 
one body of Christians against another. 

Gentius, son of Pleuratus, a king of the Illyr- 
ians. As early as B.C. 180 he had given of- 
fence to the Romans on account of the pira- 
cies of his subjects ; and in 168 he entered into 
an alliance with Perseus, king of Macedonia. 
In the following year the praator L. Anicius 
Gallus was sent against him. The war was 
finished within thirty days. Gentius was de- 
feated in battle, and then surrendered himself 
to Anicius, who carried him to Rome to adorn 
his triumph. He was afterward kept as a pris- 
oner at Spoletium. 

Genua (Genuas, -atis, Genuensis : now Ge- 
noa), an important commercial town in Liguria, 
situated at the extremity of the Ligurian Gulf 
(now Gulf of Genoa), was in the possession of 
the Romans at the beginning of the second 
Punic war, but toward the end of the war was 
held for some time by the Carthaginian Mago. 
It was a Roman municipium, but it did not be- 
come of political importance till the Middle 
Ages, when it was commonly called Janua. 
_ Genucta Gens, patrician, of which the prin- 
cipal families bore the names of Aventinensis 
and Augubinus. 

Genusus (now Iskumi), a river in Greek lllyr- 
ia, north of the Apsus. 

Gephyr^ei (TeQvpaiot), an Athenian family, to 
which Harmodius and Aristogiton belonged. 
They said that they came originally from Ere- 
tria in Euboea. Herodotus believed them to be 
of Phoenician descent, to have followed Cad- 
mus into Bceotia, and from thence to have emi- 
grated to Athens. They dwelt on the banks 
of the Cephisus, which separated the territory 
of Athens from that of Eleusis, and their name 
was said to have been derived from the bridge 
(ytyvpa) which was built over the river at this 
point. Such a notion, however, is quite unten- 
able, since "bridge" appears to have been a 
comparatively recent meaning of yefvpa. We 
find that there were temples at Athens belong- 
ing peculiarly to the Gephyraei, to the exclusion 
of the rest of the Athenians, especially one to 
Ceres (Demeter) Achaea, whose worship they 
seem to have brought with them from Bceotia. 

Gepid^e, a Gothic people, who came from 
Scandinavia, and first settled in the country be- 
tween the Oder and the Vistula, from which 
they expelled the Burgundiones. Subsequent- 
ly they joined the numerous hosts of Attila ; 
and after his death they settled in Dacia, on the 
banks of the Danube. As they were dangerous 
neighbors to the Eastern empire. Justinian in- 
voked the aid of the Langobardi or Lombards, 
who conquered the Gepidae and destroyed their 
kingdom. 



Gee or GrR (Ysip : now Ghir or Mansolig\ a 
river of Gietulia in Africa, south of Mauretania 
Caasariensis, flowing southeast from the south- 
ern slope of Mount Atlas till it is lost in the 
desert. It first became known to the Romans 
through the expedition of Suetonius Paulinus in 
the reign of Nero. 

Gee^estus ( Tepaiaroc : Tepaiarioc : now Gape 
Mandili), a promontory and harbor at the south- 
em extremity of Eubcea, with a celebrated tem- 
ple of Neptune (Poseidon), in whose honor the 
festival of the Geraastia (TepaiaTia) was here 
celebrated. 

Geranea {rj Tepuveia), a range of mountains, 
beginning at the southwestern slope of Cithae- 
ron, and running along the western coast of 
Megaris till it terminated in the promontory 
Olmiae in the Corinthian territory ; but the 
name is sometimes confined to the mountain in 
the Corinthian territory. 

Gerenia (Teprjvia), an ancient town in Mes 
senia, the birth-place of Nestor, who is hence 
called Gerenian (Teprivioc). It was regarded by 
some as the same place as the Homeric Enope. 

Gergis, or Gergitha, or -es, or -us (Tepyic, 
Tipyida, or -ef, or -oc : Tepytdioc), a town in the 
Troad, north of the Scamander, inhabited by 
Teucrians. Attalus removed the inhabitants 
to the. sources of the Caicus, where mention is 
made of a place called Gergetha or Gergithion in 
the territory of Cyme. 

Geegovia. 1. A fortified town of the Arverni 
in Gaul, situated on a high and inaccessible hill, 
west or southwest of the Elaver (now Allier). 
Its site is uncertain ; but it was probably in the 
neighborhood of the modern Clermont. — 2. A 
town of the Boii in Gaul, of uncertain site. 

Germa (Tep/xij), the name of three cities in 
Asia Minor. 1. (Ruins at Germaslu) in Mysia 
Minor, near Cyzicus. — 2. (Now Yermatcpe) in 
Mysia, between Pergamus and Thyatira. — 3. 
(Now Yerma) in Galatia, between Pessinus and 
Ancyra ; a colonia. 

Germania, was bounded by the Rhine on the 
west, by the Vistula and the Carpathian Mount- 
ains on the east, by the Danube on the south, 
and by the German Ocean and the Baltic ou the 
north. It thus included much more than mod- 
ern Germany on the north and east, but much 
less in the west and south. The north and 
northeast of Gallia Belgica were likewise call- 
ed Germania Prima and Secunda under the Ro- 
man emperors (vid. p. 319, a) ; and it was in 
contradistinction to these provinces that Ger- 
mania proper was also called Germania Magna, 
or G. Transehenana, or G. Barbara. It was 
not till Caasar's campaigns in Gaul (B.C. 58-50) 
that the Romans obtained any accurate knowl- 
edge of the country. The Roman writers rep- 
resent Germany as a dismal land, covered for the 
most part with forests and swamps, producing 
little corn, and subject to intense frosts and al- 
most eternal winter. Although these accounts 
are probably exaggerated, yet there can be no 
doubt, that, before the immense woods were 
cleared and the morasses drained, the climate of 
Germany was much colder than it is at present 
The north of Germany is a vast plain, but in the 
south there are many mountains, which were 
covered in antiquity with vast forests, and thua 
were frequently called Silvai. Of these the most 
325 



GERMANIA. 

important was the Herctnta Silva. The chief 
rivers were the Rhenus (now Rhine), Danubtus 
(now Danube), Vistula, Amisia (now Ems), Vi- 
surgis (now Weser), Albis (now Elbe), Viadus 
(now Oder). The inhabitants were called Ger- 
man! by the Romans. Tacitus says {Germ., 2) 
that Germani was the name of the Tungri, who 
were the first German people that crossed the 
Rhine. It would seem that this name properly 
belonged only to those tribes who were settled 
in Gaul ; and as these were the first German 
tribes with which the Romans came into con- 
tact, they extended the name to the whole na- 
tion. The etymology of the name is uncertain. 
Some modern writers derive it from the German 
ger, giver, Seer, Welir, so that the word would 
be equivalent to WeJirman, Wehrmanner, that is, 
warriors. The Germans themselves do not ap- 
pear to have used any one name to indicate the 
whole nation ; for there is no reason to believe, 
as some have done, that the name Teutones (i. e., 
Teuten, Deutsche) was the general name of the 
nation in the time of the Romans. The Ger- 
mans regarded themselves as indigenous in the 
country ; but there can be no doubt that they 
were a branch of the great Indo-Germanie race, 
who, along with the Celts, migrated into Eu- 
rope from the Caucasus and the countries around 
the Black and Caspian Seas at a period long 
anterior to historical records. They are de- 
scribed as a people of high stature and of great 
bodily strength, with fair complexions, blue 
eyes, and yellow or red hair. Notwithstanding 
the severity of their climate, they wore little 
clothing, and their children went entirely naked. 
They had scarcely any defensive armor : their 
chief offensive weapon was the framea, a long 
spear with a narrow iron point, which they either 
darted from a distance or pushed in close com- 
bat. Their houses were only low huts, made 
of rough timber, and thatched with straw. A 
number of these were of course often built near 
each other ; but they could not be said to have 
any towns properly so called. Many of their 
tribes were nomad, and every year changed 
their place of abode. The men found their chief 
delight in the perils and excitement of war. In 
peace they passed their lives in listless indo- 
lence, only varied by deep gaming and excess- 
ive drinking. Their chief drink was beer, and 
their carouses frequently ended in bloody brawls. 
The women were held in high honor. Their 
chastity was without reproach. They accom- 
panied their husbands to battle, and cheered 
them on by their presence, and frequently by 
their example as well. Both sexes were equally 
distinguished for their unconquerable love of 
liberty ; and the women frequently destroyed 
both themselves and their children rather than 
fall into the power of their husbands' conquer- 
ors. In each tribe we find the people divided 
into four classes : the nobles ; the freemen ; the 
freedmen or vassals ; and the slaves. All ques- 
tions relating to peace and war, and the general 
interests of the tribe, were decided in the pop- 
ular assembly, in which each freeman had a right 
to take part. In these assemblies a king was 
elected from among the nobles ; but his power 
was very limited, and he only acted as the su- 
preme magistrate in time of peace ; for when 
a war broke out, the people elected a distin- 
326 



GERMANIA. 

guished warrior as their leader, upon whom the 
prerogatives of the king devolved. The religion 
of the Germans is known to us only from the 
Greek and Roman writers, who have confused 
the subject by seeking to identify the gods of 
the Germans with their own divinities. We 
know that they worshipped the sun, the mooa 
and the stars. They are also said to have paid 
especial honor to Mercury, who was probably 
the German Wodan or Odin. Their other chief 
divinities were Isis (probably Freia, the wife of 
Odin) ; Mars (Tyr or Zio, the German god of 
war) ; the mother of the gods, called Nerthus 
(less correctly Herthus or Hertha) ; and Jupiter 
(Thor, or the god of Thunder). The worship 
of the gods was simple. They had both priests 
and priestesses to attend to their service ; and 
some of the priestesses, such as Veleda among 
the Bructeri, were celebrated throughout Ger- 
many for their prophetic powers. The Ger- 
mani first appear in history in the campaigns 
of the Cimbri and Teutones (B.C. 113), the lat- 
ter of whom were undoubtedly a Germanic 
people. Vid. Teutones. About fifty years aft- 
erward, Ariovistus, a German chief, crossed the 
Rhine, with a vast host of Germans, and sub- 
dued a great part of Gaul ; but he was defeated 
by Caasar with great slaughter (58), and driven 
beyond the Rhine. Caasar twice crossed this 
river (55, 53), but made no permanent conquest 
on the eastern bank. In the reign of Augustus, 
his step-son, Drusus, carried on war in Ger- 
many with great success for four years (12-9), 
and penetrated as far as the Elbe. On his death 
(9), his brother Tiberius succeeded to the com 
mand ; and under him the country between the 
Rhine and the Visurgis (now Weser) was en- 
tirely subjugated, and bid fair to become a Ro 
man province. But in A.D. 9, the impolitic 
and tyrannical conduct of the Roman governor 
Quintilius Varus, provoked a general insurrec 
tion of the various German tribes, headed by 
Arminius, the Cheruscan. Varus and his le- 
gions were defeated and destroyed, and the Ro- 
mans lost all their conquests east of the Rhine, 
Vid. Varus. The defeat of Varus was avenged 
by the successful campaigns of Germanicus, who 
would probably have recovered the Roman do- 
minions east of the river, had not, the jealousy 
of Tiberius recalled him to Rome, A.D. 16. 
From this time the Romans abaudoued all fur- 
ther attempts to conquer Germany ; but, in eon- 
sequence of the civil dissensions which broke 
out in Germany soon after the departure of Ti- 
berius, they were enabled to obtain peaceable 
possession of a large portion of the southwest 
of Germany, between the Rhine and the Dan- 
ube, to which they gave the name of the Agri 
Decumates. Vid. p. 33, b. On the death of 
Nero, several of the tribes in Western Germany 
joined the Batavi in their insurrection against 
the Romans (A.D. 69-71). Domitian and Tra- 
jan had to repel the attacks of some German 
tribes ; but in the reign of Antoninus Pius, the 
Marcomanni, joined by various other tribes, 
made a more formidable attack upon the Ro- 
man dominions, and threatened the empire with 
destruction. From this time the Romans were 
often called upon to defend the left bank of the 
Rhine against their dangerous neighbors, espe- 
cially against the two powerful confederacies 



V 



GERMANICUS. 



GERYON. 



ef the Alemanni aud Franks (vid. Alemanni, 
Franci) ; and in the fourth and fifth centuries 
the Germans obtained possession of some of 
the fairest provinces of the empire. The Ger- 
mans are divided by Tacitus into three great 
tribes : 1. Ingcevones, on the Ocean. 2. Hermi- 
ones, inhabiting the central parts. 3. JstcBvon.es, 
in the remainder of Germany, consequently in 
the eastern and southern parts. These three 
Dames were said to be derived from the three 
sons of Mannus, the son of Tuisco. Pliny makes 
five divisions : 1. Vindili, including Burgundi- 
ones, Varini, Carini, and Guttones. 2. Ingce- 
vones, including Cimbri, Teutones, and Chauci. 
3. Istcevones, including the midland Cimbri. 4. 
Hermiones, including the Suevi, Hermunduri, 
Chatti, and Cherusci. 5. Peucini and Bastarnce, 
bordering on the Dacians. But whether we 
adopt the division of Tacitus or Pliny, we ought 
to add the inhabitants of the Scandinavian pen- 
insula, the Hilleviones, divided into the Sinoues 
and Sitones. It is difficult to fix with accuracy 
the position of the various tribes, as they fre- 
quently migrated from one spot to another. An 
account of each is given under the name of the 
tribe. Vid. Chauci, Cherusci, Cimbri, Suevi, 
<Sic. 

Germanicus Cesar, son of Nero Claudius 
Drusus and Antonia, the daughter of the trium- 
vir Antony, was born B.C. 15. He was adopt- 
ed by his uncle Tiberius in the lifetime of Au- 
gustus, and was raised at an early age to the 
honors of the state. He assisted Tiberius in 
the war against the Pannonians and Dalmatians 
(A.D. 7-10), and also fought along with Tiberius 
against the Germans in the two following years 
(11, 12). He had the command of the legions 
in Germany when the alarming mutiny broke out 
among the troops in Germany and Illyricum, 
upon the death of Augustus (14). German- 
icus was a favorite with the soldiers, and they 
offered to place him at the head of tne em- 
pire ; but he rejected their proposal, and ex- 
erted all his influence to quell the mutiny, and 
reconcile them to their new sovereign. After 
restoring , order among the troops, he crossed 
the Rhine, and laid waste the country of the 
Marsi with fire and sword. In the following 
year (15) he again crossed the Rhine, and 
marched into the interior of the country. He 
penetrated as far as the Saltus Teutoburgiensis, 
north of the Lippe, in which forest the army of 
Quintilius Varus had been destroyed by the 
Germans. Here his troops gathered up the 
bones of their ill-fated comrades, and paid the 
last honors to their memory. But meantime 
Arminius had collected a formidable army with 
which he attacked the Romans ; and it was not 
without considerable loss that Germanicus made 
good his retreat to the Rhine. It was in this 
campaign that Thusnelda, the wife of Arminius, 
fell into the hauds of Germanicus. Vid. Ar- 
minius. Next year (16) Germanicus placed his 
troops on board a fleet of one thousand vessels, 
and sailed through the canal of his father, Dru- 
sus (vid. p. 272, a), and the Zuydersee to the 
ocean, and from thence to the mouth of the 
Amisia (now Ems), where he landed his forces. 
After crossing the Ems and the Weser, he fought 
two battles with Arminius, in both of which the 
Germans were completely defeated. The Ger- 



mans could no longer offer him any effectual re- 
sistance, and Germanicus needed only another 
year to reduce completely the whole country be- 
tween the Rhine and the Elbe. But the jeal- 
ousy of Tiberius saved Germany. Upon pre- 
tence of the dangerous state of affairs in the 
East, the emperor recalled Germanicus to Rome, 
which he entered in Triumph on the 26th of May, 
A.D. 17. In the same year all the eastern prov- 
inces were assigned to Germanicus ; but Ti 
berius placed Cn. Piso in command of Syria, 
with secret instructions to cheek and thwart 
Germanicus. Piso soon showed his hostility to 
Germanicus ; and his wife, Plancina, in like 
manner, did every thing in her power to annoy 
Agrippina, the wife of Germanicus. In 18, Ger- 
manicus proceeded to Armenia, where he placed 
Zeno on the throne, and in the following year 
(19) he visited Egypt, and on his return he was 
seized 'with a dangerous illness, of which he 
died. He believed that he had been poisoned 
by Piso, and shortly before he died he summon- 
ed his friends, and called upon them to avenge 
his murder. He was deeply and sincerely la- 
mented by the Roman people ; and Tiberius was 
obliged to sacrifice Piso to the public indigna- 
tion. Vid. Piso. By Agrippina he had nine 
children, of whom six survived him. Of these 
the most notorious were the Emperor Caligula, 
and Agrippina, the mother of Nero. Germani- 
cus was an author of some repute. He wrote 
several poetical works. "We still possess the 
remains of his Latin translation of the Phenom- 
ena of Aratus. The latest edition of this work' 
is by Orelli, at the end of his Phaedrus, Zurich, 
1831. 

Germanicia or Cjesarea Germanica (Tepfia- 
viKeia KaiaupEia TepfiaviKij), a town in the Syr- 
ian provinces of Commagene, near the borders 
of Cappadocia : the birth-place of the heretic 
Nestorius. 

Gerra (Tep'p'a : near El-Katif), one of the 
chief cities of Arabia and India, stood on the 
northeastern coast of Arabia, and a great empo- 
rium for the trade of Arabia Felix, two hundred 
stadia (twenty geographical miles) from the 
shore of the Sinus Gerrseus or Gerraicus (now 
Elwah Bay ?), a bay on the western side of the 
Persian Gulf, two thousand four hundred stadia 
(two hundred and forty geographical miles=4° 
of lat.) from the mouth of the Tigris. The city 
was five Roman miles in circuit. The inhabit- 
ants, called Gerra?i (TefipaioL), were said to have 
been originally Chaldaeans, who were driven out 
of Babylon. There was a small place of the 
same name on the northeastern frontier of 
Egypt, between Pelusium and Mount Casius, 
fifty stadia or eight Roman miles from the for- 
mer. 

Gerrhus (Tep'p'oc), a river of Seythia, flowing 
through a country of the same name, was a 
branch of the Borysthenes, and flowed into the 
Hapacyris, dividing the country of the Nomad 
Scythians from that of the Royal Scythians. 

Gerunda (now Gerona), a town of the Ause- 
tani in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from 
Tarraco to Narbo in Gaul. 

[Gerunium, is named by Livy, in his account 
of the second Punic war, as an ancient decayed 
city of the Samnites.] 

Geryon or Geryones (r^pvoi^f), son of Chry- 
327 



GESORIACUM. 



GLABRIO. 



saor and Callirrhoe, a monster -with three heads, I 
or, according to others, with three bodies united 
together, was a king in Spain, and possessed 
magnificent oxen, which Hereults carried away. 
For details, vid. Hercules. 

Gesoeiacuh (now Boulogne), a port of the 
Morini in Gallia Belgica. at which persons usu- 
ally embarked to cross over to Britain : it was 
subsequently called Bononia, whence its mod- 
ern name. 

Gessius Floeus. Vid. Floeus. 

Geta, Septimius, brother of Caracalla, by 
whom he was assassinated, A.D. 212. For de- 
tails, vid. Caracalla. 

Get^e, a Thraciau people, called Daci by the 
Romans. Herodotus and Thucydides place them 
south of the Ister (now Danube), near its mouths, 
but in the time of Alexander the Great they 
dwelt beyond this river and north of the Triballi. 
They were driven by the Sarmatians further 
west toward Germany. For their later history, 
vid. Dacia. 

Gigantes (ViyavTcg), the giants. According 
to Homer, they were a gigantic and savage 
race of men, dwelling in the distant west, in the 
island of Thrinacia, and were destroyed on ac- 
count of their insolence toward the gods. He- 
siod considers them as divine beings, who sprang 
from the blood that fell from Ccelus (Uranus) 
upon the earth, so that Terra (Ge) (the eai-th) 
was their mother. Neither Homer nor Hesiod 
knows any thing about their contest with the 
.gods. Later poets and mythographers frequent- 
ly- confound them with the Titans, and repre- 
sent them as enemies of Jupiter (Zeus) and the 
gods, whose abode on Olympus they attempt 
to take by storm. Their battle with the gods 
seems to be only an imitation of the revolt of 
the Titans against Uranus. Terra (Ge), it is 
said, indignant at the fate of her former chil- 
dren, the Titans, gave birth to the Gigantes, 
who were beings of a monstrous size, with fear- 
ful countenances and the tails of dragons. They 
were born, according to some, in the Phlegraean 
plains in Sicily, Campania, or Arcadia, and, ac- 
cording to others, in the Thracian Pallene. In 
their native land they made an attack upon 
heaven, being armed with huge rocks and trunks 
of trees. The gods were told that they could 
not conquer the giants without the assistance 
of a mortal, whereupon they summoned Hercu- 
les to their aid. The giants Alcyoneus and 
Porphyrion distinguished themselves above their 
brethren. Alcyoneus was immortal so long as 
he fought in his native land ; but Hercules drag- 
ged him away to a foreign land, and thus killed 
him. Porphyrion was killed by the lightning 
of Jupiter (Zeus) and the arrows of Hercules. 
The other giants, whose number is said to have 
been twenty-four, were then killed one after 
another by the gods and Hercules, and some 
of them were buried by their conquerors under 
(volcanic) islands. It is worthy of remark, that 
most writers place the giants in volcanic dis- 
tricts ; and it is probable that the story of their 
contest with the gods took its origin from vol- 
canic convulsions. 

Gigonus {Tiyuvoc : TiyuvLO^), a town and 
promontory of Macedonia, on the Thermaic Gulf. 

[Gilboa Moms, a sterile range of hills to the 
south and southeast of Tabor, bouuding the 1 
328 



I valley of the Jordan on the west for many 
miles.] 

Gildo or Gildon, a Moorish chieftain, gov- 
erned Africa for some years as a subject of the 
"Western empire ■ but in A.D. 397 he trans- 
ferred his allegiance to the Eastern empire, and 
the Em peror Arcadius accepted him as a sub- 
ject. Stilicho, guardian of Honorius, sent an 
army against him. Gildo was defeated ; and, 
being taken prisoner, he put an end to his own 
life by hanging himself (398). The history of 
this war forms the subject of one of Claudian's 
poems {Be Bello Gildonieo). 

[Giligamb^e (TtXiytlfj.6ai or Tihiyafi/iai, ffdt.), 
an African people in Marmarica and Cyrenaica.] 
[Gindanes (TivSuvec), a people dwelling in 
the inland parts of the Syrtica Regio in Africa.] 
Gindarus (Tivdapoc : now Gindarics), a very 
strong fortress in the district of Cyrrhestice in" 
Syria, northeast of Antioch. 
[Gir. Vid. Gee.] 

Girba, a city on the island of Mcninx (now 
Jerbah), at the southern extremity of the Lesser 
Syrtis, in northern Africa : celebrated for its 
manufactures of purple. 

Gisco or Gisgo (Tiaicuv or Tegkuv). 1. Son 
of Hamilcar, who was defeated and killed in the 
battle of Himera, B.C. 480. In consequence of 
this calamity, Gisgo was banished from Car- 
thage. He died at Selinus in Sicily. — 2. Son of 
Hanno, was in exile when the Carthaginians 
were defeated at the River Crimisus by Timo 
leon, 339. He was then recalled from exile, and 
sent to oppose Timoleon, but was unable to ac- 
complish any thing of importance. — 3. Com- 
mander of the Carthaginian garrison at Lily- 
baeum. at the end of the first Punic war. After 
the conclusion of peace, 241, he was deputed 
by the government to treat with the mercena- 
ries who had risen in revolt, but he was seized by 
them and put to death. 

Gitiadas (Ti-iudac), a Lacedaemonian archi- 
tect, statuary, and poet. He completed the 
temple of Minerva (Athena) Poliouchos at 
Sparta, and ornamented it with works in bronze, 
from which it was called the Brazen House, and 
hence the goddess received the surname of 
Xa?iKi0LK0c. He composed a hymn to the god- 
dess, besides other poems. He flourished about 
B.C. 516, and is the last Spartan artist of any 
distinction. 

Glabrio, Acilius, plebeians. 1. C, quaestor 
B.C. 203, and tribune of the plebs 197. He 
acted as interpreter to the Athenian embassy 
in 155, when the three philosophers, Carneades, 
Diogenes, and Critolaus, came as envoys to 
Rome. He wrote in Greek a history of Rome 
from the earliest period to his own times. It 
was translated into Latin by one Claudius, and 
bis version is cited by Livy, under the titles of 
Annates Aciliani (xxv., 39) and Libri Aciliani 
(xxxv., 14).— 2. M\, tribune of the plebs 201, 
praetor 196, and consul 191. In his consulship 
he defeated Autiochus at Thermopylae, and sub- 
sequently the iEtolians likewise. — S. M'., mar* 
ried a daughter of M. ^Emilius Scaurus, consul 
115, whom Sulla, in S2, compelled him to di- 
vorce. Glabrio was praetor urbanus in 7 0, when 
be presided at the impeachment of Verres. He 
was cousul in 67, and in the following 3*ear pro- 
consul of Cilicia. He succeeded L. Lueullus io 



GLANIS. 



GLESSARIA. 



the command of the -war against Mithradates, 
but remained inactive in Bithynia, He was 
superseded by Cn. Pompey.— -4. M\, son of No. 
3, was born in the house of Cn. Pompey, B.C. 
81 who married his mother after her compul- 
sory divorce from the elder Glabrio. iEmilia 
died in giving birth to him. In the civil war, 
Glabrio was one of Caesar's lieutenants; com- 
manded the garrison of Oricum in Epirus in 48, 
and was stationed in Sicily in 46. He was twice 
defended on capital charges by Cicero, and ac- 
quitted. 

Glaxis, more usually written Clanis. 

Glanum Livji (ruins near St. Remy), a town 
of the Salyes in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Glaphyea. Vid. Archelaus, No. 6. 

Glauce (Vkavuri). 1. One of the Nereides, 
the name Glauee being only a personification 
of the color of the sea. — 2. Daughter of Creon 
of Corinth, also called Creusa, For details, vid. 
Oeeon. 

[Glauce iTXavKij), a harbor of Ionia, on the 
Promontory Myeale, opposite Samos.] 

Glajocia, C. Servilius, praetor B.C. 100, the 
chief supporter of Saturninus, with whom he was 
put to death in this year. Vid. Satueninus. 

Glaucias (TXavKias). 1. King of the Tau- 
lantians, one of the Illyrian tribes, fought against 
Alexander the Great, B.C. 335. In 316 he af- 
forded an asylum to the infant Pyrrhus, and re- 
fused to surrender him to Cassander. In 307 
he invaded Epirus, and placed Pyrrhus, then 
twelve years old, upon the throne. — 2. A Greek 
physician, who probably lived in the third or 
second century B.C. — 3. A statuary of ^Egina, 
who made the bronze chariot and statue of Ge- 
lon, flourished B.C. 488. 

[Glaucippus (TXavKixTros), an Athenian rhet- 
orician, son of the celebrated orator Hyperides : 
he wrote several orations, but they have entirely 
perished.] 

Glaucon (TXavicuv). 1. Son of Critias, broth- 
er of Callasschrus, and father of Charmides and 
of Plato's mother, Perictione. — 2. Brother of 
Plato, who makes him one of the speakers in 
the Republic. 

Glaucus (TXavKog). 1. Grandson of _<Eohis, 
eon of Sisyphus and Merope, and father of Bel- 
lerophontes. He lived at Potniae, despised the 
power of Venus (Aphrodite), and did not allow 
his mares to breed, that they might be the 
stronger for the horse-race. According to oth- 
ers, he fed them with human flesh. This ex- 
cited the anger of Venus (Aphrodite), who de- 
stroyed him. According to some accounts, his 
horses became frightened and threw him out 
of his chariot, as he was contending in the fu- 
neral games celebrated by Acastus in honor of 
his father Pelias. According to others, his 
horses tore him to pieees, having drunk from 
the waters of a sacred well in Boeotia, in conse- 
quence of which they were seized with mad- 
uess. Glaucus of Potniae {TXavKog Hotvievc;) 
was the title of one of the lost tragedies of 
^Eschylus. — 2. Son of Hippolochus, and grand- 
son of Bellerophontes, was a Lycian prince, and 
assisted Priam in the Trojan war. He was 
connected with Diomedes by ties of hospitality ; 
and when they recognized one another in the 
battle, they abstained from fighting, and ex- 
changed arms with one another. Glaucr.s was 



slain by Ajax. — 3. Son of the Messenian kin§ 
^Epytus, whom he succeeded on the throne.— 
4. One of the sons of the Cretan king Minos by 
Pasiphae or Crete. When a boy, he fell into 
a cask full of honey, and was smothered. Mi- 
nos searched for his son in vain, and was al 
length informed by Apollo or the Curetes thai 
the person who should devise the mo^t appro- 
priate comparison between a cow, which could 
assume three different colors, and any other 
object, would find the boy. The soothsayer 
Polyidus of Argos solved the problem by liken- 
ing the cow to a mulberry, which is at first 
white, then red, and in the end black. By his 
prophetic powers he then discovered the boy. 
Minos now required Polyidus to restore his son 
to life ; hut as he could not accomplish this, 
Minos ordered him to be entombed alive with 
the body of Glaucus. When Polyidus was thus 
shut up in the vault, he saw a serpent approach- 
ing the dead body, and killed the reptile. Pres 
ently another serpent came, and placed a herb 
upon the dead serpent, which was thereby re- 
stored to life. Thereupon Polyidus covered 
the body of Glaucus with the same herb, and 
the boy at once rose into life again. The story 
of Glaucus and Polyidus was a favorite subject 
with the ancient poets and authors. — 5. Of An 
thedon in Boeotia, a fisherman, who became im- 
mortal by eating a part of the divine herb which 
Saturn (Cronos) had sown. His parentage is 
differently stated : some called his father Co- 
peus, others Polybus, the husband of Euboea, 
and others, again, Anthedon or Neptune (Po> 
seidon). He was further said to have been a 
clever diver, to have built the ship Argo, and 
to have accompanied the Argonauts as their 
steersman. In the sea-fight of Jason agamst 
the Tyrrhenians, Glaucus alone remained un- 
hurt ; he sank to the bottom of the sea, where 
he was visible to none save Jason. From this 
moment he became a marine deity, and waj of 
service to the Argonauts. The story of his 
sinking or leaping into the sea was variously 
modified in the different traditions. There was 
a belief in Greece that once in every year Glau- 
cus visited all the coasts and islands, accom- 
panied by marine monsters, and gave his proph- 
ecies. Fishermen and sailors paid particular 
reverence to him, and watched his oracles, 
which were believed to be very trustworthy. 
He is said to have even instructed Apolio in 
the prophetic art. Some writers stated that 
he dwelt in Delos, where he prophesied in con- 
junction with the nymphs ; but the place of his 
abode varied in different traditions. The sto- 
ries about his various loves were favorite sub- 
jects with the ancient poets. — 6. Of Chios, a 
statuary in metal, distinguished as the inventor 
of the art of soldering metals (noXkrjais), flour- 
ished B.C. 490. His most noted work was an 
iron base {viroKprjjripidiov), which, with the sil- 
ver bowl it supported, was presented to the 
temple at Delphi by Alyattes, king of Lydia. 

Glaucus {VkavKog). 1. A small river of Phry- 
gia, falling into the Maeander near Eumenia. — 
2. A small river of Lycia, on the borders of Ca- 
ria, flowing into the Sinus Glaucus (now Gulf 
of Makri). 

Glaucus Sinus. Vid. preceding, No. 2 
Glessaeia (now Ameland), an island off tha 
329 



GLISAS. 



GORDIUS, 



coast of the Frisii, so called from " glessum" or 
amber which was found there : its proper name 
was Austeravia. 

Glisas {TTdaac : Taio&vtloc), an ancient town 
in Bceotia, on Mount Hypaton. It was in ruins 
in the time of Pausanias. 

Glycas, Michael, a Byzantine historian, the 
author of a work entitled Annals (f316?ioc XP 0V - 
ikti), containing the history of the world from 
the creation to the death of Alexis I. Comne- 
nus, A.D. 1118. Edited by Bekker, Bonn, 1836. 

Glyceea (rXvuepa), " the sweet one," a fa- 
vorite name of hetaircc. The most celebrated 
hetairae of this name are, 1. The daughter of 
Thalassis, and the mistress of Harpalus. — 2. Of 
Sieyon, and the mistress of Pausias. — 3. A fa- 
vorite of Horace. 

Glyceeius, became emperor of the West A.D. 
473, after the death of Olybrius, by the assist- 
ance of Gundobald the Burgundian. But the 
Byzantine court did not acknowledge Glycerius, 
and proclaimed Julius Nepos emperor, by whom 
Glycerius was dethroned (474), and compelled 
to become a priest. He was appointed bishop 
of Salona in Dalmatia. 

Glycon (YIvkuv) an Athenian sculptor, 
known to us by the magnificent colossal marble 
statue of Hercules, commonly called the " Far- 
nese Hercules." It was found in the baths of 
Caracalla, and, after adorning the Farnese pal- 
ace for some time, was removed to the royal 
museum at Naples. It represents the hero rest- 
ing on his club after one of his labors. The 
swollen muscles admirably express repose after 
severe exertion. Glycon probably lived under 
the early Roman emperors. 

[Glycys Poetus (Tavicvc lifi?jv, " the sweet 
harbor"), a harbor with a town Glycys at the 
mouth of the Acheron in Epirus.] 

[Gnatia, a shortened form of Egnatia. Vid. 
Egnatia.] 

Gnipho, M. Antonius, a Roman rhetorician, 
was born B.C. 114, in Gaul, but studied at Alex- 
andrea. He afterward established a school at 
Rome, which was attended by many dis- 
tinguished men, and among others by Cicero, when 
he was pra?tor. 

Gnosus, Gnossos. Vid. Cnosus. 

Gobeyas (To6pvat;), a noble Persian, one of 
the seven conspirators against Smerdis the Ma- 
giau. He accompanied Darius into Scythia. 
He was doubly related to Darius by marriage ; 
Darius married the daughter of Gobryas, and 
Gobryas married the sister of Darius. 

[Gogana (Vuyava, now Kongun or Cogun), a 
place in the Persian district Persis.] 

Golgi (ToXyoi : ToAyioc), a town in Cyprus, 
of uncertain site, was a Sicyonian colony, and 
one of the chief seats of the worship of Aphro- 
dite (Venus). 

Gomphi (To/Mpoi : To/if eve), a town in Hes- 
tiaBotis in Thessaly, was a strong fortress on 
the confines of Epirus, and commanded the 
chief pass between Thessaly and Epirus : it 
was taken and destroyed by Caesar (B.C. 48), 
but was afterward rebuilt. 

Gonni, Gonnus (Tovvoi, Tovvoc : Tovvioc), a 
strongly fortified town of the Perrhaebi in Thes- 
saly, on the River Peneus, and at the entrance 
of the Vale of Tempe, was, from its position, of 
Ejreat military importance : but it is not men- 
330 



ticned after the time of the wars between the 
Macedonians and Romans. 

Goedianus, M. Antojuus, the name of three 
Roman emperors, father, son, and grandson. 
1. Surnamed Africanus, son of Melius Marul- 
lus and Ulpia Gordiana, possessed a princely 
fortune, and was distinguished alike by mora] 
and intellectual excellence. In his first consul- 
ship, A.D. 213, he was the colleague of Cara- 
calla ; in his second, of Alexander Severus ; 
and snon afterward was nominated proconsul 
of Africa. After governing Africa for several 
years with justice and integrity, a rebellion 
broke out in the province in consequence of the 
tyranny of the procurator of Maximinus. The 
ring-leaders of the conspiracy compelled Gor- 
dian, who was now in his eightieth year, to as- 
sume the imperial title. He entered on his new 
duties at Carthage in the month of February, 
associated his son with him in the empire, and 
dispatched letters to Rome announcing his 
elevation. Gordianus and his son were at once 
proclaimed Augusti by the senate, and prepar- 
ations were made in Italy to resist Maximinus. 
But meantime a certain Capellianus, procurator 
of Numidia, refused to acknowledge the author- 
ity of the Gordiani, and marched against them. 
The younger Gordianus was defeated by him, 
and slain in the battle; and his aged father 
thereupon put an end to his own life, after 
reigning less than two months. — 2. Son of th« 
preceding and of Fabia Orestilla, was born A.D. 
192, was associated with his father in the pur- 
ple, and fell in battle, as recorded above. — 3. 
Grandson of the elder Gordianus, either by a 
daughter or by the younger Gordianus. The 
soldiers proclaimed him emperor in July, A.D. 
238, after the murder of Balbinus and Pupienus, 
although he was a mere boy, probably not more 
than twelve years old. He reigned six years, 
from 238 to 244. In 241 he married the 
daughter of Misitheus, and in the same year 
set out for the east to carry on the war against 
the Persians. With the assistance of Misithe- 
us, he defeated the Persians in 242. Misitheus 
died in the following year; and Philippus, 
whom Gordian had taken into his confidence, 
excited discontent among the soldiers, who at 
length rose in open mutiny, and assassinated 
Gordian in Mesopotamia, 244. He was suc- 
ceeded by Philippus. 

GoRDiuii (Topdiov, Yop&lov Kupy), the ancient 
capital of Phrygia, the royal residence of the 
kings of the dynasty of Gordius, and the scene 
of Alexander's celebrated exploit of " cutting 
the Gordian knot." Vid. Goedius. It was sit- 
uated in the west of that part of Phrygia which 
was afterward called Galatia, north of Pessinus, 
on the northern bank of the Sangirius. In the 
reign of Augustus it received the name of Juli- 
opolis ('lovXtovwoMc). 

Goedius (Topdioc), an ancient king of Phryg- 
ia, and father of Midas, was originally a poor 
peasant. Internal disturbances having broken 
out in Phrygia, an oracle informed the inhabit- 
ants that a wagon would bring them a king, 
who should at the same time put an end to the 
disturbances. When the people were deliber- 
ating on these points, Gordius, with his wife 
and son, suddenly appeared riding in his wag- 
on in the assembly of the people, who at once 



G0RDIUT1CH0S. 



GORTYN, GORTYNA. 



acknowledged him as king. Gordius, out of 
oratitude, dedicated his chariot to Jupiter 
(Zeus) in the acropolis of Gordium. The pole 
■was fastened to the yoke by a knot of bark; 
and an oracle declared that whatsoever should 
untie the knot should reign over all Asia. Al- 
exander, on his arrival at Gordium, cut the knot 
with his sword and applied the oraele to him- 
oelf. 

GordiutIohos (Topdiov rslxoc) a town in Ca- 
ria, near the borders of Phrygia, between Anti- 
ochia ad Majandrum aud Tabse. 

GORDY^EL Vid. GORDYENE. 

Gordy^ei Montes (fa Yopdvala opr] : now 
Mountains of Kurdistan), the name given by 
Strabo to the northern part of the broad belt of 
mountains which separates the Tigris Valley 
from the great table-land of Iran, and which 
divided Mesopotamia and Assyria from Arme- 
nia and Media. They are connected with the 
mountains of Armenia at Ararat, whence they 
run southeast between the Arsissa Palus (now 
Lake Van) and the sources of the Tigris and its 
upper confluents as far as the confines of Media, 
where the chain turns more to the south and was 
called Zagros. 

Gordyene or Corduene (TopSvrjVrj, Kopdov- 
Tjvri), a mountainous district in the south of 
Armenia Major, between the Arsissa Palus 
(now Lake Van) and the Gordy^ei Montes. 
After the Mithradatic war, it was assigned by 
Pompey to Tigranes, with whom its possession 
had beeu disputed by the Parthian king Phraates. 
Trajan added it to the Roman empire; and it 
formed afterward a constant object of contention 
between the Romans and the Parthian and Per- 
sian kings, but was for the most part virtually 
independent. Its warlike inhabitants, called 
TopiSvaioi or Cordueni, were no doubt the same 
people as the Carduchi of the earlier Greek geo- 
graphers, and the Kurds of modern times. 

Gorge (ropy?;), daughter of (Eneus and Al- 
thea. She and her sister Deianira alone retained 
their original forms, when their other sisters 
were metamorphosed by Diana (Artemis) into 
birds. 

Gorgias (Topyiac,). 1. Of Leontiui, in Sicily, 
a celebrated rhetorician and orator, sophist and 
philosopher, was born about B.C 480, and is 
said to have lived one hundred and five years, 
or even one hundred and nine years. Of his 
early life we have no particulars ; but when he 
was of advanced age (B.C. 427) he was sent 
by his fellow-citizens as ambassador to Athens, 
for the purpose of soliciting its protection 
against Syracuse. He seems to have returned 
to Leontini only for a short time, and to have 
spent the remaining years of his vigorous old 
age in the towns of Greece Proper, especially at 
Athens and the Thessaliau Larissa, enjoying 
honor every where as an orator and teacher of 
rhetoric. The common statement that Pericles 
and the historian Thucydides were among his 
disciples can not be true, as he did not go to 
Athens till after the death of Pericles ; but Al 
cibiades, Aleidamas, iEschines, and Antisthe- 
nes are called either pupils or imitators of 
Gorgias, and his oratory must have had great 
influence upon the rhetorician Isocrates. The 
high estimation in which he was held at Athens 
appears from the way in which he js introduced 




in the dialogue of Plato, which bears his name. 
The eloquence of Gorgias was chiefly calcula- 
ted to tickle the ear by antitheses, alliterations,, 
the symmetry of its parts, and similar artifices. 
Two declamations have come down to us under 
the name of Gorgias, viz., the Apology of Pala- 
medes, and the Encomium on Helena, the gen- 
uineness of which is doubtful. Besides his 
orations, which were mostly what the Greeks 
called Epideictic or speeches for display, such as 
his oration addressed to the assembled Greeks 
at Olympia, Gorgias also wrote loci communes, 
probably as rhetorical exercises ; a work on 
dissimilar and homogeneous words, and another 
on rhetoric. The works of Gorgias did not 
even contain the elements of a scientific theory 
of oratory any more than his oral instructions. 
He confined himself to teaching his pupils a 
variety of rhetorical artifices, and made them 
learn by heart certain formulas relative to them. 
— 2. Of Athens, gave instruction in rhetoric to 
young M. Cicero when he was at Athens. He 
wrote a rhetorical work, a Latin abridgment of 
which by Rutilius Lupus is still extant, under the 
title Be Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis. 

Gorgo and Gorgones (Topyu and Topyovec). 
Homer mentions only one Gorgo, who appears 
in the Odyssey (xi., 633) as one of the frightful 
phantoms in Hades : in the Iliad the aegis of 
Athena (Minerva) contains the head of Gorgo, 
the terror of her enemies. Hesiod mentions 
three Gorgones, Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa, 
daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, whence they 
are sometimes called Phorcydes. Hesiod 
placed them in the far west in the Ocean, in 
the neighborhood of Night and the Hesperides ; 
but later traditions transferred them to Libya. 
They were frightful beings ; instead of hair, 
their heads were covered with hissing ser- 
pents ; and they had wings, brazen claws, and 
enormous teeth. Medusa, who alone of her 
sisters was mortal, was, according to some 
legends, at first a beautiful maiden, but her 
hair was changed into serpents by Athena 
(Minerva) in consequence of her having be- 
come by Poseidon the mother of Chrysaor and 
Pegasus in one of Athena's (Minerva's) tem- 
ples. Her head now became so fearful that 
every one who looked at it was changed into 
stone. Hence the great difficulty which Perseus 
had in killing her. Vid. Perseus. Athena (Mi- 
nerva) afterward placed the head in the centre 
of her shield or breast-plate. 

[Gorgus (Topyoc). 1. Son of Chersis, a king 
of Salamis in Cyprus : he joined Xerxes in his 
invasion of Greece. — 2. Son of Cypselus, founder 
of Ambracia.] 

[Gorgythion (TopyvOluv), son of Priam and 
Castianira, was slain by Teucer.] 

Gortyn, Gortyna (TopTVv, Toprvva : Toprv- 
vioc). 1. (Ruins near Hagios Dheka, six miles 
from the foot of Mount Ida), one of the most 
ancient cities in Crete, on the River Letk-eus, 
ninety stadia from its harbor Leben, and one 
hundred and thirty stadia from its other harbor 
Metalia. It was one of the chief seats of the 
worship of Europa, whence it was called Hel- 
lotis ; and it was subsequently peopled by Min- 
yans and Tyrrhene-Pelasgians, whence it also 
bore the name of Larissa. It was the second 
city in Crete, being only inferior to Cnosus ; 

331 



GORTYIHA. 



GRACCHUS, SEMPROMUS. 



and on the decline of the latter place under tne 
Romans, it became the metropolis of the island. 
— 2. Also Gortys (ruins near Atzikolo), a town 
in Arcadia, on the River Gortynius, a tributary of 
the Alpheus. 

Gortynia (TopTvvia), a town in Emathia in 
Macedonia, of uncertain site. 

Gotarzes. Vid. Arsaces, No. 20, 21. 

Gothi, Gothones, Guttones, a powerful 
German people, who played an important part 
in the overthrow of the Roman empire. They 
originally dwelt on the Prussian coast of the 
Baltic, at the mouth of the Vistula, where they 
are placed by Tacitus ; but they afterward mi- 
grated south, and at the beginning of the third 
century they appear on the coasts of the Black 
Sea, where Caracalla encountered them on his 
march to the East. In the reign of the Em- 
peror Philippus (A.D. 244-249), they obtained 
possession of a great part of the Roman prov- 
ince of Dacia ; and in consequence of their set- 
tling in the countries formerly inhabited by the 
Getas and Scythians, they are frequently called 
both Gete and Scythians by later writers. Prom 
the time of Philippus the attacks of the Goths 
against the Roman empire became more fre- 
quent and more destructive. In A.D. 2*72 the 
Emperor Aurelian surrendered to them the 
whole of Dacia. It is about this time that we 
find them separated into two great divisions, 
the Ostrogoths or Eastern Goths, and the Vis- 
igoths or Western Goths. The Ostrogoths set- 
tled in Moesia and Pannonia, while the Visi- 
goths remained north of the Danube. The 
Visigoths, under their king Alaric, . invaded 
Italy, and took and plundered Rome (410). A 
few years afterward they settled permanently 
in the southwest of Gaul, and established a 
kingdom, of which Tolosa was the capital. 
From thence they invaded Spain, where they 
also founded a kingdom, which lasted for more 
than two centuries, till it was overthrown by 
the Arabs. The Ostrogoths meantime had ex- 
tended their dominions almost up to the gates 
of Constantinople ; and the Emperor Zeno was 
glad to get rid of them by giving them permis- 
sion to invade and conquer Italy. Under their 
king Theodoric the Great they obtained posses- 
sion of the whole of Italy (493). Theodoric 
look the title of King of Italy, and an Ostro- 
gothic dynasty reigned in the country till it was 
destroyed by Narses, the general of Justinian, 
A.D. 553. The Ostrogoths embraced Christian- 
ity at an early period ; and it was for their use 
that Ulphilas translated the sacred Scriptures 
into Gothic, about the middle of the fourth cen- 
tury- 

Gothini, a Celtic people in the southeast of 
Germany, subject to the Quadi. 

Gracchanus, M. Junius, assumed his cogno- 
men on account of his friendship with C. Grac- 
chus. He wrote a work, Be Potestatibus, which 
gave an account of the Roman constitution and 
magistracies from the time of the kings. It 
was addressed to T. Pomponius Atticus, the 
father of Cicero's friend. This work, which 
appears to have been one of great value, is lost, 
but some parts of it are cited by Joannes Lydus. 
Vid. Lydus. 

Gracchus, Sempronius, plebeians. 1. Tibe- 
rius, a distinguished general in the second 
332 



Punic war. In B.C. 216 he was magister 
equitum to the dictator M. Junius Pera ; in 215 
consul for the first time; and in 213 consul for 
the second time. In 212 he fell in battle against 
Mago, at Campi Veteres, in Lucania His body 
was sent to Hannibal, who honored it with a 
magnificent burial. — 2. Tiberics, was tribune 
of the plebs in 187 ; and although personally 
hostile to P. Scipio Africanus, he defended him 
against the attacks of the other tribunes, for 
which he received the thanks of the aristocrat- 
ical party. Soon after this occurrence Grac- 
chus was rewarded with the hand of Cornelia, 
the youngest daughter of P. Scipio Africanus. 
In 181 he was prator, and received Hispania 
Citerior as his province, where he carried on 
the war with great success against the Celtibe- 
rians. After defeating them in battle, he gained 
their confidence by his justice and kindness. 
He returned to Rome in 17 8 ; and was consul 
1*77, when he was sent against the Sardinians, 
who revolted. He reduced them to complete 
submission in 176, and returned to Rome in 
175. He brought with him so large a number 
of captives that they were sold for a mere trifle, 
which gave rise to the proverb Sardi venules. 
In 169 he was censor with C. Claudius Pulcher, 
and was consul a second time in 163. He had 
twelve children by Cornelia, all of whom died at 
an early age except the two tribunes, Tiberius 
and Caius, and a daughter, Cornelia, who was 
married to P. Scipio Africanus the younger. — 3 
Tiberius, elder son of No. 2, lost his father at an 
early age. He was educated, together with his 
brother Caius, by his illustrious mother Cornelia, 
who made it the object of her life to render her 
sons worthy of their father and of her own an- 
cestors. She was assisted in the education of 
her children by eminent Greeks, who exercised 
great influence upon the minds of the two broth- 
ers, and among whom we have especial men- 
tion of Diophanes of Mytilene, Menelaus of 
Marathon, and Blossius of Cuma3. Tiberius 
was nine years older than his brother Caius ; 
and although they grew up under the same in- 
fluence, and their characters resembled each 
other in the main outlines, yet they differed 
from each other in several important particu- 
lars. Tiberius was inferior to his brother in 
talent, but surpassed him in the amiable traits 
of his gentle nature : the simplicity of his de- 
meanor, and his calm dignity, won for him the 
hearts of the people. His eloquence, too, form- 
ed a strong contrast with the passionate and 
impetuous harangues of Caius ; for it was tem- 
perate, graceful, persuasive, and, proceeding as 
it did from the fullness of his own heart, it 
found a ready entrance into the hearts of his 
hearers. Tiberius served in Africa under P. 
Scipio Africanus the younger, who had married 
his sister, and was present at the destruction 
of Carthage (146). In 137 he was quaestor, and 
in that capacity he accompanied the consul, 
Hostilius Mancinus, to Hispania Citerior, where 
he gained both the affection of the Roman sol- 
diers, and the esteem and confidence of the vic- 
torious enemy. The distressed condition of the 
Roman people had deeply excited the sympa- 
thies of Tiberius. As he travelled through 
Etruria on his journey to Spain, he observed 
with grief and indignation the deserted state of 



GRACCHUS, SEMPRONIUS. 



GRACCHUS, SEMPROOTUS. 



that fertile country ; thousands of foreign slaves 
in chains were employed in cultivating the land 
and tending the flocks upon the immense estates 
of the wealthy, while the poorer classes of Ro 
man citizens, who were thus thrown out of em- 
ployment, had scarcely their daily bread or a 
clod of earth to call their own. He resolved to 
use every effort to remedy this state of things, 
by endeavoring to create an industrious middle 
class of agriculturists, and to put a check upon 
the unbounded avarice of the ruling party, 
whose covetousness, combined with the disas- 
ters of the second Punic war, had completely 
destroyed the middle class of small land-owners. 
With this view, he offered himself as a candi- 
date for the tribuneship, and obtained it for the 
year 133. The agrarian law of Licinius, which 
enacted that no one should possess more than 
five hundred jugera of public land, had never 
been repealed, but had for a long series of years 
been totally disregai'ded. The first measure, 
therefore, of Tiberius was to propose a bill to 
the people, renewing and enforcing the Licinian 
law, but with the modification that besides the 
five hundred jugera allowed by that law, any 
one might possess two hundred and fifty jugera 
of the public land for each of his sons. This 
clause, however, seems to have been limited to 
two, so that a father of two sons might occupy 
one thousand jugera of public land. The 
plus was to be taken from them and distributed 
in small farms among the poor citizens. The 
business of measuring and distributing the land 
was to be intrusted to triumvirs, who were to 
be elected as a permanent magistracy. The 
measure encountered the most vehement oppo- 
sition from the senate and the aristocracy, and 
they got one of the tribunes, M. Octavius, to put 
his intercessio or veto upon the bill. When 
neither persuasions nor threats would induce 
Octavius to withdraw his opposition, the peo- 
ple, upon the proposition of Tiberius, deposed 
Octavius from his office. The law was then 
passed ; and the triumvirs appointed to carry it 
into execution were Tib. Gracchus, App. Clau- 
dius, his father-in-law, and his brother C. Grac- 
ehus, who was then little more than twenty 
years old, and was serving in the camp of P. 
Scipio at Numantia. About this time Attalus 
died, bequeathing his kingdom and his property 
to the Roman people. Gracchus thereupon pro- 
posed that this property should be distributed 
among the people, to enable the poor, who were 
to receive lands, to purchase the necessary im- 
plements, cattle, and the like. When the time 
came for the election of the tribunes for the fol- 
lowing year, Tiberius again offered himself as 
a candidate. The senate declared that it was 
illegal for any one to hold this office for two 
consecutive years; but Tiberius paid no atten- 
tion to the objection. While the tribes were 
voting, a band of senators, headed by P. Scipio 
Nasica, rushed from the senate house into the 
forum and attacked the people. Tiberius was 
killed as he was attempting to escape. He was 
probably about thirty-five years of age at the 
time of his death. Whatever were the errors 
of Tiberius in legislation, his motives were 
pure ; and he died the death of a martyr in the 
protection of the poor and oppressed. All the 
odium that Vjas for many centuries been thrown 



upon Tiberius and his brother Caius arose froip 
party prejudice, and more especially from a mis- 
understanding of the nature of a Roman agra- 
rian law, which did not deal with private prop- 
erty, but only with the public land of the state. 
Vid. Diet, of Ant, art. Ageaki^e Leges. — 4. C, 
brother of No. 3, was in Spain at the time of 
his brother's murder, as has been already stated. 
He returned to Rome in the following year 
(132), but kept aloof from public affairs for somp 
years. In 126 he was quaestor, and went to 
Sardinia, under the consul L. Aurelius Orestes, 
and there gained the approbation of his superiors 
and the attachment of the soldiers. The senate 
attempted to keep him in Sardinia, dreading his 
popularity in Rome ; but after he had remained 
there two years, he left the province without 
leave, and returned to the city in 124. Urged 
on by the popular wish, and by the desire of 
avenging the cause of his murdered brother, he 
became a candidate for the tribuneship of the 
plebs, and was elected for the year 123. His 
reforms were far more extensive than his broth- 
er's, and such was his influence with the peo- 
ple that he carried all he proposed ; and the 
senate were deprived of some of their most im- 
portant privileges. His first measure was the 
renewal of the agrarian law of his brother. He 
next carried several laws for the amelioration 
of the condition of the poor, enacting that the 
soldiers should be equipped at the expense of 
the republic ; that no person under the age of 
seventeen should be drafted for the army ; and 
that every month corn should be sold at a low 
fixed price to the poor. In order to weaken the 
power of the senate, he enacted, that the judices 
in the judicia publica, who had hitherto been 
elected from the senate, should in future be 
chosen from the equites ; and that in every 
year, before the consuls were elected, the sen- 
ate should determine the two provinces which 
the consuls should have. No branch of the pub- 
he administration appears to have escaped his 
notice. He gave a regular organization to the 
pi-ovince of Asia, which had for many years 
been left unsettled. In order to facilitate inter- 
course between the several parts of Italy, and 
at the same time to give employment to the 
pool-, he made new roads in all directions, re- 
paired the old ones, and set up mile-stones along 
them. Caius was elected tribune again for the 
following year, 122. The senate, finding it im- 
possible to resist the measures of Caius, re- 
solved, if possible, to destroy his influence with 
the people, that they might retain the govern- 
ment in their own hands. For this purpose they 
persuaded M. Livius Drusus, one of the col- 
leagues of Caius, to propose measures still more 
popular than those of Caius. The people al- 
lowed themselves to be duped by the treacher- 
ous agent of the senate, and the popularity of 
Caius gradually waned. During his absence in 
Africa, whither he had gone as one of the trium- 
virs to establish a colony at Carthage, in accord- 
ance with one of his own laws, his party had 
been considerably weakened by the influence of 
Drusus and the aristocracy, and many of his 
friends had deserted his cause. He failed in 
obtaining the tribuneship for the following year. 
(121) ; and when his year of office expired, his 
enemies began to repeal several of his enaet- 
333 



GRADIVUS. 



GR^ECIA MAGNA. 



ments. Caius appeared in the forum to oppose 
these proceedings. One of the attendants of 
the consul Opimius was slain by the friends of 
Caius. Opimius gladly availed himself of this 
pretext to persuade the senate to confer upon 
him unlimited power to act as he thought best 
for the good of the republic. Fulvius Flaceus, 
and the other friends of Caius, called upon him 
to repel force by force ; but he refused to arm, 
and while his friends fought in his defence, he 
fled to the grove of the Furies, where he fell by 
the hands of his slave, whom he had command- 
ed to put him to death. The bodies of the slain, 
whose number is said to have amounted to three 
thousand, were thrown into the Tiber, their prop- 
erty was confiscated, and their houses demolish- 
ed. All the other friends of Gracchus who fell 
into the hands of their enemies were thrown into 
prison, and there strangled. 

Gradivus, i. e., the marching (probably from 
gradior), a surname of Mars, who is hence call- 
ed gradivus pater and rex gradivus. Mars Gra- 
divus had a temple outside the porta Capena 
on the Appian road, and it is said that King 
Numa appointed twelve Salii as priests of this 
god. 

Gk/E^e (Tpalai), that is, " the old women," 
daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, were three in 
number, Pephredo, Enyo, and JDino, and were 
also called Phorcydes. They had gray hair from 
their birth ; and had only one tooth and one 
eye in common, which they borrowed from 
each other when they wanted them. They 
were, perhaps, marine deities, like the other 
children of Phorcys. 

Gr^ecia or Hellas {ij 'EA/luc), a country in 
Europe, the inhabitants of which were called 
Grveci or Hellenes ("E/l/lT/vEf). Among the 
Greeks Hellas did not signify any particular 
country, bounded by certain geographical limits, 
but was used in general to signify the abode of 
the Hellenes, wherever they might happen to be 
settled. Thus the Greek colonies of Cyrene in 
Africa, of Syracuse in Sicily, of Tarentum in 
Italy, and of Smyrna in Asia, are said to be in 
Hellas. In the most ancient times Hellas was 
a small district of Phthiotis in Thessaly, in 
which was situated a town of the same name. 
As the inhabitants of this district, the Hellenes, 
gradually spread over the surrounding country, 
their name was adopted by other tribes, who 
became assimilated in language, manners, and 
customs to the original Hellenes, till at length 
the whole of the north of Greece, from the Ce- 
faunian and Cambunian Mountains to the Co- 
rinthian isthmus, was designated by the name 
of Hellas.* Peloponnesus was. generally spoken 
of during the flourishing times of Greek inde- 
pendence as distinct from Hellas proper; but 
subsequently Peloponnesus and the Greek isl- 
ands were also included uuder the general name 
of Hellas, in opposition to the land of the bar- 
barians. Still later, even Macedonia, and the 
southern part of Illyria, were sometimes reck- 
oned part of Hellas. The Romans- called the 
land of the Hellenes Gracia, whence we have 
derived the name of Greece. They probably 

* Epirus is, for the sake of convenience, usually in- 
cluded in Hellas by modern geographers, but was ex- 
eluded by the Greeks themselves, as the Epirots-wero not 
regarded as genuine Hellenes. 

334 



gave this name to the country from their first 
becoming acquainted with the tribe of the Grwci, 
who were said to be descended from Graacus, 
a son of Thessalus, and who appear at an early 
period to have dwelt on the western coast of 
Epirus. Hellas or Greece proper, including Pelo- 
ponnesus, lies between the thirty-sixth and forty 
sixth degrees of north latitude, and between 
the twenty-first and twenty-sixth degrees of 
east longitude. It' greatest length from Mount 
Olympus to Cape Taenarus is about two hund 
red and fifty English miles ; its greatest breadth 
from the western coast of Acarnania to Marathon 
in Attica is about one hundred and eighty miles. 
Its area is somewhat less than that of Portugal 
On the north it was separated by the Cambu- 
nian and Ceraunian Mountains from Macedonia 
and Illyria ; and on the other three sides it is 
bounded by the sea, namely, by the Ionian Sea 
on the west, and by the .rEgean on the east and 
south. It is one of the most mountainous coun- 
tries of Europe, and possesses few extensive 
plains and few continuous valleys. The inhab- 
itants were thus separated from one another by 
barriers which it was not easy to surmount, and 
were naturally led to form separate political 
communities. At a later time the north of 
Greece was generally divided into ten districts : 
Epirus, Thessalia, Acarnania, ^Eiolia, Doris, 
Locris, Phocis, Bcjotia, Attica, and Megaris. 
The south of Greece or Peloponnesus was usual- 
ly divided into ten districts likewise : Corinth- 
ia, Sicyonia, Phliasia, Achaia, Elis, Messenia, 
Laconica, Cynuria, Argolis, and Arcadia. An 
account of the geography, early inhabitants, and 
history of each of these districts is given in 
separate articles. It is only necessary to re- 
mark here that, before the Hellenes had spread 
over the country, it was inhabited by various 
tribes, whom the Greeks call by the general 
name of barbarians. Of these the most cele- 
brated were the Pelasgians, who had settled in 
most parts of Greece, and from whom a con- 
siderable part of the Greek population was un- 
doubtedly descended. These Pelasgians were 
a branch of the great Indo-Germauic race, and 
spoke a language akin to that of the Hellenes, 
whence the amalgamation of the two races was 
rendered much easier. Vid. Pelasgi. The 
Hellenes traced then- origin to a mythical an- 
cestor Hellen, from whose sons and grandsons 
they were divided into the four great tribes of 
Dorians, JEolians, Achaeans, and Ionians. Vid. 
Hellen. 

Gracia Magna or G. Major (?) fzeydAri 'EX- 
Xdc), a name given to the districts in the south 
of Italy, inhabited by the Greeks. This name 
was never used simply to indicate the south of 
Italy ; it was always confined to the Greek 
cities and their territories, and did not include 
the surrounding districts, inhabited by the Ital- 
ian tribes. It appears to have been applied 
chiefly to the cities on the Tarentine Gulf, Tar- 
entum, Sybaris, Croton, Caulonia, Siris (Hera- 
clea,) Metapontum, Locri, and Rhegium ; but 
it also included the Greek cities on the western 
coast, such as Cumae and Neapolis. Strabo ex- 
tends the appellation even to the Greek cities 
of Sicily. — The origin of the name is doubtful : 
whether it was given to the Greek cities by the 
Italian tribes from their admiring the magnifi 



GRAMPIUS MOWS. 



GREGORIUS 



cence of these cities, or whether it was assumed 
by the inhabitants themselves out of vanity and 
ostentation, to show their superiority to the 
mother country. 

Grampius Mons (Grampian Hills), a range of 
mountains in Britannia Barbara or Caledonia, 
separating the Highlands and Lowlands of Scot- 
land. Agricola penetrated as far as these moun- 
tains, and defeated Galgacus at their foot. 

Gkanicus (TpdvLKOt; : now Koja-Chai), a river 
of Mysia Minor, rising in Mount Cotylus, the 
northern summit of Ida, flowing northeast 
through the plain of Adrastea, and falling into 
the Propontis (now Sea of Marmara) east of 
Priapus: memorable as the scene of the first 
of the three great victories by which Alexander 
the Great overthrew the Persian empire (B.C. 
334), and, in a less degree, for a victory gained 
upon its banks by Lucullus over Mithradates, 
B.C. 73. 

Gkanis (Tpdvig : now Khisht), a river of Per- 
sis, with a royal palace on its banks. It fell into 
the Persian Gulf near Taoce. 

Granids, Q., a clerk employed by the auction- 
eers at Rome to collect the money at sales, lived 
about B.C. 110. Although his occupation was 
humble, his wit and caustic humor rendered him 
famous among his contemporaries, and have trans- 
mitted his name to posterity. 

Granua (Tpavova : now Graan), a river in the 
land of the Quadi and the southeast of Germany, 
and a tributary of the Danube, on the banks of 
which Mai-cus Aurelius wrote the first book of 
his Meditations. 

Gratis. Vid. Charites. 

Gratianopolis. Vid. Culauo. 

Gratianus. 1. Emperor of the Western Em- 
pire, A.D. 367-383, son of Valentinian L, was 
raised by his father to the rank of Augustus in 
367, when he was only eight years old. On the 
death of Valentinian in 375, Gratian did not suc- 
ceed to the sole sovereignty, as Valentinian II., 
the half-brother of Augustus, was proclaimed 
Augustus by the troops. By the death of his 
uncle, Valens (378), the Eastern empire devolved 
upon him ; but the danger to which the East 
was exposed from the Goths led Gratian to send 
for Theodosius, and appoint him emperor of the 
East (379). Gratian was fond of quiet and re- 
pose, and was greatly under the influence of ec- 
clesiastics, especially of Ambrose of Milan. He 
became unpopular with the army. Maximus 
was declared emperor in Britain, and crossed 
over to Gaul, where he defeated Gratian, who 
was overtaken and slain in his flight after the 
battle. — 2. A usurper, who assumed the purple 
in Britain, and wass murdered by his troops about 
four months after his elevation (407). He was 
succeeded by Constantine. Vid. Constantinos, 
No. 3. 

Gratiarum Coixis (Xapirov ?io(j>oc, Herod., iv., 
175 : now Hills of Tarliounah), a range of wooded 
hills running parallel to the coast of Northern 
Africa, between the Syrtes, and containing the 
source of ihe Cinyps and the other small rivers 
of that coast. 

Gratius Faliscus. Vid. Faliscus. 

Gratus, Valerius, procurator of Judsea from 
A.D. 15 to 27, and the immediate predecessor of 
Pontius Pilate. 

Gravisoe, an ancient city of Etruria, subject 



to Tarquinii, was colonized by the Romans B.C 
183, and received new colonists under Augustus. 
It was situated in the Maremma, and its air was 
unhealthy (intcmpestm Graviscm, Virg., ^En., x., 
184); whence the ancients ridiculously derived 
its name from aer gravis. Its ruins are on the 
right bank of the River Marta, about two miles 
from the sea, where are the remains of a magni- 
ficent arch. 

Gregoras, Nicephorus, one of the most im- 
portant Byzantiue historians, was born about 
A.D. 1295, and died about 1359. His principal 
work is entitled Historia Byzantina. It is in 
thirty-eight books, of which only twenty-four 
have been printed. It begins with the capture 
of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, and 
goes down to 1359 ; the twenty-four printed 
books contain the period from 1204 to 1351. 
Edited by Sehopen, Bonn, 1829. 

Gregorius (Tp-riyopiog). 1. Surnamed Nazi- 
anzenus, and usually called Gregory Nazian- 
zen, was bora in a village near Nazianzus, in 
Cappadocia, about A.D. 329. His father took 
the greatest pains with his education, and he 
afterward prosecuted his studies at Athens, 
where he earned the greatest reputation for his 
knowledge of rhetoric, philosophy, and mathe- 
matics. Among his fellow-students was Julian, 
the future emperor, and Basil, with the latter of 
whom he formed a most intimate friendship. 
Gregory appears to have remained at Athens 
about six years (350-356), and then returned 
home. Having received ordination, he contin- 
ued to reside at Nazianzus, where he discharged 
his duties as a presbyter, and assisted his aged 
father, who was bishop of the town. In 372 he 
was associated with his father in the bishopric ; 
but after the death of the latter in 374, he re- 
fused to continue bishop of Nazianzus, as he 
was averse from public life, and fond of solitary 
meditation. After living some years in retire- 
ment he was summoned to Constantinople in 
379, in order to defend the orthodox faith against 
the Arians and other heretics. In 380 he was 
made bishop of Constantinople by the Emperor 
Theodosius ; but he resigned the office in the 
following year (381), and withdrew altogether 
from public life. He lived in solitude at his 
paternal estate at Nazianzus, and there he died 
in 389 or 390. His extant works are, 1. Ora- 
tions or Sermons ; 2. Letters ; 3. Poems. His 
discourses, though sometimes really eloquent, 
are generally nothing more than favorable spe- 
cimens of the rhetoric of the schools. He is 
more earnest than Chrysostom, but not so orna- 
mental. He is more artificial but also more 
attractive than Basil. Edited by Morell, Paris, 
2 vols, fol., 1609-1611, reprinted 1630. Of the 
Benedictine edition, only the first volume, con- 
taining the discourses, was published, Paris, 
1778. — 2. Nyssenus, bishop of Nyssa in Cappa- 
docia, was the younger brother of Basil, and 
was born at Cassarea, in Cappadocia, about 331. 
He was made bishop of Nyssa about 372, and, 
like his brother Basil and their friend Gregory 
Nazianzen, was one of the pillars of orthodoxy. 
He died soon after 394. Like his brother, lie 
was an eminent rhetorician, but his oratory often 
offends by its extravagance. His works are 
edited by Morell and Gretser, 2 vols, fol., Paris, 
1615-1618. — 3. Surnamed Thaumaturgus, from 
335 



GRUDII 

Ins miracles, was bora at Neocassarea, in Cap- 
padocia, of heathen parents. He was converted 
to Christianity by Origen about 234, and subse- 
quently became the bishop of his native town. 
He died soon after 265. His works are not 
numerous. The best edition is the one pub- 
lished at Paris, 1622. 

Grudii, a people in Gallia Belgica, subject to 
the Nervii, north of the Scheldt. 

Grumentum (Grumentinus : now II Palazzo^) 
a town in the interior of Lucania, on the road 
from Beneventum to Heraclea, frequently men- 
tioned in the second Punic war. 

Gryllus (TpvX?.o(), elder son of Xenophon, 
fell at the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362, after he 
had, according to some accounts, given Epami- 
noudas his mortal wound. 

[Gryneus. 1. A Centaur, who slew Brotcas 
and Oreou, and was himself slain by Exadius at 
the nuptials of Pirithous. — 2. Appellation of 
Apollo. Vid. Grynia.] 

Grynia or -lull (Tpiiveia, Tpvviov), a very an- 
cient fortified city on the coast of the Sinus 
Ehiiticus, in the south of Mysia, between Elasa 
and Myrina, seventy stadia from the former and 
forty from the latter : celebrated for its temple 
and oracle of Apollo, who is hence called Gry- 
uasus Apollo (Virg., jEn., iv., 345). It possess- 
ed also a good harbor. Parmenion, the general 
of Alexander, destroyed the city and sold the 
inhabitants as slaves. It was never again re- 
stored; 

Gryps or Gryphus (Tpvip), a griffin, a fabu- 
lous animal, dwelling in the Rhipaean Mountains, 
between the Hyperboreans and the one-eyed 
Arimaspians, and guarding the gold of the north. 
The Arimaspians mounted on horseback, and 
attempted to steal the gold, and hence arose the 
hostility between the horse and the griffin. 
The body of the griffin was that of a lion, while 
the head and wings were those of an eagle. It 
is probable that the origin of the belief in griffins 
mu4 be looked for in the East, where it seems 
to have been very ancient. They are also men- 
tioned among the fabulous animals which guard- 
ed the gold of India. 

Gugerni or Guberni, a people of Germany, 
probably of the same race as the Sygambri, 
crossed the Rhine, and settled on its left bank, 
between the Ubii and Batavi. 

Gulussa, a Numidian, second son of Masinis- 
sa, and brother to Micipsa and Mastanabal. On 
the death of Masinissa in B.C. 149, he succeed- 
ed, along with his brothers, to the dominions of 
their father. He left a son named Massiva. 

[Guneus (Tovvevc), one of the Greek leaders 
before Troy, who commanded the Perrhaebiaus 
from Thessaly.] 

Gur^us (Tovpaio(, Tap'p'ocac), a river of In- 
dia, flowing through the country of the Guraei 
(in the northwest of the Punjab) into the 
Cophen. 

Guttones. Vid. Gothx 

Gyarus or Gyara (i) Tvapo(, ra Tvapa : Tva- 
oevc : now Chiura or Jura), one of the Cyclades, 
a small island southwest of Andros, poor and 
unproductive, and inhabited only by fishermen. 
Under the Roman emperors it was a place of 
banishment (Aude aliquid brevibus Gyariset car- 
cere dignum, Juv., i., 73). 

[Gyas. 1. A Trojan, companion of iEneas 
336 



GYTHEUM. 

distinguished himself at the funeral games cel- 
ebrated in honor of Auchises. — 2. A Rutulian, 
son of Melampus, slain by ^Eneas in Italy.] 

Gyes or Gyges (Ting, Tvync), son of Uranus 
(Heaven) and Ge (Earth), one of the giants with 
one hundred hands, who made war upon th« 
gods. 

GygjEUs Lacus (?; Tvyatn lifivn : now Lake of 
Marmora), a small lake in Lydia, between the 
rivers Hermus and Hyllus, north of Sardis, the 
necropolis of which city was on its banks. It 
was afterward called Coloe. 

Gyges (Tvyng). 1. The first king of Lydia of 
the dynasty of the Mermnadaa, dethroned Can- 
daules, and succeeded to the kingdom, as re- 
lated under Candaules. He reigned B.C. 116— 
678. He sent magnificent presents to Delphi, 
and carried on various wars with the cities of 
Asia Minor, such as Miletus, Smyrna, Colophon, 
and Magnesia. " The riches of Gyges" became 
a proverb. — [2. A companion of jEneas, slain by 
Turn us in Italy.] 

Gylippus (TvXnnrog), a Spartan, son of Clean- 
dridas, was sent as the Spartan commander to 
Syracuse, to oppose the Athenians, B.C. 414. 
Under his command the Syracusans annihilated 
the great Athenian armament, and took Demos- 
thenes and .Nieias prisoners, 413. In 404 he 
was commissioned by Lysander, after the cap- 
ture of Athens, to carry home the treasure ; but, 
by opening the seams of the sacks underneath, 
he abstracted a considerable portion. The theft 
was discovered, and Gylippus went at once into 
exile. The syllable Tvl- in the name of Gylip- 
pus is probably identical with the Latin G-ilvus. 

GymnesLe. Vid. Baleares. 

Gyn^ecopolis (TvvaiKoTro/iic, or Vvvamuv iro- 
/Uc), a city in the Delta of Egypt, on the western 
bank of the Canopic branch of the Kile, between 
Hermopolis and Momemphis. It was the cap- 
ital of the Nomos Gynaeeopolites. 

Gyndes (Tvvdrjc), a river of Assyria, rising in 
the country of the Matieui (in the mountains of 
Kurdistan), and flowing into the Tigris, cele- 
brated through the story that Cyrus the Great 
drew off its waters by three hundred and sixty 
channels. (Herod., i., 189). It is very difficult 
to identify this river : perhaps it is the same as 
the Delas or Silla (now Diala), which falls into 
the Tigris just above Ctesiphon and Seleucia. 
It is also doubtful whether the Sindes or Taci- 
tus (Ann., xi., 10) is the same river. 

[Gyr.£ (Tvpal TrtTpat), certain rocks in the 
Icarian Sea, or, as others suppose, in the Aige- 
an, mentioned in the Odyssey.] 

Gyrton, Gyrtona (Tvpruv, Vvpruri) : Tvpru- 
vioe: ruins near Tatari), an ancient town in 
Pelasgiotis iu Thessaly, on the Peneus. 

Gytheum, Gyxhidm (~b Tvdeiov, Tv8iov : Tv- 
OeaTTjc : now Palaopolis near Marathonin), an 
ancient towu on the coast of Lacouia, founded 
by the Acbreans, lay near the head of the Lacc- 
nian Bay, southwest of the mouth of the River 
Eurotas. It served as the harbor of Sparta, and 
was important in a military point of view. In 
the Persian war the Lacedaemonian fleet was 
stationed at Gytheum, and here the Athenians 
under Tolmides burned the Lacedaemonian arse- 
nal, B.C. 455. After the battle of Leuctra (370) 
it was taken by Epaminondas. Iu 195 it was 
taken by Plamininus, and made independent of 



GIZ ANTES. 



HADRIAN US. 



Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, whereupon it joined the 
Achaean league. 

Gyzantes (TvfcvTes), a people in the western 
part of Libya (Northern Africa), whose country 
was rich in honey and wax. They seem to have 
dwelt in Byzacium. 

H. 

Hades or Pluto ('AiStis, IIXovtcjv, or poeti- 
cally 'Ai'tfyf, 'A'iiuvevc;, HXovtevc;) the God of the 
Nether World. Plato observes that people 
preferred calling him Pluto (the giver of wealth) 
to pronouucing the dreaded name of Hades or 
Aides. Hence we find that in ordinary life 
and in the mysteries the name Pluto became 
generally established, while the poets preferred 
the ancient name Aides or the form Pluteus. 
The Roman poets use the names Dis, Orcus, 
and Tartarus, as synonymous with Pluto, for 
the god of the Nether World. Hades was son 
of Saturn (Cronus) and Rhea, and brother of Ju- 
piter (Zeus) and Neptune (Poseidon). His wife 
was Persephone or Proserpina, the daughter of 
Ceres (Demeter), whom he carried off from the 
upper world, as is related elsewhere. Vid. p. 
248, a. In the division of the world among 
the three brothers, Hades (Pluto) obtained the 
Nether World, the abode of the shades, over 
which he ruled. Hence he is called the infer- 
nal Jupiter (Zeus) (Zsj)f KaraxOovioc), or the 
king of the shades (aval; evepuv). He possessed 
a helmet which rendered the wearer invisible, 
and later traditions stated that this helmet was 
given him as a present by the Cyclopes after 
their delivery from Tartarus. Ancient story 
mentions both gods and men who were hon- 
ored by Hades (Pluto) with the temporary use 
of this helmet. His character is described as 
fierce and inexorable, whence of all the gods 
he was most hated by mortals. He kept the 
gates of the lower world closed (and is there- 
fore called YlvXdpTrjc), that no shades might be 
able to escape or return to the region of light. 
When mortals invoked him, they struck the 
earth with their hands ; the sacrifices which 
were offered to him and Persephone (Proser- 
pina) consisted of black sheep ; and the person 
who offered the sacrifice had to turn away his 
face. The ensign of his power was a staff, with 
which, like Hermes (Mercury), he drove the 
shades into the lower world. There he sat 
upon a throne with his consort Persephone (Pro- 
serpina). Like the other gods, he was not a 
faithful husband; the Furies are called his 
daughters ; the nymph Mintho, whom he loved, 
was metamorphosed by Persephone (Proser- 
pina) into a plant called mint ; and the nymph 
Leuce, with whom he was likewise in love, was 
changed by him after her death into a white 
poplar, and transferred to Elysium. Being the 
king of the lower world, Pluto is the giver of 
all the blessings that come from the earth : he 
is the possessor and giver of all the metals con- 
tained in the earth, and hence his name Pluto. 
He bears several surnames referring to his ul- 
timately assembling all mortals in his kingdom, 
and bringing them to rest and peace ; such as 
Polydegmon, Polydcctes, Glymemis, &c. He was 
worshipped throughout Greece und Italy. We 
possess few representations of this divinity, but 
22 



in those which still exist, he resembles his brother 
Jupiter (Zeus) and Neptune (Poseidon), except 
that his hair falls down his forehead, and thathia 
appearance is dark and gloomy. His ordinary 
attributes are the key of Hades and Cerberus. 
In Homer Aides is invariably the name of the 
god ; but in later times it was transferred to his 
house, his abode or kingdom, so that it became a 
name for the nether world. 

Hadranum. Vid. Adranum. 

Hadria. Vid. Adria. 

Hadrianopolis ( kdpLavoiroTiig : 'AdpLavoirolt- 
tti<; : now Adrianople), a town in Thrace, on the 
right bank of the Hebrus, in an extensive plain, 
founded by the Emperor Hadrian. It was strong- 
ly fortified ; possessed an extenpive commerce ; 
and in the Middle Ages was the most important 
town in the country after Constantinople. 

Hadrianothera or -x ('Adpiavovdr/pa), a city 
in Mysia, between Pergamus and Miletopolis, 
founded by the Emperor Hadrian. 

Hadrianus, P. ^Elius, usually called Hadri- 
an, Roman emperor A.D. 117-138, was born at 
Rome, A.D. 76. He lost his father at the age 
of ten, and was brought up by his kinsman Ulpi- 
us Trajanus (afterward emperor) and by Cselius 
Attianus. Prom an early age he studied with 
zeal the Greek language and literature. At 
the age of fifteen he went to Spain, where he 
entered upon his military career; and he sub- 
sequently served as military tribune in Lower 
Moesia. After the elevation of Trajan to the 
throne (98), he married Julia Sabina, a grand- 
daughter of Trajan's sister Marciana. This 
marriage was brought about through the influ- 
ence of Plotina, the wife of Trajan ; and from 
this time Hadrian rose rapidly in the emper- 
or's favor. He was raised successively to the 
quasstorship (101), praHorsbip (107), and consul- 
ship (109). He accompanied Trajan in most 
of his expeditions, and distinguished himself 
in the second war against the Dacians, 104- 
106 ; was made governor of Pannonia in 108 ; 
and subsequently fought under Trajan against 
the Parthians. When Trajan's serious illness 
obliged him to leave the East, he placed Ha- 
drian at the head of the army. Trajan died at 
Cilicia on his journey to Rome (117). Hadrian, 
who pretended that he had been adopted by 
Trajan, was proclaimed emperor by the legions 
in Syria, and the senate ratified the election. 
Hadrian's first care was to makepeace with the 
Parthians, which he obtained by relinquishing 
the conquests of Trajan east of the Euphrates. 
He returned to Rome in 118; but almost im- 
mediately afterward set out for Mcesia, in con- 
sequence of the invasion of this province by the 
Sarmatians. After making peace with the Sar- 
matians, and suppressing a formidable conspir- 
acy which had been formed against his life by 
some of the most distinguished Roman nobles, 
all of whom he put to death, he returned to 
Rome in the course of the same year. He 
sought to gain the good will of the senate by 
gladiatorial exhibitions and liberal largesses, 
and he also cancelled all arrears of taxes due 
to the state for the last fifteen years. The re- 
mainder of Hadrian's reign was disturbed by 
few wars. He spent the greater part of his 
reign in travelling through the various provin«es 
of the empire, in order that he might inspect 
337 



HADRIANUS. 

personally the state of affairs in the provinces, 
and apply the necessary remedies wherever 
mismanagement was discovered. He com- 
menced these travels in 119, visiting first Gaul, 
Germany, and Britain, in the latter of which 
countries he caused a wall to be built from the 
Solway to the mouth of the River Tyne. He 
afterward visited Spain, Africa, and the East, 
and took up his residence at Athens for three 
years (123-126). Athens was his favorite city, 
and he conferred upon its inhabitants many 
privileges. The most important war during his 
reign was that against the Jews, which broke 
out in 131. The Jews had revolted in conse- 
quence of the establishment of a colony, under 
the name of ^Blia Capitolina, on the site of Je- 
rusalem, and of their having been forbidden to 
practice the rite of circumcision. The war was 
carried on by the Jews as a national struggle 
with the most desperate fury, and was not 
brought to an end till 136, after the country had 
been nearly reduced to a wilderness. During 
the last few years of Hadrian's life, his health 
failed. He became suspicious and cruel, and 
put to death several persons of distinction. As 
he had no children, he adopted L. iElius Verus, 
and gave him the title of Cassar in 136. Verus 
died ou the first of January, 138, whereupon 
Hadrian adopted Antoninus, afterward sur- 
uamed Pius, and conferred upon him likewise 
the title of Caesar. In July in the same year, 
Hadrian himself died, in his sixty-second year, 
and was succeeded by Antoninus. The reign 
of Hadrian may be regarded as one of the hap- 
piest periods in Roman history. His policy was 
to preserve peace with foreign nations, and not 
to extend the boundaries of the empire, but to 
secure the old provinces, and promote their wel- 
fare. He paid particular attention to the ad- 
ministration of justice in the provinces as well 
as in Italy. His reign forms an epoch in the 
history of Roman jurisprudence. It was at 
Hadrian's command that the jurist Silvius Ju- 
lianus drew up the ediclum perpetuum, which 
formed a fixed code of laws. Some of the laws 
promulgated by Hadrian are of a truly humane 
character, and aimed at improving the public 
morality of the time. The various cities which 
he visited received marks of his favor or liber- 
ality; in many places he built aqueducts, and 
iu others harbors or other public buildings, 
either for use or ornament. But what has ren- 
dered his name more illustrious than any thing 
else are the numerous and magnificent architect- 
ural works which he planned and commenced 
during his travels, especially at Athens, in the 
southwestern part of which he built an entirely 
new city, Adrianopolis. We can not here enter 
into an account of the numerous buildings he 
erected ; it is sufficient to direct attention to his 
villa at Tibur, which has been a real mine of 
treasures of art, and his mausoleum at Rome, 
which forms the groundwork of the present 
Castle of St. Angelo. Hadrian was a patron of 
learning and literature as well as of the arts, 
and he cultivated the society of poets, scholars, 
rhetoricians, and philosophers. He founded at 
Rome a scientific institution under the name of 
Athenaeum, which continued to flourish for a 
long time after him. He was himself an author, 
and wrote numerous works, both in prose and 
338 



HALES. 

in verse, all of which are lost, with the exception 
of a few epigrams in the Greek and Latin An- 
thologies. 

Hadeianus, the rhetorician. Vid. Adriantjs. 

Hadrumetum or Adrumetum ('AdpvfiT) : now 
Hammeim), a flourishing city founded by the 
Phoenicians in northern Africa, on the eastern 
coast of Byzacena, of which district it was the 
capital under the Romans. Trajan made it a 
colony; and it was afterward called Justinian- 
opolis. 

[HjEdilia (Mons), a mountain of Italy, near 
Horace's Sabine farm, infested by wolves, (Ha- 
dilia lupos, Hor., Carm., i., 17, 9.)] 

Hemon (Alfiuv). 1. Son of Pelasgus and 
father of Thessalus, from whom the ancient 
name of Thessaly, H^emonia or ./Emonja, waa 
believed to be derived. The Roman poets fre- 
quently use the adjective Hamonius as equiva- 
lent to Thessalian. — 2. Son of Lycaon, and the 
reputed founder of Haemonia in Arcadia. — 3. 
Son of Creon of Thebes, was destroyed, accord- 
ing to some accounts, by the sphinx ; but, accord- 
ing to other traditions, he was in love with 
Antigone, and killed himself on hearing that she 
was condemned by his father to be entombed 
alive. 

HvEmonia (Aifiovia). Vid. H^emon, No. 1. 

HjEmus (AZjUOf), son of Boreas and Orithyia, 
husband of Rhodope, and father of Hebrus. As 
he and his wife presumed to assume the names 
of Jupiter (Zeus) and Juno (Hera), both were 
metamorphosed into mountains. 

Hehus (6 Alfioc, to Alfiuv : now Balkan), a 
lofty range of mountains, separating Thrace and 
Mcesia, extended from Mount Scomius, or, accord- 
ing to Herodotus, from Mount Rhodope on the 
west to the Black Sea on the east. The name is 
probably connected with the Sanscrit hima 
(whence comes the word Himalaya), the Greek 
XELjiuv, and the Latin hiems ; and the mountains 
were so called on account of their cold and snowy 
climate. The height of these mountains was 
greatly exaggerated by the ancients: the mean 
height does not exceed three thousand or four 
thousand feet above the sea. There are several 
passes over them ; but the one most used in an- 
tiquity was iu the western part of the range, 
called " Succi " or " Succorum angustise," also 
" Porta Trajani " (now Ssulu Derbend), between 
Philippopolis and Serdica. The later province 
of " Haemimontus " in Thrace derived its name 
from this mountain. 

Hagnus ('Ayvovc, -ovvroc: 'Ayvovaioc : near 
Markopulo), a demus in Attica, west of Pseania, 
belonging to the tribe Acamantis. 

HaljE (JAXai, °A?mi, 'Alai : 'AXaieve). 1. H. 
Araphenides ('Apa<j>rjvidc(), a demus in Attica, 
belonging to the tribe iEgeis, was situated on the 
eastern coast of Attica, and served as the harbor 
of Brauron : it possessed a temple of Diana (Arte- 
mis). — 2. H. ^Exonides (Alfav'tdec), a demus in 
Attica, belonging to the tribe Cecropis, situated 
on the western coast — 3. A town, formerly of 
the Opuntii Locri, afterward of Bceotia, situated 
on the Opuntian Gulf. 

[Halcyone. Vid. Alcyone.] 

Hales ("AX^c). 1. A river of Ionia in Asia 
Minor, near Colophon, celebrated for the cold- 
ness of its water. — 2. A river in the island of 
Cos. 



HALES A. 



HALONESUS. 



Halesa ("Ahaioa : Haleslnus : now Torre di 
Pittineo), a town on the northern coast of Sicily, 
on the River Halesus (now Pittineo), was founded 
by the Greek mercenaries of Archonides, a chief 
of the Siculi, and was originally called Archoni- 
dion. It became a place of considerable import- 
ance, and was in later times a municipium, ex- 
empt from taxes. 

Halesus, a chief of the Auruncans and Oscans, 
the son of a soothsayer, and aa ally of Turnus, 
was slain by Pallas. He came to Italy from Ar- 
gos in Greece, whence he is called Agamemnonius, 
Atrides, or Argolicus. He is said to have founded 
the town of Falerii. 

Halex. Vid. Alex. 

Haltacmon ('ATiLuK/xuv : now Vistriza Indje- 
kara), an important river in Macedonia, rises in 
the Tymphaean Mountains, flows first southeast 
through Elimaaa, then northeast, forming the 
boundary between Eordsea and Pieria, and falls 
into the Thermaic Gulf in Bottiasis. Caesar (JB. 
C. iii., 36) incorrectly makes it the boundary be- 
tween Macedonia and Thessaly. 

Haliartus ('AMap~o<; : 'AAidprtoc : now Mazi), 
au ancient town in Bceotia, on the south of the 
Lake Copais. It was destroyed by Xerxes in 
his invasion of Greece (B.C. 480), but was rebuilt, 
and appeal's as an important place in the Pelo- 
pounesian wari Under its walls Lysander lost 
his life (395). It was destroyed by the Romans 
(171), because it supported Perseus, king of 
Macedonia, and its territory was given to the 
Athenians. 

Halias ('A/Uaf : 'AXievc : now Haliza), a dis- 
trict on the coast of Argolis, between Asioe and 
Hermione, so called because fishing was the chief 
occupation of its inhabitants. Their town was 
called HalLe ('A?uai) or Halies ('AKieic). 

Halicarnassus ('Aliicapvatjaos, Ion. 'AXatap- 
vrjoabc : ' AXinapvaaGsvg, Halicarnassensis, Hali- 
carnassius : ruins at Budrum), a celebrated city 
of Asia Minor, stood in the southwestern part of 
Caria, on the northern coast of the Sinus Cer- 
amicus, opposite to the island of Cos. It was 
said to have been founded by Dorians from 
Trcezene, and was at first called Zephyra. It 
was one of the six cities that originally formed 
the Dorian Hexapolis, but it was early excluded 
from the confederacy, as a punishment for the 
violation, by one of its citizens, of a law con- 
nected with the common worship of the Tri- 
opian Apollo. (Herod., i., 144.) With the rest 
of the coast of Asia Minor, it fell under the do- 
minion of the Persians, at an early period of 
whose rule Lygdamis made himself tyrant of 
the city, and founded a dynasty which lasted 
for some generations. His daughter Artemi- 
sia assisted Xerxes iu his expedition against 
Greece. Vid. Artemisia, No. h Her grandson, 
Lygdamis, was overthrown by a revolution, in 
which Herodotus is said to have takeu part. 
Vid. Herodotus. Iu the Peloponnesian war, we 
find Halicarnassus, with the other Dorian cities 
of Caria, on the side of the Athenians ; but we 
do not know what was its form of government, 
until the re-establishment, by Hecatomnus, of a 
dynasty ruling over all Caria, with its capital 
first at Mylasa, and afterward at Halicarnassus, 
and virtually independent of Persia; before 
B.C. 380. It seems not unlikely that both this 
and the older dynasty of tyrants of Halicarnas- 



sus were a race of native Carian princes, whos& 
ascendency at Halicarnassus may be accounted 
for by the prevalence of the Carian element in 
its population at an early period. Hecatomnus 
left three sons and two daughters, who all suc- 
ceeded to his throne in the following order : Mau- 
solus, Artemisia, Idrieus, Ada, Pixodarus, and 
Ada again. In B.C. 334, Alexander took the city, 
after an obstinate defence by the Persian general 
Memnon, and destroyed it. From this blow n 
never recovered, although it continued to be cel- 
ebrated for the Mausoleum, a magnificent edifice 
which Artemisia II. built as a tomb for Mauso- 
lus, and which was adorned with the works of 
the most eminent Greek sculptors of the age. 
Fragments of these sculptures, which were dis- 
covered built into the walls of the citadel of 
Budrum, are now in the British Museum. Witl 
the rest of Caria, Halicarnassus was assigned by 
the Romans, after their victory over Antiochus 
the Great, to the government of Rhodes, and was 
afterward united to the province of Asia, The 
city was very strongly fortified, and had a fine 
harbor, which was protected by the island of Ar- 
connesus: its citadel was called Salmacis (2a/l 
fiaKic), from the name of a spring which rose from 
the hill on which it stood. Halicarnassus was 
the birth-place of the historians Herodotus and 
Diontsius. 

HalicYjE ('AKacvai : Halicyensis : now Sal- 
emi ?), a town in the northwest of Sicily, between 
Eutella and Lilyboeurn, was long in the possession 
of the Carthaginians, and in Cicero's time was a 
municipium, exempt from taxes. 

Halimus (^AXifiovc, -ovvtoc : 'A"kifjLOvawg) a de- 
mus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Leontis, on 
the western coast, a little south of Athens. 

Halipkdon ('AXlttsSov), a plain near the Pi- 
raeus, probably between the Piraeus and the 
Academy. 

Halirrhothius ('Alip'p'odioc), son of Neptune 
(Poseidon) and Euryte, attempted to violate 
Alcippe, daughter of Mars (Ares) and Agraulos, 
but was slain by Mars (Ares). Mars (Ares) 
was brought to trial by Neptune (Poseidon) for 
this murder, on the hill at Athens, which was 
hence called Areopagus, or the Hill of Are? 
(Mars.) 

[Halitherses ('AXiBepaiig). 1. A son of Mas- 
tor of Ithaca, celebrated as a hero and diviner. — 
2. A son of Ancffius and Samia, the daughter of 
the River Masander.] 

[Halius ("A/Uoc), second son of Alcinous, dis- 
tinguished himself in dancing, as described in the 
eighth book of the Odyssey.] 

HaliCsa ('AXiovaa ? now Karavi), an island in 
the Argolic Gulf. 

Halizones ('AM&vec and -ot), a people of 
Bithynia, with a capital city Alybe i^AXv6ij), 
mentioned by Homer as allies of the Trojans. 

Halmydessus. Vid. Salmydessus. 

Halmyris ('AXfivpig, sc. Vifivri), a bay of the 
sea in Mcesia, formed by the southern mouth of 
the Danube, with a town of the same name upon 
it. 

Halonesus (A/lw7?(TOf, 'AXovvriaog : 'AXovrj- 
aioc, ' AXovrjahrjc : now Khiliodromia), an island 
of the JSgean Sea, off the coast of Thessaly, and 
east of Sciathos and Peparethos, with a town of 
the same name upon it The possession of this 
island occasioned grea disputes between Philip 
339 



HALOSYDNE. 



HAMILCAR. 



and the Athenians : there is a speech on this 1 
subject among the extant orations of Demos- \ 
thenes, but it was probably written by Hege- j 
sippus. 

Halostdne (' AXocvdvTj), " the Sea-born," a sur- 
name of Amphitrite and Thetis . 
Haluntium. Vid. Aluntium. 
Halcs. Vid. Alus. . 

Halycus ("AXvkoc : now Platani), a river in 
the south of Sicily, which flows into the sea near 
Heraclea Minoa. 

Halts ("Alvg : now Kizil-Irmak, i. e., the Red 
River), the greatest river of Asia Minor, rises in 
that part of the Anti-Taurus range called Parya- 
dres, on the borders of Armenia Minor and Pon- 
tus, and, after flowing west by south through 
Cappadocia, turns to the north and flows through 
Galatia to the borders of Paphlagonia, where it 
takes a northeastern direction, dividing Paphla- 
gonia from Pontus, and at last falls into the 
Euxine (now Black Sea) between Sinope and 
Amisus. In early times it was a most important 
boundary, ethnographical as well as political. 
It divided the Indo-European races which peo- 
pled the western part of Asia Minor from the 
Semitic (Syro- Arabian) races of the rest of south- 
western Asia, and it separated the Lydian empire 
from the Medo-Persian, until, by marching over 
it to meet Cyrus, Croesus began the contest which 
at onee ended in the overthrow of the former 
and the extension of the latter to the iEgean 
Sea. 

Hamadkyades. Vid. Ntmpele. 

Hamaxitus (A/ia^iroc), a small town on the 
coast of the Troad, near the Promontory Lec- 
tum ; said to have been the first settlement of 
the Teuerian immigrants from Crete. The sur- 
rounding district was called A/ia§trla. Lysi- 
machus removed the inhabitants to Alexandrea 
Troas. 

HamaxobIi (A/j.a^66wi), a people in European 
Sarmatia, in the neighborhood of the Palus Mjeo- 
tis, were a nomad race, as their name signifies. 

Hamilcab ('A/aA/cac). The two last syllables 
of this name are the same as Melcarth, the tu- 
telary deity of the Tyrians, called by the Greeks 
Hercules, and the name probably signifies " the 
gift of Melcarth." 1. Son of Hauno, or Mago, ' 
commander of the great Carthaginian expedi- 
tion to Sicily, B.C. 480, which was defeated 
and almost destroyed by Gelon at Himera. Vid. 
Gelon. Hamilcar fell in the battle. — 2. Sur- 
named Rhodauus, was sent by the Carthagini- 
ans to Alexander after the fall of Tyre, B.C. 
332. On his return home he was put to death 
by the Carthaginians for having betrayed their 
interests. — 3. Carthaginian governor in Sicily at 
the time that Agathocles was rising into power. 
At first he supported the party at Syracuse, 
which had driven Agathocles into exile, but he 
afterward espoused the cause of Agathocles, 
who was thus enabled to make himself master 
of Syracuse, 317. — 4. Son of Gisco, succeeded 
the preceding as Carthaginian commander in 
Sicily, 311. He carried on war against Agath- 
ocles, whom he defeated with great slaughter, 
and then obtained possession of the greater 

Eart of JSicily ; but he was taken prisoner while 
esieging Syracuse, and was put to death by 
Agathocles. — 6. A Carthaginian general in the 
first Punic war, must be carefully distinguished 
340 



1 from the great Hamilcar Barca [No. 6.] In 
the third year of the war (262) he succeeded 
| Hanno in the command in Sicily, and carried 
on the operations by land with success. He 
made himself master of Enna and Camarina, 
and fortified Drepauum. In 257 he commanded 
the Carthaginian fleet on the northern coast of 
Sicily, and fought a naval action with the Ro- 
man consul C. Atilius Regulus. In the follow- 
ing year (256), he and Hanno commanded the 
great Carthaginian fleet, which was defeated 
by the two consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. 
Manlius Vulso, off Ecnomus, on the southern 
coast of Sicily. He was afterward one of the 
commanders of the land forces in Africa op- 
posed to Regulus. — 6. Surnamed Barca, an 
epithet supposed to be related to the Hebrew 
Barak, and to signify " lightning." It was 
merely a personal appellation, and is not to be 
regarded as a family name, though, from the 
great distinction that he obtained, we often find 
the name of Barcine applied either to his family 
or his party in the state. He was appointed to 
the command of the Carthaginian forces in Sic- 
ily in the eighteenth year of the first Punic 
war, 247. At this time the Romans were 
masters of the whole of Sicily, with the excep- 
tion of Drepauum and Lilybseum, both of which 
were blockaded by them on the land side 
Hamilcar established himself, with his whole 
army, on a mountain named Hercte (now Monte 
Pellegrino), in the midst of the enemy's country, 
and in the immediate neighborhood of Pauor- 
mus, one of their most important cities. Here 
he succeeded in maintaining his ground, to the 
astonishment alike of friends and foes, for 
nearly three years. In 244 he abruptly quitted 
Hercte, and took up a still stronger position on 
Mount Eryx, after seizing the town of that 
name. Here he also maintained himself, in 
spite of all the efforts of the Romans to dislodge 
him. After the great naval defeat of the Car- 
thaginians by Lutatius Catulus (241), Hamilcar, 
who was still at Eryx, was intrusted by the 
Carthaginian government with the conclusion 
of the peace with the Romans. On his return 
home, he had to carry on war in Africa with 
the Carthaginian mercenaries, whom he suc- 
ceeded in subduing after an arduous struggle 
of three years (240-23S). Hamilcar now form- 
ed the project of establishing in Spain a new 
empire, which should not only be a source of 
strength and wealth to Carthage, but should be 
the point from whence he might at a subse- 
quent period renew hostilities against Rome. 
He crossed over into Spain soon after the term- 
ination of the war with the mercenaries ; but 
we know nothing of his operations in the coun- 
try, save that he obtained possession of a con- 
siderable portion of Spain, partly by force of 
arms, and partly by negotiation. After remain- 
ing in Spain nearly nine years, he fell in battle 
(229) against the Vettones. He was succeeded 
in the command by his son-in-law Hasdrubal 
He left three sons, the celebrated Hannibal, 
Hasdrubal, and Mago. — 7. Son of Gisco, Car- 
thaginian governor of Melite (now MaUa\ 
which surrendered to the Romans, 218. — 8. 
Son of Bomilear, one of the generals in Spain, 
215, with Hasdrubal and Mago, the two sons 
of Barca. The three generals were defeated 



HANNIB4 L. 

by the two Scipios while besieging Illiturgi.— 9. 
A Carthaginian, who excited a general revolt of 
the Gauls in Upper Italy about 200, and took 
the Roman colony of Placentia. On the defeat 
of the Gauls by the consul Cethegus in 197, he 
was taken prisoner. 

Hannibal ('Aw/6ac). The name signifies 
" the grace or favor of Baal ;" the final syllable 
baL, of such common occurrence in Punic names, 
always having reference to this tutelary deity 
of the Phoenicians. 1. Son of Gisco, and grand- 
son of Hamilcar [No. 1]. In 409 he was sent 
to Sicily, at the head of a Carthaginian army, 
to assist the Segestans against the Selinuntines. 
He took Selinus, and subsequently Himera also. 
In 406 he again commanded a Carthaginian 
army in Sicily along with Himilco, but died of a 
pestilence while besieging Agrigentum. — 2. Son 
of Gisco, was the Carthaginian commander at 
Agrigentum when it was besieged by the 
Romans, 262. After standing a siege of seven 
mouths, he broke through the enemy's lines, 
leaving the town to its fate. After this he car- 
ried on the contest by sea, and for the next year 
or two ravaged the coast of Italy ; but in 260 
he was defeated by the consul Duilius. In 259 
he was sent to the defence of Sardinia. Here 
he was again unfortunate, and was seized by his 
own mutinous troops and put to death. — 3. Son 
of Hamilcar (perhaps Hamiloae, No. 5), suc- 
ceeded in carrying succors of men and provi- 
sions to Lilybajum when it was besieged by the 
Romans, 250. — 4. A general in the war of the 
Carthaginians against the mercenaries (240-238), 
was taken prisoner by the insurgents, and cruci- 
fied. — 5. Son of Hamilcar Barca, and one of the 
most illustrious generals of antiquity, was born 
B.C. 247. He was only nine years old when his 
father took him with him into Spain, and it was 
on this occasion that Hamilcar made him swear 
upon the altar eternal hostility to Rome. Child 
as he then was, Hannibal never forgot his vow, 
and his whole life was one continual struggle 
against the power and domination of Rome. 
He was early trained in arms under the eye 
of his father, and was present with him in 
the battle in which Hamilcar perished (229). 
Though only eighteen years old at this time, 
he had already displayed so much courage and 
capacity for war, that he was intrusted by 
Hasdrubal (the son-in-law and successor of Ham- 
ilcar) with the chief command of most of the 
military enterprises planned by that general. 
He secured to himself the devoted attachment 
of the army under his command ; and, accord- 
ingly, on the assassination of Hasdrubal (221), 
the soldiers unanimously proclaimed their youth- 
ful leader commander-in-chief, which the gov- 
ernment at Carthage forthwith ratified. Han- 
nibal was at this time in the twenty-sixth 
year of his age. There can be no doubt that 
he already looked forward to the invasion and 
conquest of Italy as the goal of his ambition ; 
but it was necessary for him first to complete 
the work which had been so ably begun by his 
two predecessors, and to establish the Cartha- 
ginian power as firmly as possible in Spain. 
In two campaigns he subdued all the country 
south of the Iberus, with the exception of the 
wealthy town of Saguntum. In the spring of 
219 he proceeded to lay siege to Saguntum, 



HANNIBAL. 

which he took after a desperate resistance 
which lasted nearly eight months. Saguutum 
lay south of the Iberus, and was therefore not 
included under the protection of the treaty 
which had been made between Hasdrubal and 
the Romans ; but as it had concluded an alii 
ance with the Romans, the latter regarded its 
attack as a violation of the treaty between the 
two nations. On the fall of Saguntum, the Ro- 
mans demanded the surrender of Hannibal ; 
and when this demand was refused, war was 
declared, and thus began the long and arduous 
struggle called the second Punic war. In the 
spring of 218 Hannibal quitted his winter-quar- 
ters at New Carthage and commenced his march 
for Italy. He crossed the Pyrenees, and march- 
ed along the southern coast of Gaul. The Ro- 
mans sent the consul P. Scipio to oppose him in 
Gaul ; but when Scipio arrived in Gaul, he found 
that Hannibal had already reached the Rhone, 
and that it was impossible to overtake him. 
After Hannibal had crossed the Rhone, he con- 
tinued his march up the left bank of the river as 
far as its confluence with the Isere. Here he 
struck away to the right, and commenced his 
passage across the Alps. He probably crossed 
the Alps by the pass of the Little St. Bernard, 
called in antiquity the Graian Alps. His army 
suffered much from the attacks of the Gaulish 
mountaineers, and from the natural difficulties 
of the road, which were enhanced by the late- 
ness of the season (the beginning of October, at 
which time the snows have already commenced 
in the high Alps). So heavy were his losses, 
that when he at length emerged from the valley 
of Aosta into the plains of the Po, he had with 
him no more than twenty thousand foot and six 
thousand horse. During Hannibal's march over 
the Alps, P. Scipio had sent on his own army 
into Spain, under the command of his brother 
Cneius, and had himself returned to Italy. He 
forthwith hastened into Cisalpine Gaul, took the 
command of the prsetor's army, which he found 
there, and led it against Hannibal. In the first 
action, which took place near the Ticinus, the 
cavalry and light-armed troops of the two armies 
were alone engaged ; the Romans were com- 
pletely routed, and Scipio himself severely 
wounded. Scipio then crossed the Po and 
withdrew to the hills on the left bank of the 
Trebia, where he was soon after joined by the 
other consul, Ti. Sempronius Longus. Here a 
second and more decisive battle was fought. 
The Romans were completely defeated, with 
heavy loss, and the remains of their army took 
refuge within the walls of Placentia. This battle 
was fought toward the end of 218. Hannibal 
was now joined by all the Gaulish tribes, and he 
was able to take up his winter-quarters in se- 
curity. Early in 217 he descended by the val 
ley of the Macra into the marshes on the banks 
of the Arno. In struggling through these marshes 
great numbers of his horses and beasts of bur- 
den perished, and he himself lost the sight of 
one eye by a violent attack of ophthalmia. The 
consul Flaminius hastened to meet him, and a 
battle was fought on the Lake Trasimenus, in 
which the Roman army was destroyed ;• thou- 
sands fell by the sword, among whom was the 
cousul himself; thousands more perished in the 
lake, aud no less than fifteen thousand prisoners 
341 



HANNIBAL. 



HANNIBAL. 



| 



fell into the bands of Hannibal. Hannibal now 
marched through the Apennines into Picenum, 
and thence into Apulia, where he spent a great 
part of the summer. The Romans had col- 
lected a fresh army, and placed it under the 
command of the dictator Fabius Maximus, who 
had prudently avoided a general action, and only 
attempted to harass and annoy the Carthaginian 
army. Meanwhile the Komans had made great 
preparations for the campaign of the following 
year (216). The two new consuls, L. .[Emilius 
Paulus and C. Terentius Varro, marched into 
Apulia at the head of an army of little less than 
ninety thousand men. To this mighty host Han- 
nibal gave battle in the plains on the right bank 
of the Aufidus, just below the town of Cannee. 
The Roman army was again annihilated: be- 
• tween forty and fifty thousand men are said to 
have fallen in the field, among whom was the 
consul JSmilius Paulus, both the consuls of the 
preceding year, above eighty senators, and a 
multitude of the wealthy knights who composed 
the Roman cavalry. The other consul, Varro, 
escaped with a few horsemen to Venusia, and a 
small band of resolute men forced their way 
from the Roman camp to Canusium ; all the 
rest were killed, dispersed, or taken prisoners. 
This victory was followed by the revolt from 
Rome of most of the nations in the south of 
Italy. Hannibal established his army in winter- 
quarters in Capua, which had espoused his 
side. Capua was celebrated for its wealth and 
luxury, and the enervating effect which these 
produced upon the army of Hannibal became a 
favorite theme of rhetorical exaggeration in 
later ages. The' futility of such declamations 
is sufficiently shown by the simple fact that the 
superiority of that army in the field remained 
as decided as ever. Still it may be truly said 
that the winter spent at Capua, 216-215, was in 
great measure the turning point of Hannibal's 
fortune, and from this time the war assumed 
an altered character. The experiment of what 
he could effect with his single army had now 
been fully tried, and, notwithstanding all his 
victories, it had decidedly failed ; for Rome was 
still unsubdued, and still provided with the 
means of maintaining a protracted contest. 
From this time the Romans in great measure 
changed their plan of operations, and, instead 
of opposing to Hannibal one great army in the 
field, they hemmed in his movements on all 
sides, and kept up an army in every province 
of Italy, to thwart the operations of his lieuten- 
ants, and check the rising disposition to revolt. 
It is impossible here to follow the complicated 
movements of the subsequent campaign, dur- 
ing which Hannibal himself frequently traversed 
Italy in all directions. In 215 Hannibal entered 
into negotiations with Philip, king of Macedo- 
nia, and Hieronymus of Syracuse, and thus 
sowed the seeds of two fresh wars. From 214 
to 212 the Romans were busily engaged with 
the siege of Syracuse, which was at length 
taken by Marcellus in the latter of these years. 
In 212 Hannibal obtained possession of Taren- 
tuni ; but in the following year he lost the 
important city of Capua, which was recovered 
by the Romans after a long siege. In 209 the 
Romans also recovered Tarentum. Hannibal's 
forces gradually became more and more weak- 
342 



ened ; and his only object now was (o maintain 
his ground in the south until his brother Has- , 
drubal should appear in the north of Italy, an f 
event to which he had long looked forward with 
anxious expectation. In 207 Hasdrubal at length !; 
crossed the Alps, and descended into Italy ; 
but he was defeated and slain on the Metaurus. j' 
Vid. Hasdrubal, No. 3. The defeat and. death 
of Hasdrubal was decisive of the fate of the 
war in Italy. From this time Hannibal aban- [ 
doned all thoughts of offensive operations, and 
collected together his forces within the penin- 
sula of Bruttium. In the fastnesses of that j 
wild and mountainous region he maintained his 
ground good for nearly four years (207-203). 
He crossed over to Africa toward the end of 
203 in order to oppose P. Scipio. In the follow- 
ing year (202) the decisive battle was fought 
near Zama. Hannibal was completely defeated 
with great loss. All hopes of resistance were i 
now at an end, and he was one of the first to 
urge the necessity of an immediate peace. The | 
treaty between Rome and Carthage was not , 
finally concluded until the next year (201). By 1 
this treaty Hannibal saw the object of his whole 
life frustrated, and Carthage effectually humbled I 
before her imperious rival. But his enmity to 
Rome was unabated ; and, though now more 
than forty-five years old, he set himself to 
work to prepare the means for renewing the 
contest at no distant period. He introduced 
the most beneficial reforms into the state, and j 
restored the ruined finances ; but, having pro- 
voked the enmity of a powerful party at Car- 
thage, they denounced him to the Romans as 
urging on Antiochus III., king of Syria, to take 
up arms against Rome. Hannibal was obliged 
to flee from Carthage, and took refuge at the 
court of Antiochus, who was at this time (193) J 
on the eve of a war with Rome. Hannibal in 
vain urged the necessity of carrying the war at i 
once into Italy, instead of awaiting the Romans 
in Greece. On the defeat of Antiochus (190), 
the surrender of Hannibal was one of the condi- 
tions of the peace granted to the king. Han- 
nibal, however, foresaw his danger, and took 
refuge at the court of Prusias, king of Bithy- j 
nia. Here he found for some years a secure 
asylum ; but the Romans could not be at ease ! 
so long as he lived, and T. Quintius Flamininus i 
was at length dispatched to the court of Pru- 
sias to demand the surrender of the fugitive. 
The Bithynian king was unable to resist ; and i 
Hannibal, perceiving that flight was impossible, 
took poison, to avoid falling into the hands of 
his enemies, about the year 1S3. Of Hannibal's 
abilities as a general it is unnecessary to speak : 
all the great masters of the art of war, from 
Scipio to the Emperor Napoleon, have concur- j 
red in their homage to his genius. But in com- 
paring Hannibal with any other of the great 
leaders of antiquity, we must ever bear in mind 
the peculiar circumstances in which he was 
placed. Feebly and grudgingly supported by 
the government at home, he stood alone, at the 
head of an army composed of mercenaries of 
many nations. Yet not only did he retain the 
attachment of these men, unshaken by any 
change of fortune, for a period of more than 
fifteen years, but he trained up army after army ; 
and, long after the veterans that had followed 



HANNIBALLIANUS. 



HAKMODIUS. 



him over the Alps had dwindled into an inconsid- 
erable remnant, his new levies were still as in- 
vincible as their predecessors. 

Hanniballianus. 1. Son of Constantius Chlo- 
rus and his second wife Theodora, and half- 
brother of Constautine the Great. He was put 
to death in 337 on the death of Constantine. — 
2. Son of the elder, brother of the younger Del- 
matius, was also put to death on the death of 
Constantine. 

Hannibalis Castra. Vkl. Castra, No. 2. 

Hanno ("Avvuv), one of the most common 
names at Carthage. Only the most important 
persons of the name can be mentioned. 1. One 
of the Carthaginian generals who fought against 
Agathocles in Africa, B.C. 310. — 2. Commander 
of the Carthaginian garrison at Messana at the 
beginning of the first Punic war, 294. In con- 
sequence of his surrendering the citadel of this 
city to the Romans, he was crucified on his re- 
turn home. — 3. Son of Hannibal, was sent to 
Sicily by the Carthaginians with a large force 
immediately after the capture of Messana, 264, 
where he carried on the war against the Roman 
consul Appius Claudius. In 262 he again com- 
manded in Sicily, but failed in relieving Agri- 
gentum, where Hannibal was kept besieged by 
the Romans. Vid. Hannibal, No. 2. In 256 
he commanded the Carthaginian fleet, along 
with Hamilcar, at the great battle of Ecnomus. — 
4. Commander of the Carthaginian fleet, which 
was defeated by Lutatius Catulus off the jEga- 
tes, 241. On his return home he was crucified, 
i — 5. Surnamed the Great, apparently for his 
successes in Africa. We do not, however, know 
against what nations of Africa his arms were 
directed, nor what was the occasion of the war. 
He was one of the commanders iu the war 
against the mercenaries in Africa after the end 
of the first Punic war (240-238). From this 
time forward he appears to have taken no active 
part in any of the foreign wars or enterprises 
of Carthage. But his influence in her councils 
at home was great ; he was leader of the aris- 
tocratic party, and, as such, the chief adversary 
of Hamilcar Barca and his family. On all occa- 
sions, from the landing of Barca in Spain till 
the return of Hannibal from Italy, a period of 
above thirty-five years, Hanno is represented 
as thwarting the measures of that able and pow- 
erful family, and taking the lead in opposition 
to the war with Rome, the great object to which 
all their efforts were directed. He survived the 
battle of Zama, 202. — 6. A Carthaginian officer 
left in Spain by Hannibal when that general 
crossed the Pyrenees, 218. He was shortly 
afterward defeated by Cn. Scipio, and taken 
prisoner. — 7. Son of Bomilcav, one of the most 
distinguished of Hannibal's officers. He com- 
manded the right wing at the battle of Cannae 
(216), and is frequently mentioned during the 
succeeding years of the war. In 203 he took 
the command of the Carthaginian forces in 
Africa, which he held till the arrival of Hanni- 
bal. — 8. A Carthaginian general, who carried on 
the war in Sicily after the fall of Syracuse, 211. 
He left Sicily in the following year, when Agri- 
gentum was betrayed to the Romans. — 9. The 
last commander of the Carthaginian garrison at 
Capua when it was besieged by the Romans 
(212-111). — 10. A Carthaginian navigator, un- 

I 



der whose name we possess a Periplus (irepC 
irT-ovg), which was originally written iu the 
Punic language, and afterward translated into 
Greek. The author had held the office of suf- 
fetes, or supreme magistrate at Carthage, and 
he is said by Pliny to have undertaken the voy- 
age when Carthage was in a most flourishing 
condition. Hence it has been conjectured that 
he was the same as the Hanno, the father Ol- 
son of Hamilcar, who was killed at Himera, 
B.C. 480 ; but this is quite uncertain. In the 
Periplus itself Hanno says that he was sent out 
by his countrymen to undertake a voyage be- 
yond the Pillars of Hercules, and to found Liby- 
phcenician towns, and that he sailed with a body 
of colonists to the number of thirty thousand. 
On his return from his voyage, he dedicated an 
account of it, inscribed on a tablet, in the tern 
pie of Saturn (Cronos). It is therefore presum 
ed that our periplus is a Greek version of the 
contents of that Punic tablet. Edited by Fal- 
coner, Lond., 1797, with an English translation. 

Harma (to "App.a : 'Ap/xarevg). 1. A small 
place in Bceotia, near Tanagra, said to have been 
so called from the harma or chai-iot of Adrastus, 
which broke down here, or from the chariot of 
Amphiaraus, who was here swallowed up by the 
earth along with his chariot. — 2. A small place 
in Attica, near Phyle. 

Harmatus ('Apfiarovc), a city and promontory 
on the coast of JEolis in Asia Minor, on the 
northern side of the Simis Ela'iticus. 

Harmodius and Aristogiton ('Apfi66iog, 'Apt- 
croyeiruv), Athenians, of the blood of the Ge- 
phyr^ei, were the murderers of Hipparchus, 
brother of the tyrant Hippias, in B.C. 514. Aris- 
togiton was strongly attached to the young and 
beautiful Harmodius, who returned his affection 
with equal warmth. Hipparchus endeavored to 
withdraw the youth's love to himself, and, fail- 
ing in this, resolved to avenge the slight by put- 
ting upon him a public insult. Accordingly, he 
took care that the sister of Harmodius should 
be summoned to bear one of the sacred baskets 
in some religious procession, and when she pre- 
sented herself for the purpose, he caused her 
to be dismissed and declared unworthy of the 
honor. This fresh insult determined the two 
friends to slay both Hipparchus and his brother 
Hippias as well. They communicated their plot 
to a few friends, and selected for their enter- 
prise the day of the festival of the great Pan- 
athenasa, the only day on which they could ap- 
pear in arms without exciting suspicion. When 
the appointed time arrived, the two chief con- 
spirators observed one of their accomplices in 
conversation with Hippias. Believing, there- 
fore, that they were betrayed, they slew Hip- 
parchus. Harmodius was immediately cut down 
by the guards. Aristogiton at first escaped, but 
was afterward taken, and was put to the tor- 
ture ; but he died without revealing the names 
of any of the conspirators. Four years after 
this Hippias was expelled, and thenceforth Har- 
modius and Aristogiton obtained among the 
Athenians of all succeeding generations the 
character of patriots, deliverers, and martyrg 
— names often abused, indeed, but seldom more 
grossly than in the present case. Their deed 
of murderous vengeance formed a favorite sub- 
ject of drinking songs. To be born of their 
343 



HARMONIA. 



HARPYLLE. 



blood was esteemed the highest of honors, and 
their descendants enjoyed an immunity from 
public burdens. Their statues, made of bronze 
by Antenor, were set up in the Agora. When 
Xerxes took the city, he carried these statues 
away, and new ones, the work of Critias, were 
erected in 477. The original statues were after- 
ward sent back to Athens by Alexander the 
Great. 

Harmonia ('Apfiov'ia), daughter of Mars (Ares) 
and Venus (Aphrodite), or, according to others, 
of Jupiter (Zeus) and Eleetra, the daughter of 
Atlas, in Samothrace. When Minerva (Athena) 
assigned to Cadmus the government of Thebes, 
Jupiter (Zeus) gave him Harmonia for his wife, 
and all the gods of Olympus were present at the 
marriage. On the wedding-day Cadmus receiv- 
ed a present of a peplus, which afterward be- 
came fatal to all who possessed it. Harmonia 
accompanied Cadmus when he wa> obliged to 
quit Thebes, and shared his fate. Vid. Cadmus. 
Polynices, who inherited the fatal necklace, gave 
it to Eriphyle, that she might persuade her hus- 
band, Amphiaraus, to undertake the expedition 
against Thebes. Through Alcmason, the son of 
Eriphyle, the necklace came into the hands of 
Arsinoe, next into those of the sons of Phegeus, 
Pronous and Agenor, and lastly into those of the 
sons of Alcmason, Amphoterus and Acarnan, who 
dedicated it in the temple of Minerva (Athena) 
Proncea at Delphi. 

Harpagia or # -iUM ('ApTrayeia or -dyiov), a 
small town in Mysia, between Oyzicus and Pria- 
pus, the scene of the rape of Ganymedes, accord- 
ing to some legends. 

Harpagus ^'Apirayoc). 1. A noble Median, 
whose preservation of the infant Cyrus, with the 
events consequent upon it, are related under 
Cyrus. He became one of the generals of Cyrus, 
and conquered the Greek cities of Asia Minor. — 
2. A Persian general, under Darius I., took His- 
tiasus prisoner. 

[Harpalion ('ApnaTiiuv), a Paphlagonian, son 
of Pylsemenes, and guest-friend of Paris : he was 
slain by Meriones in the Trojan war.] 

Harpalus (^Aprrakoc). 1. A Macedonian of 
noble birth, accompanied Alexander the Great 
to Asia as superintendent of the treasury. 
After the conquest of Darius, he was left by 
Alexander in charge of the royal treasury, and 
with the administration of the wealthy satrapy 
of Babylon. Here, during Alexander's absence 
in India, he gave himself up to the most extrav- 
agant luxury and profusion, and squandered the 
treasures intrusted to him. When he heard that 
Alexander, contrary to his expectations, was re- 
turning from India, he fled from Babylon with 
about five thousand talents and a body of six 
thousand mercenaries, and crossed over to Greece, 
B.C. 324. He took refuge at Athens, where he 
employed his treasures to gain over the orators, 
and induce the people to support him against 
Alexander and his vicegerent, Antipater. Among 
those whom he thus corrupted are said to have 
been Demades, Charicles, the son-in-law of Pho- 
cion, and even Demosthenes himself. Vid. De- 
mosthenes. But he failed in his general object, 
for Antipater having demanded his surrender 
from the Athenians, it was resolved to place 
him in confinement until the Macedonians should 
send for him. He succeeded in making his es- 
344 



1 cape from prison, and fled to Crete, where he 
was assassinated soon after his arrival by Thim- 
bron, one of his own officers. — 2. A Greek as- 
tronomer, introduced some improvements into 
the cycle of Cleostratus. Harpalus lived be- 
fore Meton. 

Harpalyce {'kpiraXvurj). 1. Daughter of Har- 
palycus, king in Thrace. As she lost her mother 
in infancy, she was brought up by her father 
with the milk of cows and mares, and was 
trained in all manly exercises. After the death 
of her father, she lived in the forests as a robber, 
being so swift in running that horses were un- 
able to overtake her. At length she was caught 
in a snare by shepherds, who killed her— 2. 
Daughter of Clymenus and Epicaste, was se- 
duced by her own father. To revenge herself, 
she slew her younger brother, and served him 
up as food before her father. The gods changed 
her into a bird. 

[Harpalyous (ApKaXvKoc). 1. Vid. Harpal- 
yoe, No. 1. — 2. A Trojan warrior, companion of 
.(Eneas, slain by Camilla. 

Harpasa ("ApTraoa : now Arepas), a city ol 
Caria, on the River Harpasus. 

Harpasus ("Ap7ra<7oc). 1. (now Arpa-Su), a 
river of Caria, flowing north into the Masander, 
into which it falls opposite to Nysa. — 2. (now 
Harpa-Su), a river of Armenia Major, flowing 
south into the Araxes. Xenophon, who crossed 
it with the ten thousand Greeks, states its width 
as four plethra (about four hundred feet). 

Harpina or Harpinna ("Ao7riva, "Apwcvva), a 
town in Elis Pisatis, near Olympia, said to hav* 
been called after a daughter of Asopus. 

[Harpocrates. Vid. Horus. 

Harpocration, Valerius, a Greek gramma- 
rian of Alexandrea, of uncertain date, the author 
of an extant dictionary to the works of the ten 
Attic orators, entitled Uepl rav le&uv twv Sena 
p'rjTopuv, or Ae^lhov tQv dena p'yjTopav. It con- 
tains not only explanations of legal and political 
terms, but also accounts of persons and things 
mentioned in the Attic orators, and is a work of 
great value. The best editions are the one pub- 
lished at Leipzig, 1824, and the one by Bekker, 
Berlin, 1833. 

Harpyle ("Apnviai), the Harpies, that is, the 
Rollers or Spoilers, are in Homer nothing but 
personified storm-winds, who. are said to carry 
off any one who had suddenly disappeared from 
the earth. Thus they carried off the daughters 
of King Pandareus, and gave them as servants 
to the Erynnyes. Hesiod describes them as 
daughters of Thaumas by the Oceauid Eleetra, 
fair-locked and winged maidens, who surpassed 
winds and birds in the rapidity of their flight. 
But even in ^Eschylus they appear as ugly crea- 
tures with wings ; and later writers represent 
them as most disgusting monsters, being birds 
with the heads of maidens, with long claws, and 
with faces pale with hunger. They were sent 
by the gods to torment the blind Phineus, and 
whenever a meal was placed before him, they 
darted down from the air and carried it off; 
later writers add, that they either devoured the 
food themselves, or rendered it unfit to be eaten. 
Phineus was delivered from them by Zetes and 
Calais, sons of Boreas, and two of the Argonauts. 
Vid. p. 91, a. Hesiod mentions two Harpies, 
Ocypeto and Aello : later writers three ; but 



HARUDES. 



HECAT^EUS. 



their names are not the same in all accounts. 
Besides the two already mentioned, we find Ael- 
lopos, Nicothoe, Ocythoe, Ocypode, Celasno, 
Acholoe. Virgil places them in the islands 
called Strophades, in the Ionian Sea (/En., iii., 
210), where they took up their abode after they 
had been driven away from Phineus. In the 
famous Harpy monument recently brought from 
Lycia to England, the Harpies are represented 
in the act of carrying off the daughters of Pan- 
dareus. 

Harupss, a people in the army of Ariovistus 
(B.C. 58), supposed to be the same as the Cha- 
rudes mentioned by Ptolemy, and placed by 
him in the Chersonesus Cimbrica. 

Hasdrubal ('A.cdpov6a(), a Carthaginian name, 
probably signifies one "whose help is Baal. 1. 
Son of Hanno, a Carthaginian general in the 
first Punic war. He was one of the two gen- 
erals defeated by Begulus B.C. 256. In 254 he 
was sent into Sicily with a large army, and re- 
mained in the island four years. In 250 he 
was totally defeated by Metellus, and was put 
to death on his return to Carthage. — 2. A Car- 
thaginian, son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca, on 
whose death, in 229, he succeeded to the com- 
mand in Spain. He ably carried out the plans 
of his father-in-law for extending the Cartha- 
ginian dominions in Spain, and intrusted the 
conduct of most of his military enterprises to 
the youDg Hannibal. He founded New Car- 
thage, and concluded with the Romans the cel- 
ebrated treaty which fixed the Iberus as the 
boundary between the Carthaginian and Roman 
dominions. He was assassinated by a slave, 
whose master he had put to death (221), and 
was succeeded in the command by Hannibal. 
— 3. Son of Hamilcar Barca, and brother of Han- 
nibal. When Hannibal set out for Italy (218), 
Hasdrubal was left in the command in Spain, 
and there fought for some years against the 
two Scipios. In 207 he crossed the Alps and 
marched into Italy, in order to assist Hannibal ; 
but he was defeated on the Metaurus by the 
consuls C. Claudius Nero and M. Livius Salina- 
tor, his army was destroyed, and he himself fell 
in the battle. His head was cut off and thrown 
into Hannibal's camp. — 4. One of Hannibal's 
chief officers, commanded the left wing of the 
Carthaginian army at the battle of Cannae (216). 
— 5. Surnamed the Bald (Calvus), commander 
of the Carthaginian expedition to Sardinia in 
the second Punic war, 215. He was defeated 
by the Roman praetor T. Manlius, taken prison- 
er, and carried to Rome. — 6. Son of Gisco, one 
of the Carthaginian generals in Spain during 
the second Punic war. He fought in Spain 
from 214 to 206. After he and Mago had been 
defeated by Scipio in the latter of these years, 
he crossed over to Africa, where he succeeded 
in obtaining the alliance of Syphax by giving 
him his daughter Sophonisba in marriage. In 
conjunction with Syphax, Hasdrubal carried on 
war against Masinissa, but he was defeated by 
Scipio, who landed in Africa in 204. He was 
condemned to death for his ill success by the 
Carthaginian government, but he still continued 
in arms against the Romans. On the arrival 
of Hannibal from Italy his sentence was revers- 
ed ; but the popular feeling against him had not 
subsided, and, in order to escape death from his 



enemies, be put an end to his life by poison. — 
1. Commander of the Carthaginian fleet in Afii 
ca in 2C3, must be distinguished fij>m the pre- 
ceding. — 8. Surnamed the Kid (Hcedus), one of 
the leaders of the party at Carthage favorable 
to peace toward the end of the second Punic 
war. — 9. General of the Carthaginians in the 
third Punic war. When the city was taken he 
surrendered to Scipio, who spared his life. After 
adorning Seipio's triumph, he spent the rest of 
his life in Italy. 

Haterius, Q., a senator and rhetorician in th' 
age of Augustus and Tiberius, died A.D. 26, it 
the eighty -ninth year of his age. 

Hebe ("H6t]), called Juventas by the Romans 
the goddess of youth, was a daughter of Jupitei 
(Zeus) and Juno (Hera). She waited upon tho 
gods, and filled their cups with nectar before 
Ganymedes obtained this office ; and she is fur- 
ther represented as assisting her mother Juna 
(Hera) in putting the horses to her chariot, and 
in bathing and dressing her brother Mars (Ares). 
She married Hercules after he was received 
among the gods, and bore to him two sons, Al- 
exiares and Anticetus. Later traditions repre- 
sent her as a divinity who had it in her power 
to make aged persons young again. At Rome 
there were several temples of Juventas. She 
is even said to have had a chapel on the Capi- 
tol before the temple of Jupiter was built there 

Hebrohagus. Vid. Ebdromagus. 

Hebron ('E6p6v, Xe6puv 'EBpuviog : now El- 
Kliulil), a city in the south of Judaea, as old as 
the times of the patriarchs, and the first capital 
of the kingdom of David, who reigned there 
seven and a half years as king of Judah only. 

Hebrus ("Edpog : now Maritza), the principal 
river in Thrace, rises in the mountains of Sco- 
mius and Rhodope, flows first southeast and 
then southwest, becomes navigable for smaller 
vessels at Philippopolis, and for larger ones at 
Hadrianopolis, and falls into the ./Egean Sea 
near JEnos, after formiug by another branch an 
estuary called Stentoris Laods. The Hebrus 
was celebrated in Greek legends. On its banks 
Orpheus was torn to pieces by the Thracian 
women; and it is frequently mentioned in con- 
nection with the worship of Bacchus (Dionysus.) 

Heoaerge ('Enaep-yTi). 1. Daughter of Boreas, 
and one of the Hyperborean maidens, who were 
believed to have introduced the worship of 
Diana (Artemis) into Delos. — 2. A surname of 
Diana (Artemis), signifying the goddess who 
hits at a distance. 

Heoale ('EkuXti), a poor old woman, who hos- 
pitably received Theseus when he had gone 
out for the purpose of killing the Marathonian 
bull. She vowed to offer to Jupiter (Zeus) a 
sacrifice for the safe return of the hero ; but as 
she died before his return, Theseus ordained 
that the inhabitants of the Attic tetrapolis should 
offer a sacrifice to her and Jnpiter (Zeus) Hec- 
alus, or Hecaleius. 

[Heoamede ('EKa/j,7/5ri), daughter of Arsiuous, 
taken prisoner by Achilles, when he captured 
the island of Tenedos : she became the slave 
of Nestor.] 

HecaTjEUS ('EKaralog). 1. Of Miletu9, one of 
the earliest and most distinguished Greek his- 
torians and geographers. He was the son of 
Hegesander, and belonged to a very ancient and 
345 



HECATE. 



HECTOR 



illustrious family. We have only a few partic- 
ulars of his life. In B.C. 500 he endeavored to 
dissuade his couutrymen from revolting from 
the Persians; and when this advice was disre- 
garded, he gave them some sensible counsel re- 
specting the conduct of the war, which was also 
neglected. Previous to this, Hecataeus had vis- 
ited Egypt and many other countries. He sur- 
vived the Persian wars, and appears to have 
died about 416. He wrote two woiks: 1. ne- 
oiodoc yrjc, or Tiepiriyntjic, divided into two parts, 
one of which contained a description of Europe, 
and the other of Asia, Egypt, and Libya. Both 
parts were subdivided into smaller sections, 
which are sometimes quoted under their re- 
spective names, such as Hellespontus, &c. 2. 
TeveaXoyiai or 'laropiai, in four books, contained 
an account of the poetical fables and traditions 
of the Greeks. His work on geography was 
the more important, as it embodied the results 
of his numerous travels. He also corrected 
and improved the map of the earth drawn up 
by Anaximandee. Hei-odotus knew the works 
of Hecataeus well, and frequently controverts 
his opinions. Hecatreus wrote in the Ionic dia- 
lect in a pure and simple style. The fragments 
of his works are collected by Klausen, Hecatcei 
Milesii Fragmenta, Berlin, 1831, and by C. and 
Th. Miller, Frag. Hist. Grcec, Paris, 1841 — 

2. Of Abdera, a contemporary of Alexander the 
Great and Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, appears 
to have accompanied the former on his Asiatic 
expedition. He was a pupil of the skeptic 
Pyrrho, and is himself called a philosopher, 
critic, and grammarian. In the reign of the 
first Ptolemy he travelled up the Nile as far as 
Thebes. He was the author of several works, 
of which the most important were, 1. A Histo- 
ry of Egypt. 2. A work on the Hyperboreans. 

3. A history of the Jews, frequently referred to 
by Josephus and other ancient writers. This 
work was declared spurious by Origen : modern 
critics are divided in their opinions. 

Hecate ('Ekutv), a mysterious divinity, com- 
monly represented as a daughter of Persaeus or 
Perses and Asteria, and hence called Perseis. 
She is also described as a daughter of Jupiter 
(Zeus) and Ceres (Demeter), or of Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Pherasa or Juno (Hera), or of Latona (Leto) 
or Tartarus. Homer does not mention her. 
According to the most genuine traditions, she 
appears to have been an ancient Thracian di- 
vinity, and a Titan, who ruled in heaven, on 
the earth, and in the sea, bestowing on mortals 
wealth, victory, wisdom, good luck to sailors 
and hunters, and prosperity to youth and to the 
flocks of cattle. She was the only one among 
the Titans who retained this power under the 
rule of Jupiter (Zeus), and she was honored by 
all the immortal gods. The extensive power 
possessed by Hecate was probably the reason 
that she was subsequently identified with sev- 
eral other divinities, and at length became a 
mystic goddess, to whom mysteries were cele- 
brated in Samothrace and in jEgina. In the 
Homeric hymn to Ceres (Demeter) she is rep- 
resented as taking an active part in the search 
after Proserpina (Persephone), and when the 
latter was found, as remaining with her as her 
attendant and companion. Vid. p. 248, a. She 
thus became a deity of the lower world, and is 
346 



I described in this capacity as a mighty and for 
midable divinity. In consequence of her being 
identified with other divinities, she is said to 
have been Selene or Luna in heaven, Artemis 
or Diana in earth, and Persephone or Proser- 
pina in the lower world. Being thus, as it were, 
a three-fold goddess, she is described with three 
bodies or three heads, the one of a horse, the 
second of a dog, and the third of a lion. Hence 
her epithets Tergemina, Triformis, Triceps, &c. 
From her being an infernal divinity, she came 
to be regarded as a spectral being, who sent at 
night all kinds of demons and terrible phantoms 
from the lower world, who taught sorcery and 
witchcraft, and dwelt at places where two roada 
crossed, on tombs, and near the blood of mur- 
dered persons. She herself wandered about 
with the souls of the dead, and her approach 
was announced by the whining and howling of 
dogs. At Athens there were very many small 
statues or symbolical representations of Hecate 
(imraia), placed before or in houses, and on 
spots where two roads crossed : it would seem 
that people consulted such Hecataea as oracles. 
At the close of every month dishes with food 
were set out for her and other averters of evil 
at the points where two roads crossed ; and this 
food was consumed by poor people. The sac- 
rifices offered to her consisted of dogs, honey, 
and black female lambs. 

Hecatomnus ('Enarofivuc), king or dynast of 
Caria in the reign of Artaxerxes III. He left 
three sons, Maussolus, Idrieus, and Pixedarus, 
all of whom, in their turn, succeeded him in the 
sovereignty ; and two daughters, Artemisia and 
Ada. 

[Hecatompolis ('EKctTofnro/'ac, i. e., having 
one hundred cities), appellation of the island 
Crete, from the one hundred cities it was sail 
to have had in ancient times.] 

Hecatomfylos ('EKaTofiTrvXoc, i. e., having 
one hundred gates). 1. An epithet of Thebes in 
Egypt. Vid. Theb^e. — 2. A city in the middle 
of Parthia, twelve hundred and sixty stadia or 
one hundred and thirty-three Roman miles from 
the Caspian Pylae ; enlarged by Seleucus, and 
afterward used by the Parthian kings as a royal 
residence. 

Hecaton ('Ekutuv), a Stoic philosopher, a na- 
tive of Rhodes, studied under Panaetius, and 
wrote numerous works, all of which are lost. 

Heoatonnesi ('EKarovvncyot : now Mosko-nisi), 
a group of small islands, between Lesbos and 
the coast of jEolis, on the southern side of the 
mouth of the Gulf of Adramyttium. The name, 
one hundred islands, was indefinite ; the real 
number was reckoned by some at twenty, by 
others at forty. Strabo derives the name, not 
from kna-ov, one hundred, but from "EtcaToc, a 
surname of Apollo. 

Hector ('En-op), the chief hero of the Tro- 
jans in their war with the Greeks, was the 
eldest son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband 
of Andromache, and father of Scamandrius. He 
fought with the bravest of the Greeks, and at 
length slew Patroclus, the friend of Achilles. 
The death of his friend roused Achilles to the 
fight. The other Trojans fled before him into 
the city. Hector alone remained without the 
walls, though his parents implored him to re 
turn ; but when he saw Achilles his heart fail 



HECUBA. 



H EGIAS. 



ea him, and he took to flight. Thrice did he 
race round the city, pursued by the swift-foot- 
ed Achilles, and then fell pierced by Achilles's 
spear. Achilles tied Hector's body to his char- 
iot, and thus dragged him into the camp of the 
Greeks ; but later traditions relate that he first 
dragged the body thrice around the walls of 
Ilium. At the command of Jupiter (Zeus), 
Achilles surrendered-the body to the prayers of 
Priam, who buried it at Troy with great pomp. 
Hector is one of the noblest conceptions of the 
Iliad. He is the great bulwark of Troy, and 
even Achilles trembles when he approaches 
him. He has a presentiment of the fall of his 
country, but he perseveres in his heroic resist- 
ance, preferring death to slavery and disgrace. 
Besides these virtues of a warrior, he is distin- 
guished (tlso by those of a man : his heai-t is 
open to the gentle feelings of a son, a husband, 
and a father. 

Hecuba ('E/ca&?), daughter of Dymas in 
Phrygia, or of Cisseus, king of Thrace. She 
was the wife of Priam, king of Troy, to whom 
she bore Hector., Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, 
Cassandra, and many other children. On the 
capture of Troy, she was carried away as a 
slave by the Greeks. According to the tragedy 
of Euripides, which bears her name, she was 
carried by the Greeks to Chersonesus, and 
there saw her daughter Polyxena sacrificed. 
On the same day the waves of the sea washed 
on the coast the body of her last son Polydorus, 
who had been murdered by Polymestor, king of 
the Thracian Chersonesus, to whose care he 
had been intrusted by Priam. Hecuba there- 
upon killed the children of Polymestor, and tore 
out the eyes of their father. Agamemnon par- 
doned her the crime, and Polymestor prophesied 
that she should be metamorphosed into a she- 
dog, and should leap into the sea at a place called 
Cynossema. It was added that the inhabitants 
of Thrace endeavored to stone her, but that she 
was metamorphosed into a dog, and in this form 
bowled through* the country for a long time. 
According to other accounts she was given as 
a slave to' Ulysses, and in despair leaped into 
the Hellespont ; or, being anxious to die, she 
uttered such invectives against the Greeks, that 
the warriors put her to death, and called the 
place where she was buried Cynossema, with 
reference to her impudent invectives. 

Hedylius Mons {'HdvAewv), a range of mount- 
ains in Bceotia, west of the Cephisus. 

Hedylhs {'HdvXog), son of Melicertus, was a 
native of Samos or of Athens, and an epigram- 
matic poet. Eleven of his epigrams are in the 
Greek Anthology. He was a contemporary 
and rival of Callimachus, and lived, therefore, 
about the middle of the third century B.C. 

[Hedymeles, a celebrated performer on the 
lyre in the time of Domitian (Juv., vi., 382).] 

[Hegelochus ('HyeAo^of). 1. An Athenian 
officer, sent to protect Mantinea from the threat- 
ened attack of Epaminondas, B.C. 362. — 2. One 
of Alexander's officers, who accompanied him 
into Asia, and perished at the battle of Arbela.] 

Hegemon ('Hy^uf), of Thasos, a poet of the 
old comedy at Athens, but more celebrated for 
his parodies, of which kind of poetry he was the 
inventor. He was nicknamed ^anr/, on account 
of his fondness for that kind of pulse. He lived 



in the time of the Feloponnesian war; and bis 
parody of the Gigai tomachia was the piece to 
which the Athenians were listening when the 
news was brought to them in the theatre of the 
destruction of the expedition to Sicily. 

Hegemone ('Hyjifiovi]), the leader or ruler, is 
the name of one of the Athenian Charites or 
Graces. Hegemone was also a surname of 
Diana (Artemis) at Sparta and in Arcadia. 

[Hegesandridas ('Hyj7ff<zj/(5pt<5(zc), a Spa-tan 
naval commander during the Peloponnesian 
war, defeated the Athenian fleet off Oropus, 
but did not follow up his victory by attacking 
Athens.] 

Hegesianax ^Hyriaidva^), an historian of 
Alexandrea, is said to have been the real author 
of the work called Troica, which went under the 
name of Cephalon or Cephalion. He appears 
to be the same as the Hegesianax who was 
sent by Antiochus the Great as one of his en- 
voys to the Romans in B.C. 196 and 193. 

Hegesias ('Kyijuiac;). 1. Of Magnesia, a rhet- 
orician and historian, lived about B.C. 290, and 
wrote the history of Alexander the Great. He 
was regarded by some as the founder of that 
degenerate style of composition which bore the 
name of the Asiatic. His own style was desti- 
tute of all vigor and dignity, and was marked 
chiefly by childish conceits and minute pretti- 
nesses. — 2. Of Salamis, supposed by some to 
have been the author of the Cyprian poem, 
which, on better authority, is ascribed to Sta» 
sinus. — 3. A Cyrenaic philosopher, who lived at 
Alexandrea in the time of the Ptolemies, per- 
haps about B.C. 260. He wrote a work con- 
taining such gloomy descriptions of human mis- 
ery that it drove many persons to commit sui- 
cide ; hence he was surnamed Peisithanatos 
(TlEiaiddvaros). He was, in consequence, for- 
bidden to teach by Ptolemy. 

Hegesias ('Hy^cZac) and Hegias ('Hywc), two 
Greek statuaries, whom many scholars identify 
with one another. They lived at the period im- 
mediately preceding that of Phidias. The chief 
work of Hegesias was the statues of Castor and 
Pollux, which are supposed to be the same as 
those which now stand on the stairs leading to 
the Capitol. 

Hegesinus ('Hy^owouc), of Pergamum, the 
successor of Evander and the immediate prede- 
cessor of Carneades in the chair of the Acade- 
my, flourished about B.C. 185. 

Hegesippus ('Hyr/ffi7T7rof). 1. An Athenian 
orator, and a contemporary of Demosthenes, to 
whose political party he belonged. The gram- 
marians ascribe to him the oration on Halone- 
sus, which has come down to us under the name 
of Demosthenes. — 2. A poet of the new come- 
dy, flourished about B.C. 300?-^3. A Greek hi»- 
torian of Mecyberna, wrote an account of the 
peninsula of Pallene. 

Hegesipyla ('H-/rjcnrv?i,Tj), daughter of Olorus, 
king of Thrace, and wife of Miltiades. 

[Hegesistratus ^YLyqaiaTpaTog). 1. Natural 
son of Pisistratus, made by his father tyrant of 
Sigeum. — 2. Son of Aristagoras of Samos, came 
before the battle of Mycale on an embassy to 
the Spartan king Leotychides from the Samiaus 
to treat for the liberation of his countrymen 
from the Persian yoke.] 

Hegias. Vid. Hegesias. 

347 



HELENA. 

Helena ('E?ihn), daughter of Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Leda, and sister of Castor and Pollux (the 
Dioscuri). She was of surpassing beauty. In 
her youth she was carried off by Theseus and 
Pirithous to Attica. "When Theseus was ab- 
sent in Hades, Castor and Pollux undertook an 
expedition to Attica, to liberate their sister. 
Athens was taken, Helen delivered, and iEtbra, 
the mother of Theseus, made prisoner, and car- 
ried as a slave of Helen to Sparta. According 
to some accounts, she bore to Theseus a daugh- 
ter, Iphigenia. On her return home she was 
sought in marriage by the noblest chiefs from 
all parts of Greece. She chose Menelaus for 
her husband, and became by him the mother of 
Hermione. She was subsequently seduced and 
carried off by Paris to Troy. Eor details, vid. 
Paris and Menelaus. The Greek chiefs who 
had been her suitors resolved to revenge her 
abduction, and accordingly sailed against Troy. 
Hence arose the celebrated Trojan war, which 
lasted ten years. During the course of the war 
she i3 represented as showing great sympathy 
with the Greeks. After the death of Paris to- 
ward the end of the war, she married his broth- 
er Deiphobus. On the capture of Troy, which 
she is said to have favored, she betrayed De- 
iphobus to the Greeks, and became reconciled 
to Menelaus, whom she accompanied to Sparta. 
Here she lived with him for some years in peace 
and happiness ; and here, according to Homer, 
Telemaehus found her solemnizing the mar- 
riage of her daughter Hermione with Neoptole- 
mus. The accounts of Helen's death differ. 
According to the prophecy of Proteus in the 
Odyssey, Menelaus and Helen were not to die, 
but the gods were to conduct them to Elysium. 
Others relate that she and Menelaus were buried 
at Therapne in Laconia, where their tomb was 
seen by Pausanias. Others, again, relate, that 
after the death of Menelaus she was driven out 
of Peloponnesus by the sons of the latter and 
fled to Rhodes, where she was tied to a tree 
and strangled by Polyxo : the Rhodians ex- 
piated the crime by dedicating a temple to her 
under the name of Helena Dendritis. Accord- 
ing to another tradition she married Achilles in 
the island of Leuee, and bore him a son, Eupho- 
rion. The Egyptian priests told Herodotus that 
Helen never went to Troy, but that when Paris 
reached Egypt with Helen on his way to Troy, 
she was detained by Proteus, king of Egypt ; 
and that she was restored to Menelaus when he 
visited Egypt in search of her after the Trojan 
war, finding that she had never been at Troy. 

Helena, Elavia Julia. 1. The mother of 
Constautine the Great. When her husband 
Constantius was raised to the dignity of Ca?sar 
by Diocletian, A.D. 292, he was compelled to 
repudiate his wife, to make way for Theodora, 
the step-child of Maximianus Herculius. Sub- 
sequently, when her son succeeded to the pur- 
ple, Helena was treated with marked distinc- 
tion, and received the title of Augusta. She 
died about 328. She was a Christian, and is 
said to have discovered at Jerusalem the sep- 
ulchre of our Lord, together with the wood of 
Ithe true cross. — 2. Daughter of Constantine the 
Great and Fausta, married her cousin Julian the 
Apostate 355, and died 360. 

Helena ('EXevi)). 1. (Now Makronisi) a 
348 



HELICON 

small and rocky island between the south of 
Attica and Ceos, formerly called Cranae. — 2. 
The later name of Illiberris in Gaul. 

Helenus ("EXevoc). 1. Son of Priam and 
Hecuba, was celebrated for his prophetic pow- 
ers, and also fought against the Greeks in the 1 
Trojan war. In Homer we have no further j 
particulars about Helenus ; but in later tradi- F 
tions he is said to have deserted his country- 
men and joined the Greeks. There are like- j 
wise various accounts respecting his desertion 
of the Trojans. According to some, he did it 
of his own accord ; according to others, he was f 
ensnared by Ulysses, who was anxious to ob- 
tain his prophecy respecting the fall of Troy. 
Others, again, relate that, on the death of Paris, j 
Helenus and Deiphobus contended for the pos- 
session of Helena, and that Helenus being con- 
quered, fled to Mount Ida, where he was taken j 
prisoner by the Greeks. After the fall of Troy 
he fell to the share of Pyrrhus. He foretold Pyr- 
rhus the sufferings which awaited the Greeks | 
who returned home by sea, and prevailed upon 
him to return by land to Epirus. After the ' 
death of Pyrrhus he received a portion of the 
country, and married Andromache, by whom 
he became the father of Cestrinus." WbeL, 
iEneas, in his wanderings, arrived in Epirus, he 
was hospitably received by Helenus, who also 
foretold him the future events of his life. — 2 
Son of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, by Lanassa, 
daughter of Agathocles. He accompanied his 
father to Italy B.C. 280, and was with him 
when Pyrrhus perished at Argos, 272. He 
then fell into the hands of Antigonus Gonatas, j 
who, however, sent him back in safety to Epirus, 
— [3. Son of (Enops, a Greek, slain by Hector 
before Troy.] 

HeliaDjE and Heliades ('HXiddai and '~Rlid- I 
dec), the sons and daughters of Helios (the Sun). ! 
The name Heliades is given especially to Pha- 
ethusa, Lampetia, and Phoebe, the daughters of 
Helios and the nymph Clymene, and the sisters '■ 
of Phaethon. They bewailed tfce death of their 
brother Phaethon so bitterly on the banks of 
the Eridanus, that the gods, in compassion, 
changed them into poplar-trees and their tears 
into amber. Vid. Eridanus. 

[Helicaon ('EXinduv), son of Antenor, and 
husband of Laodice ; he is said to have founded 
Patavium in Italy.] 

HelIce {'EXIktj), daughter of Lycaon, was 
beloved by Jupiter (Zeus), but Juno (Hera), out 
of jealousy, metamorphosed her into a she-bear, 
whereupon Jupiter (Zeus) placed her among the 
stars under the name of the Great Bear. 

Helice ('E/Ukj7 : 'EIikuvloc, 'EXiicevc). 1. 
The ancient capital of Achaia, said to have been 
founded by Ion, possessed a celebrated temple 
of Neptune (Poseidon), which was regarded as 
the great sanctuary of the Achaean race. Hel- 
ice was swallowed up by an earthquake together 
with Bura, B.C. 373. The earth sunk deep into 
the ground, and the place on which the cities 
stood was ever afterward covered by the sea. 
— 2. An ancient town in Thessaly, which 
disappeared in early times. 

Helicon ('EXikuv), son cf Acesas, a celebra- 
ted artist. Vid. Acesas. 

Helicon ('EXlkuv : now Helicon, Palmo-Buni, j 
Turk. Zagora), a celebrated range of mountains 



HELIMUS. 



HELIOS. 



m Boeotia, between the Lake Copais and the 
Corintbiau Gulf, was covered -with snow the 
greater part of the year, and possessed many 
romantic ravines and lovely valleys. Helicon 
■was sacred to Apollo and the Muses, the latter 
of whom are hence called T&Xikwvicu irapdevoi 
and 'E^iKavidSeg vv[tfai by the Greek poets, 
and Heliconiades and Heliconides by the Roman 
poets. Here sprung the celebrated fountains 
of the Muses, Aganippe and Hippocrene. At 
the fountain of Hippocrene was a grove sacred 
to the Muses, which was adorned with some of 
the finest works of art. On the slopes and in 
the valleys of the mountains grew many me- 
dicinal plants, which may have given occasion 
to the worship of Apollo as the healing god. 

[Helimus, a Centaur, slain at the nuptials of 
Pirithous.] 

Heliodorus ('H?u6dupoc). 1. An Athenian 
surnamed Periegctes (Jlepntyrj-^e), probably liv- 
ed about B.C. 164, and wrote a description of 
the works of art in the Acropolis at Athens. 
This work was one of the authorities for Pliny's 
account of the Greek artists. — 2. A rhetorician 
at Rome in the time of Augustus, whom Horace 
mentions as the companion of his journey to 
Bruudisium (Sat, i., 5, 2, 3.) — 3. A Stoic phi- 
losopher at Rome, who became a delator in the 
reign of Nero. (Juv., Sat, i., 33.) — 4. A rheto- 
rician, and private secretary to the Emperor 
Hadrian. — 5. Of Emesa in Syria, lived about 
the end of the fourth century of our era, and 
was bishop of Tricea in Thessaly. Before he 
was made bishop he wrote a romance in ten 
books, entitled uSthiopica, because the scene of 
the beginning and the end of the story is laid in 
^Ethiopia. This work has come down to us, 
and is far superior to the other Greek romances. 
It relates the loves of Theagenes and Chariclea. 
Though deficient in those characteristics of 
modern fiction which appeal to the universal 
sympathies of our nature, the romance of Heli- 
odorus is interesting on account of the rapid 
succession of strange and not altogether im- 
probable adventures, the many and various 
characters introduced, and the beautiful scenes 
described. The language is simple and ele- 
gant. The best editions are by Mitscherlich, in 
his Scriptorcs Grmci Erotici, Argentorat., 1*798, 
and by Corae, Paris, 1804. — 6. Of Larissa, the 
author of a short work on optics, still extant, 
chiefly taken from Euclid's Optics : edited by 
Mantani, Pistor., 1758. 

Heliogabalus. Vid. Elagabalus. 

Heliopolis ('HXcov noXic or 'H?aovTroltc, i. e., 
the City of the Sun). 1. (Heb. Baalath: now 
Baalbek, ruins), a celebrated city of Syria, a 
chief seat of the worship of Baal, one of whose 
symbols was the sun, and whom the Greeks 
identified with Apollo, as well as with Jupiter 
(Zeus') : hence the Greek name of the city. 
With the worship of Baal, here as elsewhere, 
was associated that of Astarte, whom the 
Greeks identified with Venus (Aphrodite). It 
was situated in the middle of Ccele-Syria, at 
the western foot of Anti-Libanus, on a rising 
ground at the northeastern extremity of a large 
plain which reaches almost to the sea, and 
which is well watered by the River Leontes 
(now Kahr-el-Kasimiyeh), near whose sources 
Heliopolis was built ; the sources of the Orontes 



also are not far north of the city. The situa- 
tion of Heliopolis necessarily made it a place 
of great commercial importance, as it was on 
the direct road from Egypt and the Red Sea, 
and also from Tyre to Syria, Asia Minor, and 
Europe ; and hence, probably, the wealth of the 
city, to which its ruins still bear witness. We 
know, however, very little of its history. It 
was made a Roman colony by the name of 
Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Heliopolitana, and 
colonized by veterans of the fifth and eighth 
legions, under Augustus. Antoninus Pius built 
the great temple of Jupiter (i. e., Baal), of 
which the ruins still exist ; and there are med- 
als which show, in addition to other testimony, 
that it was favored by several of the later em- 
perors. All the existing ruins are of the Ro- 
man period, and most of them probably of later 
date than the great temple just mentioned ; but 
it is impossible to determine their exact times. 
They consist of a large quadrangular court 
in front of the great temple, another hexag- 
onal court outside of this, and in front of all, 
a portico or propylaea, approached by a flight 
of steps. Attached to one corner of the quad- 
rangular court is a smaller but more perfect 
temple, and at some distance from all these 
buildings there is a circular edifice, of a unique 
and very interesting architectural form. There 
is also a single Doric column on a rising ground, 
and traces of the city walls. — 2. (In the Old 
Testament, On, or Bethshemesh : now Mata- 
rieh, ruins northeast of Cairo), a celebrated city 
of Lower Egypt, capital of the Nomos Heliopo- 
lites, stood on the eastern side of the Pelusiac 
branch of the Nile, a little below the apex of 
the Delta, and near the canal of Trajan, and 
was, in the earliest period of which we have 
any record, a chief seat of the Egyptian wor 
ship of the sun. Here, also, was established 
the worship of Mnevis, a sacred bull similar to 
Apis. The priests of Heliopolis were renowned 
for their learning. It suffered much during the 
invasion of Cambyses ; and by the time of 
Strabo it was entirely ruined. 

Helios ("HAtof or 'He/Uof), called Sol by the 
Romans, the god of the sun. He was the son 
of Hyperion and Thea, and a brother of Selene 
and Eos. From his father he is frequently call- 
ed Htperionides or Hyperion, the latter of 
which is an abridged form of the patronymic 
Hyperionion. In the Homeric hymn on Helios 
he is called a son of Hyperion and Euryphaessa. 
Homer describes Helios as giving light both to 
gods and men : he rises in the east from Ocea- 
nus, traverses the heaven, and descends in the 
evening into the darkness of the west and Ocea- 
nus. Later poets have marvellously embellish- 
ed this simple notion. They tell of a most 
magnificent palace of Helios in the east, con- 
taining a throne occupied by the god, and sur- 
rounded by personifications of the different di- 
visions of time. They also assign him a second 
palace in the west, and describe his horses as 
feeding upon herbs growing in the islands of the 
Blessed. The manner in which Helios during 
the night passes from the western into the east- 
ern ocean is not mentioned either by Homer or 
Hesiod, but later poets make him sail in a gold- 
en boat, tho work of Hephaestus, round one 
half of the earth, and thus arrive in the east at 
349 



HELISSON. 



HELOS. 



the point from which he has to rise again. 
Others represent him as making his nightly 
voyage while slumbering in a golden bed. The 
horses* and chariot with which Helios traverses 
the heavens are not mentioned in the Iliad and 
Odyssey, but first occur in the Homeric hymn 
on Helios, and both are described minutely by 
later poets. Helios is described as the god who 
sees and hears every thing, and was thus able 
to reveal to Vulcan (Hephaestus) the faithless- 
ness of Venus (Aphrodite), and to Ceres (Deme- 
ter) the abduction of her daughter. At a later 
time Helios became identified with Apollo, 
though the two gods were originally quite dis- 
tinct ; but the identification was never carried 
out completely, for no Greek poet ever made 
Apollo ride in the chariot of Helios through the 
heavens, and among the Komans we find this 
idea only after the time of Virgil. The repre- 
sentations of Apollo with rays around his head, 
to characterize him as identical with the sun, 
belong to the time of the Roman empire. The 
island of Thrinacia (Sicily) was sacred to Heli- 
os, and there he had flocks of sheep and oxen, 
which were tended by his daughters Phaethusa 
and Lampetia. Later traditions ascribe to him 
flocks also in the island of Erythia ; and it may 
be remarked, in general, that sacred flocks, es- 
pecially of oxen, occur in most places where 
the worship of Helios was established. His 
descendants are very numerous; and the sur- 
names and epithets given him by the poets are 
mostly descriptive of his character as the sun. 
Temples of Helios (i^Xiua) existed in Greece at 
a very early time : and in later times we find 
his worship established in various places, and 
especially in the island of Rhodes, where the 
famous colossus was a representation of the 
god. The sacrifices offered to him consisted 
of white rams, boars, bulls, goats, lambs, espe- 
cially white horses, and honey. Among the an- 
imals sacred to him, the cock is especially men- 
tioned. The Roman poets, when speaking of 
the god of the sun (Sol), usually adopt the no- 
tions of the Greeks. The worship of Sol was 
introduced at Rome, especially after the Ro- 
mans had become acquainted with the East, 
though traces of the worship of the sun and 
moon occur at an early period. 

Helisson ('E?aoo~6v or 'EAtcwDc), a small 
town in Arcadia, on a river of the same name, 
which falls into the Alpheus. 

[Helium Ostium, one of the mouths of the 
Rhine, formed by the union with the Mosa.] 

Hellanicus ('EXXdviKoc). 1. Of Mytilene in 
Lesbos, the most eminent of the Greek logog- 
raphers or early Greek historians, was in all 
probability born about B.C. 496, and died 411. 
We have no particulars of his life, but we may 
presume that he visited many of the countries, 
of whose history he gave an account. He 
wrote a great number of genealogical, chrono- 
logical, and historical works, which are cited 
under the titles of Troica, uEolica, Persica, &c. 
One of his most popular works was entitled 
lepetai T7/g "Hpac : it contained a chronological 
list of the priestesses of Juno (Hera) at Argos, 
compiled from the i - ecords preserved in the tem- 
ple of the goddess of this place. This work 
was one of the earliest attempts to regulate 
chronology, and was made use of by Thucydides, ' 
350 



Timaaus, and others. The fragments of Hellan- 
icus are collected by Sturz, Hellanici Lesbii 
Fragmenta, Lips., 1826 ; and by C. and Th. 
Miiller, Fragm. Histor. Graze, Paris, 1841. — 2. 
A Greek grammarian, a disciple of Agathocles, 
and apparently a contemporary of Aristarchus, 
wrote on the Homeric poems. 

Hellas, Hellenes. Vid. Gr^eoia. 

Helle ("EA/^), daughter of Athamas and 
Nephele, and sister of Phrixus. When Phrixus 
was to be sacrificed (vid. Phrixus), Nephele res- 
cued her two children, who rode away through 
the air upon the ram with the golden fleece, the 
gift of Mercury (Hermes) ; but, between Sige- 
um and the Chersonesus, Helle fell into the sea, 
which was thence called the Sea of Helle (Hel- 
lespontus). Her tomb was shown near Pactya, 
on the Hellespont. 

Hellen ('EXkijv), son of Deucalion and Pyr 
rha, or of Jupiter (Zeus) and Dorippe, husband 
of Orseis, and father of iEolus, Dorus, and 
Xuthus. He was king of Phthia in Thessaly, 
and was succeeded by his son ^Eolus. He is 
the mythical ancestor of all the Hellenes ; from 
his two sons iEolus and Dorus were descended 
the Cohans and Dorians > and from his two 
grandsons Achseus and Ion, the sons of Xuthus, 
the Achasans and Ionians. 

Hellespontus ('EXXqcirovToc : now Straits of 
the Dardenellcs or of Gallipoli, Turk. Stambul i 
Denghiz), the long narrow strait connecting the 
Propontis (now Sea of Marmara) with the jEgean 
Sea, and through which the waters of the Black j 
Sea discharge themselves into the Mediterra- \ 
nean in a constant current. The length of the 
strait is about fifty miles, and the width varies j 
from six miles at the upper end to two at the 
lower, and in some places it is only one mile ; 
wide, or even less. The narrowest part is be- 
tween the ancient cities of Sestus and Abtdus, 
where Xerxes made his bridge of boats (vid. 
Xerxes), and where the legend related that i 
Leander swam across to visit Hero. Vid. Lean- j 
der. The name of the Hellespont (i. e., the 
Sea of Helle) was derived from the story of 
Helle's being drowned in it. Vid. Helle. The 
Hellespont was the boundary of Europe and i 
Asia, dividing the Thracian Chersonese in the | 
former from the Troad, and the territories of j 
Abydus and Lampascus in the latter. The dis 
trict just mentioned, on the southern side of the 
Hellespont, was also called 'E2.Aqc novrog, its in- 
habitants 'EXXtjctvovtwi, and the cities on its 
coast 'E?.2.rjcir6i>Tiai noXeic. — 2. Under the Ro- 
man empire, Hellespontus was the name of a 
proconsular province, composed of the Troad 
and the northern part of Mysia, and having 
Cyzicus for its capital. 

Hellomenum ('ElloiiEvov), a sea-port town 
of the Acarnanians on the island Leucas. 

Hellopia. Vid. Ellopia. 

Helorus or Helorum (t/ "EAupoc : 'ETiupirric), 
a town on the eastern coast of Sicily, south of 
Syracuse, at the mouth of the River Helorus. 
There was a road from Helorus to Syracuse 
(odor 'ElupivT], Thuc, yjL, 70 ; vii., 80). 

Helos (to "EAoc : 'EAeZof, 'EXcuttjc). 1. A 
town in Laconia, on the coast, in a marshy sit- 
uation, whence its name (£Xop=marsh). The 
town was in ruins in the time of PausaDias. It 
was commonly said that the Spartan slaves, 



HELVEC0NJ3. 



HEPHAESTUS. 



called Helotes [Wkoreg), were originally the 
Achaean inhabitants of this town, who were re- 
duced by the Dorian conquerors to slavery ; but 
this account of the origin of the Helotes seems 
to have been merely an invention, in conse- 
quence of the similarity of their name to that 
of the town of Helos. Vid. Diet, of Antiq., art. 
Helotes. — 2. A town or district of Elis, on the 
Alpheus. 

Helvecon^e, a people in Germany, between 
the Viadus and the Vistula, south of the Rugii, 
and north of the Burgundiones, reckoned by 
Tacitus among the Ligii. 

Helvetii, a brave and powerful Celtic people, 
v/ho dwelt between Mount Jurassus (now Jura), 
the Lacus Lemannus (now Lake of Geneva), the 
Rhone, and the Rhine as far as the Lacus Brig- 
antiuus (now Lake of Constance). They were 
thus bounded by the Sequani on the .west, by 
the Nantuates and Lepontii in Cisalpine Gaul 
on the south, by the Rosti on the east, and by 
the German nations on the north beyond the 
Rhine. Their country, called Ager Helvetiorum 
(but never Helvetia), thus corresponded to the 
western part of Switzerland. Their chief town 
was Aventicum. They were divided into four 
pagi or cantons, of which the Pagus Tigurlnus 
was the most celebrated. We only know the 
name of one of the three others, namely, the 
Vicus Verbigenus, or, more correctly, Urbigenus. 
The Helvetii are first mentioned in the war with 
the Cimbri. In B.C. 101 the Tigurini defeated 
and killed the Roman consul L. Cassius Longi- 
nus, on the Lake of Geneva, while another di- 
vision of the Helvetii accompanied the Cimbri 
and Teutones in their invasion of Gaul. Sub- 
sequently the Helvetii invaded Italy along with 
the Cimbri, and they returned home in safety 
after the defeat of the Cimbri by Marius and 
'Jutulus in, 101. About forty years aftefrward 
they resolved, upon the advice of Orgetorix, one 
of their chiefs, to migrate from their country 
with their wives and children, and seek a new 
home in the more fertile plains of Gaul. In 58 
they endeavored to carry their plan into execu- 
tion, but they were defeated by Caesar, and 
driven back into their own territories. The 
Romans now planted colonies and built fort- 
resses in their country (Noviodunum, Viudo- 
nissa, Aventicum), and the Ijjelvetii gradually 
adopted the customs and language of their con- 
querors. They were severely punished by the 
generals of Vitellius (A.D. *70), whom they re- 
fused to recognize as emperor ; and after that 
time they are rarely mentioned as a separate 
people. The Helvetii were included in Gallia 
Lugdunensis according to Strabo, but in Gallia 
Belgica according to Pliny : most modern writ- 
ers adopt Pliny's statement. When Gaul was 
subdivided into a great number of provinces 
under the later emperors, the country of the 
Helvetii formed, with that of the Sequani and 
the Rauraei, the province of Maxima Sequano- 
rwm. 

Helvia. [1. Mother , of the celebrated Cic- 
ero.] — 2. Mother of the philosopher Seneca. 

Helvidius Priscus. Vid. Priscus. 

Helvii, a people in Gaul, between the Rhone 
and Mount Oebenna, which separated them from 
the Arverni, were for a long time subject to 
Massilia, but afterward belonged to the prov- 



ince of Gallia Narbonensis. Their country pro- 
duced good wine. 

Helvius. 1. Blasio. Vid. Blasio. — 2. Cinna 
Vid. Cinna. — 3. Mancia. Vid. Mancia. — 4. -Pee- 
tinax. Vid. Pertinax. 

Hemeresia ( : B./j.ep?j(j'ia), the soothing goddess, 
a surname of Diana (Artemis), under which she 
was worshipped at the fountain Lusi (Aovaoi), 
in Arcadia. 

Hemeroscopion. Vid. Dianidm, No. 2. 

Hemina, Cassius. Vid. Cassius, No. 14. 

Heneti ('Everoi), an ancient people in Paphla- 
gonia, dwelling on the River Parthenius, fought 
on the side of Priam against the Greeks, but 
had disappeared before the historical times. 
They were regarded by many ancient writers 
as the ancestors of the Veneti in Italy. Vid. 
Veneti. 

Heniochi ('Hvioxoi), a people in Colchis, north 
of the Phasis, notorious as pirates. 
Henna. Vid. Enna. 

Hepilestia ('HcjiaLaria). 1. ('HfaiaTievc), a 
town in the northwest of the island of Lemnos. 
— 2. ('Kij>ai<jTL6Tjc,-Td6ni), a demus in Attica, be- 
longing to the tribe Acamantis. 

Heph^estiades Insula. Vid. JKolim. 

Heph^estion ('Hfaisrcuv). 1. Son of Amyn- 
tor, a Macedonian of Pella, celebrated as the 
friend of Alexander the Great, with whom he 
had been brought up. Alexander called He- 
phsestion his own private friend, but Craterus 
the friend of the king. Hephsestion accom- 
panied Alexander to Asia, and was employed 
by the king in many important commands. He 
died at Ecbatana, after an illness of only seven 
days, B.C. 325. Alexander's grief for his loss 
was passionate and violent. A general mourn- 
ing was ordered throughout the empire, and a 
funeral pile and monument erected to him at 
Babylon, at a cost of ten thousand talents. — 2. 
A Greek grammarian, who instructed the Em- 
peror Verus in Greek, and accordingly lived 
about A.D. 150. He was perhaps the author 
of a Manual on Metres ('EyxetpaJiOf Ttepl fierpuv), 
which has come down to us under the name of 
Hephsestion. This work is a tolerably complete 
manual of Greek metres, and forms the basis 
of all our knowledge on that subject. Edited 
by Gaisford, Oxon., 1810. 

Hephaestus ("H0aft7rof), called Vulcanus by 
the Romans, the god of fire. He was, accord- 
ing to Homer, the son of Zeus (Jupiter) and 
Hera (Juno). Later traditions state that he had 
no father, and that Hera (Juno) gave birth to 
him independent of Zeus (Jupiter), as she was 
jealous of Zeus (Jupiter) having given birth to 
Athena (Minerva) independent of her. He was 
born lame and weak, and was, in consequence, 
so much disliked by his mother that she threw 
him down from Olympus. The marine divini- 
ties, Thetis and Eurynome, received him, and 
he dwelt with them for nine years in a grotto, 
beneath Oceanus, making for them a variety of 
ornaments. He afterward returned to Olym- 
pus, though we are not told through what means, 
and he appears in Homer as the great a»tist of 
the gods of Olympus. Although he had been 
cruelly treated by his mother, he always show- 
ed her respect and kindness, and on one occa- 
sion took her part when she was quarrelling 
with Zeus (Jupiter), which so much enraged the 
351 



HEPTANOMIS. 



HERA. 



father of the gods that he seized Hephaestus 
(Vulcan) by the leg and hurled him down from 
heaven. Hephastus (Vulcan) was a whole day 
falling, but in the evening he alighted in the 
island of Lemnos, where he was kindly received 
by the Sintians. Later writers describe his 
lameness as the consequence of this fall, while 
Homer makes him lame from his birth. He again 
returned to Olympus, and subsequently acted 
the part of mediator between his parents. On 
that occasion he offered a cup of nectar to his 
mother and the other gods, who buret out into 
immoderate laughter on seeing him busily hob- 
bling from one god to another. Hephaestus 
(Vulcan) appeal's to have been originally the 
god of fire simply ; but as fire is indispensable 
in working metals, he was afterward regarded 
as an artist. His palace in Olympus was im- 
perishable and shining like stars. It contained 
his workshop, with the anvil and twenty bel- 
lows, whieh worked spontaneously at his bid- 
ding. It was there that he made all his beauti- 
ful and marvellous works, both for gods and 
men. The ancient poets abound in descriptions 
of exquisite workmanship which had been man- 
ufactured by the god. All the palaces in Olym- 
pus were his workmanship. He made the ar- 
mor of Achilles; the fatal necklace of Harmo- 
ain ; the fire-breathing bulls of jEetes, king of 
Jolohis, &c. In later accounts, the Cyclopes 
ire his workmen and servants, and his work- 
shop is no longer in Olympus, but in some vol- 
janic island. In the Iliad the wife of Hephaes- 
tus (Vulcan) is Charis : in Hesiod, Aglaia, the 
/oungest of the Charites ; but in the Odyssey, 
is well as in later accounts, Aphrodite (Venus) 
ippears as his wife. Aphrodite (Venus) proved 
aithless to her husband, and was in love with 
Ares (Mars) ; but Helios disclosed their amours 
io Hephaestus (Vulcan), who caught the guilty 
pair in an invisible net, and exposed them to 
the laughter of the assembled gods. The fa- 
vorite abode of Hephaestus (Vulcan) on earth 
was the island of Lemnos ; but other volcanic 
islands also, such as Lipara, Hiera, Imbros, and 
Sicily, are called his abodes or workshops. He- 
phaestus (Vulcan), like Athena (Minerva), gave 
skill to mortal artists, and, conjointly with her, 
he was believed to have taught men the arts 
which embellish and adorn life. Hence at 
Athens they had temples and festivals in com- 
mon. The epithets and surnames by which 
Hephaestus (Vulcan) is designated by the poets, 
generally allude to his skill in the plastic arts 
or to his lameness. The Greeks frequently 
placed small dwarf-life statues of the god near 
the hearth. During the best period of Grecian 
art he was represented as a vigorous man with 
a beard, and is characterized by his hammer or 
some other instrument, his oval cap, and the 
chiton, which leaves the right shoulder and arm 
uncovered. The Roman Vulcanus was an old 
Italian divinity. Vid. Vulcanus. 

Heptanomis. Vid. jEgyptus. 

Heea ("llpa or "Hprj), called Juno by the Ro- 
mans. • The Greek Hera, that is, Mistress, was 
a daughter of Cronos (Saturn) and Rhea, and 
sister and wife of Zeus (Jupiter). Some call 
her the eldest daughter of Cronos (Saturn), but 
others give this title to Hestia. According to 
Homer she was brought up by Oceanus and 
352 



Tethys, and afterward became the wife of Zeus 
(Jupiter) without the knowledge of her parents. 
This simple account is variously modified in 
other traditions. Being a daughter of Cronos 
(Saturn), she, like his other children, was swal- 
lowed by her father, but afterward released; 
and, according to an Arcadian tradition, she was 
brought up by Temenus, the son of Pelasgus. 
The Argives, on the other hand, related that 
she had been brought up by Eubcea, Prosymna, 
and Acrasa, the three daughters of the River 
Asterion. Several parts of Greece claimed the 
honor of being her birth-place, and more espe- 
cially Argos and Samos, which were the prin- 
cipal seats of her worship. Her marriage with 
Zeus (Jupiter) offered ample scope for poetical 
invention, and several places in Greece also 
claimed the honor of having been the scene of 
the marriage, such as Eubcea, Samos, Cnosus 
in Crete, and Mount Thornax in the south of 
Argolis. Her marriage, called the Sacred Mar- 
riage (iepbc ydfeor), was represented in many 
places where she was worshipped. At her nup- 
tials all the gods honored her with presents, and 
Ge (Terra) presented to her a tree with golden 
apples, which was watched by the Hesperi- 
des, at the foot of the Hyperborean Atlas. In 
the Iliad Hera (Juno) is treated by the Olym- 
pian gods with the same reverence as her hus- 
band. Zeus (Jupiter) himself listens to her 
counsels, aud communicates his secrets to her 
She is, notwithstanding, far inferior to him 
in power, and must obey him unconditionally. 
She is not, like Zeus (Jupiter), the queen of 
gods and men, but simply the wife of the su- 
preme god. The idea of her being the queen 
of heaven, with regal wealth and power, is of 
much later date. Her character, as described 
by Homer, is not of a very amiable kind ; and 
her jealousy, obstinacy, and quarrelsome dispo- 
sition sometimes make her husband tremble. 
Hence arise frequent disputes between Hera 
(Juno) and Zeus (J upiter) ; and on one occasion 
Hera (Juno), in conjunction with Poseidon (Nep- 
tune) and Athena (Minerva), contemplated put- 
ting Zeus (Jupiter) into chains. Zeus (Jupiter), 
in such cases, not only threatens, but beats her. 
Once he even hung her up in the clouds, with 
her hands chained, and with two anvils sus- 
pended from her Jeet ; and on another occasion, 
when Hephaestus (Vulcan) attempted to help 
her, Zeus (Jupiter) hurled him down from Olym- 
pus. By Zeus (Jupiter) she was the mother of 
Ares (Mars), Hebe, aud Hephaestus (Vulcan). 
Hera (Juno) was, properly speaking, the only 
really married goddess among the Olympians, 
for the marriage of Aphrodite (Venus) with 
Hephaestus (Vulcan) can scarcely be taken into 
consideration. Hence she is the goddess of 
marriage and of the birth of children. Several 
epithets and surnames, such as 'E.iXeiOvia, Ta/irj- 
Xla, Zvyca, TeXeia, &c, contain allusions to this 
character of the goddess, and the Ilithyiae are 
described as her daughters. She is represent- 
ed in the Iliad riding in a chariot drawn by twe 
horses, in the harnessing aud unharnessing of 
which she is assisted by Hebe and the Horai. 
Owing to the judgment of Paris (vid. Paris), 
she was hostile to the Trojans, and in the Tro- 
jan war she accordingly sid»d with the Greeks. 
She persecuted all the children of Zeus (Jupr- 



HERACLEA. 



HERACLIDJ3. 



ter) by mortal mothers, and hence appears as 
the enemy of Dionysus (Bacchus), Hercules, 
and otners. In the Argonautic expedition she 
assisted Jason. It is impossible here to enu- 
merate all the events of mythical story in which 
Hera (Juno) acts a part, and the reader must 
refer to the particular deities or heroes "with 
whose story she is connected. Hera (Juno) 
was worshipped in many parts of Greece, but 
aiore especially at Argos, in the neighborhood 
of which she had a splendid temple, on the road 
to Mycenae. Her great festival at Argos is de- 
scribed in the Diet, of Ant., art. Her^ea. She 
also had a splendid temple in Samos. The an- 
cients gave several interpretations respecting 
the real significance of Hera (Juno), but "we 
must in all probability regard her as the great 
goddess of nature, who was worshipped every 
where from the earliest times. The worship 
of the Roman Juno is spoken of in a separate 
article. Vid. Juno. Hera (Juno) was usually 
represented as a majestic woman of mature 
age, with a beautiful forehead, large and wide- 
ly-opened eyes, and with a grave expression 
commanding reverence. Her hair was adorn- 
ed with a crown or a diadem. A veil frequent- 
ly hangs down the back of her head, to charac- 
terize her as the bride of Zeus (Jupiter), and 
the diadem, veil, sceptre, and peacock are her 
ordinary attributes. 

Heraclea ('Hpd/cXeia : 'HpanXeurnc : Hera- 
cleotes). L In Europe. 1. H, in Lucania, on 
the River Siris, founded by the Tarentines. 
During the independence of the Greek states in 
the south of Italy, congresses were held in this 
town under the presidency of the Tarentines. 
It sunk into insignificance under the Romans. 
— 2. In Acarnania, on the Ambracian Gulf. — 3. 
In Pisatis Elis, in ruins in the time of Strabo. 
— i. The later name of Perinthus in Thrace. 
Vid. Perinthus. — 5. H. Caccabaria Porbaria, 
in Gallia Narbonensis, on the coast, a sea-port 
of the Massilians. — 6. H. Ltncestis (Avjktiotlc) 
also called Pelagonia (now Bitoglia or Bitolid), 
in Macedonia, on the Via Egnatia, west of the 
Erigon, the capital of one of the four districts 
into which Macedonia was divided by the Ro- 
mans. — 7. H. Minoa (Mtvua : ruins near Torre 
di Capo Bianco), on the southern coast of Sicily, 
at the mouth of the River Halycus, between 
Agrigentum and Selinus. According to tradi- 
tion it was founded by Minos, when he pursued 
Daedalus t» Sicily, and it may have been an an- 
cient colony of the Cretans. We know, how- 
ever, that it was afterward colonized by the in- 
habitants of Selinus, and that its original name 
was Minoa, which it continued to bear till about 
B.C. 500, when the town was taken by the Lac- 
edaemonians, under Euryleon, who changed its 
name into that of Heraclea ; but it continued to 
bear its ancient appellation as a surname, to dis- 
tinguish it from other places of the same name. 
It fell at an early period into the hands of the 
Carthaginians, and remained in their power till 
the conquest of Sicily by the Romans, who 
planted a colony there. — 8. H. Sintica (Stirt/c^), 
in Macedonia, a town of the Sinti, on the left 
bank of the Strymon, fouuded by Amyntas, 
brother of Philip. — 9. H. Trachinije, in Thes- 
saly. Vid. Trachis.— II. In Asia 1. H. Pon- 
tica ('H. r) Hovtiki}, or Rovtov, ■ r h> H6vto> : 
23 



now HaraMi or JEregli), a city on the southern 
shore of the Pontus Euxinus, on the coast of 
Bithynia, in the territory of the Mariandyni, was 
situated twenty stadia north of the River Lycus, 
upon a little river called Acheron or Soonautes, 
and near the base of a peninsula called Acheru- 
sia, and had a fine harbor. It was founded about 
B.C. 550 by colonists from Megara and from 
Tanagra in Bceotia (not, as Strabo says, from 
Miletus). After various political struggles, it 
settled down under a monarchical form of gov- 
ernment. It reached the height of its prosperi- 
ty in the reign of Darius Oodomannus, when it 
had an extensive commerce, and a territory 
reaching from the Parthenius to the Sangarius. 
It began to decline in consequence of the rise 
of the kingdom of Bithynia and the foundation 
of Nicomedia, and the invasion of Asia Minor 
by the Gauls ; and its ruin was completed in 
the Mithradatic war, when the city was taken 
and plundered, and partly destroyed, by the Ro- 
mans under Cotta. It was the native city of 
Heraclides Ponticus, and perhaps of the paint- 
er Zeuxis. — 2. H ad Latmum ('H. Adr/uov or # 
vtto Adr/ia : ruins near the Lake of Baffi), a town 
of Ionia, southeast of Miletus, at the foot of 
Mount Latmus, and upon the Sinus Latmicus ; 
formerly called Latmus. Near it was a cave, 
with the tomb of Endymion. There was an- 
other city of the same name in Caria, one in 
Lydia, two in Syria, one in Media, and one in 
India, none of which require special notice here. 

Heracleopolis ('HpanXzoviroXic). 1. Parva 
(f] /iLKpd), also called Sethron, a city of Lower 
Egypt, in the Nomos Sethroites, twenty-two 
Roman miles west of Pelusium. — 2. Mag"*a (# 
fieyd?.?}, also ij avu), the capital of the fertile 
Nomos Heracleopolites or Heracleotes, in the 
Heptanomis or Middle Egypt : a chief seat of 
the worship of the ichneumon. 

[Heracles ('Hpa/cA^f). Vid. Hercules.] 
Heracleum {'HpdaXeiov), the name of several 
promontories and towns, of which none require 
special notice except, 1. A town in Macedonia, 
at the mouth of the Apilas, near the frontiers 
of Thessaly. — 2. The harbor of Cnosus in Crete. 
— 3. A town on the coast of the Delta of Egypt, 
a little west of Canopus, from which the Cano- 
pic mouth of the Nile was often called also the 
Heracleotic mouth. — 4. A place near Gindarus, 
in the Syrian province of Cyrrhestice, where 
Ventidius, the legate of M. Antony, gained his 
great victory over the Parthians under Pacorus 
in B.C. 38. 

Heraclianus ('KpaKAEiavocf), one of the offi- 
cers of Honoriue, put Stilicho to death (AD 
408), and received, as the reward of that serv- 
ice, the government of Africa. He rendered 
good service to Honorius during the invasion of 
Italy by Alaric, and the usurpation of Attalus. 
In 413 he revolted against Honorius, and in- 
vaded Italy ; but his enterprise failed, and on 
his return to Africa he was put to death at Car- 
thage. 

HeracliDjE ('HpaK^eldai), the descendants of 
Hercules, who, in conjunction with the Dorians, 
conquered Peloponnesus. It had been the will 
of Jupiter (Zeus), so ran the legend, that Her- 
cules should rule over the country of the Per- 
seids, at Mycenae and Tiryns ; but, through 
Juno's (Hera) cunning, Eurystheus had been 
353 



HERACLIDAE. 



HERACLIDES. 



put into the place of Hercules, who had become 
the servant of the former. After the death of 
Hercules, his claims devolved upon his sons 
and descendants. At the time of his death, 
Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons by Deiamra, 
was residing with his brothers at the court of 
Ceyx at Trachis. As Eurystheus demanded 
their surrender, and Ceyx was unable to pro- 
tect them, they fled to various parts of Greece, 
until they were received as suppliants at Athens, 
at the altar of Eleos {Mercy). According to the 
Heradidce of Euripides, the sons of Hercules 
were first staying at Argos, thence went to 
Trachis in Thessaly, and at length came to 
Athens. Demophon, the son of Theseus, re- 
ceived them, and they settled in the Attic tetrap- 
olis. Eurystheus, to whom the Athenians re- 
fused to surrender the fugitives, now marched 
against the Athenians with a large army, but 
was defeated by the Athenians under Iolaus, 
Theseus, and Hyllus, and was slain with his 
sons. The battle itself was celebrated in Attic 
story as the battle of the Scironian rock, on the 
coast of the Saronic Gulf, though Pindar places 
it in the neighborhood of Thebes. After the 
battle the Heraclidae entered the Peloponnesus, 
and maintained themselves there for one year. 
This was their first invasion of Peloponnesus. 
But a plague, which spread over the whole pen- 
insula, compelled them to return to Attica, 
where, for a time, they again settled in the At- 
tic tetrapolis. From thence they proceeded to 
^Egimius, king of the Dorians, whom Hercules 
had assisted in his war against the Lapithae, and 
who had promised to preserve a third of his ter- 
ritory for the children of Hercules. Vid. Mai- 
mius. The Heraclidae were hospitably received 
by JEgimius, and Hyllus was adopted by the 
latter. After remaining in Doris three years, 
Hyllus, with a band of Dorians, undertook an 
expedition against Atreus, who had married a 
daughter of Eurystheus, and had become king 
of Mycenae and Tiryns. Hyllus marched across 
the Coriuthian isthmus, and first met Echemus 
of Tegea, who fought for the Pelopidae, the prin- 
cipal opponents of the Heraclidae. Hyllus fell 
in single combat with Echemus, and, according 
to an agrecmeut which had been made before 
the battle, the Heraclidae were not to make any 
further attempt upon Peloponnesus for the next 
fifty years. Thus ended their secoud invasion. 
They now retired to Tricorythus, where they 
were allowed by the Athenians to take up their 
abode. During the period which followed (ten 
years after the death of Hyllus), the Trojan war 
took place ; and thirty years after the Trojan 
war Cleodaeus, son of Hyllus, again invaded 
Peloponnesus, which was the third invasion ; 
about twenty years later, Aristomachus, the son 
of Cleodaeus, undertook the fourth expedition ; 
but both heroes fell. Not quite thirty years 
after Aristomachus (that is, about eighty years 
after the destruction of Troy), the Heraclidae 
prepared for their fifth and final attack. Teme- 
nus, Cresphontes, and Aristodemus, the sons 
of Aristomachus, upon the advice of an oracle, 
built a fleet on the Coriuthiau Gulf ; but this 
fleet was destroyed, because Hippotes, one of 
the Heraclidae, had killed Carnus, an Acarnaui- 
an soothsayer ; and Aristodemus was killed by 
a flash of lightning. An oracle now ordered 
354 



them to take a three-eyed man for their com- 
mander. He was found in the person of Oxy- 
lus, the son of Andraemon, an ^Etolian, but de- 
scended from a family in Elis. The expeditiou 
now successfully sailed from Naupaetus toward 
Rhium in Peloponnesus. Oxylus, keeping the 
invaders away from Elis, led them through Ar- 
cadia. The Heraclidae and Dorians conquered 
Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, who ruled over 
Argos, Mycenae, and Sparta. After this they 
became masters of the greater part of Pelopon- 
nesus, and then distributed by lot the uewly-ac 
quired possessions. Temenus obtained Argos ; 
Procles and Eurystheus, the twin sous of Aris- 
todemus, Laeedaemon ; and Cresphontes, Mes- 
senia. Such are the traditions about the Her- 
aclidae and their conquest of Peloponnesus. 
Toey are not purely mythical, but contain a 
genuine historical substance, notwithstanding 
the various contradictions in the accounts. 
They represent the conquest of the Achaean 
population by Dorian iovaders, who hencefor- 
ward appear as the ruling race in the Pelopon- 
nesus. The conquered Aehaeans became part- 
ly the slaves and partly the subjects of the Dori- 
ans. Vid. Diet, of Ant., art. Periceci. 

Heraclides ('HpaicTieidqc). 1. A Syracusan, 
sou of Lysimachus, one of the generals when 
Syracuse was attacked by the Athenians, B.C. 
415. — 2. A Syracusan, who held the chief com- 
mand of the mercenary forces uuder the young- 
er Dionysius. Being suspected by Dionysius, 
he fled from Syracuse, and afterward took part 
with Dion in expelliug Dionysius from Syra- 
cuse. After the expulsion of the tyrant, a pow- 
erful party at Syracuse looked up to Heraclides 
as their leader, in consequence of which Dion 
caused him to be assassinated, 354. — 3. Son of 
Agathoeles, accompanied his father to Africa, 
where he was put to death by the soldiers 
when they were deserted by Agathoeles, 307. 
— 4. Of Tarentum, one of the chief counsellors' 
of Philip V., king of Macedonia. — 5. Of Byzau- 
tium, sent as ambassador by Actiochus the 
Great to the two Seipios, 190. — 6. One of the 
three ambassadors sent by Antiochus Epipha- 
nes to the Romans, 169. Heraclides was ban- 
ished by Demetrius Soter, the successor of An- | 
tiochus (162), and in revenge gave his support 
to the imposture of Alexander Balas. — 7. Sur- 
named Posticus, because he was boru at Hera- 
clea in Pontus. He was a person of consider 
able wealth, and migrated to Athens, where he 
became a pupil of Plato. He paid attention also 
to the Pythagorean system, and afterward at- 
tended the instructions of Speusippus, and final- 
ly of Aristotle. He wrote a great number <f 
works upon philosophy, mathematics, music, 
history, politics, grammar, and poetry ; but al- 
most all of these works are lost. There has j 
come down to us a small work, under the name 
of Heraclides, eutitled irepl JloTitreiuv, of which 
the best editions are by Kbler, Halle, 1804, by 
Corae, in his edition of .(Elian, Paris, 1805, [and ( 
by Schucidewin, 1849]. Another extant work, 
' AXlriyoplai 'O/uqptKai, which also bears the 
name of Heraclides, was certainly not written , 
by him. Diogenes Laerlius. in his life of Her- 
aclides, says that ■■ Heraclides made tragedies, 
and put the name of Thespis to them." This 
sentence has given occasion to a learned dia- [ 



HERACLITUS. 



HERCULES. 



quisition by Bentley {Phalaris, p. 239), to prove 
that the fragments attributed to Thespis are 
really cited from these counterfeit tragedies of 
Heraclides. Some childish stories are told about 
Heraclides keepiug a pet serpent, and ordering 
one of his friends to conceal his body after his 
death and place the serpent on the bed, that it 
niight be supposed that he had been taken to 
th? company of the gods. It is also said that 
lie killed a man who had usurped the tyranny 
in Heraclea, and there are other traditions about 
him scarcely worth relating. — 8. An historian, 
who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Philopator 
(222-205), and wrote several works, quoted by 
the grammarians. — 9. A physician of Tarentum, 
lived in the third or secoud century B.C., and 
wrote some works on Materia Medica, and a 
commentary on all the works in the Hippocratic 
Collection. — 10. A physician of Erythrse in Ionia, 
was a pupil of Chrysermus, and a contemporary 
of Strabo in the first century B.C. 

Heracxitus ('HpuK?i£iToi). 1. Of Ephesus, a 
philosopher generally considered as belonging 
to the Ionian school, though he differed from 
their principles in many respects. In his youth 
he travelled extensively, and after his return to 
Ephesus the chief magistracy was offered him, 
which, however, he transferred to his brother. 
He appears afterward to have become a com- 
plete recluse, rejecting even the kindnesses 
offered by Darius, and at last retreatiug to the 
mountains, where he lived on pot-herbs; but, 
after some time, he was compelled by the sick- 
ness consequent on such meagre diet to return 
to Ephesus, where he died. He died at the age 
of sixty, aud flourished about B.C. 513. Her- 
aclitus wrote a work On Nature (nepl Qvcjeuc), 
which contained his philosophical views. From 
the obscurity of bis style, he gained the title of 
the Obscure (cKoreivoc). He considered fire to 
be the primary form of all matter ; but by fire 
he meant only to describe a clear light fluid, 
" self-kindled and self-extiuguished," and there- 
fore not differing materially from the air of 
Anaximenes. — 2. An Academic philosopher of 
Tyre, a friend of Antiochus, and a pupil of Cli- 
tomachus and Philo. — 3. The reputed author of 
a work, Ilepi 'kmorov, published by Wester- 
mann in his Mythographi, Brunsvig., 1843. — 
[4. Of Lesbos, author of a history of Macedo- 
nia. — 5. An elegiac poet of Halicaruassus, a 
contemporary aud friend of Callimaehus, who 
wrote an epigram on him.] 

[Heraclius ('HpuKXeioc : 'Hpa'/cAjof). 1. The 
name of several Sicilians mentioned by Cicero, 
e. g. : a..A citizen of Centuripiui, who appeared in 
evidence against Verres ; 6. A native of Segesta, 
put to death by Verres, though innocent ; e. Son 
of Hiero, a noble and opulent Syracusau, strip- 
ped of nearly all his property by Verres ; d. An- 
other Syracusau, priest of Jupiter (Zeus), held 
io high estimation by his fellow-citizens. — 2. A 
eunuch, and favorite of Valeutinian III. ; was 
the instigator of the murder of Aetius. — 3. A 
governor of the Emperor Leo's in Africa, fought 
successfully against the Vandals, 466 A.D.] 

Her^ba ('Hpaia : 'lipateic : ruins near St. Jo- 
annes), a town in Arcadia, on the right bank of 
the Alpheus, near the borders of Elis. Its ter- 
ritory was called Her^eatis ('HpaiuTic). 

Her^ei Montes (ra 'Hpaia opt] : now Monti 



Sori), a range of mountains in Sicily, running 
! from the centre of the island southeast, and end- 
ing in the promontory Pachynum. 

Her^um. Vid. Argos, p. 92, a. 

Herbessus. Vid. Erbessus. 

Herbita ("Epfora: 'EpSiraioc, Herbitensis, a 
town in Sicily, north of Agyrium, in the mount- 
ains, was a powerful place in early times under 
the tyrant Archonides, but afterward declined 
in importance. 

Herculaneum, a town in Samnium, conquer- 
ed by the consul Carvilius, B.C. 293 (Liv., x, 
45), must not be confounded with the more cel- 
ebrated town of this name mentioned below. 

Herculaneum, Hekculanium, Herculanum, 
Herculense Oppidum, Herculea Urbs ('Hpa- 
kXelov), an ancient city in Campania, near the 
coast, between Neapolis and Pompeii, was orig- 
inally founded by the Oscans, was next in the 
possession of the Tyrrhenians, and subsequent- 
ly was chiefly inhabited by Greeks, who ap- 
pear to have setted in the place from other 
cities of Magna Graacia, and to have given it its 
name. It was taken by the Romans in the So- 
cial war (B.C. 89, 88), and was colonized by 
them. In A.D. 63 a great part of it was de- 
stroyed by an earthquake; aud in 19 it was 
overwhelmed, along with Pompeii and Stabiee, 
by the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius. It 
was buried under showers of ashes and streams * 
of lava, from seventy to one hundred feet under 
the present surface of the ground. On its 
site stand the modern Portici and part of the 
village of Resina: the Italian name of Ereo- 
lano does not indicate any modern place, but 
only the part of Herculaneum that has been dis- 
interred. The ancient city was accidentally 
discovered by the sinking of a well in 1*720, 
£ince which time the excavations have been 
carried on at different periods ; and many works 
of art have been discovered, which are deposited 
in the Royal Museum at Portici. It has been 
found necessary to fill up again the excavations 
which were made, in order to render Portici and 
Resina secure, and therefore very little of the 
ancient city is to be seen. The buildings that 
have been discovered are a theatre capable of 
accommodating about ten thousand spectators, 
the remains of two temples, a large building, 
commonly designated as a forum civile, two 
hundred and twenty-eight feet long and one 
hundred and thirty-two broad, and some private 
houses, the walls of which were adorned with 
paintings, many of which, when discovered, 
were in a state of admirable preservation. 
There have been also found at Herculaneum 
many MSS., written on rolls of papyrus ; but 
the difficulty of unrolling and deciphering them 
was very great; and the few which have been 
deciphered are of little value, consisting of a 
treatise of Philodemus on music, and fragments 
of unimportant works on philosophy. 

Hercules ('HpaKAyg), the most celebrated of 
all the heroes of antiquity. His exploits were 
celebrated not only in all the countries round 
the Mediterranean, but even in the most distant 
lands of the ancient world. I. Greek Legends. 
The Greek traditions about Hercules appear in 
their national purity down to the time of He- 
rodotus. But the poets of the time of Herodo- 
tus and of the subsequent periods introduced 
355 



HERCULES. 

considerable alterations, which were probably ! 
derived from the East or Egypt, for every nation | 
possesses some traditions respecting heroes of 
superhuman strength and power. Now while 
in the earliest Greek legends Hercules is a 
purely human hero, a conqueror of men, and 
cities, he afterward appears as the subduer of 
monstrous animals, and is connected in a va- 
riety of ways with astronomical phenomena. 
According to Homer, Hercules was the son of 
Jupiter (Zeus) by Alcmene of Thebes in Bceo- 
tia. His stepfather was Amphitryon. Amphit- 
ryon was the son of Alcseus, the son of Perseus ; 
and Alcmene was a grand-daughter of Pers- 
eus. Hence Hercules belonged to the family 
of Perseus. Jupiter (Zeus) visited Alcmene 
in the form of Amphitryon, while the latter was 
absent warring against the Taphians ; and he, 
pretending to be her husband, became by her 
the father of Hercules. For details, vid. Alc- 
mene, Amphitryon. On the day on which Her- 
cules was to be born, Jupiter (Zeus) boasted of 
his becoming the father of a hero who was to 
rule over the race of Perseus. Juno (Hera) 
prevailed upon him to swear that the descend- 
ant of Perseus born that day should be the ruler. 
Thereupon she hastened to Argos, and there 
caused the wife of Sthenelus to give birth to 
Eurystheus ; whereas, by keeping away the 
Ilithyise, she delayed the birth of Hercules, and 
thus robbed him of the empire which Jupiter 
(Zeus) had destined for him. Jupiter (Zeus) 
was enraged at the imposition practiced upon 
him, but could not violate his oath. Alcmene 
brought into the world two boys, Hercules, the 
son of Jupiter, (Zeus), and Iphicles, the son of 
Amphityron. Nearly all the stories about the 
childhood and youth of Hercules, down to the 
time when he entered the service of Eurysth- 
eus, seem to be inventions of a later age. At 
least in Homer and Hesoid we are only told that 
he grew strong in body and mind ; that, confid- 
ing in his own powers, he defied even the immor- 
tal gods, and wounded Juno (Hera) and Mars 
(Ares), and that under the protection of Jupiter 
(Zeus) and Minerva (Athena) he escaped the 
dangers which Juno (Hera) prepared for him. 
To these simple accounts, various particulars 
are added in later writers. As he lay in his 
cradle, Juno (Hera) sent two serpents to destroy 
him, but the infant hero strangled them with 
his own hands. As he grew up, he was in- 
structed by Amphitryon in driving a chariot, by 
Autolycus in wrestling, by Eurytus in archery, 
by Castor in fighting with heavy armor, and by 
Linus in singing and playing the lyre. Linus 
was killed by his pupil with the lyre because 
he had censured him ; and Amphitryon, to pre- 
vent similar occurrences, sent him to feed his 
sattle. In this manner he spent his life till his 
eighteenth year. His first great adventure hap- 
pened while he was still watching the oxen of 
Lis stepfather. A huge lion, which haunted 
Mount Citharon, made great havoc among the 
flocks of Amphitryon and Thespius (or Thesti- 
us), king of Thespiae. Hercules promised to 
deliver the country of the monster ; and Thes- 
pius rewarded Hercules by making him his 
guest so long as the chase lasted. Hercules 
slew the lion, and henceforth wore its skin as 
his ordinary garment, and its mouth and head 
356 



HERCULES. 

I as his helmet. Others related that the lion'» 
; skin of Hercules was taken from the NemeaB 
I lion. On his return to Thebes, he met the 
envoys of King Erginus of Orchomenos, who 
were going to fetch the annual tribute of one 
hundred oxen, which they had compelled the 
Thebans to pay. Hercules cut off the nose* 
and ears of the envoys, and thus sent them lack 
to Erginus. The latter thereupon marched 
against Thebes; but Hercules defeated and 
killed Erginus, and compelled the Orchomeni- 
ans to pay double the tribute which they had 
formerly received from the Thebans. In this 
battle against Erginus Hercules lost his step- 
father Amphitryon, though the tragedians make 
him survive the campaign. Creon rewarded 
Hercules with the hand of his daughter Me- 
gara, by whom he became the father of several 
children. The gods, on the other hand, made 
him presents of arms : Mercury (Hermes) gave 
him a sword, Apollo a bow and arrows, Vulcan 
(Hephaestus) a golden coat of mail, and Mi- , 
nerva (Athena) a peplus. He cut for himself a I 
club in the neighborhood of Nemea, while, ac- 
cording to others, the club was of brass, and 
the gift of Vulcan (Hephaestus). Soon after- 
ward Hercules was driven mad by Juno (Hera), 
and in this state he killed his own children by 
Megara and two of Iphicles. In his grief he 
sentenced himself to exile, and went to Thes- 
pius, who purified him. Other traditions place 
this madness at a later time, and relate the cir- 
cumstances differently. He then consulted the | 
oracle of Delphi as to where he should settle. 
The Pythia first called him by the name, of Her- ' 
cules — for hitherto his name had been Alcides I 
or Alcseus — and ordered him to live at Tiryns, 
and to serve Eurystheus for the space of twelve 
years, after which lie should become immortal, j 
Hercules accordingly went to Tiryns, and did 
as he was bid by Eurystheus. The accounts 
of the twelve labors which Hercules performed 
at the bidding of Eurystheus are found only in 
the later writers. The only one of the twelve 
labors mentioned by Homer is his descent into 
the lower world to carry off Cerberus. We also 
find in Homer the fight of Hercules with a sea- 
monster ; his expedition to Troy, to fetch the ; 
horses which Laomedon had refused him \. and 
his war against the Pylians, when he destroyed 
the whole family of their king Neleus, with the 
exception of Nestor. Hesiod mentions several 
of the feats of Hercules distinctly, but knows 
nothing of their number twelve. The selection 
of these twelve from the great number of feats 
ascribed to Hercules is probably the work of 
the Alexandrines. They are usually arranged 
in the following order. 1. The fight with the 
Nemean lion. The valley of Nemea, between 
Cleonas and Phlius, was inhabited by a mon- | 
strous lion, the offspring of Typhon and Echid- 
na. Eurystheus ordered Hercules to bring him 
the skin of this monster. After using in yain 
his club and arrows against the lion, he stran 
gled the animal with his own hands. He re- 
turned carrying the dead lion on his shoulders ; 
but Eurystheus was so frightened at the gigan- 
tic strength of the hero, that he ordered him in 
future to deliver the account of his exploits 
outside the town. — 2. Fight against the Lernasan 
hvdra. This monster, like the lion, was the 



HERCULES. 

offspring of Typhon and Echidna, and was 
brought up by Juno (Hera). It ravaged the 
country of Lerna near Argos, and dwelt in a 
swamp near the well of Amymone. It had nine 
heads, of which the middle one was immortal. 
Hercules struck off its heads with his club ; but 
in the place of the head he cut off, two new 
ones grew forth each time. A gigantic crab 
also came to the assistance of the hydra, and 
wounded Hercules. However, with the assist- 
ance of his faithful servant Iolaus, he burned 
away the heads of the hydra, and buried the 
ninth or immortal one under a huge rock. Hav- 
ing thus conquered the monster, he poisoned his 
arrows with its bile, whence the wounds inflict- 
ed by them became incurable. Eurystheus de- 
clared the victory unlawful, as Hercules had 
won it with the aid of Iolaus. — 3. Capture of 
the Arcadian stag. This animal had golden 
antlers and brazen feet. It had been dedicated 
to Diana (Artemis) by the nymph Taygete, be- 
cause the goddess had saved her from the pur- 
suit of Jupiter (Zeus). Hercules was ordered 
to bring the animal alive to Mycenae. He pur- 
sued it in vain for a whole year : at length he 
wounded it with an arrow, caught it, and car- 
lied it away on his shoulders. While in Arca- 
dia, he was met by Diana (Artemis), who was 
angry with him for having outraged the aoimal 
sacred to her ; but he succeeded in soothing her 
anger, and carried his prey to Mycenas. Ac- 
cording to some statements he killed the stag. 
— i. Destruction of the Erymanthian boar. This 
animal, which Hercules was ordered to bring 
alive to Eurystheus, had descended from Mount 
Erymanthus into Psophis. Hercules chased 
him through the deep snow and having thus 
worn him out, he caught him in a net, and car- 
ried him to Mycenae. Other traditions place 
the hunt of the Erymanthian boar in Thessaly, 
and some even in Phrygia. It must be observ- 
ed that this and the subsequent labors of Her- 
cules are connected with certain subordinate 
labors, called Parerga (Hdpepya). The first of 
these parerga is the fight of Hercules with the 
Centaurs. In his pursuit of the boar he came 
to the centaur Pholus, who had received from 
Bacchus (Dionysus) a cask of excellent wine. 
Hercules opened it, contrary to the wish of his 
host, and the delicious fragrance attracted the 
other centaurs, who besieged the grotto of Pho- 
lus. Hercules drove them away ; they fled to 
the house of Chiron; and Hercules, eager in 
his pursuit, wounded Chiron, his old friend, with 
one of his poisoned arrows ; in consequence of 
which, Chiron died. Vid. Chiron. Pholus like- 
wise was wounded by one of the arrows, which 
by accident fell on his foot and killed him. 
This fight with the centaurs gave rise to the 
establishment of mysteries, by which Ceres (De- 
meter) intended to purify the hero from the blood 
he had shed against his own will. — 5. Cleansing 
of the stables of Augeas. Eurystheus imposed 
upon Hercules the task of cleansing in one day 
the stalls of Augeas, king of Elis. Augeas had 
a herd of three thousand oxeu, whose stalls had 
not been cleansed for thirty years. Hercules, 
without mentioning the command of Euiysth- 
eus, went to Augeas, and offered to cleanse his 
stalls in one day, if he would give him the tenth 
part of his cattle. Augeas igreed to the terms ; 



HERCULES. 

and Hercules, after taking Phyleus, the son oi 
Augeas, as his witness, led the rivers Alpheus 
and Peneus through the stalls, which were thus 
cleansed iu a single day. But Augeas, who 
learned that Hercules had undertaken the work 
by the command of Eurystheus, refused to give 
him the reward. His son Phyleus then bore 
witness against his father, who exiled him from 
Elis. Eurystheus, however, declared the exploit 
null and void, because Hercules had stipulated 
with Augeas for a reward for performing it. At 
a later time Hercules invaded Elis, and killed 
Augeas and his sons. After this he is said to 
have founded the Olympic games. — 6. Destruc- 
tion of the Stymphalian birds. These voracious 
birds had been brought up by Mars (Ares). 
They had brazen claws, wings, and beaks, used 
their feathers as arrows, and ate human flesh. 
They dwelt on a lake near Stymphalus in Arca- 
dia, from which Hercules was ordered by Eu- 
rystheus to expel them. When Hercules un- 
dertook the task, Minerva (Athena) provided 
him with a brazen rattle, by the noise of which 
he startled the birds ; and, as they attempted to 
fly away, he killed them with his arrows. Ac- 
cording to some accounts, he only drove the 
birds away, and they appeared again in the 
island of Aretias, where they were found by the 
Argonauts. — 7. Capture of the Cretan bull. Ac- 
cording to some, this bull was the one which 
had carried Europa across the sea. According 
to others, the bull had been sent out of the sea 
by Neptune (Poseidon), that Minos might offer 
it in sacrifice. But Minos was so charmed 
with the beauty of the animal, that he kept it, 
and sacrificed another in its stead. Neptune 
(Pos-eidon) punished Minos by driving the bull 
mad, and causing it to commit great havoc iu 
the island. Hercules was ordered by Eurys- 
theus to catch the bull, and Minos willingly 
allowed him to do so. Hercules accomplished 
the task, and brought the bull home on his shoul- 
ders ; but he then set the animal free again. 
The bull now roamed through Greece, and at 
last came to Marathon, where we meet it again 
in the stories of Theseus. — 8. Capture of the 
mares of the Thracian Diomedes. This Diome- 
des, king of the Bistones in Thrace, fed his 
horses with human flesh. Eurystheus ordered 
Hercules to bring these animals to Mycenae. 
With a few companions, he seized the animals, 
and conducted them to the sea-coast. But here 
he was overtaken by the Bistones. During the 
fight he intrusted the mares to his friend Abde- 
rus, who was devoured by them. Hercules de- 
feated the Bistones, killed Diomedes, whose 
body he threw before the mares, built the town 
of Abdera in honor of his unfortunate friend, and 
then returned to Mycenas with the mares, which 
had become tame after eating the flesh of their 
master. The mares were afterward set free, 
and destroyed on Mount Olympus by wild beasts. 
— 9. Seizure of the girdle of the queen of the Am- 
azons. Hippolyte, the queen of the Amazons, 
possessed a girdle, which she had received from 
Mars (Ares). Admete, the daughter of Eury- 
stheus, wished to obtain this girdle, and Her- 
cules was therefore sent to fetch it. He was 
accompanied by a number of volunteers, and 
after various adventures in Europe and Asia, ho 
at length reached the country of the Amazons 
357 



HERCULES. 

Hippolyte at first received him kindly, and prom- 
ised him her girdle ; but Juuo (Hera) having 
excited the Amazons against him, a contest en- 
sued, in which Hercules killed their queen. He 
then took her girdle, and carried it with him. 
In this expedition Hercules killed the two sons 
of Boreas, Calais and Zetes ; and he also begot 
three sons by Echidna, in the country of the 
Hyperboreans. On his way home he landed in 
Troas, where he rescued Hesione from the mon- 
ster sent against her by Neptune (Poseidon) ; 
in return for which service, her father, Laome- 
don, promised him the horses he had received 
from Jupiter (Zeus) as a compensation for Gany- 
medes ; but, as Laomedon did not keep his word, 
Hercules, on leaving, threatened to make war 
against Troy. He landed in Thrace, where he 
slew Sarpedon, and at length returned through 
Macedonia to Peloponnesus. — 10. Capture of 
the oxen of Geryones in Erythia. Geryones, the 
monster with three bodies, lived in the fabu- 
lous island of Erythia (the reddish), so called 
because it lay under the rays of the setting sun 
in the west. This island was originally placed 
off the coast of Epirus, but was afterward iden- 
tified either with Gades or the Balearic Islands, 
and was at all times believed to be iu the distant 
west. The oxen of Geryones were guarded by 
the giant Eurytion and the two-headed dog 
Orthrus ; and Hercules was commanded by Eu- 
rystheus to fetch them. After traversing vari- 
ous countries, he reached at length the frontiers 
of Libya and Europe, where he erected two pil- 
lars (Calpe and Abyla) on the tw-o sides of the 
Straits of Gibraltar, which were hence called the 
Pillars of Hercules. Being annoyed by the heat 
of the sun, Hercules shot at Helios, who so much 
admired his boldness, that he presented him 
with a golden cup or boat, in which he sailed to 
Erythia. He there slew Eurytion and his dog, 
as well as Geryones, and sailed with his booty 
to Tartessus, where he returned the golden cup 
(boat) to Helios. On his way home he passed 
through Gaul, Italy, Utyricum, and Thrace, and 
met with numerous adventures, which are vari- 
ously embellished by the poets. Many attempts 
were made to deprive him of the oxen, but he 
at length brought them in safety to Eurystheus, 
who sacrificed them to Juno (Hera). These 
ten labors were performed by Hercules in the 
space of eight years and one month ; but as Eu- 
rystheus declared two of them to have been per- 
formed unlawfully, he commanded him to ac- 
complish two more. — 11. Fetching the golden 
apples of the Hesperides. This was particularly 
difficult, since Hercules did not know where to 
find them. They were the apples which Juno 
(Hera) had received at her wedding from Terra 
(Ge), and which she had intrusted to the keep- 
ing of the Hesperides and the dragon Ladon, on 
Mount Atlas, iu the country of the Hyperbore- 
ans. For details, vid. Hesperides. After vari- 
ous adventures iu Europe, Asia, and Africa, Her- 
cules at lengh arrived at Mount Atlas. On the 
advice of Prometheus, he sent Atlas to fetch 
the apples, and in the mean time bore the weight 
of heaven for him. Atlas returned with the 
apples, but refused to take the burden of heaven 
on his shoulders again. Hercules, however, 
contrived by a stratagem to get the apples, and 
hastened away. On his return Eurystheus 
358 



HERCULES. 

[made him a present of the apples ; but Hevcuiee 
dedicated them to Minerva (Atheua), who Vv 
stored them to their former place. Some tradi 
tions add that Hercules killed the dragon Ladoa 
— 12. Bringing Cerberus from the lower world. 
This was the most difficult of the twelve labors 
of Hercules. He descended into Hades, near 
Tjenarum in Laconia, accompanied by Mercury 
(Hermes) and Minerva (Atheua). He delivered 
Theseus and Ascalaphus from their torments. 
He obtained permission from Pluto to carry 
Cerberus to the upper world, provided he could 
accomplish it without force of arms. Her- 
cules succeeded in seizing the monster and car- 
rying it to the upper world ; and after he had 
shown it to Eurystheus, he carried it back again 
to the lower world. Some traditions connect 
the descent of Hercules into the lower world 
with a contest with Hades, as we see even in 
the Iliad, (v., 39v), and more particularly in the 
Alcestis of Euripides (24, 846). Besides these 
twelve labors, Hercules performed several other 
feats without being commanded by Eurystheus. 
These feats were called Pctrerga by the ancients. 
Several of them were interwoven with the 
twelve labors, and have been already described 
those which had no connection with the twelve 
labors are spoken of below. After Hercules had 
performed the twelve labors, he was released 
from the servitude of Eurystheus, and returned 
to Thebes. Here there gave Megara in marriage 
to Iolaus ; and he wished to gain in marriage 
for himself Iole, the daughter of Eurytus, king 
of CEchalia. Eurytus promised his daughter to 
the man who should conquer him and his sons 
in shooting with the bow. Hercules defeated 
them; but Eurytus and his sons, with the ex- 
ception of Iphitus, refused to give Iole to him, 
because he had murdered his own children. 
Soon afterward the oxen of Eurytus were car- 
ried off, and it was suspected that Hercules was 
the offender. Iphitus again defended Hercules, 
and requested his assistance in searching after 
the oxen. Hercules agreed ; but when the two 
had arrived at Tiryns, Hercules, in a fit of mad- 
ness, threw his friend down from the wall, and 
killed him. Deiphobus of Amyclae purified Her 
cules from this murder, but he was, neverthe- 
less, attacked by a severe illness. Hercules 
then repaired to Delphi to obtain a remedy, but 
the Pythia refused to answer his questions. A 
struggle ensued between Hercules and Apollo, 
and the combatants were not separated till Ju- 
piter (Zeus) sent a flash of lightning between 
them. The oracle now declared that he would 
be restored to health if he would serve three 
years for wages, and surrender his earnings to 
Eurytus, as an atonement for the murder of 
Iphitus. Therefore he became servant to 
Omphale, queen of Lydia, and widow of Tmolus. 
Later writers describe Hercules as living effem- 
inately during his residence with Omphale : he 
span wool, it is said, and sometimes put on the 
garments of a woman, while Omphale wore his 
lion's skin. According to other accounts, he 
nevertheless performed several great feats dur- 
ing this time. He undertook au expedition to 
Colchis, which brought lum into connection with 
the Argonauts ; he took part in the Calydonian 
hunt, and met Theseus on his lauding from 
Trcezene on the Corinthian isthmus. An ex 



HERCULES. 

pedition to India, which was mentioned in some 
traditions, may likewise be inserted in this 
place. When the time of his servitude had ex- 
pired, be sailed against Troy, took the city, and 
killed Laomedon, its king. On bis return from 
Troy, a storm drove him on the island of Cos, 
where he was attacked by the Meropes; but he 
defeated them and killed their king, Eurypylus. 
I.t was about this time that the gods sent for 
him in order to fight against the Giants. Vid. 
Uigantes. Soon after his return to Argos he 
marched against Augeas, as has been related 
above. He then proceeded against Pylos, which 
he took, and killed the sous of Neleus except 
Nestor. He next advanced against Lacedae- 
mou, to punish the sons of Hippoeoon for hav- 
ing assisted Neleus and slain CEonus, the son of 
Licymnius. He took Lacedaemon, and assign- 
ed the government of it to Tyndareus. On his 
return to Tegea, he became, by Auge, the fa- 
ther of Telephus (vid. Auge) ; and he then pro- 
ceeded to Calydon, where he obtained Deia- 
nira, the daughter of (Eueus, for his wife, after 
fighting with Achelous for her. Vid. Deiani- 
ra, Achelous. After Hercules had been mar- 
lied to Deianira nearly three years, he acci- 
dentally killed, at a banquet in the house of 
(Eueus, the boy Eunomus. In accordance with 
the law, Hercules went into exile, taking with 
him his wife Deianira. On their road they 
came to the River Evenus, across which the 
centaur Nessus carried travellers for a small 
sum of money. Hercules himself forded the 
river, but gave Deianira to Nessus to carry 
across. Nessus attempted to outrage her : Her- 
cules heard her screaming, and shot an arrow 
into the heart of Nessus. The dying centaur 
callsd out to Deianira to take his blood with 
her, as it was a sure means of preserving the 
love of her husband. He then conquered the 
Dryopes, and assisted ^Egimius, king of the 
Dorians, against the Lapithas. Vid. ^Egimius. 
After this he took up his abode at Trachis, 
whence he marched against Eurytus of (Echa- 
lia. He took (Echalia, killed Eurytus and his 
sons, and carried off his daughter Iole as a pris- 
oner. On his return home he landed at Ce- 
uaaum, a promontory of Eubcea, erected an altar 
to Jupiter (Zeus), and sent his companion Li- 
chas to Trachis, in order to fetch him a white 
garment, which he intended to use during the 
a&crifice, Deianira, afraid lest Iole should sup- 
plant her in the affections of her husband, steep- 
ed the white garment he had demanded in the 
blood of Nessus. This blood had been poisoned 
by the arrow with which Hercules had shot Nes- 
sus ; and, accordingly, as soon as the garment 
became warm on the body of Hercules, the 
poison penetrated iuto all his limbs, and caused 
Eiim the most excruciating agony. He seized 
Lichas by his feet, and threw him into the 
sea. He wrenched off the garment, but it 
stuck to his flesh, and with it he tore away 
whole pieces from his body. In this state he 
was conveyed to Trachis. Deianira, on seeing 
wha': she had unwittingly done, hung herself. 
Hercules commanded Hyllus, his eldest son by 
Deianira, to marry Iole as soon as he should 
arrive at the age of mauhood. He then as- 
cended Mount (Eta, raised a pile of wood, on 
which he placed himself, and ordered it to be 



HERCULES. 

set on fire. No one ventured to obej him, until 
at length Poeas the shepherd, who passed by, 
was prevailed upon to comply with the desire 
of the suffering hero. "When the pile was 
1 burning, a cloud came down from heaven, and, 
amid peals of thunder, carried him to Olympus, 
where he was honored with immortality, be- 
came reconciled to Juno (Hera), and married 
her daughter Hebe, by whom he became the 
father of Alexiares and Anicetus. Immediately 
after his apotheosis, his friends offered sacri- 
fices to him as a hero ; and he was, in course 
of time, worshipped throughout all Greece as a 
god and as a hero. His worship, however, pre- 
vailed more extensively among the Dorians 
than among any other of the Greek races. The 
sacrifices offered to him consisted principally 
of bulls, boars, rams, aud lambs. The works of 
art in which Hercules was represented were 
extremely numerous, and of the greatest vari- 
ety, for he was represented at all the various 
stages of his life, from the cradle to his death. 
But whether he appears as a child, a youth, a 
struggling hero, or as the immortal inhabitant 
of Olympus, his character is always one of 
heroic strength and energy. Specimens of 
every kind are still extant. The finest repre- 
sentation of the hero that has come down to us 
is the so-called Fainese Hercules, which was 
executed by Glycon. The hero is resting, 
leaning on his right arm, and his head reclining 
on his left hand : the whole figure is a most ex- 
quisite combination of peculiar softness with 
the greatest strength. — II. Roman Traditions. 
The worship of Hercules at Rome and in Italy 
is connected by Roman writers with the hero's 
expedition to fetch the , oxen of Geryones. 
They stated that Hercules, on his return, visited 
Italy, where he abolished human sacrifices 
among the Sabines, established the worship of 
fire, and slew Cacus, a robber, who had stolen 
his oxen. Vid. Cacus. The aborigines, and 
especially Evander, honored Hercules with' di- 
vine worship; and Hercules, in return, taught 
them the way in which he was to be worship- 
ped, and intrusted the care of his worship to 
two distinguished families, the Potitii and Pi- 
narii. Vid. Pinaria Gens. The Fabia gens 
traced its origin to Hercules ; and Fauna and 
Acca Laurentia are called mistresses of Her- 
cules. In this manner the Romans connected 
their earliest legends with Hercules. It should 
be observed that in the Italian traditions the 
hero bore the name of Recarauus, and this 
Recaranus was afterward identified with the 
Greek Hercules. He had two temples at 
Rome. One was a small round temple of Her- 
cules Victor, or Hercules Triumphalis, betweeu 
the river aud the Circus Maximus, in front of 
which was the ara maxima, on which, after a 
triumph, the tenth of the booty was deposited 
for distribution among the citizens. The sec- 
ond temple stood near the porta trigemina, and 
contained a bronze statue and the altar on 
which Hercules himself was believed to have 
once offered a sacrifice. Here the city praetor 
offered every year a young cow, which was 
consumed by the people within the sanctuary. 
At Rome Hercules was connected with the 
Muses, whence he is called Musagctes, and was 
represented with a lyre, of which there is no 
359 



HERCULES. 



HERMAPHRODJTUS. 



trace in Greece. III. Traditions of other 
nations. The ancients themselves expressly 
mention several heroes of the name of Her- 
cules, who occur among the principal nations 
of the ancient world. 1. The Egyptian Hercules, 
whose Egyptian name was Som, or Dsom, or 
Chon, or, according to Pausanias, Maceris, was 
a son of Amon or Nilus. He was placed by the 
Egyptians in the second of the series of the ev- 
olcinns of their gods. — 2. Tlie Cretan Hercules, 
on* •■ f the Idaean Dactyls, was believed to have 
founded the temple of Jupiter (Zeus) at Olympia, 
but to have come originally from Egypt. He 
was worshipped with funeral sacrifices, and was 
regarded as a magician, like other ancient dse- 
mones of Crete. — 3. The Indian Hercules, was 
called by the unintelligible name Dorsanes 
(Aopadvnc). The later Greeks believed that he 
was their own hero, who had visited India; and 
they related that in India he became the father 
of many sons and daughters by Paudaea, and 
the ancestral hero of the Indian kings. — 4. The 
Phoenician Hercules, whom the Egyptians con- 
sidered to be more ancient than their own, was 
worshipped in all the Phoenician colonies, such 
as Carthage and Gades, down to the time of 
Coustantine, and it is said that children were 
sacrificed to him. — 5. The Celtic and Germanic 
Hercules is said to have founded Alesia and 
Nemausus, and to have become the father of 
the Celtic race. We become acquainted with 
him in the accounts of the expedition of the 
Greek Hercules against Geryones. We must 
either suppose that the Greek Hercules was 
identified with native heroes of those northern 
countries, or that the notions about Hercules 
had beeu introduced there from the East. 

Hercules ('Hpa/c/><%), son of Alexander the 
Great by Barsine, the widow of the Rhodian 
Memnon. In B.C. 310 he was brought forward 
by Polj'sperehon as a pretender to the Macedo- 
nian throne; but he was murdered by Poly- 
sperchon himself in the following year, when 
the latter became reconciled to Cassander. 

Herculis Columns. Vid. Abyla, Calpe. 

Herculis Monoeci Poettjs. ' Vid. Moncscus. 

Herculis Portus. Vid. Cosa. 

[Portus Herculis Lizurni or Labronis, 
(now Leghorn), a town of Italy, on the coast of 
Etruria. Vid. Labro.] 

Herculis Promontorium (now Cape Sparti- 
vento), the most southerly point of Italy in Brut 
tium. 

Herculis Silva, a forest in Germany, sacred 
to Hercules, east of the Visurgis. 

Hercynia Silva, Hercynius Saltus, Her- 
cynium Jugum, an extensive range of mount- 
ains iu Germany, covered with forests, is de- 
scribed by Caesar (B. 67., vi., 24) as nine days' 
journey in breadth, and more than sixty days' 
journey in length, extending east from the ter- 
ritories of the Helvetii, Nemetes, and Rauraci, 
parallel to the Danube, to the frontiers of the 
Daciaus. Under this general name Caesar ap- 
pears to have included all the mountains and 
forests in the south and centre of Germany, 
the Black Forest, Odenwald, Tliiiringerwald, the 
Harz, the Erzgebirge, the Riesengcbirge, &c. 
As the Romans became better acquainted with 
Germany, the name was confined to narrower 
limits. Fliny and Tacitus use it to indicate the 
9 60 



range of mountains between the Thiiringerwald 
and the Carpathian Mountains. The name is 
still preserved in the modern Harz and Erz. 

Herdonia (Herdouieusis: now Ordona), a 
; town iu Apulia, was destroyed by Hannibal, 
( who removed its inhabitants "to Tburii and Me- 
|tapontum; it was rebuilt by the Romans, but 
remained a place of no importance. 

Herdonius. 1. Turnus, of Aricia, in Latium, 
| endeavored to rouse the Latins against Tar- 
' quinius Superbus, and was, in consequence, 
\ falsely accused by Tarquinius, and put to death. 
' — 2. Appius, a Sabine chieftain, who, in B.C. 
460, with a band of outlaws and slaves, made 
himself master of the Capitol. On the fourth 
day from his entry the Capitol was retaken, 
and Herdonius and nearly all his followers 
j were slain. 

Herennia Gens, originally Samnite, and by 
j the Samnite invasion established in Campania, 
; became at a later period a plebeian house at 
! Rome. The Herecnii were a family of rank 
in Itaby, and are frequently mentioned in the 
time of the Samnite and Punic wars. They 
were the hereditary patrons of the Marii. 

Herennius. 1. Modestinus. Vid. Modesti- 
nus. — 2. Pontius. Vid. Pontius. — 3. Senecio. 
Vid. Senecio. 

Herileus ("HpMoc), of Carthage, a Stoic 
philosopher, was the disciple of Zeno of Citi- 
um. He did not, however, confine himself to 
the opiuious of his master, but held some doc- 
trines directly opposed to them. He held that 
the chief good consisted in knowledge {k-io- 
Tijfj.n). This notion is often attacked by Cicero. 

[Herilus, son of the nymph Feronia, and 
king of Praeueste: his mother had given him 
three lives, and, accordingly, Evauder, who 
fought with him, had to conquer and despoil 
him of his armor three times before he fully 
destroyed him.] 

Herm^eum, or, in Latin, Mercurii Promonto- 
rium ('Epuaia uicpa). 1. (Now Cape Bon, Arab. 
Has Addar), the headland which forms the east- 
ern extremity of the Sinus Carthaginiensis, and 
the extreme northeastern point of the Cartha- 
ginian territory (later the province of Africa) 
opposite to Lilybaaum, the space between the 
two being the shortest distance between Sicily 
and Africa. — 2. (Now Has el Ashan), a promon- 
tory on the coast of the Greater Syrtis, fifty 
stadia west of Leptis. There were other pro- 
montories of the name on the coast of Africa. 

Hermagoras {'Epfiayopac). I. Of Temnos, a 
distinguished Greek rhetoriciau of the time of 
Cicero. He belonged to the Rhodian school 
of oratory, but is known chiefly as a teachei 
of rhetoric. He devoted particular attention to 
what is called the invention, and made a pecu- 
liar division of the parts of an oration, which 
differed from that adopted by other rhetoricians. 
— 2. Suruamed Carion, a Greek rhetorician, 
taught rhetoric at Rome iu the time of Augus- 
tus. He was a disciple of Theodorus of Gadara. 

Hkrmapiiroditus ("EpfiaQpudi-oc), sou of 
Hermes (Mercury) and Aphrodite (Venus), and 
consequently great-grandson of Atlas, whence 
he is called Atlantiadcs or Atlantius. (Or., 
Met, iv.. 368.) He had inherited the beauty 
of both his pareuts, and was brought up by the 
nymphs of Mount Ida. Iu his fifteenth year he 



HERMARCHUS. 

I went to Caria. In the neighborhood of Hali- 
carnassus he lay down by the fountain of Sal- 
macis. The nymph of the fouutain fell in love 
with him, and tried in vain to win his affections. 
Once when he was bathing in the fouutain she 
embraced him, and prayed to the gods that she 
mifht be united with him forever. The gods 
granted the request, and the bodies of the youth 
and the nymph became united together, but 
retained the characteristics of each sex. Her- 
maphroditus, on becoming aware of the change, 
prayed that, in future, every one who bathed in 
the well might be metamorphosed in the same 
manner. 

Heemaechus ("Ep/iap^o?), of Mytilene, a rhet- 
orician, became afterward a disciple of Epicu- 
rus, who left to him his garden, and appointed 
him his successor in his school, about B.C. 
270. He wrote several works, all of which are 
lost. 

Hekmas ('EpjUdf), a disciple of the Apostle 
PauL and one of the apostolic fathers. He is 
supposed to be the same person as the Hermas 
who is mentioned iu St. Paul's epistle to the 
Romans (xvi., 14). He wrote in Greek a work 
entitled The Shepherd of Hermas, of -which a 
Latin translation is still extant. Its object is to 
instruct persons in the duties of the Christian 
life. Edited by Cotelier in his Patres ApostoL, 
Paris, 1672. 

Heemes ('Epfif/c, 'Epfietag, Dor. 'Ep/ndg), called 
Meecueius by the Romans. The Greek Her- 
mes was a son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Maia, the 
daughter of Atlas, and born in a cave of Mount 
Cyllene in Arcadia, ■whence he is called Atlctn- 
Hades or Cyllenius. A few hours after his birth 
he escaped from his cradle, "went to Pieria, and 
carried off some of the oxen of Apollo. In the 
Iliad and Odyssey this tradition is not men- 
tioned, though Hermes (Mercury) is character- 
ized as a cunning thief. That he might not be 
discovered by the traces of his footsteps, he put 
on sandals, and drove the oxen to Pylos, where 
he killed two, and concealed the rest in a cave. 
The skins of the slaughtered animals were 
nailed to a rock, and part of their flesh was 
cooked and eateu, and the rest burned. There- 
upon he returned to Cyllene, where he found a 
tortoise at the entrance of his native cave. He 
took the animal's shell, drew strings across it, 
and thus invented the lyre, on which he imme- 
diately played. Apollo, by his prophetic power, 
had meantime discovered the thief, and went 
to Cyllene to charge Hermes (Mercury) with' 
the crime before his mother Maia. She show- 
ed to the god the child in its cradle ; but Apollo 
carried the boy before Zeus (Jupiter), and de- 
manded back his oxen. Zeus (Jupiter) com- 
manded him to comply with the demaud of 
Apollo, but Hermes (Mercury) denied that he 
had stolen the cattle. As, however, he saw 
that his assertions were not believed, he con- 
ducted Apollo to Pylos, and restored to him his 
oxen; but when Apollo heard the sounds of 
the lyre, he was so charmed that he allowed 
Hermes (Mercury) to keep the animals. Her- 
mes (Mercury) now invented the syrinx, and 
after disclosing his inventions to Apollo, the 
two gods concluded an iutimate friendship with 
each other. Apollo presented his young friend 
with his own golden shepherd's, staff, and 



HERMES. 

taught him the art of prophesying by means of 
dice. Zeus (Jupiter) made him his own herald, 
and likewise the herald of the gods of the low- 
er world. The principal feature in the tradi- 
tions about Hermes (Mercury) consists in his 
being the herald of the gods, and in this capac- 
ity he appears even in the Homeric poems. 
His original character of an ancient Pelasgian, 
or Arcadian divinity of nature, gradually disap- 
peared in the legends. As the herald of the 
gods, he is the god of eloquence, for the heralds 
are the public speakers in the assemblies aud 
on other occasions. The gods especially em- 
ployed him as messenger when eloquence wao 
required to attain the desired object. Hence the 
tongues of sacrificial animals were offered to 
him. As heralds and messengers are usually 
men of prudence and circumspection, Hermes 
(Mercury) was also the god of prudence and 
skill in all the relations of social intercourse. 
These qualities were combined with similar 
ones, such as cunning, both in words and ac- 
tions, and even fraud, perjury, and the inclina- 
tion to steal ; but acts of this kind were com- 
mitted by Hermes (Mercury) always with a 
certain skill, dexterity, and even gracefulness. 
Being endowed with this shrewdness and sagac- 
ity, he was regarded as the author of a variety 
of inventions, and, besides the lyre and syrinx, 
he is said to have invented the alphabet, num- 
bers, astronomy, music, the art of fighting, gym- 
nastics, the cultivation of the olive-tree, meas- 
ures, weights, and many other things. The 
powers which he possessed himself he confer- 
red upon those mortals and heroes who enjoyed 
his favor ; and all who possessed them were 
under his especial protection or are called his 
sons. He was employed by the gods, and more 
especially by Zeus (Jupiter), on a variety of oc 
casions, which are recorded in ancient story. 
Thus he led Priam to Achilles to fetch the body 
of Hector; tied Ixion to *he wheel; conducted 
Hera (Juno), Aphrodite (Venus), and Athena 
(Minerva) to Paris ; fastened Prometheus to 
Mount Caucasus ; rescued Dionysus (Bacchus) 
after his birth from the flames, or received him 
from the hands of Zeus (Jupiter) to carry him 
to Athamas ; sold Hercules to Omphale ; and 
was ordered by Zeus (Jupiter) to carry off Io, 
who was metamorphosed into a cow, and guard 
ed by Argus, whom he slew. Vid. Aegus. From 
this murder he is very commonly called 'kpysi 
(povrr/c. In the Trojan war Hermes (Mercury) 
was on the side of the Greeks. His ministry 
to Zeus (Jupiter) was not confined to the offices 
of herald and messenger, but he was also his 
charioteer and cup-bearer. As dreams are sent 
by Zeus (Jupiter), Hermes (Mercury) conducts 
them to man, and hence he is also described aa 
the god who had it in his power to send refresh ■ 
ing sleep or take it away. Another important 
function of Hermes (Mercury) was to conduct 
the shades of the dead from the upper into the 
lower world, whence he is called fvxoKO/inog, 
VEKpoKo/Miroc, ifivxayuyoc, &c. The idea of his 
being the herald and messenger of the gods, of 
his travelling from place to place and conclud- 
ing treaties, necessarily implied the notion that 
he was the promoter of social intercourse and 
of commerce among men. In this capacity he 
was regarded as the maintainer of peace, and 
361 



HERMES TRISMEGISTUS. 



uERMiONE. 



as the god of roads, who protected travellers, 
and punished those who refused to assist travel- 
lers who had mistaken their way. Hence the 
Athenian generals, on setting out on an expe- 
dition, offered sacrifices tD Hermes (Mercury), 
surnamed Hegemonius or Agetor; and numer- 
ous statues of the god were erected on roads, 
at doors and gates, from which circumstance 
he derived a variety of surnames and epithets. 
As the god of commerce he was called du/ino- 
pnc, hjJ.no'Xalog, ita\iyK.6.Tti]\oc, Ktp&ijxixopic, dyo- 
paloc, &c. As commerce is the source of 
wealth, he was also the god of gain and riches, 
especially of sudden and unexpected riches, 
such as are acquired by commerce. As the 
giver of wealth and good luck {-KXavrodorric), he 
also presided over the game of dice. Hermes 
(Mercury) was believed to be the inventor of 
sacrifices. Hence he not only acts the part of 
a herald at sacrifices, but is also the protector 
of sacrificial animals, and was believed in par- 
ticular to increase the fertility of sheep. Eor 
this reason he was especially worshipped by 
shepherds, and is mentioned in connection with 
Pan and the Nymphs. This feature in the char- 
acter of Hermes (Mercury) is a remnant of the 
ancient Arcadian religion, in which he was the 
fertilizing god of the earth, who conferred his 
blessing on man. Hermes (Mercury) was like- 
wise the patron of all the gymnastic games of 
the Greeks. This idea seems to be of late 
origin, for in Homer no trace of it is found. 
Athens appears to have been the first place in 
which he was worshipped in this capacity. At 
a later, time almost all gymnasia were under his 
protection ; and the Greek artists derived their 
ideal of the god from the gymnasium, and rep- 
resented him as a youth whose limbs were 
beautifully and harmoniously developed by 
gymnastic exercises. The most ancient seat 
of the worship of Hermes (Mercury) is Arca- 
dia, the land of his <birth, where Lycaon, the 
son of Pelasgus, is said to have built to him 
the first temple. From thence his worship 
was carried to Athens, and ultimately spread 
through all Greece. The festivals celebrated 
in his honor were called Hermcca. Vid. Diet, of 
Ant., s. v. His temples and statues {vid. Diet, of 
Ant., s. v. Hermje) were extremely numerous 
in Greece. Among the things sacred to him 
were the palm-tree, the tortoise, the number 
four, and several kinds of fish ; and the sacri- 
fices offered to him consisted of incense, honey, 
cakes, pigs, and especially lambs and young 
goats. The principal attributes of Hermes 
(Mercury) are, 1. A travelling hat with a broad 
brim, which in later times was adorned with 
two small wings. 2. The staff (p'tlddoc or aurjir- 
Tpov), which he bore as a herald, and had receiv- 
ed from Apollo. In late works of art the white 
ribbons which surrounded the herald's staff were 
changed into two serpents. 3. The sandals 
{-rvediAa). They were beautiful and golden, and 
carried the god across land and sea with the 
rapidity of wind ; at the ankles of the god they 
were provided with wings, whence he is called 
TTTrjvoncdtXog, or alipes. The Roman Meecueius 
is spoken of separately. 

Heemes Trismegistus ('Epfirjc TpicucyioTog), 
the reputed author of a variety of works, some 
of which are still extant. The Greek God 
362 



Hermes was identified with the Egyptian Phot 
or Theut as early as the time of Plato. The 
New Platonists regarded the Egyptian Hermes 
as the source of all knowledge and thought, or 
the Xoyoc embodied, and hence called him Tris- 
megistus. A vast number of works on philos- 
ophy and religion, written by the New Platon- 
ists, were ascribed to this Hermes, from whom 
it was pretended 'that Pythagoras and Plato had 
derived all their knowledge. Most of these 
works were probably written in the fourth cen- 
tury of our era. The most important of them 
is entitled Pozmander (from iroifj.7jv, a shepherd, 
pastor), apparently in imitation of the Pastor of 
Hermas. Vid. Heemas. This work is in the 
form of a dialogue. It treats of nature, the crea- 
tion of the world, the deity, his nature and attri- 
butes, the human soul, knowledge, <Ssc. 

Heemesianax ('Efiriaiuva^), of Colophon, a 
distinguished elegiac poet, lived in the time of 
Alexander the Great. His chief work was an 
elegiac poem, in three books, addressed to his 
mistress Leontium, whose name formed the title 
of the poem. His fragments are edited by Rigler 
and Axt, Colon., 1828, [by Hermann, in a univer- 
sity programme, Lips., 1828, 4to], and by Bailey 
London, 1839. 

Heemias or Heemias ('Epfieiac or 'Ep^ac) 
1. Tyrant of Atarneus and Assos in Mysia, cel- 
ebrated as the friend and patron of Aristotle. 
Aristotle remained with Hermias three years, 
from B.C. 34V to 344, in the latter of which 
years Hermias was seized by Mentor, the Greek 
general of the Persian king, and sent as a cap- 
tive to the Persian court, where he was put to 
death. Aristotle married Pythias, the adopted 
daughter of Hermias, and celebrated the praises 
of his benefactor in an ode addressed to Virtue, 
which is still extant. — 2. A Christian writer, 
who lived about A.D. 180, was the author of an ex- 
tant work, entitled Aiaovp/xoc rdv e£o ipiAooofiuv, 
in which the Greek philosophers are held up to 
ridicule. Edited with Tatianus by Worth, Oxon., 
1700. 

Heeminia Gens, a very ancient patrician house 
at Rome, which appears in the first Etruscan 
war with the republic, B.C. 506, and vanishes 
from history in 448. T. Hermiuius was one of 
the three heroes who kept the Sublician bridge 
along with Horatius Codes against the whole 
force of Porsena. 

Heeminius Mons (now Sierra de la Estrella), 
the chief mountain in Lusitania, south of the 
Durius, from seven thousand to eight thousand 
feet high, called in the Middle Ages Henneno or 
Armina. 

Heemione ^Epfxiovrf), the beautiful daughter 
of Menelaus and Helena. She had been prom- 
ised in marriage to Orestes before the Trojai. 
war ; but Menelaus, after his return home, mar- 
ried her to Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus.). Thereupon 
Orestes claimed Hermione for himself ; but 
Neoptolemus haughtily refused to give her up. 
Orestes, in revenge, incited the Delphians 
against him, and Neoptolemus was slain. Her- 
mione afterward married Orestes, whom she 
had always loved, and bore him a son Tisame- 
nus. The history of Hermione is related with 
various modifications. According to some, Men- 
elaus betrothed her at Troy to Neoptolemus ; 
but in the meantime her grandfather, Tyndare 



HERMIONE. 



HERMOPOLIS. 



us, promised her to Orestes, and actually gave 
her in marriage to him. Neoptolemus, ou his re- 
turn, took possession of her by force, but was 
slain soon after either at Delphi or in his own 
home at Phthia. 

Hermione ('Ep/uovn : 'Ep/xwvevc : now Kastri) 
a town of Argolis, but originally independent of 
Argos, was situated on a promontory on the east- 
ern coast, and on a bay of the sea, which derived 
its name from the town (Hermionicus Sinus). Its 
territory was called Hermionis. It was origin- 
ally inhabited by the Dryopes ; and, in conse- 
quence of its isolated position, it became a flour- 
ishing city at an early period. It contained sev- 
eral temples, and, among them, a celebrated one 
of (Ceres) Demeter Chthonia. At a later time it 
joined the Achaean league. 
Hermiones. Vid. Germania. 
Hermiit-us ("Epfitirivoc). 1. An Athenian poet 
of the old comedy, vehemently attacked Pericles 
and Aspasia. [The fragments of Hermippus 
are published collectively by Meineke, Fragm. 
Comic. Grcec, vol. i., p. 138-155, edit, minor.] — 
2. Of Smyrna, a distinguished philosopher, was 
a disciple of Callimachus of Alexandrea, and 
flourished about B.C. 200. He wrote a great 
biographical work (Btot), which is frequently 
referred to by later writers. — 3. Of Berytus, a 
grammarian, who flourished under Trajan and 
Hadrian. 

Hermisium, a town in the Tauric Chersonesus, 
on the Cimmerian Bosporus. 

Hermocrates ('~Epfj.oKpu.T7ic), a Syracusan of 
rank, and an able statesman and orator, was 
chosen one of the Syracusan generals, B.C. 414, 
in order to oppose the Athenians. He after- 
ward served under Gylippus, when the latter 
took the command of the Syracusan forces ; and 
after the destruction of the Athenian armament 
he attempted to save the lives of Nicias and 
Demosthenes. He then employed all his influ- 
ence to induce his countrymen to support with 
vigor the Lacedsemonians in the war in Greece 
itself. He was, with two colleagues, appointed 
to the command of a small fleet, which the Syr- 
acusans sent to the assistance of the Lacedae- 
monians ; but, during his absence from home, 
he was banished by the Syracusans (410). Hav- 
ing obtained support from the Persian Batrap 
Pharnabazus, he returned to Sicily, and endeav- 
ored to effect his restoration to his native city by 
force of arms, but was slain in an attack which 
he made upon Syracuse in 407. 

Hermodorus ('Ep/iodupoc). 1. Of Ephesus, a 
person of distinction, was expelled by his fellow- 
citizens, and is said to have gone to Rome, and 
to have ■ explained to the decemvirs the Greek 
laws, and thus assisted them in drawing up the 
laws of the Twelve Tables, B.C. 451.— 2. A dis- 
ciple of Plato, is said to have circulated the 
works of Plato, and to have sold them in Sicily. 
He wrote a work on Plato. — 3. Of Salamis, the 
architect of the temple of Mars in the Flaminian 
Circus. 

Hermogenes ('Epiioyevrjc). 1. A son of Hip- 
ponicus, and a brother of the wealthy Callias, is 
introduced by Plato as one of the speakers- in 
his " Cratylus," where he maintains that all the 
words of a language were formed by an agree- 
ment of men among themselves. — 2. A celebra- 
ted Greek rhetorician, was a native of Tarsus, 



and lived in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. A.D. 
161-180. At the age of fifteen his eloquence 
excited the admiration of Marcus Aurelius. He 
was shortly afterward appointed public teacher 
of rhetoric, and at the age of seventeen he began 
his career as a writer ; but, unfortunately, when 
he was twenty-five, his mental powers gave 
way, and he never recovered their full use, al- 
though he lived to an advanced age. After his 
death, his heart is said to have been found cov- 
ered with hair. His works, five in numbei", 
which are still extant, form together a complete 
system of rhetoric, and were for a long thru 
used in all the rhetorical schools as manuals. 
They are, 1. Tex v V ^JiropiK^ nepl ruv ardaeuv. 
2. TLepl evpeceuc (De Inventione). 3. Ilepi Idctiv 
(De Formis Oratoriis). 4. ITept iiedbSov &uvott)- 
toc (De apto et solerti genere dicendi Methodus.) 
5. lipoyvtivda/xaTa. An abridgment of the latter 
work was made by Aphthonius, in consequence 
of which the original fell into oblivion. The 
works of Hermogenes are printed in Walz's 
Rhetor. Ormc. — 3. An architect of Alabanda, in 
Caria, who invented what was called the pseu- 
dodipterus, that is, a form of a temple, with ap- 
parently two rows of columns. His great object 
as an architect was to increase the taste for the 
Ionic form of temples, in preference to Doric tem- 
ples. 

Hermogenes, M. TigellIus, a notorious de- 
tractor of Horace, who calls him (Sat., i., 3, 129), 
however, optimus cantor et modulator. He was 
opposed to satires altogether, was a man with- 
out talent, but yet had a foolish fancy for trying 
his hand at literature. It is conjectured that, 
under the fictitious name of Pantolabus (Sat, 
i., 8, 11 ; ii., 1, 21), Horace alludes to Hermog- 
enes, for the prosody of the two names is 
the same, so that one may be substituted for 
the other. 

Hermogenianus, the latest Roman jurist from 
whom there is an extract in the Digest, lived in 
the time of Constantine the Great. It is prob- 
able that he was the compiler of the Codex Her- 
mogenianus, but so many persons of the same 
name lived nearly at the same time that this 
cannot be affirmed with certainty. 

Hermolaus ('EpfioXaoc), a Macedonian youth, 
and a page of Alexander the Great. During a 
hunting party in Bactria, B.C. 327, he slew a 
wild boar without waiting to allow Alexander 
the first blow, whereupon the king ordered him 
to be flogged. Incensed at this indignity, Her- 
molaus formed a conspiracy against the king's 
life ; but the plot was discovered, and Hermolaus 
and his accomplices were stoned to death by the 
Macedonians. 

Hermonassa. 1. A town of the Siudi at the 
entrance of the Cimmerian Bosporus, founded by 
the Mytilena;ans, called after Hermonassa, the 
wife of the founder, who died during its founda- 
tion, and left to her the sovereignty. — 2. A towc 
on the coast of Pontus, near Trapezus. 

Hermonthis ("Epfiwvdic : now Erment, ruins), 
the chief city of the Nomos Hermouthites, in Up- 
per Egypt, on the west bank of the Nile, a little 
above Thebes. 

Hermopolis {Ep/JLonolic, "Epfiov noXic). 1. 
Parva (t) fuicpd : now Damanliour), a city of 
Lower Egypt, the capital of the Nomos of Alex- 
andrea, stood upon the canal which connected 
3C3 



HERMOS. 



HERODES. 



the Canopic branch of the Nile with the Lake 
Mareotis. — 2. Magna (7/ fieyaXr] : ruins near Esh- 
mounein), the capital of the Nomos Hermopo- 
htes, in the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, and 
one of the oldest cities in the land, stood on the 
west bank of the Nile, a little below the con- 
lines of Upper Egypt. At the boundary line it- 
self was a military station, or custom-house, 
called 'Ep[Kmo?aTUC7/ fv2.aK.7j, for collecting a toll 
on goods entering the Heptanomis. Hermopo- 
lis was a chief seat of the worship of Amibis 
(Cynocephalus), and it was the sacred burial- 
place of the Ibis. 

Hermos (to "Epfioe : "Epueioc), a demus in At- 
tica, belonging to the tribe Acamantis, on the 
road from Athens to Eleusis,, 

Hermotimus ('Epfioriuoc). 1. A mathemati- 
cian of Colophon, was one of the immediate 
predecessors of Euclid, and the discoverer of" 
several geometrical propositions. — 2. Of Cla- 
zornenffi, an early Greek philosopher of uncer- 
tain date, belonged to the Ionic school. Some 
traditions represent him as a mysterious per- 
son, gifted with supernatural power, by which his 
soul, apart from the body, wandered from place 
to place, bringing tidings of distant events in 
incredibly short spaces of time. At length his 
enemies burned his body, in the absence of the 
soul, which put an end to his wanderings. 

Hermunduri, one of the most powerful na- 
tions of Germany, belonged to the Suevic race, 
dwelt between the Main and the Danube, and 
were bounded by the Sudeti Mountains in the 
north, the Agri Decumates of the Romans in 
the west and south, the Narisci on the east, the 
Cherusci on the northeast, aud the Catti on the 
northwest. They were for a long time the allies 
of the Romans ; but along with the other Ger- 
man tribes they assisted the Marcomanni in the 
great war against the Romans in the reign of 
M. Aurelius. After this time they are rarely 
mentioned as a separate people, but are in- 
cluded under the general name of Suevi. 

Hermus ("Ep/ioc : now Ghiediz-Chai), a con- 
siderable river of Asia Minor, rises in Mount 
Dindymeue (now Morad-Dagh) in Phrygia ; flows 
through Lydia, watering the plain north of Sar- 
dis, which was hence called "Ep/xov Ttedlov ; pass- 
es by Magnesia and Temnus, and falls into the 
Gulf of Smyrna betweeu Smyrna and Phocaaa. 
It formed the boundary betweeu iEolis and 
Ionia. Its chief tributaries were the Hyllus, 
Cogamus, Pactolus, and Phrygnus. 

Hernici, a people in Latium, belonged to the 
Sabine race, aud are said to have derived their 
name from the Marsic (Sabine) word herna, 
" rock." According to this etymology, their 
name would signify " mountaineers." They 
inhabited the mountains of the Apennines be- 
tween the Lake Fucinus and the River Trerus, 
and were bounded on the north by the Marsi 
and JEqui, and on the south by the Volsci. 
Their chief town was Anagnia. They were a 
brave and warlike people, and long offered a 
formidable resistance to the Romans. The 
Romans formed a league with them on equal 
terms in the third consulship of Sp. Cassius, 
B.C. 486. They were finally subdued by the 
Romans, 306. 

Hero. Vid. Leander. 

Hero ("Hpuv). 1. The Elder, a celebrated 
364 



mathematician, was a native of Alexandres, 
and lived in the reigns of the Ptolemies Phila- 
delphus and Evergetes (B.C. 285-222). He is 
celebrated on account of his mechanical inven- 
tions, of which one of the best known is the 
common pneumatic experiment called Hero's 
fountain, in which a jet of water is maintained 
by condensed air. We also find in his works 
a description of a steam-engine, and of a double 
forcing pump used for a fire-engine. The fol- 
lowing works of Hero are extant, though not in 
a perfect form : 1. XetpoBaHiarpac KaraaKEvr) 
Kai ovfiuerpia, de Constructione et Mensura Man 
ubalistce. 2. Be1otvouk.i1, on the manufacture of 
darts. 3. TlvevpariKu, or Spiritalia, the most 
celebrated of his works. 4. Tle.pl avTOfiaroTroiT;- 
tikuv, de Automatorum Fabrica Libri duo. All 
these works are published in the Mathematici 
Veteres, Paris, 1693. — 2. The Younger, a math- 
ematician, is supposed to have lived under He- 
raclius (A.D. 610-641). The principal extant 
works assigned to him are, 1. De Machinis bel- 
licis. 2. Geodaisia, on practical geometry. 3. 
Be Obsidione repellenda. Published in the Math- 
ematici Veteres. 

Herodes I. ('Howd^c), commonly called Her- 
od. 1. Surnamed the Great, king of the Jews, 
was the second son of Antipater, and conse- 
quently of Idumajan origin. Vid. Antipater. 
No. 3. When his father was appointed by Cae- 
sar procurator of Judtea, in B.C. 47, Herod, 
though only twenty-five years of age, obtained 
the government of Galilee. In 46 he obtaiued 
the government of Coele-Syria. After the death 
of Cajsar (44), Herod first supported Cassius ; 
but upon the arrival of Antony in Syria, in 41. 
he exerted himself to secure his favor, and com- 
pletely succeeded in his object. In 40 he went 
to Rome, and obtained from Antony and Octa- 
vianus a decree of the senate, constituting him 
king of Judoea. He supported Antony in the 
civil war against Octavianus ; but after the bat- 
tle of Actium (31) he was pardoned by Octa- 
vianus and confirmed in his kingdom. During 
the remainder of his reign he cultivated with 
assiduity the friendship of Augustus and his 
counsellor Agrippa, and enjoyed the highest fa- 
vor both of the one and the other. He possess- 
ed a jealous temper and ungovernable passions. 
He put to death his beautiful wife Mariamne, 
whom he suspected, without cause, of adultery, 
aud with whom he was violently in love ; and 
at a later period he also put to death his two 
sons by Mariamne, Alexander and Aristobulus. 
His government, though cruel and tyrannical, 
was vigorous ; and he was both feared and re- 
spected by his subjects aud the surrounding na- 
tions. He especially loved to display his pow- 
er and munificence by costly and splendid pub- 
lic works. He commenced rebuilding the tem- 
ple of Jerusalem ; he rebuilt the city of Samaria, 
and bestowed on it the name of Sebaste ; while 
he converted a small town on the sea-coast into 
a magnificent city, to which he gave the name 
of Coesarea. He adorned these new cities with 
temples, theatres, gymnasia, and other build- 
ings in the Greek style ; and he even ventured 
to erect a theatre at Jerusalem itself, and an 
amphitheatre without the walls, in which he ex- 
hibited combats of wild beasts and gladiators. 
In the last year of his reign Jesus Christ 



HERODIANTJS. 



HERODOTUS. 



was born ; and it must have been on bis death- 
bed that he ordered that massacre of the chil- 
dren at Bethlehem which is recorded by the 
Evangelist (Matth., ii., 16). He died in the 
thirty-seventh year of his reign, and the seven- 
tieth of his age, B.C. 4.* — 2. Heeodes Antipas, 
son of Herod the Great by Malthace, a Samar- 
ium, obtained the tetrarchy of Galilee andPerjea 
on his father's death, while the kingdom of Ju- 
daea devolved on his elder brother Archelaus. 
He married Herodias, the wife of his half-broth- 
er, Herod Philip, she having, in defiance of the 
Jewish law, divorced her first husband. He 
had been previously married to a daughter of 
the Arabian prince Aretas, who quitted him in 
disgust at this new alliance. Aretas thereupon 
invaded the dominions of Antipas, and defeat- 
ed the army which was opposed to him. In 
A.D. 38, after the death of Tiberius, Antipas 
went to Rome to solicit from Caligula the title 
of king, which had just been bestowed upon his 
nephew, Herod Agrippa ; but, through the in- 
trigues of Agrippa, who was high in the favor of 
the Roman emperor, Antipas was deprived of 
his dominions, and sent into exile at Lyons (39) ; 
he was subsequently removed to Spain, where 
he died. It was Herod Antipas who imprison- 
ed and put to death John the Baptist, who had 
reproached him with his unlawful connection 
with Herodias. It was before him also that 
Christ was sent by Pontius Pilate at Jerusa- 
lem, as belonging to his jurisdiction, on account 
of his supposed Galilean origin. — 3. Heeodes 
Ageippa. Vid. Ageippa. — 4. Brother of Herod 
Agrippa I., obtained the kingdom of Chalcis 
from Claudius at the request of Agrippa, 41. 
After the death of Agrippa (44), Claudius be- 
stowed upon him the superintendence of the 
temple of Jerusalem, together with the right of 
appoiuting the high priests. He died in 48, 
when his kingdom was bestowed by Claudius 
upou his nephew, Herod Agrippa II. — 5. He- 
eodes Atticus, the rhetorician. Vid. Atticus. 

Hkeodianus ('Hpudiavoc). 1- An historian, 
who wrote in Greek a history of the Roman 
empire in eight books, from the death of M. 
Aurelius to the commencement of the reign of 
Gordiauus III. (A.D. 180-238). He himself in- 
forms us that the events of this period had oc- 
curred in his own lifetime ; but beyond this we 
know nothing respecting his life. He appears 
to have had Thucydides before him as a model, 
both for style and for the general composition 
of his work, like him, introducing here and 
there speeches wholly or in part imaginary. 
In spite of occasional inaccuracies in chronolo- 
gy, his narrative is in the main truthful and im- 
partial. Edited by Irmiseh, Lips., 1789-1805, 
5 vols., and by Bekker, Berlin, 1826. — 2. ^Elius 
Hirodianus, one of the most celebrated gram- 
marians of antiquity, was the son of Apollonius 
Dyscolus (vid. Apollonius, No. 4), and was born 
at Alexandrea. From that • place he removed 
to Rome, where he gained the favor of the em- 
peror M. Aurelius, to whom he dedicated his 
work on prosody. This work seems to have 
embraced not merely prosody, but most of those 

* The death of Herod took place in the same year with 
the actual birth of Christ, as is mentioned above, but it is 
well known that this is to be placed foor years before the 
date in general U6e as the Christian era. 



subjects now included in the etymological por 
j tion of grammar. The estimation in which be 
was held by subsequent grammarians was very 
J great. Priscian styles him mazimus auctor artu 
J grammatical. He was a very voluminous v rilr 
er ; but none of his works have come down to 
us complete, though several extracts from them 
are preserved by later grammarians. 

Heeodious ('HpoJt/coc). 1. Of Babylon, a 
grammarian, was one of the immediate suc- 
cessors of Crates of Mallus, and au opponent of 
the followers of Aristarchus, against whom hi; 
wrote an epigram, which is still extant and in- 
cluded in the Greek Anthology. — 2. A celebrated 
physician of Selymbria in Thrace, lived in the 
fifth century B.C., and was one of the tutors of 
Hippocrates. 

Heeodorus ('H.p66opoc), of Heraclea, in Pon- 
tus, a contemporary of Hecata?us and Phere- 
cydes, about B.C. 510, wrote a work on Her- 
cules and his exploits. 

Heeodotus ('HpodWoc). 1. A Greek historian, 
and the father of history, was born at Haliear- 
nassus, a Doric colony in Caria, B.C. 484. He 
belonged to a noble family at Halicarnassus. 
He was the son of Lyxes and Dryo ; and the 
epic poet Panyasis was one of his relations. 
Herodotus left his native city at au early age, 
in order to escape from the oppressive govern- 
ment of Lygdamis, the tyrant of Halicarnassus, 
who put to death Panyasis. He probably set- 
tled at Samos for some time, and there became 
acquainted with the Ionic dialect ; but he spent 
many years in his extensive travels in Europe ; 
Asia, and Africa, of which we shall speak pres- 
ently. At a later time he returned to Halicar- 
nassus, and took a prominent part in expelling 
Lygdamis from his native city. In the conten- 
tions which followed the expulsion of the ty- 
rant, Herodotus was exposed to the hostile at- 
tacks of one of the political parties, whereupon 
he again left Halicarnassus, and settled at Thurii, 
in Italy, where he died. Whether he accom- 
panied the first colonists to Thurii in 443, or 
followed them a few years afterward, is a dis- 
puted point, and can not be determined with 
certainty, though it appears probable, from a 
passage in his work, that he was at Athens at 
the commencement of the Peloponnesian war 
(431). It is also disputed where Herodotus 
wrote his history. Lucian relates that Herod- 
otus read his work to the assembled Greeks 
at Olympia, which was received with such uni- 
versal applause that the nine books of the work 
were in consequence honored with the names 
of the nine muses. The same writer adds that 
the young Thucydides was present at this reci- 
tation, and was moved to tears. But this cele- 
brated story, which rests upon the authority of 
Lucian alone, must be rejected for many rea- 
sons. Nor is there sufficient evidence in favoi 
of the tradition that Herodotus read his work at 
the Panathensea at Athens in 446 or 445, and re- 
ceived from the Athenians a reward of ten tal- 
ents. It is far more probable that he wrote his 
work at Thurii, when he was advanced in years; 
and it appears that he was engaged upon it, at 
least in the way of revision, when he was sev- 
enty-seven years of age, since he mentions the 
revolt of the Medes against Darius Nothus, and 
the death of Amyrfceus, events which belong to 
365 



HERODOTUS. 

the years 409 and 408. Though the work of 
Herodotus was probably not written till he was 
advanced in years, yet he was collecting mate- 
rials for it during a great part of his hfe. It 
was apparently with this view that he under- 
took his extensive travels through Greece and 
foreign countries, and his work contains on 
almost every page the results of his personal 
observations and inquiries. There was scarce- 
ly a town of any importance in Greece Proper 
and on the coasts of Asia Minor with which he 
was not perfectly familiar ; and at many places 
in Greece, such as Samos, Athens, Corinth, and 
Thebes, ha seems to have stayed some time. 
The sites of the great battles between the 
Greeks and barbarians, as Marathon, Thermop- 
ylas, Salamis, and Plataese, were well known to 
him ; and on Xerxes's line of march from the 
Hellespont to Athens, there was probably not a 
place which he had not seen with his own eyes. 
He also visited most of the Greek islands, not 
only in the jEgean, but even in the west of 
Greece, such as Zacyuthus. Further north in 
Europe he visited Thrace and the Scythian 
tribes on the Black Sea. In Asia he travelled 
through Asia Minor and Syria, and visited the 
cities of Babylon, Ecbataua, and Susa. He 
spent some time in Egypt, and travelled as far 
south as Elephantine. He saw with his own 
eyes all the wonders of Egypt, and the accuracy 
of his observations and descriptions still excites 
the astonishment of travellers in that country. 
From Egypt he appears to have made excur- 
sions to the east into Arabia, and to the west 
into Libya, at least as far as Cyrene, which was 
well known to him. The object of ■ his work is 
to give an account of the struggles between the 
Greeks and Persians. He traces the enmity 
between Europe and Asia to the mythical times. 
He passes rapidly over the mythical ages to 
come to Croesus, kiug of Lydia, who was known 
to have committed acts of hostility against the 
Greeks. This induces him to give a full his- 
tory *f Croesus and of the kingdom of Lydia. 
The conquest of Lydia by the Persians under 
Cyrus then leads him to relate the rise of the 
Persian monarchy, and the subjugation of xlsia 
Minor and Babylon. The nations which are 
mentioned in the course of this narrative are 
again discussed more or less minutely. The 
history of Cambyses and his expedition into 
Egypt induce him to enter into the details of 
Egyptian history. The expedition of Darius 
against the Scythiaus causes him to speak of 
Seythia and the north of Europe. In the mean 
time the revolt of the Ionians breaks out, which 
eventually brings the contest between Persia 
and Greece to an end. Au account of this In- 
surrection is followed by the history of the in- 
vasion of Greece by the Persians; and the his- 
tory of the Persian war now runs in a regular 
chanuel until the taking of Sestos by the Greeks, 
B.C. 478, with which event his work concludes. 
It will be seen from the preceding sketch that 
the history is full of digressions and episodes; 
but those do not impair the unity of the work, 
for one thread, as it were, runs through the 
whole, and the episodes are only like branches 
of the same tree. The structure of the work 
thus bears a strong resemblance to a grand epic 
poem. The work is pervaded by a deep reli- 
366 



HEROPHILUS. 

' gious sentiment. Herodotus shows the most 
profound reverence for every thing which he 
conceives as divine, and rarely ventures to ex- 
press an opinion on what he considers a sacred 
or religious mystery. In order to form a fair 
judgment of the historical value of the work of 
Herodotus, we must distinguish between those 
parts in which he speaks from his own obser- 
vations and those in which he merely repeats 
what he was told by priests and others. Id 
the latter case he was undoubtedly often de- 
ceived ; but whenever he speaks from his own 
observations, he is a real model of truthfulness 
and accuracy ; and the more the countries which 
he describes have been explored by modern 
travellers, the more firmly has his authority 
been established. Many things which used to 
be laughed at as impossible or paradoxical are 
found now to be strictly in accordance with 
truth. The dialect in which he wrote is the 
Ionic, intermixed with epic or poetical expres- 
sions, and sometimes even with Attic and Doric 
forms. The excellences of his style consist in 
its antique and epic coloring, its transparent 
clearness, and the lively flow of the narrative. 
But, notwithstanding all the merits of Herodo- 
tus, there were certain writers in antiquity who 
attacked him both in regard to the form and 
the substance of his work; and there is still 
extant a work ascribed to Plutarch, entitled 
" On the Malignity of Herodotus," full of the 
most futile accusations of every kind. The 
best editions of Herodotus are by Schweighau- 
ser, Argentor, 1806, often reprinted ; by Gais- 
ford, Oxon., 1S24; and by Bahr, Lips., 1830. — 
2. A Greek physieiau, who practiced at Rome 
with great reputation, about A.D. 100. He 
wrote some medical works, which are several 
times quoted by Galeu. — 3. Also a Greek phy- 
sician, a native either of Tarsus or Philadel 
phia, taught Sextus Empiricus. 

Heroopolis or Heeo ('Hpuuv tto/Uc, 'Hpw : in 
the Old Testament, Raamses or Rameses ? : 
ruins near Abou-Keshid?), the capital of the 
Nomos Heroopolites or Arsinoites in Lower 
Egypt, stood on the border of the Desert east 
of the Delta, upon the canal connecting the Kilo 
with the western head of the Red Sea, which 
was called from it Sinus Heroopoliticus (kuX-oq 
'Hpuuv, 'Hpuo~o?aTT]<; or -irmoc). The country 
about it is supposed to-be the Goshen of Scripture. 

[Hekophantx's ('HpuifiavTog), tyrant at Pari- 
urn in the time of Darius Hystaspis.] 

Herophij.us ('Hpo^tAoc), one of the most cele- 
brated physicians of antiquity, was born at Chal- 
cedon in Bithynia, was a pupil of Praxagoras, 
and lived at Alexandrea under the first Ptol- 
emy, who reigned B.C. 323-285. Here he soon 
acquired a great reputation, and was one of the 
founders of the medical school in that city. He 
seems to have given his chief attention tt> 
anatomy and physiology, which he studied not 
merely from the dissection of animals, but also 
from that of humau bodies. He is even said to 
have carried his ardor in his anatomical pur- 
suits so far as to have dissected criminals ijivo. 
He was the author of several medical and ana- 
tomical works, of which nothing but the titles 
aud a few fragments remain. These have been 
collected aud published by Marx, Be HerophW 
Vita, &c, dotting., 1840. 



HEROSTR ATU S. 



HESIONE. 



Herostratus ('Kpourparog), an Ephesian, set 
fire to the temple of Diana (Artemis) at Ephe- 
6us on the same night that Alexander the Great 
■was born, B.C. 356. He was put to the torture, 
and confessed that he had fired the temple to 
immortalize himself. The Ephesians passed a 
decree condemning his name to oblivion ; but 
it has been, as might have been expected, 
handed down by history. 

Herse ("Epan), daughter of Cecrops and 6ister 
of Agraulos, was beloved by Mercury (Hermes), 
by whom she became the mother of Cephalus. 
Respecting her story, vid. Agraulos. At Ath- 
ens sacrifices were offered to her, and the maid- 
ens who carried the vessels containing the li- 
bation {tparj) were called ef/p'r^opoi. 

Hersilia, the wife of Romulus, was the only 
married woman carried off by the Romans in 
the rape of the Sabine maidens. As Romulus 
after death became Quirinus, so Hersilia his 
wife became a goddess, Hora or Horta. Some 
writers, however, made Hersilia the wife of 
Hostus, grandfather of Tullus Hostilius. 

Hertha (containing probably the same ele- 
ments as the words earth, erde), the goddess of 
the earth among the ancient Germans 

Heruli or Eruli, a powerful German race, 
are said to have come originally from Scandi- 
navia, but they appear on the shores of the 
Black Sea in the reign of Gallienus (A.D. 262), 
when, in conjunction with the Goths, they in- 
vaded the Roman empire. They were conquer- 
ed by the Ostrogoths, and afterward formed part 
of the great army of Attila, with which he in- 
vaded Gaul and Italy. After the death of Attila 
(453) a portion of the Heruli united with other 
German tribes ; and under the command of 
Odoacer, who is said to have been an Heru- 
lian, they destroyed the Western Empire, 476. 
Meantime the remainder of the nation formed 
a powerful kiugdom on the banks of the Theiss 
and the Danube, which was eventually destroy- 
ed by the Langobardi or Lombards. Some of 
the Heruli were allowed by Anastasius to settle 
in Pannonia, and they served with great dis- 
tinction in the armies of Justinian. 

Hesiodus ('Haiodoc) one of the earliest Greek 
poets, of whose personal history we possess 
little authentic information. He is frequently 
mentioned along with Homer ; as Homer rep- 
resents the Ionic school of poetry in Asia Minor, 
so Hesiod represents the Boeotian school of 
poetry, which spread over Phoeis and Euboea. 
The only points of resemblance between the 
two schools consist iu their versification and di- 
alect. In other respects they entirely differ. 
The Homeric school takes for its subjects the 
restless activity of the- heroic age, while the 
Hesiodie turns its attention to the quiet pursuits 
of ordinary life, to the origin of the world, the 
gods and heroes. Hesiod lived about a century 
later than Homer, and is placed about B.C. 375. 
We learn from his own poem on Works and 
Days that he was born in the village of Ascra 
in Boeotia, whither his father had emigrated 
from the JSolian Cyme in Asia Minor. After 
the death of his father he was involved in a dis- 
pute with hn brother Perses about his small 
patrimony, which was decided in favor of his 
brother. He then emigrated to Orchomenos, 
where he spent the remainder of his life. This 



| is all that can be said with certainty about the life 
of Hesiod. Many of the stories related about, 
him refer to his school of poetry, and not to the 
poet personally. In this light we may regard 
the tradition that Hesiod had a poetical contest 
with Homer, which is said to have taken place 
at Chalcis during the funeral solemnities of King 
Amphidamas, or, according to others, at Aulis or 
Delos. The story of this contest gave rise to a 
composition still extant under the title of 'kyi>v 
'Ofirjpov K.al 'Uawdov, the work of a grammarian 
who lived toward the end of the first century 
of our era, in which the two poets ;ire repre- 
sented as engaged in the contest, and answering 
one another. The following works were attrib- 
uted to Hesiod in antiquity : 1. 'Epya or "Epya 
aal rijikpai, Opera et Dies, Works and Days. It 
is written in the most homely style, with scarce- 
ly any poetical imagery or ornament, and must 
be looked upon as the most ancient specimen 
of didactic poetry. It contains ethical, politi- 
cal, and economical precepts, the last of which 
constitute the greater part of the work, consist- 
ing of rules about choosing a wife, the educa- 
tion of children, agriculture, commerce, and nav- 
igation. It would further seem that three dis- 
tinct poems have been inserted in it, viz., 1. The 
fable of Prometheus and Pandora (47-105) ; 2. 
On the ages of the world, which are designated 
by the names of metals (109-201); and, 3. A 
description of winter (504-55S). 2. Qeoyovla, a 
Theogony, was not considered by Hesiod's coun- 
trymen to be a genuine production of the poet. 
This work gives an account of the origin of the 
world and the birth of the gods, explaining the 
whole order of nature in a series of genealogies, 
for every part of physical as well as moral na- 
ture there appears personified iu the character 
of a distinct being. The whole concludes with 
an account of some of the most illustrious he- 
roes. 3. 'Hoiai or ijolai fitydXai, also called 
narukoyoi yvvaiKuv, Catalogue of Women. Tin's 
work is lost. It contained accounts of the 
women who had been beloved by the gods, and 
had thus become the mothers of the heroes in 
the various parts of Greece, from whom the 
ruling families derived their origin. 4. 'Aawtg 
'UpanXtovc, Shield of Hercules, which is extant, 
probably formed part of the work last mention- 
ed. It contains a description of the shield of 
Hercules, and is an imitation of the Homeric 
description of the shield of Achilles. The best 
edition of Hesiod is by Gottling, Gotha and Er- 
furt, 1843, 2d ed. 

Hesione ('llaLovTj). 1. Daughter of Laomedon, 
king of Troy, was chained by her father to a 
rock, in order to be devoured by a sea-monster, 
that he might thus appease the anger of Apollo 
and Neptune (Poseidon). Hercules promised 
to save her if Laomedon would give him the 
horses which he had received from Jupiter 
(Zeus) as a compensation for Ganymedes. Her- 
cules killed the monster, but Laomedon refused 
to keep his promise. Thereupon Hercules took 
Troy, killed Laomedon, and gave Hesione to 
his friend and companion Telamon, by whom 
she became the mother of Teucer. Her brothel 
Priam sent Anteuor to claim her back, and the 
refusal on the part of the Greeks is mentioned 
as one of the causes of the Trojan war. — [2. 
Daughter of Oceanus, and wife of Prometheus.] 
3fi7 



HESPERIA. 



HESYCHIUS. 



i 



Hesperia {'EcTrepia), the Western land (from 
ioirepoc, vesper), the name given by the Greek 
poets to Italy, because it lay west of Greece. 
In imitation of them, the Roman poets gave the 
name of Hesperia to Spain, which they some- 
times called ultima Hesperia (Hor., Carm., i., 
36, 4-), to distinguish it from Italy, which they 
occasionally called Hesperia Magna (Virg., jEn., 
i, 569.) 

Hesperides CEmrepidec), the celebrated guard- 
ians of the golden apples which Ge (Earth) gave 
to Juno (Hera) at her marriage with Jupiter 
Zeus.) Their parentage is differently related. 
They are called the daughters either of Night 
or Erebus, or of Phorcys and Ceto, or of Atlas 
and Hesperis (whence then' names Atlantides 
or Hesperides), or of Hesperus, or of Jupiter 
(Zeus) and Themis. Some traditions mention- 
ed three Hesperides, viz., ^Egle, Arethusa, and 
Hesperia; others four, sEgle, Erytheia, Hestia, 
and Arethusa; and others again seven. The 
poets describe them as possessing the power of 
sweet song. In the earliest legends, these 
nymphs are described as living on the River 
Oceanus, in the extreme west ; but the later at- 
tempts to fix the geographical position of their 
gardens led poets and geographers to different 
parts of Libya, as the neighborhood of Cyrene, 
Mount Atlas, or the islands on the western coast 
of Libya, or even to the northern extremity of 
the earth, beyond the wind Boreas, among the 
Hyperboreans. They were assisted in watch- 
ing the golden apples by the dragon Ladon. It 
was one of the labors of Hercules to obtain 
possession of these apples. ( Vid. p. 358, a.) 

Hesperidum Insula. Vid. Hesperium. 

Hesperis. Vid. Berenice, No. 5, p. 142. 

Hesperium ('EaTrcpiov, 'Emrepov Kepac : now 
Cape Verde or Cape Roxo), a headland on the 
western coast of Africa, was one of the furthest 
points to which the knowledge of the ancients 
extended along that coast. Near it was a bay 
called Sinus Hesperius ; and a day's journey 
from it a group of islands called Hesperidum 
Insula, wrongly identified by some with the 
Eortunata? Insulse ; they are either the Cape de 
Verde islands, or, more properly, the Bissagos, 
at the mouth of the Rio Grande. 

[Hesperius Sinus. Vid. Hesperium.] 

Hesperus ("EcTrepoc), the evening star, is 
called by Hesiod a son of Astroeus and Aurora 
(Eos). He was also regarded as the same as 
the morning star, whence both Homer and He- 
siod call him the bringcr of light (icicckopoc). A 
later account makes him a 6on of Atlas, who 
was fond of astronomy, and who disappeared 
after ascending Mount Atlas to observe the 
stars. He was worshipped with divine honors, 
and was regarded as the fairest star in the 
heavens. The Romans designated him by the 
names Lucifer and Hesperus, to characterize 
him as the morning or evening star. 

Hestia ('Ear/a, Ion. 'larln), called Vesta by 
the Romans, the goddess of the hearth, or, rath- 
er, of the fire burning on the hearth, was one of 
the twelve great divinities of the Greeks. She 
was a daughter of Saturn (Cronus) and Rhea, 
and, according to common tradition, was the 
first-born of Rhea, and consequently the first of 
the children swallowed by Saturn (Cronus). 
She was a maiden divinity aud when Apollo 
368 



and Neptune (Poseidon) sued for her hand, sh« 
swore by the head of Jupiter (Zeus) to remain 
a virgin forever. As the hearth was looked 
upon as the centre of domestic life, so Hestia 
was the goddess of domestic life and the giver 
of all domestic happiness ; as such she was be- 
lieved to dwell in the inner part of every house, 
and to have invented the art of buildiug houses. 
In this respect she often appears together with 
Mercury (Hermes), who was likewise a dens 
penetralis. Being the goddess of the sacred fire 
of the altar, Hestia had a share in the sacrifices 
offered to all the gods. Hence, when sacrifices 
were offered, she was invoked first, and the 
first part of the sacrifice was presented to her. 
Solemn oaths were sworn by the goddess of 
the hearth ; and the hearth itself was the sa- 
cred asylum where suppliants implored the pro- 
tection of the inhabitants of the house. A town 
or city is only an extended family, and there- 
fore had likewise its sacred hearth. This pub- 
he hearth usually existed in the prytaneum of 
a town, where the goddess had her especial 
sanctuary (■&dXap:oc), under the name of Pry- 
tanitis (tlpvraviTtc), with a statue and the sacred 
hearth. There, as at a private hearth, Hestia 
protected the suppliants. When a colony was 
sent out, the emigrants took the fire which was 
to burn on the hearth of their new home from 
that of the mother town. If ever the fire of her 
hearth became extinct, it was not allowed to be 
lighted again with ordinary fire, but either by 
fire produced by friction, or by burning glasses 
drawing fire from the sun. The mystical specu- 
lations of later times took their origin from the 
simple ideas of the ancients, and assumed a sa- 
cred hearth not only in the centre of the earth, 
but even m that of the universe, and confound- 
ed Hestia in various ways with other divinities, 
such as Cybele, Terra (Gaea), Ceres (Demeter), 
Proserpina (Persephone), and Diana (Artemis), 
There were but few special temples of Hestia 
in Greece, since every prytaneum was in reali- 
ty a sanctuary of the goddess, and since a por- 
tion of the sacrifices, to whatever divinity they 
were offered, belonged to her. The worship 
of the Roman Vesta is spoken of under Vesta. 

[Hesti^ea ('Eariaia), a city in the island of 
Euboea, the later Oreus.) 

[Hesti^ea ('EoTiaia) a learned lady of Alex- 
andra, who wrote a book in explanation of the 
Iliad.] 

Hesti^eotis ('E<n iolQtic). 1. The northwest- 
ern part of Thessaly. Vid. Thessalia. — 2. Or 
Hjsti^ea, a district in Eubcea. Vid. Eubcea. 

Hesychius ('Havxtoe). 1. An Alexandrine 
grammarian, under whose name a large Greek 
dictionary has come down to us. Respecting 
his personal history nothing is known, but he 
probably lived about A.D. 380. The work )s 
based, as the writer himself tells us, upon the 
lexicon of Diogenianus. Hesychius was prob- 
ably a pagan : the Christian glosses and the 
references to Christian writers in the work are 
interpolations by a later hand. The work is 
one of great importance, not only on account of 
its explaining the words of the Greek language, 
but also from its containing much literary and 
archaeological information, derived from earlier 
grammarians and commentators, whose works 
are lost. The arrangement of the work, how 



HETRICTJLUM. 

ever, is very defective. The best edition is 
by Alberti, completed after Alberti's death by 
Ruhuken, Lugd. Bat., 1746-1766, 2 vols, fol.— 
2. Of Miletus, surDamed Illustris, from some 
office which he held, lived about A.D. 540, and 
wrote, 1. An Onomasticon, or account of illus- 
trious men, published by Orelli, Lips., 1820. 2. 
A Chronicon, or synoptical view of universal his- 
tory, in six parts, from the reign of Belus, the 
reputed founder of the Assyrian empire, to the 
death of the Byzantine emperor, Anastasius I, 
AD. 518. The work itself is lost, but an ac- 
count of it is preserved by Photius. 

Hetriculum, a town of the Bruttii. 

Hibernia, also called Ierne, Iveena or Ju- 
verxa. {'lepvrj, 'lepvlg vr/nog, 'lovepv'ia), the island 
of Ireland, appears to have derived its name 
from the inhabitants of its southern coast, call- 
ed Juverni ('lovepvoi) by Ptolemy, but its orig- 
inal name was probably Bergion or Vergion. It 
is mentioned by Cassar, and is frequently spoken 
of by subsequent writers ; but the Romans never 
made any attempt to conquer the island, though 
they obtained some knowledge of it from the 
commercial intercourse which was carried on 
between it and Britain. We have no account 
of the island except from Ptolemy, who must 
have derived his information from the state- 
ments of the British merchants, who visited its 
coasts. Ptolemy gives rather a long list of its 
promontories, rivers, tribes, and towns. 

Hicesia. Vid. Mojam InsuljE. 

[Hicetaon ('iKerduv), son of the Trojan king 
Laomedon, and brothor of Priam.] 

Hicetas (1/ceraf or 'I/ctr^f). 1. A Syracusan, 
contemporary with the younger Dionysius and 
Timoleon. He was at first a friend of Dion, 
after whose death (B.C. 353) his wife Arete 
and his sister Aristomache placed themselves 
under the care of Hicetas ; but he was per- 
suaded, notwithstanding, to consent to their de- 
struction. A few years later he became tyrant 
of Leontini. He carried on war against the 
younger Dionysius, whom he defeated, and had 
made himself master of the whole city, except 
the island citadel, when Timoleon landed in 
Sicily, 344. Hicetas then opposed Timoleon, 
and called in the aid of the Carthaginians, but 
he was defeated and put to death by Timoleon, 
839 or 338. — 2. Tyrant of Syracuse, during the 
interval between the reign of Agathocles and 
that of Pyrrhus. He defeated Phintias, tyrant 
of Agrigentum, and was himself defeated by 
the Carthaginians. After a reign of nine years 
(288-279), he was expelled from Syracuse. — 3. 
Of Syracuse, one of the earlier Pythagoreans. 

Hiempsal. 1. Son of Micipsa, king of Nu- 
midia, and grandson of Masinissa, was murder- 
ed by Jugurtha soon after the death of Micipsa, 
B.C. 118. — 2. King of Numidia, grandson or 
great-grandson of Masinissa, and father of Juba, 
appears to have received the sovereignty of part 
of Numidia after the Jugurthine war. He was 
expelled from his kingdom by Cn. Domitius 
Ahenobarbus, the leader of the Marian party in 
Africa, but was restored by Pompey in 81. 
Hiempsal wrote some works in the Punic lan- 
guage, which are cited by Sallust (Jug., 17). 

Hieba. 1. Vid. Moiim. 2. Vid. J3gates. 

H!a«.lp(»Lis ('lepdnoXcs). 1. (Now Bambuk- 
k<de.m '(), a city of Great Phrygia, near the Mae- 
U 



> 

HIERON. 

ander, celebrated for its hot springs and its tern 
pie of Cybele. Like the neighboring cities of 
Colossa? and Laodicea, it was an early seat of 
Christianity, and it is mentioned in St. Paul's 
Epistle to the Colossicms (iv., 13). — 2. Formerly 
Bambvce (Ba/i6vKTj : now Bambuch or Membij), 
a city in the northeast of Syria, one of the chief 
seats of the worship of Astarte. 

[Hierapytna ('lepurrvTva, in Dio Cass, 'lepo- 
izvdva : 'lepanvrviog : now Girapietra), a town 
on the southern coast of Crete, fabled to have 
been founded by the Corybantes.] 

[Hiero. Vid. Hieron.] 

Hierocles 1. A Greek rhetori- 

cian of Alabanda in Caria, lived about B.C. 100, 
and was distinguished, like his brother Mene- 
cles, by the Asiatic style of oratory. — 2. Gov- 
ernor of Bithynia, and afterward of Alexan- 
drea, is said to have been one of the chief insti- 
gators of the persecution of the Christians un- 
der Diocletian. He wrote a work against the 
Christians, entitled Aoyoi §ikakridei<; npbq tovc 
Xpioriavovg, of which we may form an idea from 
the account of Lactantius and the refutation 
which Eusebius wrote against it. We see from 
these writers that Hierocles attacked the char- 
acter of Jesus Christ and his apostles, and put 
him on an equality with Apollonius of Tyana. — 
3. A New Platonist, who lived at Alexandrea 
about the middle of the fifth century. He wrote, 
1. A commentary on the golden verses of Py- 
thagoras, in which he endeavors to give an in- 
telligible account of the philosophy of Pythag- 
oras. Published by Needham, Cambridge, 1709, 
and by Warren, London, 1742. 2. A work on 
Providence, Fate, and the reconciliation of man's 
free will with the divine government of the 
world, in seven books. The work is lost, but 
some extracts from it are preserved in Photius. 
3. An ethical work on justice, on reverence to- 
ward the gods, parents, relations, &c, which 
bore the title Tu. <j>i\oao(j>ovfieva,. This work is 
also lost, but there are several extracts from it 
in Stobffius. The extant work, entitled [XcTeia, 
a collection of ludicrous tales, is erroneously 
ascribed to Hierocles, the New Platonist. The 
work is of no merit. — 4. A Greek grammarian, 
the author of an extant work, entitled SwE/cdi?- 
jtioc, that is, The Travelling Companion, intend- 
ed as a hand-book for travellers througt the 
provinces of the eastern empire. It was per- 
haps written at the beginning of the sixth cen 
tury of our era. It contains a list of sixty ep- 
archias or provinces of the Eastern empire, and 
of nine hundred and thirty-five different towns, 
with brief descriptions. Published by Wessel- 
ing, in Veterum Bomanorum Itineraria, Amster- 
dam, 1735. 

Hieron ('lepuv ). 1. Tyrant of Syracuse (B. 
C. 478-467), was son of Dinomenes and brother 
of Gelon, whom he succeeded in the sovereign- 
ty. In the early part of his reign he became 
involved in a war with Theron of Agrigent'im, 
who had espoused the cause of his brother 
Polyzelus, with whom he had quarrelled. But 
Hieron afterward concluded a peace with The- 
ron, and became reconciled to his brother Poly- 
zelus. After the death of Theron in 472, he 
carried on war against his son Thrasydaaus, 
whom he defeated in a great battle, and ex- 
pelled from Agrigentum. But by far the most 
369 



1 

HIEROK 

important event of his reign was the great 
victory which he obtained over the Etruscan 
fleet near Coma; (474), and which appears to 
have effectually broken the naval power of 
that nation. Hieron died at Gataua in the 
twelfth year of his reign, 467. His govern- 
ment was much more despotic than that of his 
brother Gelon. He maintained a large guard 
of mercenary troops, and employed numerous 
spies and informers. He was, however, a lib- 
eral and enlightened patron of men of letters, 
and his court became the resort of the most dis- 
tinguished poets and philosophers of the day. 
JSsehylus, Pindar, and Bacchyiides took up their 
abode with him, and we find him associating in 
friendly intercourse with Xenophanes, Epichar- 
nms, and Simonides. His intimacy with the 
latter was particularly celebrated, and has been 
made the subject by Xenophon of an imaginary 
dialogue, entitled the Hieron. His love of mag- 
nificence was especially displayed in the great 
contests of the Grecian games, and his victories 
at Olympia and Delphi have been immortalized 
by Pindar.— 2. King of Syracuse (B.C. 270-216), 
Was the son of Hierocles, a noble Syracusan, 
descended from the great Gelon, but his moth- 
er was a female servant. When Pyrrhus left 
Sicily (275), Hieron, who had distinguished 
himself in the wars of that monarch, was de- 
clared general by the Syracusan army. He 
strengthened his power by marrying the daugh- 
ter of Leptines, at that time the most influen- 
tial citizen at Syracuse ; and after his defeat of 
the Mamertines, he was saluted by his fellow- 
citizens with the title of king, 270. It was the 
great object of Hieron to expel the Mamertines 
from Sicily ; and accordingly, when the Romans, 
in 264, interposed in favor of that people, Hie- 
ron concluded an alliance with the Carthagini- 
ans, and, in conjunction with them, carried on 
war against the Romans. But having been de- 
feated by the Romans, he concluded a peace 
with them in the following year (263), in virtue 
of which he retained possession of the whole 
southeast of Sicily, and the eastern side of the 
island as far as Tauromenium. From this time 
till his death, a period of little less than half a 
century, Hieron continued the steadfast friend 
and ally of the Romans, a policy of which his 
subjects as well as himself reaped the benefits, 
in the enjoyment of a state of uninterrupted 
tranquillity and prosperity. Even the heavy 
losses which the Romans sustained in the first 
three years of the second Punic war did not 
shake his fidelity ; and after their great defeats, 
he sent them large supplies of corn and auxiliary 
troops. He died in 216 at the age of ninety- 
two. His government was mild and equitable : 
though he did not refuse the title of king, he 
avoided all external display of the insignia of 
royalty, and appeared in public in the garb of a 
private citizen. The care he bestowed upon 
the financial department of his administration 
is attested by the laws regulating the tithes of 
corn and other agricultural produce, which, un- 
der the name of Leges Hicronicce, were retained 
by the Romans when they reduced Sicily to a 
province. He adorned the city of Syracuse 
with many public works. His power aud mag- 
nificence were celebrated by Theocritus in his 
sixteenth Idyl. Hieron had only one son, Ge- 
370 



HIERONYMUS. 

Ion, who died shortly before his father. He wa» 
succeeded by his grandson, Hieronymus. 

Hieron varus ('lepavvftoc). 1. Of Cardia, prob- 
ably accompanied Alexander the Great to Asia, 
and after the death of that monarch (B.C. 323) 
served under his countryman Eumenes. In the 
last battle between Eumenes and Antigonus 
(316), Hieronymus fell into the hands of Antig- 
onus, who treated him with kindness, and to 
whose service he henceforth attached Jiimself. 
After the death of Antigonus (301), Hieronymus 
continued to follow the fortunes of his son De- 
metrius, and was appointed by the latter gov- 
ernor of Bceotia, after his first conquest of 
Thebes, 292. He continued unshaken in his 
attachment to Demetrius and to his son, Antig- 
onus Gonatas, after him. It appears that he 
survived Pyrrhus, and died at the advanced age 
of 104. Hieronymus wrote a history of the 
events from the death of Alexander to that of 
Pyrrhus, if not later. This work has not come 
down to us, but it is frequently cited by later 
writers as one of the chief authorities for the 
history of Alexander's successors. We are told 
that Hieronymus displayed partiality to Antigo- 
nus and Demetrius, and, in consequence, treated 
Pyrrhus and Lysimachus with great injustice. 
— 2. King of Syracuse, succeeded his grand- 
father Hieron II., B.C. 216, at fifteen years of 
age. He was persuaded by the Carthaginian 
party to renounce the alliance with the Romans, 
which his grandfather had maintained for so 
many years. He was assassinated after a short 
reign of only thirteen months. — 3. Of Rhodes, 
commonly called a peripatetic, though Cicero 
questions his right to the title, was a disciple of 
Aristotle, and appears to have lived down to the 
time of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He held the 
highest good to consist in freedom from pain 
and trouble, and denied that pleasure was to be 
sought for its own sake. — 4. Commonly known 
as Saint Jerome, one of the most celebrated of 
the Christian fathers, was born at Stridon, a 
town upon the confines of Dalmatia and Pan- 
nonia, about A.D. 340. His father sent him to 
Rome for the prosecution of his studies, where 
he devoted himself with great ardor and suc- 
cess to the Greek and Latin languages, to rhet- 
oric, and to the different branches of philosophy, 
enjoying the instructions of the most distin- 
guished preceptors of that era, among whom 
was iElius Donatus. Vid. Donatus. After com- 
pleting his studies he went to Gaul, where he 
remained some time, and subsequently travelled 
through various countries in the East. At An- 
tioch he was attacked by a dangerous malady, 
and on his recovery he resolved to withdraw 
from the world. In 374 he retired to the desert 
of Chalcis, lying between Antioch and the Eu 
phrates, where he passed four years, adhering 
strictly to the most rigid observances of monk- 
ish ascctism, but at the same time pursuing the 
study of Hebrew. Iu 379 he was ordained a 
presbyter at Antioch by Pauliuus. Soon after 
he went to Constantinople, where he lived for 
three years, enjoying the instructions and friend- 
ship of Gregory of Nazianzus. Iu 382 he ac- 
companied Pnulinus to Rome, where he formed 
a close friendship with the Pope Damasus. He 
remained at Rome three years, and there labor- 
ed in proclaiming the glory and merit of a con- 



HIEROSOLYMA. 



HIMILCO. 



templative life and monastic discipline. He 
had many enthusiastic disciples among the Ro- 
mau ladies, but the influence which he exercis- 
ed over them excited the hatred of their rela- 
tions, and exposed him to attacks against his 
character. Accordingly, he left Rome in 385, 
having lost his patron Damaus in the preceding 
year, and, accompanied by the rich widow Paula-, 
her daughter Eustoehium, and a number of de- 
vout maidens, he made a tour of the Holy Land, 
and finally settled at Bethlehem, where Paula 
erected four monasteries, three for nuns and 
one for monks. Here he passed the remainder 
of his life. He died A.D. 420. Jerome wrote 
a great number of works, most of which have 
come down to us. Of these the most celebrated 
are his Commentaries on the various books of 
the Scriptures. He also translated into Latin 
the Old 1 and New Testaments: his translation 
is in substance 1 the Latin version of the Scrip- 
tures, known by the name of the Vulgate. The 
translation of the Old Testament was made by 
Jerome directly from the Hebrew ; but the 
translation of the New Testament was formed 
by him out of the old translations, carefully cor- 
rected from the original Greek. Jerome like- 
wise translated from the Greek the Chronicle 
of Eusebius, which he enlarged, chie^y m the 
department of Roman history, and bought down 
to A.D. 378. Jerome was the n*>st learned of 
the Latin fathers. His profound knowledge of 
the Latin, Greek, and Hebrfw languages, his 
familiarity with ancient hiVory and philosophy, 
and his personal acquaintance with the man- 
ners and scenery of tVe East, enabled him to 
throw much light uprfJ the Scriptures. In his 
controversial work?' lie is vehement and dog- 
matical. His language is exceedingly pure, bear- 
ing ample testimony to the diligence with which 
he must hav« studied the choicest models. The 
best editions of the works of Jerome are the 
Benedictine, Paris, 5 vols, fol., 1693-1706, and 
that bvVallarsi, Veron., 11 vols.fbl., 1734-1742; 
repriced Venet., 11 vols. 4to, 1766. 

JZieiiosolyma. Vid. Jerusalem. 

Hilabius. 1. A Christian writer, was born 
of pagan parents at Poitiers. He afterward be- 
came a Christian, and was elected bishop of his 
native place, A.D. 350. From this time he de- 
voted all his energies to check the progress of 
Arianism, which was making rapid strides in 
Gaul. He became so troublesome to the Ari- 
ans, that they induced the Emperor Constantius 
m 356 to banish him to Phrygia. He was allow- 
ed to return to Gaul about 361, and died in his 
diocese in 368. Several of his works have 
come down to us. They consist chiefly of 
polemical treatises against the Arians and ad- 
dresses to the Emperor Constantius. The best 
edition of his works is by Constant, Paris, 1693, 
forming one of the Benedictine series, and re- 
printed by Scipio Maffei, Veron., 1730. — 2. Bish- 
op of Aries, succeeded his master Honoratus in 
that diocese, A.D. 429, and died in 449. He 
wrote the life of Honoratus and a few other 
works. 

Hilleviones. Vid. Germania, p. 327, a. 

Himera ('Ifcepa). 1. (Now Fiume Salso,) one 
of the principal rivers in the south of Sicily, at 
one time the boundary between the territories 
of the Carthaginians and Syracusans, receives 



i near Enna the water of a salt spring, and hence 
has salt water as far as its mouth". — 2. A smaller 
river in the north of Sicily, flows into the sea 
between the towns of Himera and Therma?. — 
3. ('1/iepaloc), a celebrated Greek city on the 
northern coast of Sicily, west of the mouth of 
the River Himera (No. 2), was founded by the 
Chalcidians of Zancle, B.C. 648, and afterward 
received Dorian settlers, so that the inhabitants 
spoke a mixed dialect, partly Ionic (Chaleidiau) 
and partly Doric. About 560, Himera, being 
threatened by its powerful neighbors, placed it- 
self under the protection of Phalaris, tyrant of 
Agrigentum, in whose power it appears to 'have 
remained till his deatn. At a later time (500) 
we find Himera governed by a tyrant Terillus, 
who was expelled by Theron of Agrigentum. 
Terillus thereupon applied for assistance to the 
Carthaginians, who, anxious to extend their in- 
fluence in Sicily, sent a powerful army into 
Sicily under the command of Hamilcar. The 
Carthaginians were defeated with great slaugh- 
ter at Himera by the united forces of Thei on 
and Gelon of Syracuse on the same day that the 
battle of Salamis was fought (480). Himera 
was now governed by Thrasydseus, the son of 
Theron, in the name of his father ; but the in- 
habitants having attempted to revolt, Theron put 
to death or drove into exile a considerable part 
of the population, and repeopled the city with 
settlers from all quarters, but especially of Do^ 
rian origin. After the death of Theron (472), 
Himera recovered its independence, and for the 
next sixty years was one of the most flourish- 
ing cities in Sicily. It assisted Syracuse against 
the Athenians in 415. In 409 it was taken by 
Hannibal, the son of Gisco, who, to revenge the 
great defeat which the Carthaginians had suf- 
fered before this town, levelled it to the ground 
and destroyed almost all the inhabitants. Hi- 
mera was never rebuilt ; but on the opposite 
bank of the River Himera, the Carthaginians 
founded a new town, which, from a warm me- 
dicinal spring in its neighborhood, was called 
Thermae (Qspfiat. : Qep/UTTjc, Thermitanus : now 
Termini). Here the remains of the unfortunate 
inhabitants of Himera were allowed to settle. 
The Romans, who highly prized the warm 
springs of Thermos, permitted the town to retain 
its own constitution ; and Augustus made it a 
colony. The poet Stesichorus was born at the 
ancient Himera, and the tyrant Agathocles at 
Thermse. 

Himerius ('Ifitpiog), a celebrated Greek soph- 
ist, was born at Prusa in Bithynia, and studied 
at Athens. He was subsequently appointed pro- 
fessor of rhetoric at Athens, where he gave in- 
struction to Julian, afterward emperor, and the 
celebrated Christian writers, Basil and Gregory 
Nazianzen. In 362 the Emperor Julian invited 
him to his court at Antioch, and made him his sec- 
retary. He returned to Athens in 368, and there 
passed the remainder of his life. Himerius was a 
pagan ; but he does not manifest in his writings 
any animosity against the Christians. There were 
extant in the time of Photius seventy-one orations 
by Himerius ; but of these only twenty-four have 
come down to us complete. Edited by AVerus- 
dorf, Gottingen, 1790. 

Himilco ('lfiiXKUv). 1. A Carthaginian, who 
I conducted a voyage of discovery from Ga'dee 
371 



HIPPANA. 



HIPPOCENTAURI 



toward the north, along the western shores of 
Europe, at the same time that Hanno undertook 
his voyage to the south along the coast of Afri- 
ca. Vid. Hanno, No. 10. Himilco represent- 
ed that-, his further progress was prevented by 
the stagnant nature of the sea, loaded with sea- 
weed, and by the absence of wind. His voyage 
is said to have lasted four months, but it is im- 
possible to judge how far it was extended. Per- 
haps it was intentionally wrapped in obscurity 
by the commercial jealousy of the Carthagini- 
ans. — 2. Son of Hanno, commanded, together 
with Hannibal, son of Gisco (vid. Hannibal, 
No. 1), a Carthaginian army in Sicily, and laid 
siege to Agrigentum, B.C. 406. Hannibal died 
before Agrigentum of a pestilence, which broke 
out in the camp; and Himilco, now left sole 
general, succeeded in taking the place, after a 
siege of nearly eight months. At a later period 
he carried on war against Dionysius ot Syra- 
cuse. In 395 he defeated Dionysius, and laid 
siege to Syracuse ; but while pressing the siege 
of the city, a pestilence carried off a great num- 
ber of his men. In this weakened condition, 
Himilco was attacked and defeated by Diony- 
sius, and was obliged to purchase his safety by 
an ignominious capitulation. Such was his 
grief and disappointment at this termination to 
the campaign, that, on his return to Carthage, 
he put an end to his life by voluntary absti- 
nence. — 3. The Carthaginian commander at Lil- 
ybaeum, which he defended with skill and brav- 
ery when it was attacked by the Romans, 250. 
— 4. Commander of the Carthaginian forces in 
Sicily during a part of the second Punic war, 214 
-212. — 5. Surnamed Pham^eas, commander of the 
Carthaginian cavalry in the the third Punic war. 
He deserted to the Romans, by whom he was 
liberally rewarded. 

Hippana (tu "Imrava), a town in the north of 
Sicily, near Panormus. 

Hipparchia ('lnnapxia), wife of Crates the 
Cynic. (For details, vid. Crates, No. 3.) 

Hipparchus ('lTTTrapxoi). 1. Son of Pisistra 
tus. Vid. Pisistuatid^. — 2. A celebrated Greek 
astronomer, was a native of Nicsea in Bithyuia, 
and flourished B.C. 160-145. He resided both 
at Rhodes and Alexandrea. He was the true 
father of astronomy, which he raised to that 
rank among the applications of arithmetic and 
geometry which it has always since preserved. 
He was the first who gave and demonstrated 
the means of solving all triangles, rectilinear 
and spherical. He constructed a table of chords, 
of which he made the same sort of use as we 
make of our sines. He made more observa- 
tions than his predecessors, and understood 
them better. He invented the planisphere, or 
the mode of representing the starry heavens 
upon a plane, and of producing the solutions of 
problems of spherical astronomy. He is also 
the father of true geography, by his happy idea 
of marking the position of spots on the earth, 
as was done with the stars, by circles drawn 
from the pole perpendicularly to the equator ; 
that is, by latitudes and longitudes. His method 
of eclipses was the only one by which differ- 
ences of meridians could be determined. The 
catalogue which Hipparchus constructed of the 
stars is preserved in the Almagest of Ptolemy. 
Hipparchus wrote numerous works, which are 
372 



all lost with the exception of his commenta- 
ry on the phenomena of Aratus. 

HipparInus ('l-Knaplvog). 1. A Syracusan, 
father of Dion and Aristomache, supported the 
elder Dionysius, who married his daughter Aris- 
tomache. — 2. Son of Dion, and grandson of the 
preceding, threw himself from the roof of a 
house, and was killed on the spot, when his 
father attempted, by restraint, to cure him of 
the dissolute habits which he had acquired while 
under the power of Dionysius. — 3. Son of the 
elder Dionysius by Aristomache, daughter of 
No. 1, succeeded Callippus in the tyranny of 
Syracuse, B.C. 352. He was assassinated after 
reigning only two years. 

Hipparis. ('I7r7rap(f : now Camarina), a river 
in the south of Sicily, which flows into the sea 
near Camarina. 

Hippasus ("Innaaog), of Metapoutum or Cro- 
ton, in Italy, 'one of the elder Pythagoreans, 
held the element of fire to be the cause of all 
things. In consequence of his making known 
the sphere, consisting of twelve pentagons, 
which was regarded by the Pythagoreans as a 
secret, he is said to have perished in the sea as 
an impious man. 

Hipi-ta and Hippius ('Iirnia and "Initios, or 
"Imretof), in Latin Equester and Equestris, sur- 
names of several divinities, as of Juno (Hera) 
and Minerva (Athena), of Neptune (Poseidon) 
and of Mars (Ai° s ) ; and at Rome also of Fortuna 
and Venus. 

Hippias ('lnmac). i. Son of Pisistratus. Vid. 
Pisisiratid^:.— 2. Tt», Sophist, was a native 
of Elis, and the contem^raiy f Socrates. Hia 
fellow-citizens availed themselves of his abili- 
ties in potitical matters, ani sent him on a dip- 
lomatic mission to Sparta. B4 he was in every 
respect like the other sophists tf the time. He 
travelled through Greece for the purpose of ac- 
quiring wealth and celebrity by Caching and 
public speaking. His character as n sophist, 
his vanity, and his boastful arrogance, are well 
described in the two dialogues of Plato, hippias 
major and Hippias minor. Though his ki»rwl- 
edge was superficial, yet it appears that he kid 
paid attention not only to rhetorical, philosoph- 
ical, and political studies, but also to poetiy, 
music, mathematics, painting, and sculpture; 
and he must even have acquired some practical 
skill in the mechanical arts, as he used to boast 
of wearing on his body nothing that he had not 
made with his own hands, such as his seal-ring, 
his cloak, and shoes. He possessed great fa- 
cility in extempore speaking ; and once his van- 
ity led him to declare that he would travel to 
Olympia, and there deliver before the assembled 
Greeks an oration on any subject that might be 
proposed to him. 

Hippo ('Inirwv), in Africa. 1. H. Regius ('I. 
flaoihiKoc : ruins near Bonah), a city on the coast 
of Numidia, west of the mouth of the Rubrica- 
tus ; once a royal residence, and afterward cel- 
ebrated as the bishopric of St. Augustine. — 2. 
H. Diarrhytus or Zaritus ('I. 6id6fiv-o( : now Bi- 
zerta), a city on the northern coast of the 
Carthaginian territory (Zeugitana), west of Uti- 
ca, at the mouth of the Sinus Hipponensis. — 3. 
A town of the Carpetaui in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, south of Toletum. 

Hippocentauri. Vid. Centauri. 



HIPPOCOON. 



HHTODAMUS. 



Hippocoon ('iTTiroKoav). 1. Son of (Ebalus and 
Batea. After his father's death he expelled his 
brother Tyndareus, in order to secure the king- 
dom to himself; but Hercules led Tyndareus 
back, and slew Hippocoon and his sons. Ovid 
(Met., viii., 314) mentions the sons of Hippocoon 
among the Calydonian hunters. — [2. A Thra- 
cian, follower of Rhesus in the Trojan war. — 
3. Son of Hyrtacus, a companion of jEneas, dis- 
tinguished himself in the funeral games cele- 
brated in honor of Anchises.] 

Hippocrates ('iTTTro/cpar^c). 1. Father of Pi- 
sistratus, the tyrant of Athens. — 2. An Athe- 
nian, son of Megacles, was brother of Clisthe- 
nes, the legislator, and grandfather, through his 
daughter Agariste, of the illustrious Pericles. 
— 3. An Athenian, son of Xanthippus and broth- 
er of Pericles. He had three sons, who, as well 
as their father, are alluded to by Aristophanes 
as men of a mean capacity, and devoid of edu- 
cation. — 4. An Athenian, son of Ariphron, com- 
manded the Athenians, B.C. 424, when he was 
defeated and slain by the Boeotians at the battle 
of Delium. — 5. A Lacedemonian, served under 
Miudarus on the Asiatic coast in 41 0, and, after 
the defeat of Mindarus at Cyzicus, became com- 
mander of the fleet — 6. A Sicilian, succeeded 
his brother Oleander as tyrant of G^la, 498. 
His reign was prosperous ; and he extended his 
power over several other cities of Sicily. He 
died in 491, while besieging Hybla. — 7. A Sicil- 
ian, brother of Epioydes. — 8. The most cele- 
brated physician of antiquity. He was born in 
the island of Cos about B.C. 460. He belonged 
to the family of the Aselepiadae, and was the 
son of Heraclides, who was also a physician. 
His mother's name was Phaenarete, who was 
said to be descended from Hercules. He was 
instructed in medical science by his father and 
by Herodicus, and he is said to have been also 
a pupil of Gorgias of Leontini. He wrote, 
taught, and practiced bis profession at home ; 
travelled in different parts of the continent of 
Greece ; and died at Larissa in Thessaly, about 
357, at the age of 104. He had two sons, Thes- 
salus and Dracon, and a son-in-law, Polybus, 
all of whom followed the same profession, and 
who are supposed to have been the authors of 
some of the works in the Hippocratic collec- 
tion. These are the only certain facts which 
we know respecting the life of Hippocrates ; but 
to these later writers have added a large collec- 
tion of stories, many of which are clearly fabu- 
lous. Thus he is said to have stopped the plague 
at Athens b3 T burning fires throughout the city, 
by suspending chaplets of flowers, and by the 
use of an antidote. It is also related that Ar- 
taxerxes Longimanus, king of Persia, invited 
Hippocrates to come to his assistance during a 
time of pestilence, but that Hippocrates refused 
his request on the ground of his being the en- 
emy of his country. The writings which have 
come down to us under the name of Hippocrates 
were composed by several different persons, aud 
are of very different merit. They are more than 
6ixty in number, but of these only a few are 
certainly genuine. They are : 1. TlpoyvuoTinbv, 
Prcenotiones or Prognosticon. 2. 'Aftopiafioi, Apho- 
rismi. 3. 'E^tSrifiLuv Bi&Xia, Be Morbis Popula- 
ribus (cr Epidemiorum). 4. Tlepl &cacT7]c '0£euv, 
J)e Ratione Victim in Morbis Acutis, or Be Biceta 



Acutorum. 5. Tlepl 'Aepuv, 'Y&utuv, Tonuv, Di 
A'ere, Aquis, et Locis. ,6. Ilept rdv h> Ke<pa?i7i 
Tpufidruv, De Capitis Vulneribus. Some of the 
other works were perhaps written by Hippo- 
crates ; but the great majority of them were 
composed by his disciples and followers, many 
of whom bore the name of Hippocrates. The 
ancient physicians wrote numerous comment- 
aries on the works in the Hippocratic collectioa 
Of these the most valuable are the comment- 
aries of Galen. Hippocrates divided the causes 
of disease into two principal classes ; the one 
comprehending the influence of seasons, cli- 
mates, water, situation, <fcc., and the other the 
influence of food, exercise, <fcc. He considered 
that while heat and cold, moisture and dryness, 
succeeded one another throughout the year, 
the human body underwent certain analogous 
changes, which influenced the diseases of the 
period. He supposed that the four fluids or 
humors of the body (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, 
and black bile) were the primary seat of dis- 
ease ; that health was the result of the due 
combination (or crasis) of these, and that, when 
this crasis was disturbed, disease was the conse- 
quence; that, in the course of a disorder that 
was proceeding favorably, these humors under 
went a certain change in quality (or coction), 
which was the sign of retm-ning health, as pre- 
paring the way for \he expulsion of the morbid 
matter, or crisis ; and that these crises had a 
tendency to occur at certain stated periods, 
which were hence called '.' critical days." Hip- 
pocrates was evidently a person who not only 
had had great experience, but who also kuew 
how to turn it to the best account; and the 
number of moral reflections and apophthegms 
that we meet with in his writings, some of 
which (as, for example, " Life is short, and Art 
is long") have acquired a sort of proverbial no- 
toriety, show him to have been a profound 
thinker. His works are written in the Ionic 
dialect, and the style is so concise as to be 
sometimes extremely obscure. The best edi- 
tion of his works is by Littre, Paris, 1839, seq., 
with a French translation. 

Hippocrene ^iKTTOKprjvrj), the "Fountain of 
the Horse," called by Persius Pons Caballinus, 
was a fountain in Mount Helicon in Bceotia, 
sacred to the Muses, said to have been produc- 
ed by the horse Pegasus striking the ground 
with his feet. 

[Hippodamas ('Imrodupac), son of Priam, slain 
by Achilles.] 

Hippodamia ('lTnroSdfieia). 1. Daughter of 
ffinomaus, king of Pisa in Elis. For details, 
vid. (Enomaus and Pelops. — 2. Wife of Pirith- 
ous, at whose nuptials took place the celebrated 
battle between the Centaurs and LapithaB. For 
details,, vid. Pirithous. — 3. Vid. Briseis. — [4. 
Wife of Arayntor, and mother of Phoenix. — 5. 
Daughter of Anchises, and wife of Alcathous. 
— 6. One of the female attendants of Penelope.] 

Hippodamus ('Imrodaftoc). [1. A Trojan hero, 
slain by Ulysses.] — 2. A distinguished Greek 
architect, a native of Miletus, and the son of 
Euryphon or Eurycoon. His fame rests on his 
construction, not of single buildings, but of 
whole cities. His first great work was the town 
of Piraus, which he built under the auspices of 
Pericles. When the Athenians founded their 
373 



\ 



HIPPOLOCHUS. 



HIPPOTHOTJS. 



colony of Thurii (B.C. 443), Hippodamus went 
out with the colonists, and was the architect of 
the new city. Hence he is often called a Thu- 
rian. He afterwards built Rhodes (408-407). 

Hippolochcs ('IttttoAo^oc). 1. Son of Bellero- 
phontes and Philonoe or Anticlea, and father of 
Glaucus, the Lyeian prince. — [2. A Trojan, son 
of Antimachus, slain by Agamemnon. — 3. One 
of the thirty tyrants at Athens.] 

Hippolyte ('l-n-noZv-Tj). 1. Daughter of Mars 
(Ares) and Otrera, was queen of the Amazons, 
and sister of Antiope and ilelanippe. She wore 
a girdle given to her by her father ; and when 
Hercules came to fetch this girdle, she was 
slain by Hercules. Vid. p. 357, b. According 
to another tradition, Hippolyte, with an army 
of Amazons, marched into Attica, to take venge- 
ance on Theseus for having carried off An- 
tiope ; but, being conquered by Theseus, she 
fled to Megara, where she died of grief, *aud was 
buried. In some accounts, Hippolyte, and not 
Antiope, is said to have been married to The- 
seus. — 2. Or Astydamia, wife of Aeastus, fell 
in love with Peleus. Vid. Acastus. 

Hippolytus ('Ittkoavtoc). 1. Son of Theseus 
by Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, or her 
sister Antiope. Theseus afterwards married 
Phasdra, who fell in love with Hippolytus ; but, 
as her offers were rejected by her step-son, she 
accused him to his father'of having attempted 
her dishonor. Theseus thereupon cursed his 
son, and requested his father, iEgeus or Nep- 
tune (Poseidon), to destroy him. Accordingly, 
as Hippolytus was riding in his chariot along 
the sea-coast, Neptune (Poseidon) sent forth a 
bull from the water. The horses were fright- 
ened, upset the chariot, and dragged Hippoly- 
tus along the ground till he was dead. The- 
seus afterward learned the innocence of his 
son, and Phasdra, in despair, made away with 
herself. Diana (Artemis) induced .<£seulapius 
to restore Hippolytus to life again ; and, accord- 
ing to Italian traditions, she placed him, under 
the name of Virbius, under the protection of 
the nymph Egeria, in the grove of Aricia, in La- 
tium, where he was honored with divine wor- 
ship. Horace, following the more ancient tra- 
dition, says that Diana could not restore Hip- 
polytus to life (Carm^iv., 1, 25). — 2. An early 
ecclesiastical writer of considerable eminence, 
but whose real history is very uucertain. He 
appears to have lived early in the third century, 
and is said to have suffered martyrdom under 
Alexander Severus, being drowned in a ditch 
or pit full of water. Others suppose that he 
perished in the Deciau persecution. He is said 
to have been a disciple of Irenasus and a teacher 
of Origen. His works, which are written in 
Greek, are edited by Fabricius, Hamb., 1716— 
1718, 2 vols. fol. 

[Hippomachus ('iTrirojuaxoc). 1. A Trojan war- 
rior, son of Antimachus, slain by Leonteus. — 2. 
One of the thirty tyrants at Athens, fell in bat- 
tle against the patriots under Thrasybulus.] 

Hippomedon ('lxTrofieSuv), son of Aristonia- 
ehus, or, according to Sophocles, of Talaus, was 
one of the Seven against Thebes, where he was 
shiin duriug the siege by Hyperbius orlsmarus. 

Hippomenes ('iTnro/xevTic). 1. Son of Mega- 
reus. and great-grandson of Neptune (Poseidon), 
conquered Atalanta in the foot-race. For de- 
374 



tails, vid. Atalanta, No. 2. — 2. A descendant 
of Codrus, the fourth and last of the decennial 
archons. Incensed at the barbarous punish- 
ment which he inflicted on his daughter, the 
Attic nobles deposed him. 

Hippon ("Ittttuv), of Rhegium, a philosopher 
of uncertain date, belonging to the Ionian school. 
He was accused of atheism, and so got the sur- 
name of the Melian, as agreeing in sentiment 
with Diagoras. He held water and fire to be 
the principles of all things, the latter springing 
from the foimer, and developing itself by gener- 
ating the universe. 

Hipponax ('IirnwaJ), of. Ephesus, son of 
Pytheus and Protis, was, after Archilochus and 
Simonides, the third of the Iambic poets of 
Greece. He flourished B.C. 546-520. He was 
distinguished for his love of liberty, and having 
been expelled from his native city by the tyrants, 
he took up his abode at Clazomenas, for which 
reason he is sometimes called a Clazomenian. 
In person, Hipponax was little, thin, and ugly, 
but very strong. The two brothers Bupalus 
and Athenis, who were sculptors of Chios, made 
statues of Hipponax, in which they caricatured 
his natural ugliness, and he, in return, directed 
all the power of his satirical poetry against 
them, and especially against Bupalus. (Hor., 
Epod., vi., 14.) Later writers add that the 
sculptors hanged themselves in despair. Hip- 
ponax was celebrated in antiquity for the sever- 
ity of his satires. He severely chastised the 
effeminate luxury of his Ionian brethren ; he 
did not spare his own parents ; and he ventur- 
ed even to ridicule the gods. In his satires he 
introduced a spondee or a trochee in the last 
foot instead of an iambus. This change made 
the verse irregular in its rhythm, and gave it a 
sort of halting movement, whence it was called 
the Choliarnbus (^oAia/^oc lame iambic), or Iam- 
bus Scazon (oku&v, limping). He also wrote 
a parody on the Iliad. He may be said to oc- 
cupy a middle place between Archilochus aild 
Aristophanes. He is as bitter, but not so earn- 
est, as the former, while in lightness and jocose- 
ness he more resembles the latter. The frag- 
ments of Hipponax are edited by Welcker, Got- 
ting., 1817, 8vo, and by Bergk in the JPoetce Ly- 
rid Grcsci. 

Hipponicus. Vid. Callias and Hipponicus. 

HipponIum. Vid. Vibo. 

Hipponous. Vid. Bellerophon. 

Hippotades ('Iirirordd^c) i. e.. son of Hijj- 
potes, that is, JEolus. Vid. iEoi.us, No. 2. 
Hence the M6\i& Insula; are called Hippotada 
regnum. (Ov., Met, xiv., 86.) 

Hippotes ('ImroTric). 1. Father of ^Colus. 
Vid. ^Eolus, No. 2.-2. Sou of Phylas by a 
daughter of Iolaus, great-grandson of Hercules, 
and father of Aletes. When the Heraelida? in- 
vaded Peloponnesus, Hippotes killed the seei 
Caruus. The army, in consequence, began to 
suffer very severely, and Hippotes, by the com 
mand of an oracle, was banished for ten years. 

Hippothoon ('lmrodowv), an Attic hero, sod 
of Neptune (Poseidon) and Alope, the daughter 
of Cercyou. He had a heroum at Atheus ; and 
one of the Attic phyla;, or tribes, was called 
after him Hippothoontis. 

HirroTHous ('iTriroflooc). 1. Son of Cereyon, 
and father of jEpytus, succeeded Agapenor as 



HIPPOTTOK 



HISPAN1A. 



Mnc in Arcadia. — ii. Son of Lethus, grandson 
of Teutamus, and brother of Pylaeus, led a band 
of Pelasgians from Larissa to the assistance of 
the Trojans. He was slain by the Telamonian 
Ajax. 

[Hippotiok ('Ittttot'hjv), a Phrygian, slain by 
Meriones in the Trojan war.] 

Hirpini, a Samnite people, -whose name is 
Baid to come from the Sabine word hirpus, " a 
wolf," dwelt in the south of Samnium, between 
Apulia, Lucania, and Campania. Their chief 
town was jEcuxanom. 

Hirtius, A., belonged to a plebeian family, 
<vhich came probably from Ferentinum in the 
territory of the Hernici. He was the personal 
and political friend of Caesar the dictator. In 
B.C. 58 he was Caesar's legatus in Gaul, and 
during the civil war his name constantly ap- 
pears in Cicero's correspondence. He was one 
of the ten praetors nominated by Caesar for 46, 
and during Caesar's absence in Africa he lived 
principally at his Tusculan estate, which was 
contiguous to Cicero's villa. Though politi- 
cally opposed, they were on friendly terms, and 
Cicero gave Hirtius lessons in oratory. In 44 
Eirtius received Belgie Gaul for his province, 
but he governed it by deputy, and attended 
Caesar at Rome, who nominated him and Vibius 
Pansa consuls for 43. After Caesar's assassi- 
nation (44) Hirtius first joined Antony, but, being 
disgusted by the despotic arrogance of the latter, 
tie retired to Puteoli, where he renewed his in- 
tercourse with Cicero. Later in the year he 
resided at his Tusculan villa, where he was at- 
tacked by a dangerous illness, from which he 
never perfectly recovered. On the first of Jan- 
uary, 43, Hirtius and Pansa entered on their 
consulship, according to Caesar's arrangement. 
'The two consuls were sent along with Octavi- 
anus against Antony, who was besieging Dec. 
Brutus at Mutina. Pansa was defeated by An- 
tony, and died of a wound which he had re- 
ceived in the battle. Hirtius retrieved this dis- 
aster by defeating Antony, but he also fell on 
the 27th of April, in leading an assault on the 
besieger's camp. Octavianus sent the. bodies 
of the slain consuls to Rome, where they were 
received with extraordinary honors, and pub- 
licly buried in the Field of Mars. To Octavia- 
nus their removal from the scene was so timely, 
that he was accused by many of murdering 
them. Hirtius divides with Oppius the claim 
to the authorship of the eighth book of the Gallic 
war, as well as that of the Alexandrean, African, 
and Spanish. It is not impossible that he wrote 
the first three, but he certainly did not write the 
Spanish war. 

Hirtuleius, a distinguished general of Ser- 
torius in Spain. In B.C. 78 he was routed and 
elaiu near Italica, in Baetiea, by Metellus. 

Hispalis, more rarely Hispal (now Seville), 
a town of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetiea, 
founded by the Phoenicians, was situated on the 
left bank of the Baetis, and was in reality a 
sea-port, for, although five hundred stadia from 
the sea, the river is navigable for the largest 
vessels up to the town. Under the Romans 
Hispalis was the third town in the province, 
Corduba and Gades being the two first. It was 
patronized by Caesar, because Corduba had es- 
poused the side of Pompey. He made it a Ro- 



man colony, under the name of Julia Romula 
or Rormdensis, and a conventus juridicus or 
town of assize. Under the Goths and Vandals 
Hispalis was the chief town in the south of 
Spam, and under the Arabs was the capital of 
a separate kingdom. 

Hispania or Iberia ^lanavia, '\6ripla : His- 
panus, Iberus : now Spain and Portugal), a pen- 
insula in the southwest of Europe, is connect 
ed with the land only on the northeast, where 
the Pyrenees form its boundary, and is sur- 
rounded on all other sides by the sea, on the 
east and south by the Mediterranean, on the 
west by the Atlantic, and on the north by the 
Cantabrian Sea. The Greeks and Romans had 
no accurate knowledge of the country till the 
time of the Roman invasion in the second Pu- 
nic war. It was first mentioned by Hecataeus 
(about B.C. 500) under the name of Iberia ; but 
this name originally indicated only the eastern 
coast : the western coast beyond the Pillars of 
Hercules was called Tartessis (TapTTjGaic) ; and 
the interior of the country Celtica (?) KehruiT/). 
At a later time the Greeks applied the name of 
Iberia, which is usually derived from the River 
Iberus, to the whole country. The name Hii 
pania, by which the Romans call the country, 
first occurs at the time of the Romau invasion. 
It is usually derived from the Punic word Span, 
"a rabbit," on account of the great number of 
rabbits which the Carthaginians found in the 
peninsula ; but others suppose the name to be 
of native origin, and to be the same as the 
Basque Ezpana, an edge or border. The poets 
also called it Hesperia, or, to distinguish it from 
Italy, Hesperia Ultima. Spain is a very mount- 
ainous country. The principal mountains are, 
in the northeast, the Pyrenees (yid. Pyren^eus 
Mons-), and in the centre of the country the 
Idubeda, which runs parallel with the Pyrenees 
from the land of the Cantabri to the Mediter- 
ranean, and the Orospeda or Ortospeda, which 
begins in the centre of the Idubeda, runs south 
west throughout Spain, and terminates at Calpe. 
The rivers of Spain are numerous. The six 
most important are the Iberus (now JEbro), 
BjEtis (now Guadalguiver), and Anas (now Gua- 
diana), in the east and south; and the Tagus, 
Durius (now Douro), and Minius (now Minho), 
in the west. Spain was considered by the an- 
cients very fertile, but more especially the 
southern part of the country, Baetiea and Lusi- 
tania, which were also praised for their splendid 
climate. The central and northern parts of the 
country were less productive, ai d the climate in 
these districts was very cold in winter. In the 
south there were numerous flocks of excellent 
sheep, the wool of which was very celebrated 
in foreign countries. The Spanish horses aud 
asses were also much valued in antiquity ; and 
on the coast there was abundance of fish. The 
country produced a great quantity of corn, oil, 
wine, flax, figs, and other fruits. But the prin- 
cipal riches of the country consisted in its min- 
eral productions, of which the greatest quantity 
was found in Turdetania. Gold was found in 
abundance in various parts of the country ; and 
there were many silver mines, of which the 
most celebrated were near Carthago Nova, II- 
ipa, Sisapon, and Castulo. The precious stones ; 
copper, lead, tin, and other metals, were also 
375 



HIbPANIA. 

found in more or less abundance. The most 
ancient inhabitants of Spain were the Iberi, who, 
as a separate people, must be distinguished from 
the Iberi, a collective name of all the inhabit- 
ants of Spain. The Iberi dwelt on both sides 
of the Pyrenees, and were found in the south 
of Gaul as far as the Rhone. Celts afterward 
crossed the Pyrenees, and became mingled with 
the Iberi, whence arose the mixed race of the 
Celtiberi, who dwelt chiefly in the high table- 
land in the centre of the country. Vid. Celti- 
beri. But besides this mixed race of the Cel- 
tiberi, there were also several tribes, both of 
Iberians and Celts, who were never united with 
one another. The unmixed Iberians, from 
whom the modern Basques are descended, 
dwelt chiefly in the Pyrenees and on the coasts, 
and their most distinguished tribes were the 
Astures, Cantabri, VaccjEi, &c. The un- 
mixed Celts dwelt chiefly on the Biver Anas, 
and in the northwest corner of the country or 
Gallaecia. Besides these inhabitants, there 
were Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements 
on the coasts, of which the most important were 
Gades and Carthago Nova ; there were like- 
wise Greek colonies, such as Emporle and Sa- 
guxtum ; and, lastly, the conquest of the coun- 
try by the Romans introduced many Romans 
among the inhabitants, whose customs, civiliza- 
tion, and language gradually spread over the 
whole peninsula, and effaced the national char- 
acteristics of the ancient population. The 
spread of the Latin language in Spain seems to 
have been facilitated by the schools, established 
by Sertorius, in which both the language and 
literature of Greece and Rome were taught. 
Under the empire some of the most distinguish- 
ed Latin writers were natives of Spain, such as 
the two Senecas, Lucan, Martial, Quintilian, 
Silius Italicus, Pomponius Mela, Prudentius, 
and others. The ancient inhabitants of Spain 
were a proud, brave, and warlike race; easily 
excited and ready to take offence ; inveterate 
robbers ; moderate in the use of food and wine ; 
fond of song and of the dance; lovers of their 
liberty, and ready at all times to sacrifice their 
lives rather than submit to a foreign master. 
The Cantabri and the inhabitants of the mount- 
ains in the north were the fiercest and most 
uncivilized of all the tribes ; the Vacetei and the 
Turdetani were the most civilized ; and the 
latter people were not only acquainted with the 
alphabet, but possessed a literature which con- 
tained records of their history, poems, and col- 
lections of laws composed in verse. The his- 
tory of Spain begins with the invasion of the 
country by the Carthaginians, B.C. 238 ; for up 
to that time hardly any thing was known of 
Spain except the existence of two powerful 
commercial states in the west, Tartessus and 
Gades. After the first Punic war, Hamilcar, 
the sou of Hannibal, formed the plan of conquer- 
ing Spain, in order to obtain for the Carthagiu- 
iaus possessions which might indemnify them 
for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia. Under his 
command (288-229), and that of his son-in-law 
and successor, Hasdrubal (228-221), the Car- 
thaginians conquered the greater part of the 
southeast of the peninsula as far as the Iberus; 
and Hasdrubal founded the important city of 
Carthago Nova. These successes of the Car- j 
376 



HISPANIA. 

thaginians excited the jealousy of the Romans ; 
and a treaty was made between the two nations 
about 228, by which the Carthaginians bound 
themselves not to cross the Iberus. The town 
of Saguutum, although on the west side of the 
river, was uuder the protection of the Romans ; 
and the capture of this town by Hannibal in 219 
was the immediate cause of the second Punic 
war. In the course of this war the Romans 
drove the Carthaginians out of the peninsula, 
and became masters of their possessions in the 
south of the country. But many tribes in the 
centre of the country, which had been only 
nominally subject to Carthage, still retained 
their virtual independence ; and the tribes in 
the north and northwest of the country bad 
been hitherto quite unknown both to the Car- 
thaginiaus and Romans There now arose a 
long and bloody struggle between the Romans 
and the various tribes in Spain, and it was 
nearly two centuries before the Romans suc- 
ceeded in subduing entirely the whole of the 
peninsula. The Celtiberians were conquered 
by the elder Cato (195), and Tib. Gracchus, the 
father of the two tribunes (179). The Lusita- 
nians, who long resisted the Romans under 
their brave leader Viriathus, were obliged to 
submit, about the year 137, to D. Brutus, who 
penetrated as far as Gallaecia; but it was not 
till Numantia was taken by Seipio Afrieanus the 
younger, in 133, that the Romans obtained the 
undisputed sovereignty over the various tribes 
in the centre of the country, and of the Lusita- 
nians to the south of the Tagus. Julius Caesar, 
after his prastorship, subdued the Lusitanians 
north of the Tagus (60). The Cantabri, Astu- 
res, and other tribes in the mountains of the 
north, were finally subjugated by Augustus and 
his generals. The whole peninsula was now 
subject to the Romans ; and Augustus founded 
in it several colonies, and caused excellent roads 
to be made throughout the country. The Ro- 
mans had, as early as the end of the second Pu- 
nic war, divided Spain into two provinces, sep- 
arated from one another by the Iberus, and 
called Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, 
the former being to the east, and the latter to 
the west of the river. In consequence of there 
being two provinces, we frequently find the 
country called Hispanice. The provinces were 
governed by two proconsuls or two proprae- 
tors, the latter of whom also frequently bore 
the title of proconsuls. Augustus made a new 
division of the country, and formed three 
provinces Tarraconerisis, Bcetica, and Lusitania, 
The province Tarraconensis, which derived its 
name from Tarraco, the capital of the province, 
was by far the largest of the three, and com- 
prehended the whole of the north, east, and 
centre of the peninsula. The proviuce Batica, 
which derived its name from the River Bastis, 
was separated from Lusitania on the north 
and west by the River Anas, and from Tarraco- 
nensis on the east by a line drawn from the 
River Anas to the promontory Charidemus in 
the Mediterranean. The province Lusitania, 
which corresponded very nearly in extent to 
the modern Portugal, was separated from Tar- 
racoueusis on the north by the River Durius, 
from Baetica on the east by the Anas, and from 
Tarraconensis on the east by a line drawn from 



HISPELLUM. 



HOMERUS. 



the Durius to the Anas, between the territories 
of the Vettones and Carpetani. Augustus made 
Bastica a senatorial province, but reserved the 
government of the two others for the Caesar ; 
so that the former was governed by a procon- 
sul appointed by the senate, and the latter by 
imperial legati. In Baetica, Corduba or Hispalis 
was the seat of government ; in Tarraeonensis, 
Tarraco ; and in Lusitania, Augusta Emerita. 
On the reorganization of the empire by Constan- 
tine, Spain, together with Gaul and Britain, was 
under the general administration of the Prce- 
fectus Prcetorio Gallice, one of whose three vi- 
carii had the government of Spain, and usually 
resided at Hispalis. At the same time, the coun- 
try was divided into seven provinces : Bcetica, 
Lusitania, Gallcecia, Tarraeonensis, Carthagini- 
ensis, Baleares, and Mauretania Tingitana in 
Africa (which was then reckoned part of Spain). 
The capitals of these seven provinces were re- 
spectively Hispalis, Augusta Emerita, Bracara, 
Ccesaraugusta, Carthago Nova, Palma, and Tin- 
gis. In A.D. 409 the Vandals and Suevi, to- 
gether with other barbarians, invaded Spain, 
and obtained possession of the greater part of 
the country. In 414 the Visigoths, as allies of. 
the Roman empire, attacked the Vandals, and in 
the course of f6ur years (414-418) compelled a 
great part of the peninsula to submit, again to 
the Romans. In 429 the Vandals left Spain, 
and crossed over into Africa under their king 
Genserie ; after which time the Suevi establish- 
ed a powerful kingdom in the south of the pen- 
insula. Soon afterward the Visigoths again in- 
vaded Spain, and after many years' struggle, 
succeeded in conquering the whole peninsula, 
whieh they kept for themselves, and continued 
the masters of the country for two centuries, 
till they were in their turn conquered by the 
Arabs, A.D. 712. 

Hisi'ellum (Hispellas, -atis : Hispellensis : 
now Spcllo), a town in Umbria, and a Roman 
colony, with the name of Colonia Julia His- 
pellum. 

Histi^a. Vid. Hesti^eotis. 

Histi/Eus ('IcTialoc), tyrant of Miletus, was 
left with the other Ionians to guard the bi'idge 
of boats over the Danube when Darius invaded 
Seythia (B.C. 513). He opposed the proposal 
of Miltiades, the Athenian, to destroy the bridge, 
and leave the Persians to their fate, and was, 
in consequence, rewarded by Darius with the 
rule of Mytilene, and with a district in Thrace, 
where he built a town called Myreinus, appa- 
rently with a view of establishing an independ- 
ent kingdom. This excited the suspicions of 
Darius, who invited Histiaeus to Susa, where he 
treated him kindly, but prohibited him from re- 
turning. Tired of the restraint in which he 
was kept, he induced his kinsman Aristagoras 
to persuade the Ionians to revolt, hoping that a 
revolution in Ionia might lead to his release. 
His design succeeded. Darius allowed His- 
tiaeus to depart (496) on his engaging to reduce 
Ionia. The revolt, however, was nearly put 
down when Histiaeus reached the coast. Here 
Histiaeus threw off the mask, and, after raising 
a small fleet, carried on war against the Per- 
sians for two years, and obtained possession of 
Chios. In 494 he made a descent upon the 
Ionian coast, but was defeated and taken pris- 



oner by Harpagus. Artaphernes, the satrap ot 
Ionia, caused him to be put to death by impale- 
ment, and sent his head to the king. 

Histonium (Histoniensis : now Vasto d" Am- 
mone), a town of the Frentani on the coast, and 
subsequently a Roman colony. 

HomeritjE (^OfniplTaL), a people of Arabia 
Felix, who migrated from the interior to the 
southern part of the western coast, and estab- 
lished themselves in the territory of the Sabasi 
(in El. Yemen), where they founded a kingdom, 
which lasted more than five centuries. 

Homeeus ("O^iypof). 1. The great epic poet 
of Greece. His poems formed the basis of 
Greek literature. Every Greek who had re- 
ceived a liberal education was perfectly well 
acquainted with them from his childhood, and 
had learned them by heart at school ; but no- 
body could state any thing certain about their 
author. His date and birth-place were equally 
matters of dispute. Seven cities claimed Ho- 
mer as their countryman (Smyrna, Rhodus, Col- 
ophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, Athenae) ; but 
the claims of Smyrna and Chios are the most 
plausible, and between these two we ,have to 
decide. It is supposed by the best modern 
writers that Homer was an Ionian, who settled 
at Smyrna at the time when the Achaeans and 
.^Eolians formed the chief part of the popula- 
tion. We can thus explain how Homer be- 
came so well acquainted with the traditions of 
the Trojan war, which had been waged by 
Aehasans and ^Eolians, but in which the Ionians 
had not taken part. We know that the Ionians 
were subsequently driven out of Smyrna ; and 
it is further supposed either that Homer him- 
self fled to Chios, or his descendants or disci- 
ples settled there, and formed the famous fami- 
ly of Homerids. According to this account, the 
time of Homer would be a few generations after 
the Ionian migration ; but, with the exception 
of the simple fact of his being an Asiatic Greek, 
all other particulars respecting his life are pure- 
ly fabulous. The common tradition related that 
he was the son of Maeon (hence called Mceonides 
vates), and that in his old age he was blind and 
poor. Homer was universally regarded by the 
ancients as the author of the two great poems 
of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Other poems were 
also attributed to Homer, the genuineness of 
which was disputed by some ; but the Iliad and 
Odyssey were ascribed to him by the concur- 
rent voice of antiquity. Such continued to be 
the prevalent belief in modern times, till 17 95, 
when F. A. Wolf wrote his famous Prolegomena, 
in which he endeavored to show that the Iliad 
and Odyssey were not two complete poems, but 
small, separate, independent epic songs, cele- 
brating single exploits of the heroes, and that 
these lays were for the first time written down 
and united, as the Iliad and Odyssey, by Pisis- 
tratus, the tyrant of Athens. This opinion gave 
rise to a long and animated controversy respect- 
ing the origin of the Homeric poems, which is 
not yet settled, and which probably never will 
be. The following, however, may be regarded 
as the most probable conclusion. An abundance 
of heroic lays preserved the tales of the Trojan 
war. Europe must necessarily haie been the 
country where these songs originat id, both be- 
cause the victorious heroes dwell in Europe, 
377 



HOMERUS. 

and because so many traces in the poems still 
point to these regions. These heroic lays 'were 
brought to Asia Minor by the Greek colonies, 
which left the mother country about three ages 
after the Trojan -war. These unconnected songs 
were, for the first time, united by a great genius, 
tailed Homer, and he was the one individual who 
conceived in his mind the lofty idea of that po- 
etical unity which we must acknowledge and ad- 
mire in the IUad and Odyssey. But as writing 
was not known, or at least little practiced, in 
the age in which Homer lived, it naturally fol- 
lowed that in such long works many interpola- 
tions were introduced, and that they gradually 
became more and more dismembered, and thus 
returned into their original state of separate in- 
dependent songs. They were preserved by the 
rhapsodists, who were minstrels, and who sung 
lays at the banquets of the great and at public 
festivals. A class of rhapsodists at Chios, the 
Homerids, who called themselves the descend- 
ants of the poet, made it their especial business 
to sing the lays of the Iliad and Odyssey, and 
to transmit them to their disciples by oral teach- 
ing, and not by writing. These rhapsodists 
preserved the knowledge of the unity of the 
Homeric poems ; and this knowledge was never 
entirely lost, although the public recitation of 
the poems became more and more fragmentary, 
and the time at festivals and musical contests 
formerly occupied by epic rhapsodists exclusive- 
ly, was encroached upon by the rising lyrical 
performances. Solon directed the attention of 
his countrymen toward the unity of the Ho- 
meric poems ; but the unanimous voice of an- 
tiquity ascribed to Pisistratus the merit of hav- 
ing collected the disjointed poems of Homer, 
and of having first committed them to writing. 
Prom the time of Pisistratus, the Greeks had a 
written Homer, a regular test, which was the 
source and foundation of all subsequent edi- 
tions. W e have already stated that the an- 
cients attributed many other poems to Homer 
besides the Iliad and the Odyssey ; but the 
claims of none of these to this honor can stand 
investigation. The hymns, which still bear the 
name of Homer, probably owe their origin to 
the rhapsodists. They exhibit such a diversity 
of language and poetical tone, that in all prob- 
ability they contain iragments from every cen- 
tury from the time of Homer to the Persian 
war. The Batrachomyomachia, the Battle of the 
Frogs and Mice, an extant poem, and the Mar- 
gites, a poem which is lost, and which ridiculed 
a man who was said to know many things and 
who knew all badly, were both frequently as- 
cribed by the ancients to Homer, but were clear- 
ly of later origin. The Odyssey was evidently 
composed after the Ihad ; and many writers 
maintain that they are the works of two differ- 
ent authors. But it has been observed in re- 
ply that there is not a greater difference in the 
two poems than we often find in the productions 
of the same man in the prime of life and in old 
age ; and the chief cause of difference in the 
two poems is owing to the difference of the 
subject. We must add a few words on the 
literary history of the Iliad and Odyssey. From 
the time of Pisistratus to the establishment of 
the Alexandrine school, we read of two new 
editions (fiiopOuaeis) of the text, one made by 
378 



HONORIUS, FLAVIUS. 

the poet Antimachus, and the other by Aristotle, 
which Alexander the Great used to carry about 
with him in a splendid case (vupdv^) on all his 
expeditions. But it was not till the foundation 
of the Alexandrine school that the Greeks pos- 
sessed a really critical edition of Homer. Ze- 
nodotus was the first who directed his attention 
to the study and criticism of Homer. He was 
followed by Aristophanes and Aristarchus ; and 
the edition of Homer by the latter has been the 
basis of the text to the present day. Aristarchus 
was the prince of grammarians, and did more 
for the text and interpretation of Homer than 
any other critic in modern times. He was op- 
posed to Crates of Mallus, the founder of the 
Pergamene school of grammar. Vid Aristar- 
chus, Crates. In the time of Augustus, the 
great compiler, Didymus, wrote comprehensive 
commentaries on Homer, copying mostly the 
works of preceding Alexandrine grammarians, 
which had swollen to an enormous extent. Un- 
der Tiberius, Apollonius Sophista lived, whoso 
Lexicon Homericum is very valuable (ed. Bek- 
ker, 1833). The most valuable scholia on the 
Iliad are those which were published by Villoi- 
soti from a MS. of the tenth century in the 
library of St. Mark at Venice, 1788, fol. These 
scholia were reprinted with additions, edited by 
I. Bekker, Berlin, 1825, 2 vols. 4to. The most 
valuable scholia to the Odyssey are those pub- 
lished by Buttmann, Berl., 1821. The exten- 
sive commentary of Eustathius contains much 
valuable information from sources which are 
now lost. Vid. Eustathius, No. 3. The best 
critical editions of Homer are by Wolf, Lips., 
1804, seq. ; by Bothe, Lips., 1832, seq. ; and by 
Bekker, Berlin, 1843 ; of the Iliad alone, by 
Heyne, Lips., 1802, sqq. There is a very good 
edition of the Iliad by Spitzner, Gotha, 1832, 
seq. ; and a valuable commentary on the Odys- 
sey by Nitzsch, Hannov., 1825, seq. — 2. A gram- 
marian and tragic poet of Byzantium in the 
time of Ptolemy Philadelphus (about B.C. 280), 
was the son of the grammarian Andromachus 
and the poetess Myro. He was one of the seven 
poets who formed the tragic Pleiad. 

Homole ('OftoXn). 1. A lofty mountain in 
Thessaly, near Tempe, with a sanctuary of Pan. 
— 2. Or Homolium ('O/io/Uov : '0/j.olievc : now 
Lamina), a town in Magnesia in Thessaly, at the 
foot of Mount Ossa, near the Peneus. 

Honor or Honos, the personification of hon- 
or at Borne. Marcellus had vowed a temple, 
which was to belong to Honor and Virtus in 
common ; but as the pontiffs refused to conse- 
crate one temple to two divinities, he built two 
temples, one of Honor and the other of Virtus, 
close together. C. Marius also built a temple 
to Honor, after his victory over the Cimbri and 
Teutones. There was also an altar of Honor 
outside the Colline gate, which was more an- 
cient than either of the temples. Honor is rep- 
resented on coins as a male figure in armor, and 
standing on a globe, or with the cornucopia iu 
his left and a spear in his right hand. 

Honoria. Vid. Grata. 

Honorius, Flavius, Roman emperor of the 
West, A.D. 395—123, was the second son of 
Theodosius the Great, and was born 384. On 
the death of Theodosius in 895, Honorius suc- 
ceeded peaceably to the sovereignty of the Westj 



HORiE. 



HORATIUS FLACCUS. 



which he had received from his father in the 
preceding year, while his elder brother obtain- 
ed possession of the East. DuriDg the minority 
of Honorius, the government was entirely in 
the hands of the able and energetic Stilicho, 
whose daughter Maria the young emperor mar- 
ried. Stilicho for a time defended Italy against 
the attacks of the Visigoths under Alaric (402, 
403), and the ravages of other barbarians under 
Radagaisus ; but after Honorius had put to death 
Stilicho, on a charge of treason (408), Alaric again 
invaded Italy, and took and plundered Rome 
(410.) Honorius meantime lived an inglorious 
life at Ravenna, where he continued to reside till 
his death in 423. 

Hoa.fi ('float) originally the goddesses of the 
order of nature and of the seasons, but in later 
times the goddesses of order in general and of 
justice. In Homer, who neither mentions then- 
parents nor their number, they are the Olympian 
divinities of the weather and the ministers of 
Jupiter (Zeus). In this capacfty they guard the 
doors of Olympus, and promote the fertility of 
the earth, by the various kinds of weather which 
they give to mortals. As the weather, gener- 
ally speaking, is regulated according to the sea- 
sons, they are further described as the goddesses 
of the seasons. The course of the seasons is 
symbolically described as the dance of the 
Horae. At Athens, two Hora3, TJiallo (the Hora 
of spring) and Garpo (the Hora of autumn), were 
worshipped from very early times. The Hora 
of spring accompanied Proserpina (Persephone) 
every year on her ascent from the lower world ; 
;md the expression of "The chamber of the 
Hora opens" is equivalent to " The spring is 
coming." The attributes of spring — flowers, 
fragrance, and graceful freshness — are accord- 
ingly transferred to the Horas. Thus they adorn- 
ed Venus (Aphrodite) as she rose from the sea, 
and made a garland of flowers for Pandora. 
Hence they bear a resemblance to and are men- 
tioned along with the Charites, and both are fre- 
quently confounded or identified. As they were 
conceived to promote the prosperity of every 
tiling that grows, they appear also as the pro- 
tectresses of youth and newly-born gods. Even 
in early times ethical notions were attached to 
the Horse ; and the influence which these god- 
desses originally exercised on nature was sub- 
sequently transferred to human life in particu- 
lar. Hesiod describes them as giving to a state 
good laws, justice, and peace ; he calls them 
the daughters of Jupiter (Zeus) and Themis, 
and gives them the significant names of Euno- 
mia, Dice, and Irene. The number of the Horae 
is different in the different writers, though the 
most ancient number seems to have been two, as 
at Athens ; but afterward their common number 
was three, like that of the Moerse and Charites. 
In works of art the Hora? were represented as 
blooming maidens, carrying the different products 
of the seasons. 

Horapollo ( 'QpaivoXkuv), the name prefixed 
to an extant work on hieroglyphics, which pur- 
ports to be a Greek translation, made by one 
Philippus from the Egyptian. The writer was a 
native of Egypt, and probably lived about the 
beginning of the fifth century. The best edition 
is by Leemaus, Amsterdam, 1835. 

Horatia Gens, one of the most ancient patri- 



cian yentes at Rome. Three brothers of this 
race fought with the Curiatii, three brothers 
from Alba, to determine whether Rome or Alba 
was to exercise the supremacy. The battle 
was long undecided. Two of the Hotatii fell ; 
but the three Curiatii, though alive, were severe- 
ly wounded. Seeing this, the surviving Hora- 
tius, who was still unhurt, pretended to fly, and 
vanquished his wounded opponents by encoun- 
tering them severally. He returned in triumph, 
bearing his threefold spoils. As he approached 
the Capene gate, his sister Horatia met him, and 
recognized on his shoulders the mantle of one 
of the Curiatii, her betrothed lover. Her im- 
portunate grief drew on her the wrath of Hora- 
tius, who stabbed her, exclaiming, " So perish 
every Roman woman who bewails a foe." For 
this murder he was adjudged by the duumviri 
to be scourged with covered head, and hanged 
on the accursed tree. Horatius appealed to his 
peers, the burghers or populus ; and his father 
pronounced him guiltless, or he would have pun- 
ished him by the paternal power. The populus 
acquitted Horatius, but prescribed a form of 
punishment. "With veiled head, led by his father, 
Horatius passed under a yoke or gibbet — tigil- 
lum sororium, " sister's gibbet." 

Horatius Cocles. Vid.. Cocles. 

Horatius Placcus, Q., the poet, was born 
December 8th, B.C. 65, at Venusia in Apulia. 
His father was a libertinus or freedman. He 
had received his manumission before the birth 
of the poet, who was of ingenuous birth, but who 
did not altogether escape the taunt, which ad- 
hered to persons even of remote servile origin. 
His fathers occupation was that of collector 
(coactor), either of the indirect taxes farmed by 
the publicans, or at sales by auction. With the 
profits of his office he had purchased a small 
farm in the neighborhood pf Venusia, where the 
poet was born. The father, either in his parent- 
al fondness for his only son, or discerning some 
hopeful promise in the boy, determined to de- 
vote his whole time and fortune to the educa- 
tion of the future poet. Though by no means 
rich, he declined to send the young Horace to 
the common school, kept in Venusia by one 
Flavius, to which the children of the rural 
aristocracy resorted. Probably about his twelfth 
year, his father carried him to Rome, to receive 
the usual education of a knight's or senator's 
son. He frequented the best schools in the 
capital. One of these was kept by Orbilius, a 
retired military man, whose flogging propen- 
sities have been immortalized by his pupil 
(Epist, ii., 1, 71). The names of his other 
teachers are not recorded by the poet. He was 
instructed in the Greek and Latin languages : 
the poets were the usual school books, Homer 
in the Greek, and the old tragic writer, Livius 
Andronicus, in the Latin. In his eighteenth 
year Horace proceeded to Athens, in order to 
continue his studies at that seat of learning. 
He seems chiefly to have attached himself to 
the opinions which he heard in the Academy, 
though later in life he inclined to those of Epi- 
curus. "When Brutus came to Athens after the 
death of Caesar, Horace joined his army, and 
received at once the rank of a military tribune 
and the command of a legion. He was present 
at the batt'e of Philippi, and shared in the flight 
379 



HORATIUS FLACCUS. 



HORM1SDAS. 



of the republican army. In one of his poems he 
playfully alludes to his flight, and throwing away 
his shield. (Carm., ii., 7, 9.) He now resolved 
to devote himself to more peaceful pursuits, and, 
having obtained his pardon, he ventured at once 
to return to Rome. He had lost all his hopes in 
life ; his paternal estate had been swept away 
in the general forfeiture ; but he was enabled, 
however, to obtain sufficient money to purchase 
a clerkship in the quasstor's office ; and on the 
profits of that place he managed to live with* 
the utmost frugality. Meantime some of his 
poems attracted the notice of Varius and Virgil, 
who introduced him to Maecenas (B.C. 39). 
Horace soon became the friend of Maecenas, 
and his friendship quickly ripened into inti- 
macy. In a year or two after the commence- 
ment of their friendship (37), Horace accom- 
panied his patron on that journey to Brundi- 
sium, so agreeably described in the fifth satire 
of the first book. About the year 34 Maecenas 
bestowed upon the poet a Sabine farm, sufficient 
to maintain him in ease, comfort, and even in 
content (satis beatus unicis Sabinis), during the 
rest of his life. The situation of this Sabine 
farm was in the valley of Ustica, within view 
of the mountain Lucretilis, and near the Di- 
gentia, about fifteen miles from Tibur (now 
Tivoli). A site exactly answering to the villa 
of Horace, and on which were found ruins of 
buildings, has been discovered in modern times. 
Besides this estate, his admiration of the beau- 
tiful scenery in the neighborhood of Tibur in- 
clined him either to hire or to purchase a small 
cottage in that romantic town ; and all the later 
years of his fife were passed between these two 
country residences and Rome. He continued 
to live on the most intimate terms with Maece- 
nas ; and this intimate friendship naturally in- 
troduced Horace to the notice of the other great 
men of his period, and at length to Augustus 
himself, who bestowed upon the poet substantial 
marks of his favor. Horace died on November 
17 th, B.C. 8, aged nearly fifty-seven. His death 
was so sudden that he had not time to make 
his will, but he left the administration of his 
affairs to Augustus, whom he instituted as his 
heir. He was buried on the slope of the Esqui- 
line Hill, close to his friend and patron Maece- 
nas, who had died before him in the same year. 
Horace has described his own person. He was 
of short stature, with dark eyes and dark hair, 
but early tinged with gray. In his youth he 
was tolerably robust, but suffered from a com- 
plaint in his eyes. In more advanced life he 
grew fat, and Augustus jested about his protu- 
berant belly. His health was not always good, 
and he seems to have inclined to be a valetudi- 
narian. When young he was irascible in tem- 
per, but easily placable. In dress he was rather 
careless. His habits, even after he became 
richer, were generally frugal and abstemious ; 
though on occasions, both in youth and maturer 
age, he seems to have indulged in conviviality. 
He liked choice wine, and in the society of 
friends scrupled not to enjoy the luxuries of his 
, time. He was never married. The philosophy 
of Horace was that of a man of the world. He 
playfully alludes to his Epicureanism, but it was 
practical rather than speculative Epicureanism. 
His mind, indeed, was not in the least specu- 
380 



lative. Common-life wisdom was his study 
and to this he brought a quickness of observa- 
tion and a sterling common sense, which have 
made his works the delight of practical men. 
The Odes of Horace want the higher inspirations 
of lyric verse. His amatory verses are exqui- 
sitely graceful, but they have no strong ardor, 
no deep tenderness, nor even much of light and 
joyous gayety. But as works of refined art, of 
the most skillful felicities of language and of 
measure, of translucent expression, and of 
agreeable images, embodied in words which im- 
print themselves indelibly on the memory, they 
are unrivalled. According to Quintilian, Horace 
was almost the only Roman lyric poet worth 
reading. In the Satires of Horace there is none 
of the lofty moral indignation, the fierce vehe- 
mence of invective which characterized the 
later satirists. It is the folly rather than the 
wickedness of vice which he touches with sueb 
playful skill. Nothing can surpass the keenness 
of his observation, or his ease of expression, 
it is the finest comedy of manners, in a descrip- 
tive instead of a dramatic form. In the Epodes 
there is bitterness provoked, it should seem, by 
some personal hatred or sense of injury, and 
the ambition of imitating Archilochus ; but in 
these he seems to have exhausted all the malig- 
nity and violence of his temper. But the Epis- 
tles are the most perfect of the Horatian poetry, 
the poetry of manners aud society, the beauty 
of which consists in a kind of ideality of com 
mon sense and practical wisdom. The Epistles 
of Horace are, with the Poem of Lucretius, the 
Georgics of Virgil, and perhaps the Satires of 
Juvenal, the most perfect and most original 
form of Roman verse. The title of the Art of 
Poetry for the Epistle to the Pisos is as old as 
Quintilian, but it is now agreed that it was not 
intended for a complete theory of the poetic 
art. It is conjectured with great probability 
that it was intended to dissuade one of the 
younger Pisos from devoting himself to poetry, 
for which he had little genius, or at least to ( 
suggest the difficulties of attaining to perfec-, 
tion. The chronology of the Horatian poems 
is of great importance, as illustrating the life, 
the times, and the writings of the poet. There 
has been great dispute upon the subject, but 
the following view appears the most probable : 
The first book of Satires, which was the first 
pubbcation, appeared about B.C. 35, in the thir- 
tieth year of Horace. The second book of 
Satires was published about 33, in the thirty- 
second year of Horace. The Epodes appeared 
about 31, in the thirty-fourth year of Horace. 
The first three books of the Odes were published 
about 24- or 23, in the forty-first or forty-second 
year of Horace. The first book of the Epistles 
was published about 20 or 19, in the forty-fifth 
or forty-sixth year of Horace. The Carmen 
Seculare appeared in 17, in the forty-eighth 
year of Horace. The fourth book of tbe Odes 
was published in 14 or 13, in his fifty-first or 
fifty-second year. The dates of the second 
book of Epistles, and of the Ars Poe/ica, are 
admitted to be uncertain, though both appeared 
before the poet's death, B.C. 8. One of the 
best editions of Horace is by Orelli, Turici, 1843. 
Hokdeonius Flaccus. Vid. Flaocus. 

HollMISDAS. Vid. SaSSANIDjE. 



HORTA. 



HUNNERiC. 



Horta or Hortanum (Hortanus : now Orle), 
a town in Etruria, at the junction of the Nar 
and the Tiber, so called from the Etruscan god- 
dess Horta, whose temple at Rome always re- 
mained open. 

[Hortalus. Vid. Hortensius. No. 2.] 

[Hortensia. 1. Sister of the celebrated oi'a- 
tor Hortensius, married to M. Valerius Messala. 
— 2. Daughter of the orator Hortensius. She 
partook of her father's eloquence, and spoke 
before the triumvirs on behalf of the wealthy 
matrons, when these were threatened with a 
special tax to defray the expenses of the war 
against Brutus and Cassius.] 

Hortensius. 1. Q., the orator, was born in 
B.C. 114, eight years before Cicero. At the 
early age of nineteen he spoke with great ap- 
plause in the forum, and at once rose to emi- 
nence as an advocate. He served two campaigns 
in the Social war (90, 89). In the civil wars 
he joined Sulla, and was afterward a constant 
supporter of the aristocratieal party. His chief 
professional labors were in defending men of 
this party when accused of mal-administration 
and extortion in their provinces, or of bribery 
and the like in canvassing for public honors. 
He had no rival in the forum till he encountered 
Cicero, and he long exercised an undisputed 
sway over the courts of justice. In 81 he was 
quaestor; in 75, asdile; in 72, prsetor ; and in 69, 
consul with Q. Caseilius Metellus. It was in the 
year before his consulship that the prosecution 
of Verres commenced. Hortensius was the ad- 
vocate of Verres, and attempted to put off the 
trial till the next year, when he would be able 
to exercise all the consular authority in favor 
of his client. But Cicero, who accused Verres, 
baffled all the schemes of Hortensius; and the 
issue of this contest was to dethrone Horten- 
sius from the seat which had been already tot- 
tering, and to establish his rival, the despised 
provincial of Arpinum, as the first orator and 
advocate of the Roman forum. After his con- 
sulship, Hortensius took a leading part in sup- 
porting the optimates against the rising power 
of Pompey. He opposed the Gabinian law, 
which invested Pompey with absolute power on 
the Mediterranean, in order to put down the 
pirates of Cilicia (67) ; and the Maniiian, by 
which the conduct of the war against Mithra- 
dates was transferred from Lucullus to Pompey 
(66). Cicero in his consulship (63) deserted 
the popular party, with whom he had hitherto 
acted, and became one of the supporters of the 
optimates. Thus Hortensius no longer appears 
as his rival. We first find them pleading to- 
gether for C. Rabirius, for L. Muraeua, and for 
P. Sulla. After the coalition of Pompey with 
Caesar and Crassus in 60, Hortensius drew back 
from public life, and confined himself to his ad- 
vocate's duties. He died in 50. The eloquence 
of Hortensius was of the florid or (as it was 
termed) " Asiatic" style, fitter for hearing than 
for reading. His voice was soft and musical, 
his memory so ready and retentive that he is 
said to have been able to come out of a sale- 
room and repeat the auction-list backward. His 
action was very elaborate, so that sneerers call- 
ed him Dionysia — the name of a well-known 
dancer of the day ; and the pains he bestowed 
in arranging the folds of his toga have been re- 



corded by ancient writers. But in all this there 
must have been a real grace and dignity, for we 
read that iEsopus and Roscius, the tragedians, 
used to follow him into the forum to take a les- 
son in their own art. He possessed immense 
wealth, and was keenly alive to all the enjoy- 
ments which wealth can give. He had several 
vijjas, the most splendid of which was the one 
near Laurentum. Here he laid up such a stock 
of wine, that he left ten thousand casks of Chian 
to his heir. Here he bad a park full of all sorts 
of animals; and it was customary, during his 
sumptuous dinners, for a slave, dressed like 
Orpheus, to issue from the woods with these 
creatures following the sound of his cithara. 
At his villa at Bauli he had immense fish-ponds, 
into which the sea came : the fish were so tame . 
that they would feed from his hand ; and he was 
so fond of them that he is said to have wept for 
the death of a favorite muraena. He was also 
veiy curious in trees : he is said to have fed 
them with wine, and we read that he once beg- 
ged Cicero to change places in speaking, that 
he might perform this office for a favorite plane- 
tree at the proper time. It is a characteristic 
trait, that he came forward from his retirement 
(55) to oppose the sumptuary law of Pompey 
and Crassus, and spoke so eloquently and wit- 
tily as to procure its rejection. He was the 
first pei'son at Rome who brought peacocks to 
table. — 2. Q., surnamed Hortalus, son of the 
preceding, by Lutatia, the daughter of Catulus. 
In youth he lived a low and profligate life, and 
appears to have been at last cast off by his 
father. On the breaking out of the civil war in 
49, he joined Caasar, and fought on his side in 
Italy and Greece. In 44 he held the province 
of Macedonia, and Brutus was to succeed him. 
After Caesar's assassination, M. Antony gave 
the province to his brother Caius. Brutus, how- 
ever, had already taken possession, with the as- 
sistance of Hortensius. When the proscription 
took place, Hortensius was in the list ; and, in 
revenge, he ordered C. Antonius, who had been 
taken prisoner, to be put to death. After the 
battle of Philippi, he was executed on the grave 
of his victim. 

Horus ( 7 flpof), the Egyptian god of the sun, 
whose worship was also established in Greece, 
and afterward at Rome. He was compared with 
the Greek Apollo, and identified with Harpoera- 
tes, the last-born and weakly son of Osiris. 
Both were represented as youths, and with the 
same attributes and symbols. He was believed 
to have been born with his finger on his mouth, 
as indicative of secresy and mystery. In the 
earlier period of his worship at Rome he seems 
to have been particularly regarded as the god 
of quiet life and silence. 

Hostilia (now Ostiglia), a small town in Gal- 
lia Cisalpina, on the Po, and on the road from 
Mutina to Verona ; the birth-place of Cornelius 
Nepos. 

Hostilius Mancinus. Vid. Manoinus. 

Hostilius Tullus. Vid. Tullus Hostilius. 

Hostius, the author of a poem on the Istrian 
war (B.C. 178), which is quoted by the gram- 
marians. He was probably a contemporary of 
Julius Caesar. 

Hunnerio, king of the Vandals in Africa, A.D. 
477-484, was the son of Geuseric, whom he 
381 



■ 



HUNNJ 

succeeded. His reign was chiefly marked by 
his savage persecution of the Catholics. 

Hunni (Ovvvoi), an Asiatic race, who dwelt 
for some centuries iu the plaius of Tartary, and 
were formidable to the Chinese empire long be- 
fore they were known to the Romans. It was 
to repel the inroads of the Huns that the Chinese 
built their celebrated wall, one thousand §ve 
hundred miles in length. A portion of the na- 
tion afterward migrated west, conquered the 
Alani, a warlike race between the Volga and 
the Tanais, and then crossed into Europe about 
A.D. 375. The appearance of these new bar- 
barians excited the greatest terror both among 
the Romans and Germans. They are described 
by the Greek and Roman historians as hideous 
and repulsive beings, resembling apes, with 
broad shoulders, flat noses, and small black eyes 
deeply buried in their head, while their man- 
ners and habits were savage to the last degree. 
They destroyed the powerful monarchy of the 
Ostrogoths, who were obliged to retire before 
them, and were allowed by Valens to settle in 
Thrace, A.D. 376. The Huns now frequently 
ravaged the Roman dominions. They were 
joined by many other barbarian nations, and 
under their king Attila (A.D. 434-453) they de- 
vastated the fairest portions of the empire, both 
in the east and the west. Vid. Attila. On the 
death of Attila, the various nations which com- 
posed his army dispersed, and his sons were 
unable to resist the arms of the Ostrogoths. In 
a few years after the death of Attila, the em- 
pire of the Huns was completely destroyed. 
The remains of the nation became incorporated 
with other barbarians, and never appear again 
as a separate people. 

Hyacinthus ('Yuiavdoc). 1. Son of the Spar- 
tan king Amyclas and Diomede, or of Pierus 
and Clio, or of (Ebalus or Eurotas. He was a 
youth of extraordinary beauty, and was beloved 
by Apollo and Zephyrus. He returned the love 
of Apollo ; and as he was once playing at quoit 
with the god, Zephyrus, out of jealousy, drove 
the quoit of Apollo with such violence against 
the head of the youth that he fell down dead. 
From the blood of Hyacinthus there sprang the 
flower of the same name (hyacinth), on the 
leaves of which appeared the exclamation of 
woe AI, AI, or the letter T, being the initial of 
' i'univdoc. According to other traditions, the 
hyacinth sprang from the blood of Ajax. Hya- 
cinthus was worshipped at Amyclae as a hero, 
and a great festival, Hyacinthia, was celebrated 
in his honor. Vid. Diet, of Antiq., s. v. — 2. A 
Lacedaemonian, who is said to have gone to 
Athens, and to have sacrificed his daughters for 
the purpose of delivering the city from a famine 
and plague, under which it was suffering dur- 
ing the war with Minos. His daughters were 
known in the Attic legends by the name of the 
Hyaciiithides, which they derived from their fa- 
thers. Some traditions make them the daughters 
of Erechtheus, and relate that they received their 
name from the village of Hyacinthus, where 
they were sacrificed at the time when Athens 
was attacked by the Eleusiniaus and Thraciaus, 
or Thebans. 

Hyades (Tu(5ec), that is, the Rainy, the name 
oi nymphs, whose parentage, number, and names 
are described in various ways by the ancients. 
382 



HYBREAS. 

Their parents were Atlas imd ^Ethra, or Atlas 
and Pleione, or Hyas and Bceotia : others call 
their father Oceanus, Melisseus, Cadmilus, or 
Erechtheus. Their number differs in various 
legends ; but their most common number is 
seven, as they appear in the constellation which 
bears their name, viz., Ambrosia, Eudora, Pe- 
dile, Coronis, Polyxo, Phyto, and Thyene or Piionc. 
They were intrusted by Jupiter (Zeus) with the 
care of his infaDt son Bacchus (Dionysus), aud 
were afterward placed by Jupiter (Zeus) among 
the stars. The story which made them the 
daughters of Atlas relates that their number 
was twelve or fifteen, and that at first five of 
them were placed among the stars as Hyades, 
and the seven (or ten) others afterward under 
the name of Pleiades, to reward them for the 
sisterly love they had evinced after the death 
of their brother Hyas, who had been killed in 
Libya by a wild beast. Their name, Hyades, is 
derived by the ancients from their father, Hyas, 
or from Hyes, a mystic surname of Bacchus 
(Dionysus) ; or, according to others, from their 
position in the heavens, where they formed a 
figure resembling the Greek letter T. The Ro- 
mans, who derived it from ic, a pig, translated 
the name by Suculce. The most natural deriva- 
tion is from veiv, to rain, as the constellation of 
the Hyades, when rising simultaneously with 
the sun, announced rainy weather. Hence Hor- 
ace speaks of the tristes Hyades (Carm., i., 3, 14). 

[Hy^ea ('Taia : 'Taioc), a place in the country 
of the Locri Ozolae, northward from Amphissa.] 

Hyampea. Vid. Parnassus. 

Hyampolis ('Tu(j.7roXtc : 'YafntoX'iTric), a town 
in Phocis, east of the Cephisus, near Cleona;, 
was founded by the Hyantes when they were 
driven out of Bceotia by the Cadmeans; was 
destroyed by Xerxes ; afterward rebuilt ; and 
again destroyed by Philip and the Amphictyons. 
Cleonse, from its viciuity to Hyampolis, is call- 
ed by Xenophon {Hell., vi., 4, § 2) 'Tapi-nuTiiruv 
to Trpouoreiov. Strabo speaks of two towns of 
the name of Hyampolis in Phocis, but it is 
doubtful whether his statement is correct. 

Hyantes ("Tavrec), the ancient inhabitants of 
Boeotia, from which country they were expelled 
by the Cadmeans. Part of the Hyantes emi- 
grated to Phocis (vid. Hyampolis), and part to 
jEtolia. The poets use the adjective Hyantius 
as equivalent to Bceotian. 

Hyas ("Tac), the name of the father and the 
brother of the Hyades. The father was married 
to Bceotia, and was looked upon as the ancestor 
of the ancient Hyantes. His son, the brother 
of the Hyades, was killed in Libya by a serpent, 
a boar, or a lion. 

Hybla ("TSAj? : "t6laloc, Hyblensis), three 
towns iu Sicily. 1. Major (?/ /le't&v or jisyakr)), 
on the southern slope of Mount iEtua and On 
the River Symasthus, was originally a town of 
the Siculi. — 2. Minor (v /iiicpd), afterward call 
ed Megara. Vid. Megara. — 3. Her^a, in the 
south of the island, on the road from Syracuse 
to Agrigeutum. It is doubtful from which of 
these three places the Hybtean honey came, s>> 
frequently mentioued by the poets. 

[Hyblon ("TfiAui'), au ancient king iu Sicily, 
under whose guidauce the Megariaus founded 
Hybla.] 

Htbrkas (T6pfac), of Mylasa in Caria, a 



HYDR1AS. 



HYLAS. 



celebrated orator, contemporary with the trium- 
vir Autonius. 

[Hybrias ('Yfipwc), au ancient lyric poet of 
Crete, author of a celebrated scolion, which has 
been preserved in Athctiaeus : edited by Graef- 
enhan, Mulhusa?, 183-1.] 

Hycoara (tu T/cfcapa : 'YitKacevc : now Muro 
di Carini), a town of the Sicani on the northern 
coast of Sicily, west of Panormus, said to have 
derived its name from the sea-fish vnnai. It was 
taken by the Athenians, and plundered, and its 
inhabitants sold as slaves, B.C. 415. Among 
the captives was the beautiful Timandra, the 
mistress of Alcibiades and the mother of Lais. 

Hydarxes ('Ydupvijg). 1. One of the seven 
Persians who conspired against the Magi in B.C. 
521. — [2. Son of the foregoing, leader of the se- 
lect body in the army of Xerxes called the Im- 
mortals.] 

Hydaspes ('YcSucttt^c : now Jelum), the north- 
ernmost of the five great tributaries of the In- 
dus, which, with the Indus itself, water the great 
plain of Northern India, which is bounded on 
the north by the Himalaya range, and which is 
now called the Punjab, i. e., five rivers. The 
Hydaspes falls into the Acesines (now Chenab), 
which also receives, from the south, first the 
Hydraotes (now Ravee), and then the Hyphasis 
(now Beeas, and lower down, Gharra), which 
has previously received, on the southern side, 
the Hesidrus or Zaradrus (now Sutlej or Hesu- 
dru) ; and the Acesines itself falls into the In- 
dus. These five rivers all rise on the south- 
western side of the Emodi Mountains (now 
Himalaya), except the Sutlej, which, like the 
Indus, rises on the northeastern side of the 
range. They became known to the Greeks by 
Alexander's campaign in India : his great vic- 
tory over Porus (B.C. 32*7) was gained on the 
left side of the Hydaspes, near, or perhaps upon, 
the scene of the recent battle of Chillianwallah ; 
and the Hyphasis formed the limit of his prog- 
ress. The epithet " fabulosus," which Horace 
applies to the Hydaspes (Carm., i., 22, 7), refers 
to the marvellous stories current among the 
Romans, who knew next to nothing about India ; 
and the " Medus Hydaspes" of Virgil (Georg., 
iv., 211) is merely an example of the vagueness 
with which the Roman writers, especially the 
poets, refer to the countries beyond the eastern 
limit of the empire. 

[Hyde ("Y6tj), a town of Lydia, at the base 
of Mount Tmolus, according to the scholiast (on 
U. xx., 385) the later Sardis.] 

Hydra. Vid. Hercules, p. 356, b. 

Hydraotes ('YdpauT7]s, Strab. 'Yupurts ■ now 
Ravee), a river of India, falling into the Ace- 
Bines. Vid. Hydaspes. 

Hydrea ('Ydpta : 'YSpedTv; : now Hydra), a 
small island in the gulf of Hermione off Argolis, 
of no importance in antiquity, but the inhabit- 
ants of which in modern times played a distin- 
guished part in the war of Greek independence, 
and are some of the best sailors in Greece. 

Hydruntum or Hydrus (TopoCc : Hydrunti- 
nus : now Otranto), one of the most ancient 
towns of Calabria, situated on the southeastern 
coast, with a good harbor, and near a mountain 
Hydrus, was in later times a municipium. Per- 
sons frequently crossed over to Epirus from this 
port. 



[Hydrussa ('Ydpovaaa), an island in the Sa 
ronic Gulf, off the coast of Attica.] 

Hyettds ('Yr/TTog : 'YjjrTiog), a small town in 
Bceotia, on the Lake Copais, and near the fron- 
tiers of Locris. 

Hygiea ('Yyieia), also called Hygea or Hygia, 
the goddess of health, and a daughter of iEscu- 
lapius, though some traditions make her the 
wife of the latter. She was usually worship- 
ped in the temples of iEsculapius, as at Argos. 
where the two divinities had a celebrated sanc- 
tuary, at Athens, at Corinth, &c. At Rome 
there was a statue of her in the temple of Con- 
cordia. In works of art she is represented as 
a virgin dressed in a long robe, and feeding a ser- 
pent from a cup. Although she was originally 
the goddess of physical health, she is sometimes 
conceived as the giver or protectress of mental 
health ; that is, she appears as vytcia fpevuv 
(^Eschyl., Hum., 522), and was thus identified 
with Minerva (Athena), surnamed Hygiea. 

Hyginus. 1. C. Julius, a Roman gramma- 
rian, was a native of Spain, and lived at Rome 
in the time of Augustus, whose freedman he 
was. He wrote several works, all of which 
have perished. — 2. Hyginus Gromatious, so 
called from gruma, an instrument used by the 
Agrimensores. He lived in the time of Trajan, 
and wrote works on land surveying and cas- 
trametation, of which considerable fragments 
are extant. — 3. Hyginus, the author of two ex 
tant works : 1. Fabularum Liber, a series of 
short mythological legends, with an introduc- 
tory genealogy of divinities. Although the lar- 
ger portion of these narratives has been copied 
from obvious sources, they occasionally present 
the tales under new forms or with new circum- 
stances. 2. Poelicon Astronomicon Libri IV. 
We know nothing of the author of these two 
works. He is sometimes identified with C. 
Julius Hyginus, the freedman of Augustus, but 
he must have lived at a much later period. 
Both works are included in the Mythograpki 
Latini of Muncker, Amst., 1681, and of Van 
Staveren, Lugd. Bat., 1742. 

Hyl./ea ('YXaly, Herod.), a district - iu Scythia, 
covered with wood, in the peninsula adjacent 
to Taurica on the northwest, between the rivers 
Borysthenes and Hypacyris. 

Hyl^eus ('YXaloc), that is, the Woodman, the 
name of an Arcadian centaur, who was slain 
by Atalante when he pursued her. According 
to some legends, Hylasus fell in the battle against 
the Lapitha?, and others, again, said that he was 
one of the centaurs slain by Hercules. 

Hylas (T/lac), son of Theodamas, king of the 
Dryopes, by the nymph Menodice ; or, accord- 
ing to others, son of Hercules, Euphemus, or 
Ceyx. He was beloved by Hercules, whom he 
accompanied in the expedition of ihe Argonauts. 
On the coast of Mysia, Hylas went on shore to 
draw water from a fountain ; but his beauty 
excited the love of the Naiads, who drew him 
down into the water, and he was never seen 
again. Hercules endeavored in vain to find 
him : and when he shouted out to the youth, 
the voice of Hylas was heard from the bottom 
of the well only like a faint echo, whence some 
say that he was actually metamorphosed iuto 
an echo. While Hercules was engaged in seek- 
ing his favorite, the Argonauts sailed away. 

383 



HYLE. 



HYPERBOREL 



leaving him and bis companion, Polyphemus, 
behind. — [2. A famous pautomime at Rome, 
in the time of Augustus, pupil of Pylades, ac- 
quired great reputation as well as wealth.] 

Hyle ( : Y/.n, also 'YAai), a small town in Bce- 
otia, situated on the Hylice, which was called 
after this town, and into which the River Isme- 
nus flows. 

[Htleus ('TXevc), a Greek hero engaged in 
the hunt of the Calydonian boar, by which he 
was killed.] 

Hylias, a river in Bruttium, separating the 
territories of Sybaris and Croton. 

Hylice (j? T/Uk?) 1'iuvri : now Lake of Livadhi 
or Senzina), a lake in Bceotia, south of the Lake 
Copais. Vid. Hyle. 

Hylicus ("TAikoc, "T'aXikos), a small river in 
Argolis, near Troezen. 

Hyllus (°Y?J.og), son of Hercules by Deiauira. 
For details, vid. Heraclidjs. 

Hyllds ("TA/lof : now Demirji), a river of 
Lydia, falling into the Hermus on its northern 
side. 

Hymen or Hymen./eus ('Yfijjv or 'Ypevaior), 
the god of marriage, was conceived as a hand- 
some youth, and invoked in the hymeneal or 
bridal song. The names originally designated 
the bridal song itself, which was subsequently 
personified. He is described as the son of 
Apollo and a Muse, either Calliope, Urania, or 
Terpsichore. Others describe him only as the 
favorite of Apollo or Thamyris, and call him a 
son of Magnes and Calliope, or of Bacchus 
(Dionysus) and Venus (Aphrodite). The an- 
cient traditions, instead of regarding the god as 
a personification of the hymeneal song, speak 
of him as originally a mortal, respecting whom 
various legends were related. The Attic le- 
gends described him as a youth of such delicate 
beauty that he might be taken for a girl. He 
fell in love with a maiden, who refused to listen 
to him ; but, in the disguise of a girl, he followed 
her to Eleusis to the festival of Ceres (Deme- 
ter). The maidens, together with Hymenals, 
were carried off by robbers into a distant and 
desolate country. On their landing, the robbers 
laid down to sleep, and were killed by Hyme- 
nals, who now returned to Athens, requesting 
the citizens to give him his beloved in marriage 
if he restored to them the maidens who had 
been carried off by the robbers. His request 
was granted, and his marriage was extremely 
happy. For this reason he was invoked in the 
hymeneal eongs. According to others, he was 
a youth who was killed by the fall of his house 
on his wedding-day, whence he was afterward 
invoked in bridal songs, in order to be propitia- 
ted. Some related that at the wedding of 
Bacchus (Dionysus) and Ariadne he sang the 
bridal hymn, but lost his voice. He is repre- 
sented in works of art as a youth, but taller and 
with a more serious expression than Eros, and 
carrying in his hand a bridal torch. 

Hymettus ('YjinrToc), a mountain in Attica, 
celebrated for its marble (Hymettim trabes, Hor., 
Carm., ii., 18, 3), and more especially for its 
honey. It is about three miles south of Athens, 
and forms the commencement of the range of 
mountains which runs south through Attica. It 
is now called Telovuni, and by the Franks Monte 
Motto : the part of the mountain near the pro- 
384 



montory Zoster, which was called in ancient 
times Anhydres (6 "Avvdpoc, sc. 'T ii-nrroe), or 
the Dry Hymettus, is now called Mavrovuni. 

Hypacyeis, Hypacaris, or Pacaris (now Ka- 
nilshak), a river in European Sarmatia, which 
flows through the country of the nomad Scyth- 
ians, and falls into the Sinus Carcinites in the 
Euxine Sea. 

HypjiA. Vid. Stcechades. 

Hyp^epa ("YTranra : now Tapaya), a city of 
Lydia, on the south slope of Mount Tmolus, 
near the north bank of the Cayster. 

Hyp ana ('Ykuvti : ra "Yirava : 'Y^avevg), a 
town in Triphylian Elis, belonging to the Pen- 
tapolis. 

Hypanis (now Bog), a river in European Sar- 
matia, rises, according to Herodotus, in a lake, 
flows parallel to the Borysthenes, has at first 
sweet, then bitter water, and falls into the Eux- 
ine Sea west of the Borysthenes. 

Hypata (rd "Ynara, i) 'Yttut?} : 'Y-naraloc, 
'Ynarevc '■ now Neopatra, Turk. Batrajik), a 
town of the jEnianes in Thessaly, south of the 
Spercheus, belonged in later times to the ^Eto- 
lian league. The inhabitants of this town were 
notorious for witchcraft. 

Hypatia ('Ynanaj, daughter of Theon, by 
whom she was instructed in philosophy and 
mathematics. She soon made such immense 
progress in these branches of knowledge, that 
she is said to have presided over the Keopla- 
tonic school of Plotinus at Alexandrea, where 
she expounded the principles of his system to 
a numerous auditory. She appears to have 
been most graceful, modest, and beautiful, but 
nevertheless to have been a victim to slander 
and falsehood. She was accused of too much 
familiarity with Orestes, prefect of Alexandrea, 
and the charge spread among the clergy, who 
took up the notion that she interrupted the 
friendship of Orestes with their archbishop, 
Cyril. In consequence of this, a number of 
them seized her in the street, and dragged her 
into one of the churches, where they tore her 
to pieces, A.D. 415. 

HypATonoRUS ('T-rarocSupoc), a statuary of 
Thebes, flourished B.C. 312. 

[Hypenor ('Y-elvup), a Trojan warrior, slain 
by Diomedes.] 

Hyperbolus ('YTrtp6o?iO(), an Athenian dema- 
gogue in the Peloponnesian war, was of servile 
origin, and was frequently satirized by Aris- 
tophanes and the other comic poets. In order 
to get rid either of Nicias or Alcibiades, Hyper- 
bolus called for the exercise of the ostracism. 
But the parties endangered combined to defeat 
him, and the vote of exile fell on Hyperbolus 
himself : an application of that dignified punish- 
ment by which it was thought to have been so 
debased that the use of it was never recurred 
to. Some years afterward he was murdered by 
the oligarchs at Samos, B.C. 411. 

Hyperborei or ei ('Y-ep66peot, 'Y-xepbopeioi), 
a fabulous people, the earliest mention of whom 
seems to have been in the sacred legends con- 
nected with the worship of Apollo, botliatDelos 
and at Delphi. In the earliest Greek concep- 
tion of the Hyperboreans, as embodied by the 
poets, they were a blessed people, living beyond 
the north wind (vnepCopeot, fr. irnep and Bopcac), 
and therefore not exposed to its cold blasts, in 



HYPEEBOREI MONTES. 

I 

a land of perpetual sunshine, ■which produced 
abundant fruits, on which the people lived, ab- 
staining from animal food. Iu innocence and 
peace, free from disease, and toil, and care, ig- 
norant of violence and -war, they spent a long 
' and happy life in the due and cheerful observ- 
ance of the worship of Apollo, -who visited their 
country soon after his birth, and spent a whole 
year among them, dancing and singing, before 
he returned to Delphi. The poets related fur- 
ther how the sun only rose once a year and set 
once a year upon the Hyperboreans, whose year 
•was thus divided, at the equinoxes, into a six 
months' day and a six mouths' night, and they 
were therefore said to sow in the morning, to 
reap at noon, to gather their fruits in the even- 
ing, and to store them up at night ; how, too, 
their natural life lasted one thousand years, but 
if any of them was satiated with its unbroken 
enjoyment, he threw himself, crowned and 
anointed, from a sacred rock into the sea. 
The Delian legends told of offerings sent to 
Apollo by the Hyperboreans, first by the hands 
of virgins named Arge and Opis (or Hecaerge), 
and then by Laodice and Hyperoche, escorted 
by five men called Perpherees ; and, lastly, as 
their messengers did not return, they sent the 
offerings packed in wheat-straw, and the sacred 
package was forwarded from people to people 
till it reached Delos. If these legends are based 
on any geographical relations at all, the most 
probable explanation is that which regards them 
as pointing to regions north of Greece (the north 
part of Thessaly especially) as the original seat 
of the worship of Apollo. Naturally enough, as 
the geographieal knowledge of the Greeks ex- 
tended, they moved back the Hyperboreans fur- 
ther and further into the unknown parts of the 
earth ; and of those who sought to fix their pre- 
cise locality, some placed them in the extreme 
west of Europe, near the Pyrenaean Mountains 
and the supposed sources of the Ister, and thus 
they came to be identified with the Celtas; 
while others placed them in the extreme north 
of Europe, on the shores of the Hyperboreus 
Oceanus, beyond the fabulous Grypes and .Ari- 
maspi, who themselves lived beyond the Scyth- 
ians. The latter opinion at length prevailed ; 
and then, the religious aspect of the fable being 
gradually lost sight of, the term Hyperborean 
came to mean only most northerly, as when Vir- 
gil and Horace speak of the " Hyperboreae orae" 
and " Hyperborei campi." The fable of the 
Hyperboreans may probably be regarded as one 
of the forms in which the tradition of an orig- 
inal period of innocence, happiness, and im- 
mortality existed among the nations of the an- 
cient wosld. 

Hyperborei Montes was originally the myth- 
ical name of an imaginary range of mountains 
iu the north of the earth (vid. Hyperborei), and 
was afterward applied by the geographers to 
various chains, as, for example, the Caucasus, 
the Rhipaei Montes, and others. 

[Hyperenor ('YKepTjvup), a Trojan, son of 
Panthus, slain by Menelaus in battle.] 

[Hyperia ('Yirepeia). 1. A name of several 
fountains mentioned in Homer, in Thessaly ; 
one near the ancient Hellas, another in the city 
Pherae. — 2. The earlier place of residence of the 
Phaaacians, whence they removed to Scheria.] 
25 



HTPSIPYLE. 

HyperIdes {T7repEcSr;c Or 'Y7r£p«5j?c), one of 
the ten Attic orators, was the son of Glaucippus, 
and belonged to the Attic demus of Collytus, 
was a pupil of Plato iu philosophy, and of De- 
mosthenes in oratory. He was a friend of De- 
mosthenes, and with him and Lyeurgus was at 
the head of the anti-Macedonian party. He is 
first mentioned about B.C. 358, when he and 
his sons equipped two triremes at their own 
expense in order to serve against Euboea, and 
fro'm this time to his death he continued a stead- 
fast friend to the patriotic cause. After the 
death of Alexander (323), Hyperides took an 
active part in organizing that confederacy of 
the Greeks against Autipater which produced 
the Lamian war. Upon the defeat of the con- 
federates at the battle of Crannon in the follow- 
ing year (332), Hyperides fled to jEgina, where 
he was slain by the emissaries of Antipater. 
The number of orations attributed to Hyperides 
was seventy-seven, but none of them have come 
down to us. His oratory was graceful and 
powerful, holding a middle place between that 
of Lysias and Demosthenes. 

Hyperion ('YTrepiov), a Titan, son of Ccelus 
(Uranus) and Terra (Ge), and married to his 
sister Thia or Euryphaessa, by whom he became 
the father of Helios (Sol), Selene (Luna), and 
Eos (Aurora). Homer uses the name as a pa- 
tronymic of Helios, so that it is equivalent to 
Hyperionion or Hyperionides, and Homer's ex- 
ample is imitated also by other poets. Vid. 
Helios. 

Hypermnestra ('YizEpfiVTjaTpa). 1. Daughter 
of Thestius and Eurythemis, wife of Oicles, 
and mother of Amphiaraus. — 2. One of the 
daughters of Danaus, and wife of Lynceus. 
Vid. Danaus, Lynceus. 

[Hyperochus ('Ynepoxoc, Ep. 'Yireipoxoc). 1. 
A Trojan warrior slain by Ulysses. — 2. Of 
Cumse, author of a work entitled Kv/j.aiial.] 

Hyphasis, or Hypasis, or Hypanis ("Y^aatc, 
"Ynaaic, "Yiravcc. : now Beeas and Gharra), a 
river of India. Vid. Hydaspes. 

Hypius (Ttuoc), a river and mountain in Bi- 
thynia. 

Hypsas (Yipac), two rivers on the southern 
coast of Sicily, one between Selinus and Ther- 
mae Selinuntice (now Belici), and the other near 
Agrigentum (now Fiume drago). 

[Hypsenor ('Yfqvup). 1. A Trojan warrior 
son of Dolopion. — 2. Son of Hippasus, a Greek, 
companion of Antiloehus, slain by Deiphobus.] 

Hypseus (Ti/jtoc), son of Peneus and Creusa, 
was king of the Lapitha?, and father of Cyrene. 

Hypsioles ('YtpacXyc), of Alexandrea, a Greek 
mathematician, who is usually said to have lived 
about A.D. 160, but who ought not to be placed 
earlier than A.D. 550. The only work of his 
extant is entitled Tlcpi rfjc ruv £u8iov uvacfiopdc, 
published with the Optics of Heliodorus at Paris, 
1567. He is supposed, however, to have added 
the fourteenth and fifteenth books to the Ele- 
ments of Euclid. 

Hypsipyxe ('YfinvXri), daughter of Thoas, 
king of Lemnos. When the Lemuian women 
killed all the men in the island because they 
had taken some female Thraciau slaves to their 
beds, Hypsipyle saved her father. Vid. Thoas. 
She then became queen of Lemnos; and when 
the Argonauts landed there shortly afterward, 
385 



HYPSU5. 



HYSTASPES. 



fihe bore twin sons to Jason, Euneus and Ne- 
brophonus, also called Deiphilus or Thoas. The 
Lernnian women subsequently discovered that 
Thoas was alive, whereupon they compelled 
Hypsipyle to quit the island, On her flight she 
was taken prisoner by pirates and sold to the 
Nemean king Lyeurgus, who intrusted to her 
care his son Archemorus or Opheltes. Vid. 
Archemorus. 

Hypsus ('Y^oCc -ovvroe), a town in Arcadia, 
on a mountain of the same name. 

HyrcAnia ('TpKavia : "Tpicdvioc, Hyrcanus : 
now Mazanderan), a proviuce of the ancient 
Persian empire, on the southern and southeast- 
ern shores of the Caspian or Hyrcanian Sea, 
aud separated by mountains on the west, south, 
and east from Media, Parthia, and Margiana. 
Its valleys were very fertile ; and it flourished 
most under the Parthians, whose kings often 
resided in it during the summer. 

Hyrcanum or -ium Mare. Vid. Caspiuh 
Mare. 

Hyrcanus ('Tp/cavog). 1. Joannes, prince 
and high-priest of the Jews, was the son and 
successor of Simon Maccabeus, the restorer 
of the independence of Judaea. He succeeded 
to his father's power B.C. 135. He was at first 
engaged in war with Antiochus VII. Sidetes, 
who invaded Judaea, and laid siege to Jerusa- 
lem. In 133 he concluded a peace with Antio- 
chus on the condition of payiug an annual trib- 
ute. Owing to the civil wars in Syria between 
the several claimants to the throne, the power 
of Hyrcanus steadly increased; and at length 
he took Samaria, and razed it to the ground 
(109), notwithstanding the army which Autio- 
chus IX. Cyzicenus had sent to the assistance 
of the city. Hyrcanus died in 106. Although 
he did not assume the title of king, he may be 
regarded as the founder of the monarchy of Ju- 
daea, which continued in his family till the ac- 
cession of Herod. — 2. High-priest and king of 
the Jews, was the eldest son of Alexander Jan- 
nseus and his wife Alexandra. On the death 
of Alexander (78) the royal authority devolved 
upon Alexandra, who appointed Hyrcanus to 
the high-priesthood. Alexandra reigned nine 
years ; and, upon her death in 69, Hyrcanus 
succeeded to the sovereignty, but was quickly 
attacked by his younger brother Aristobulus, 
who possessed more energy and ambition than 
Hyrcanus. In the following year (68) Hyrcanus 
was driven from the throne, and took refuge 
with Aretas, king of Arabia Petroea. That 
monarch assembled an army, with which he in- 
vaded Judaea in order to restore Hyrcanus. He 
defeated Aristobulus, and blockaded him in the 
temple of Jerusalem. Aristobulus, however, 
gained over by bribes and promises Porupey's 
lieutenant, M. Scaurus, who had arrived at Da- 
mascus, and who now ordered Aretas and Hyr- 
canus to withdraw from Judosa (64). The next 
year Pompey himself arrived in Syria : he re- 
versed the decision of Scaurus, carried away 
Aristobulus as a prisoner to Rome, and rein- 
stated Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood, with 
the authority, though not the name of royalty. 
Hyrcanus, however, did not long enjoy his 
newly-recovered sovereignty in quiet. Alex- 
ander, the son of Aristobulus, and subsequently 1 



Aristobulus himself, escaped from Rome, and 
excited dangerous revolts, which were only 
quelled by the assistance of the Romans. The 
real government was now in the able hands of 
Antipater, the father of Herod, who rendered 
such important services to Caesar during the 
Alexandrean war (47) that Csesar made him 
procurator of Judaea, leaving to Hyrcanus the 
title of high-priest. Although Antipater was 
poisoned by the eontrivauce of Hyrcanus (43), 
the latter was a man of such feeble character 
that he allowed Herod to take vengeance on the 
murderer of his father, and to succeed to his fa- 
ther's power and influence. The Parthians on 
their invasion of Syria, carried away Hyrcanus 
as prisoner (40). He was treated with much 
liberality by the Parthian king, and allowed to 
live in perfect freedom at Babylon. Here he 
remained for some years ; but having at length 
received an invitation from Herod, who had 
meanwhile established himself on the throne of 
Judaea, he returned to Jerusalem with the con- 
sent of the Parthian king. He was treated with 
respect by Herod till the battle of Actium, 
when Herod, fearing lest Augustus might place 
Hyrcanus on the throne, accused him of a trea- 
sonable correspondence with the king of Arabia, 
and on this pretext put him to death (30). 

[Hyrgis ("Tpyic : now Donetz), a tributary of 
the Tanais in Asia.] 

Hyria ('Tpia : 'Tpievg, 'TpiaTtjc). 1. A town 
in Bceotia, near Tanagra, was in the earliest 
times a place of importance, but afterward sunk 
into insignificance. — 2. A town in Apulia. Vid. 
Uria. 

Hyrieus (Tpiric), son of Neptune (Poseidon) 
and Alcyone, king of Hyria in Bceotia, husband 
of Clonia, and father of Nycteus, Lycus, and 
Orion. Respecting his treasures, vid. Agamedes. 

Hyrmina ('Ypfitv?]), a town in Elis, mention- 
ed by Homer, but of which all trace had disap- 
peared in the time of Strabo. Wear it was the 
promontory Hyrmina or Hormina (now Cape 
Ghiarenza). 

Hyrmine ('Tpfi'ivrj), daughter of Neleus, or 
Nycteus, wife of Phorbas, and mother of Actor. 

Hyrtacus (Tpra/coc), a Trojan, to whom Pri- 
am gave his first wife Arisba, when he married 
Hecuba. Homer makes him the father of Asius, 
hence called Hyrtacides. In Virgil, Nisus and 
Hippocoon are also represented as sons of Hyr- 
tacus. 

[Hyrtius ("Ypnof), a leader of the Mysians, 
slain in the Trojan war by Ajax, son of Tela- 
mon.] 

HysI^: ('Taiai). 1. ('Tctiu-^c), a town in Ar- 
golis, south of Argos, destroyed by the Spartans 
in the Peloponnesian war. — 2. ('Toieiig), a town 
iu Bceotia, east of Plataece, called by Herodotus 
(v., 74) a demus of Attica, but probably belong- 
ing to Plataaae. 

Hystaspes ('Tcrruff7r^r ; in Persian, Goshtaep, 
Gustasp, Histasp, or Wistasp). 1. Son of Ar-' 
sames, aud father of Darius I., was a member 
of the Persian royal house of the Achaomenidas. 
He was probably satrap of Persis under Cam- 
byses, and probably under Cyrus also. — 2. Sou 
of Darius I. and Atossa, commanded the Bas- 
trians and Sacoa in the army of his brother 
Xerxes. 



3 # 86 



IABADII INSULA. 



I. 

[Iabadii Insula ('la.6a.6iov vrjaoc : now prob- 
ably Java, though Von Humboldt and others re- 
gard it as Sumatra), a large and fruitful island 
of the Indian Sea, southeast of the Aurea Cher- 
sonesus, with a capital city. called Argyre ('Ap- 

Iacchus ("laKxoc;), the solemn name of Bac- 
chus in the Eleusinian mysteries, whose name 
was derived from the boisterous song called 
Tacchus. In these mysteries Iacchus was re- 
garded as the sou of Jupiter (Zeus) and Ceres 
(Demeter), and was distinguished from the The- 
ban Bacchus (Dionysus), the son of Jupiter 
(Zeus) .and Semele. In some traditions Iac- 
chus is even called a son of Bacchus, but in 
others the two are identified. On the sixth day 
of the Eleusinian festival (the twentieth of Boe- 
dromion), the statue of Iacchus was carried from 
the temple of Ceres (Demeter) across the Thri- 
asian plain to Eleusis, accompanied by a nu- 
merous and riotous procession of the initiated, 
who sang the Iacchus, carried mystic baskets, 
and danced to the sound of cymbals and trump- 
ets. 

Iadera or Iader (Iadertlnus : now Old Zara), 
a town on the coast of Ulyricum, with a good 
harbor, and a Roman colony under the name of 
" Colonia Claudia Augusta Felix." 

[Iaera ('laeipa). 1. A daughter of Nereus 
and Doris. — 2. A wood nymph, who reared the 
sons of Alcanor, Paudarus and Bitias.] 

Ialemus ('IdXefioc), a similar personification 
to that of Linus, and hence called a son of 
Apollo and Calliope, and the inventor of the 
song Ialemus, which was a kind of dirge, and 
is only mentioned as sung on most melancholy 
occasions. 

Ialmends ('IdXjisvoc), son of Mars (Ares) and 
Astyoche, and brother of Ascalaphus, was a 
native of the Boeotian Orchomenos. He was 
one of the Argonauts and a suitor of Helena. 
After the destruction of Troy, he wandered 
about with the .Orchomenians, and founded col- 
onies in Colchis. 

Ialysus ('IdXvaog : now Ialyso), one of the 
three very ancient Dorian cities in the island of 
Rhodes, and one of the six original members 
of the Dorian Hexapolis (vid. Doris), stood on 
the northwestern coast of the island, about sixty 
stadia southwest of Rhodes. It is said to have 
derived its name from the mythical Ialysus, son 
of Cercaphus, and grandson of Helios. 

Iambe ('letp.677), a Thracian woman, daughter 
of Pan and Echo, and a slave of Metanlra. 
When Ceres (Demeter), in search of her daugh- 
ter, arrived in Attica, and visited the house of 
Metanira, Iambe cheered the mournful goddess 
by her jokes. 

Iamblichus ('ldjib"kixoc). 1. A Syrian, who 
lived in the time of the Emperor Trajan, wrote 
a romance in the Greek language entitled Baby- 
lonica. The work itself is lost, but an epitome 
of it is preserved by Photius. — 2. A celebrated 
Neo-Platonic philosopher, was born at Chalcis 
in Coale-Syria. He resided in Syria during the 
greater part of his life, and died in the reign 
of Constantine the Great, probably before A.D. 
833. He was inferior in judgment and learn- 



IAPIS. 

ing to the earlier Neo-Platonists, Plotinus and 
Porphyry ; and he introduced into his system 
many of the superstitions and mysteries of the 
East, by means of which he endeavored to check 
the progress of Christianity. The extant works 
of Iamblichus are, I. Ileol Hvdaybpov alpeoeue, 
on the philosophy of Pythagoras. It was in- 
tended as a preparation for the study of Plato, 
and consisted originally of ten books, of which 
five only are extant. 1. The first book contains 
an account of the life of Pythagoras, and though 
compiled without care, it is yet of value, as the 
other works, from which it is taken, are lost. 
Edited by Kuster, Amsterd., 1707 ; and by 
Kiessling, Lips., 1815. 2. UporpeTTTiicol Xoyoi 
etc (f>i2,o<jo<p'iav, forms a sort of introduction to 
the study of Plato. Edited by Kiessling, Lips., 
1813, 8vo. 3. Hepl icoivrjc /iadijfj.aTLK^c eniar- 
ijfi?]C, contains many fragments of the works of 
early Pythagoreans. Edited by Fries, Copen- 
hagen, 1790. 4. Uepl rye NiKOfzdxov dpi8f.tr/TL- 
K.7/C ek-ayuyrjQ. Edited by Tennulius, Deventer 
and Aruheim, 1668. 5. Ta deoXoyovfiEva tt)c 
dpLQjii\TiKriq. Edited by Ast, Lips., 1817. — IL 
TLept fivarripLuv, written to prove the divine ori- 
gin of the Egyptian and Chaldaean theology. 
Edited by Gale, Oxon., 1678. Iamblichus wrote 
other works which are lost. — 3. A later Neo- 
Platonic philosopher of Apamea, a contempo- 
rary of the Emperor Julian and of Libanius. 

[Iamenus ('Idftevog), a Trojan warrior, slain by 
Leouteus during the attack of the Trojans on 
the camp of the Greeks.] 

Iamid^e. Vid. Iamus. 

Iamnia ('Id/iveia ; 'la/ivia : 'lafiveLTTjs : in Old 
Testament, Jabueel, Jabneh : now Jbneh or Gab 
nch), a considerable city of Palestine, between 
Diospolis and Azotus, near the coast, with a 
good harbor, was taken by King Uzziah from 
the Philistines. Pompey united it to the prov- 
ince of Syria. After the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem it became the seat of the Sanhedrim, and 
of a celebrated school of Jewish learning. 

[Iamno or Iamna ("lafiva : now Ciudadela), a 
city in the smaller of the Balearic Islands (Mi- 
norca).] 

[Iamphorina, a strong place in the territory of 
the Maedi in Macedonia.] 

Iamus ( v la/j.oc), son of Apollo and Evadne, re- 
ceived the art of prophecy from his father, and 
was regarded as the ancestor of the famous 
family of seers, the Iamidaa at Olympia. 

[Ianassa ('Idvaoaa), one of the Nereids.] 

Ianira ('Idveipa), one of the Nereids. 

Ianthe ('ldvd?i). 1. Daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, and one of the playmates of Proserpina 
(Persephone). — 2. Daughter of Telestes of Crete, 
beloved by Iphis. 

Iapetus ('larreToc), one of the Titans, son of 
Coelus (Uranus) and Terra (Ge), married Asia 
or Clymene, the daughter of his brother Ocea- 
nus, and became by her the father of Atlas, Pro- 
metheus, Epimetheus, and Menoetius. He was 
imprisoned with Saturn (Cronus) in Tartarus. 
Being the father of Prometheus, he was regard- 
ed by the Greeks as the ancestor of the human 
race. His descendants, Prometheus, Atlas, and 
others, are often designated by the patronymics 
Iapetidx(es), Iapetionidai(es), and the feminine 
Iapctionis. 

[Iapis, son of Iasus, beloved by Apollo, and 
387 



IAPYDES. 



IBYCUS. 



I 



received from him the knowledge of medicine 
and the prophetic art : he cured ./Eneas of the 
wound received by him in the war against La- 
tinus.] 

Iapydes ('ldnvdec or 'lunodeg), a warlike and 
barbarous people in the north of Ulyricum, be- 
tween the Kivers Arsia and Tedanius, were a 
mixed race, partly Illyrian and partly Celtic, 
who tattooed their bodies. They were subdued 
by Augustus. Their country was called Ia- 
pydia. 

Iapygia {Ic-Kvy'ia : 'Idirvyee), the name given 
by the Greeks to the south of Apulia, from Ta- 
rentum and Brundisium to the Promontoridm 
IapygIum (now Cape Leuca), though it is some- 
times applied to the whole of Apulia. Vid. Apu- 
lia. The name is derived from the mythical 
Iapyx 

Iapyx ('lanv!;). 1. Son of Lycaon and brother 
of Daunus and Peucetius, who went as leaders 
of a colony to Italy. According to others, he 
was a Cretan, and a brother of Ieadius, or a son 
of Daedalus and a Cretan woman, from whom 
the Cretans who migrated to Italy derived the 
name of Iapyges. — 2. The west-northwestern 
wind, blowing off the coast of Iapygia (Apulia), 
in the south of Italy, and consequently, favor- 
able to persons crossing over to Greece. It was 
the same as the upyeorr/c of the Greeks. 

Iarbas or Hiarbas, king of the Gastulians, 
and son of Jupiter Ammon by a Libyan nymph, 
sued in vain for the hand of Dido in marriage. 
For details, vid. Dido. 

Iardanes ('lapddvr/c), a kiDg of Lydia, and 
father of Omphale, who is hence called lardanis. 

Iardanes or Iardanus ('lapSuvr;e, 'Idpdavoc). 
1 . (Now Jardan), a river in Elis. — 2. A river in 
the north of Crete, which flowed near the town 
Cydonia. 

Iasiok or Iasius ('lamav, 'Idaioc), son of Ju- 
piter (Zeus) and Electra, the daughter of Atlas, 
or son of Corythus and Electra. At the wed- 
ding of his sister Harmonia, Ceres (Demeter) 
fell in love with him, and in a thrice-ploughed 
field (rplwoXoc) she became by him the mother 
of Pluton or Plutus in Crete; Jupiter (Zeus), in 
consequence, killed lasion with a flash of light- 
ning. Others represent him as living to an ad- 
vanced age as the husband of Ceres (Demeter). 
In some traditions lasion and his brother Dar- 
danus are said to have carried the palladium to 
Samothrace, and there to have been instructed 
in the . mysteries of Ceres (Demeter) by Jupiter 
(Zeus). Others relate that lasion, being in- 
spired by Ceres (Demeter) and Cora (Proser- 
pina), travelled about in Sicily and many other 
countries, and every where taught the people 
the mysteries of Ceres (Demeter). 

Iasis, i. e., Atalante, the daughter of Iasius. 

[Iasius ('Idaioc). 1. King of Orehomenos, 
father of Amphion. — 2. Vid. Lasion.] 

Iaso ('laud)), i. e., Recovery, a daughter of 
./Esculapius or Amphiaraus, and sister of Hy- 
giea, was worshipped as the goddess of recovery. 

Iassius or Iassicus Sinus ('laoiKoc koXttoc : 
now Gulf of Mandeliyeh), a large gulf on the 
western coast of Caria, between the peninsulas 
of Miletus and Myndus, named after the city 
of Iassus, and called also Bargylieticus Sinus 
{Qapyv7uriTiK.bg koXttoc) from another city which 
stood upon it, namely, Bargylia. 
388 



Iassus or Iasus ("laaaoc, "laaoc : 'laaevc : ruiju 
at Asyn-Kalessi), a city of Caria, on the Iassius [ 
Sinus, founded by Argives and further colonized i 
by Milesians. 

Iasus ("Iacroc). 1. An Arcadian, son of Ly 
curgus and Cleophile or Eurynome, brother of 
Aneseus, husband of Clymene, the daughter of | 
Minyas, and father of Atalante. He is likewise I. 
called Iasius aDd lasion. — 2. Father of Amphion, 
and king of the Minyans. — [3. Son of Triopas, 
grandson of Phorbas, brother of Agenor, and ; 
father of Io, according to one account, was king 
of Argos. — 4. Son of Sphelus, a leader of the 1 
Athenians before Troy, slain by iEneas.] 

Iazyges ('Id^vyec), a powerful Sarmatian peo- 
ple, who originally dwelt on the coast of the 
Pontus Euxinus and the Palus Maeotis, .but in 
the reign of Claudius settled near the Quadi in 
Dacia, in the country bounded by the Danube, 
the Theiss, and the Sarmatian Mountains. They 
are generally called Sarmatce Iazyges or simply . 
Sarmata;, but Ptolemy gives them the name of 
Iazyges Metanasta>, on account of their migra- j 
tion. The Iazyges were in close alliance with 
the Quadi, along with whom they frequently at- 
tacked the Roman dominions, especially Mcesia 
and Pannonia. In the fifth century they were 
conquered by the Goths. 

Iberia {'W-qpia : southern part of Georgia), a 
country of Asia, in the centre of the isthmus 
between the Black and Caspian Seas, was 
bounded on the north by the Caucasus, on the 
west by Colchis, on the east by Albania, and on 
the south by Armenia. It was surrounded on 
every side by mountains, through which there 
were only four passes. Sheltered by these 
mountains and watered by the Cyrus (now 
Kour) and its upper tributaries, it was famed 
for a fertility of which its modern name (from 
Teupyoc) remains a witness. Its inhabitants, 
Iberes ("I6r/pe<;) or Iberi, were, and are still, 
among the most perfect specimens of the Cau- 
casian race. The ancients believed them to be 
of the same family as the Assyrians and Medes, 
whom they were thought to resemble in their 
customs. They were more civilized than their 
neighbors in Colchis and Albania, and were di- 
vided into four castes : 1. The nobles, from 
whom two kings were chosen ; 2. The priests, 
who were also the magistrates ; 3. The soldiers 
and husbandmen ; 4. The slaves, who perform- 
ed all public and mechanical work. The chief 
employment of the Iberians was agriculture. 
The Romans first became acquainted with the 
country through the expedition of Pompey in 
B.C. 65 ; and under Trajan it was subjected to 
Rome. In the. fifth century it was conquered 
by the Persian king Sapor. No connection 
can be traced between the Iberians of Asia and 
those of Spain. 

Iberus ("Wr/poc or "ICr/p : now Euro), the prin- 
cipal river in the northeast of Spain, rises among 
the mountaius of the Cantabri, near Juliobriga, 
flows southeast through a great plain between 
the Pyrenees and the Mods Idubeda, and falls 
into the Mediterranean near Dertosa, after 
forming a Delta. 

Ibycus ("IfiDKor), a Greek lyric poet, was a 
native of Rhegium, and spent the best part of 
his lifij at Samos, at the court of Polycrates, 
about B.C. 540. It is related that, travelling 



II 



ICARIA. 



ICl'LIUS. 



i through a desert place near Corinth, he was 
murdered by robbers, but before he died he call- 
ed upon a flock of cranes that happened to fly 
over him to avenge his death. Soon afterward, 

1 when the people of Corinth were assembled in the 

| theatre, the cranes appeared ; and one of the 
murderers, who happened to be present, cried 
out involuntarily, " Behold the avengers of Iby- 
cus and thus were the authors of the crime 
detected. The phrase ai 'Wvkov yepavoi passed 
into a proverb. The poetry of Ibycus was 

j chiefly erotic, and partook largely of the im- 
petuosity of his character. In his dialect there 

! was a mixture of the Doric and ^Eolic. In an- 
tiquity there were seven books of his lyric 
poems, of which only a few fragments now re- 
main. [These fragments are collected in Sehnei- 
dewin's Ibyci Carminum Reliquiae, Gbttingen, 
1833.] 

Icaria or Iclaius ('l/capLa/licdpioc : 'licaptevc), 
a mountain and a demus in Attica, belonging to 
the tribe JEgeis, where Bacchus (Dionysus) is 
said to have taught Icarius the cultivation of the 
vine. 

Icarius ('Lcupw?), also called Icarus or Ica- 
rion. 1. An Athenian, who lived in the reign 
of Pandion, and hospitably received Bacchus 
| (Dionysus) on his arrival in Attica. The god, 
in return, taught him the cultivation of the vine. 
Icarius made a present of some wine to peas- 
ants, who became intoxicated by it, and think- 
ing that they were poisoned by Icarius, slew 
him, and threw his body into a well, or buried 
it under a tree. His daughter Erigone, after a 
long search, found his grave, to which she was 
conducted by his faithful dog Maera. From 
grief she hung herself on the tree under which 
he was buried. Jupiter (Zeus) or Bacchus (Di- 
onysus) placed her and Icarius among the stars, 
making Erigone the Virgin, Icarius Bootes or 
Arcturus, and Mara Procyon or the little dog. 
Hence the latter is called Icarius cards. The 
god then punished the ungrateful Athenians 
with madness, in which condition the Athenian 
maidens hung themselves as Erigone had done. 
The Athenians propitiated Icarius and Erigone 
by the institution of the festival of the jEora. 
Vid. Diet, of Ant., s. v. — 2. A Lacedaemonian, 
son of Perieres and Gorgophone, and brother 
of Tyndareus. Others called him grandson of 
Perieres, and son of (Ebalus. "When Icarius 
and Tyndareus were expelled from Lacedaemon 
by their half-brother Hippocoon, Icarius went 
to Acarnania, and there became the father of 
Penelope, and of several other children. He 
afterward returned to Lacedaemon. Since there 
were many suitors for the hand of Penelope, he 
promised to give her to the hero who should 
conquer in a foot race. Ulysses won the prize, 
and was betrothed to Penelope. Icarius tried to 
persuade his daughter to remain with him, and 
not accompany Ulysses to Ithaca. Ulysses al- 
lowed her to do as she pleased, whereupon she 
covered her face with her veil to hide her blushes, 
and thus intimated that she would follow her 
husband. Icarius then desisted from further en- 
treaties, and erected a statue of Modesty on the 
epot. 

Icarus ("hcapoc), son of Daedalus. Vid. Djk- 

3ALUS. 

Icarus or Icaria ("I/c<zpof, 'luapia : now Ni- 



karia), an island of the ^Egean Sea, one of the 
Sporades, west of Samos, called also Doliche 
(do2.ixy, i- e. long island). Its common name, 
and that of the surrounding sea, Icarium Mare, 
were derived from the myth of Icarus. It was 
first colonized by the Milesians, but afterward 
belonged to the Samians, who fed their herds on 
its rich pastures. 

Iccius. [1. A noble of Rheims in Gallia Bel- 
gica, who headed a deputation of his townsmen 
to Caesar in B.C. 5*7, placing their state at Cae- 
sar's disposal, and praying his aid against the 
other Belgie communities.] — 2. A friend of 
Horace, who addressed him an ode (Carm., i., 
29) and an epistle (JSp., i., 12). The ode was 
written in B.C. 25, when Iccius was preparing to 
join -<Elius Gallus in his expedition to Arabia. 
The epistle was composed about ten years after- 
ward, when Iccius had become Vipsanius Agrip- 
pa's steward in Sicily. In both poems Horace 
reprehends pointedly, but delicately, in Iccius an 
inordinate desire for wealth. 

Iceni, called Simeni CStfievoi) by Ptolemy, a 
numerous and powerful people iu Britain, who 
dwelt north of the Trinobantes, in the modern 
counties of Suffolk and Norfolk. Their revolt 
from the Romans, under their heroic queen 
Boadicea, is celebrated in history. Vid. Boa- 
dice a. Their chief town was Venta Icenorum 
(now Gaister) about three miles from Norwich. 

Ichn^e ("lxvai : Ixvaloc). 1. A town in Bot- 
tiaea in Macedonia, near the mouth of the Axius. 
— 2. A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, celebi'ated 
for its worship of Themis, who was hence sur- 
named Ichnaza. 

Ichn^e or Ischn^e ("Ipai, "laxvai), a Greek 
city in the north of Mesopotamia, founded by the 
Macedonians, was the scene of the first battle be- 
tween Crassus and the Parthians, in which the 
former gained the victory. According to Appian, 
the Parthians soon after defeated the Romans 
near the same spot. 

[Ichnusa ('Ixvovo-a), the ancient name of Sar- 
dinia. Vid. Sardinia.] 

Ichthyophagi ( 'Ixdvofdyoc, i. e., Fish-eaters), 
was a vague descriptive name given by the an- 
cients to various tribes on the coasts of Asia and 
Africa, of whom they knew but little. Thus we 
find Ichthyophagi : 1. In the extreme south-east 
of Asia, in the country of the Sinae. 2. On the 
coast of Gedrosia. 3. On the northeastern coast 
of Arabia Felix. 4. In Africa, on the coast of 
the Red Sea, above Egypt. 5. On the western 
coast of Africa. 

Icilius. 1. Sp., was one of the three envoys 
sent by the plebeians, after their succession to 
the Sacred Mount, to treat with the senate, B. 
C. 494. He was thrice elected tribune of the 
plebs, namely, in 492, 481, and 471. — 2. L., a 
man of great energy and eloquence, was tribune 
of the plebs 456, when he claimed for the trib- 
unes the right of convoking the senate, and also 
carried the important law for the assignment 
of the Aventine (de Aventino publicando) to the 
plebs. In the following year (455) he was again 
elected tribune. He was one of the chief lead 
ers in the outbreak against the decemvirs, 449. 
Virginia had been betrothed to him, and he bold- 
ly defended her cause before Appius Claudius • 
and when at length she fell by her father's baud, 
' Icilius hurried to the army which was carrying 
389 



ICONIUM. 



IDRIEUS. 



on war against the Sabines, and prevailed upon 
them to desert the government. 

Iconium ('Ikoviov : 'Ikovievc : now Konigeh), 
the capital of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, was, when 
visited by St. Paul, a flourishing city, with a mix- 
ed population of Jews and Greeks ; under the 
later emperors, a colonv •. and in the Middle Ages, 
one of the greatest cities of Asia Minor, and im- 
portant in the history of the crusades. 

Ictinus ('luTivog), a contemporary of Pericles, 
was the architect of two of the most celebrated 
of the Greek temples, namely, the great temple 
of Minerva (Athena) in the acropolis of Athens, 
called the Parthenon, and the temple of Apollo 
Epicurius, near Phigalia in Arcadia. Calli- 
crates was associated with Ictiuus in building 
the Parthenon. 

Ida ("Icfy, Dor. "Ida). 1. (Now Ida or Kas- 
Dagh,) a mountain range of Mysia, in Asia Mi- 
nor, which formed the southern boundary of the 
Troad; extending from Leetum Promontorium 
in the southwest corner of the Troad, eastward 
along the northern side of the Gulf of Adramyt- 
tium, and further east into the centre of Mysia. 
Its highest summits were Cotylus on the north 
and Gargara on the south ; the latter is about 
five thousand feet high, and is often capped with 
snow. Lower down, the slopes of the mountain 
are well-wooded ; and lower still, they form 
fertile fields and valleys. The sources of the 
Scamander and the jEsepus, besides other riv- 
ers and numerous brooks, are on Ida. The 
mountain is celebrated in mythology as the 
scene of the rape of Ganymede, whom Ovid 
(Fast, ii., 145) calls Idceus puer, and of the judg- 
ment of Paris, who is called Idceus Judex by 
Ovid (last, vi., 44), and Idceus pastor by Cicero 
(ad. Alt, ii., IS). In Homer, too, its summit is 
the place from which the gods watch the battles 
in the plain of Troy. Ida was also an ancient 
seat of the worship of Cybele, who obtained from 
it the Danie of Idcea Mater. — 2. (Now Psiloraii), a 
mountain in the centre of Crete, belonging to the 
mountain range which runs through the whole 
length of the island. Mount Ida is said to be 
seven thousand six hundred and seventy-four feet 
above the level of the sea. It was closely con- 
nected with the worship of Jupiter (Zeus), who is 
said to have been brought up in a cave in this 
mountain. 

IdjEA Mater. Vid. Ida. 

Idjei Dactyli. Vid. Dactyli. 

[IdjEus ('Idaioc-). 1. A herald of the Trojans. 
— 2. Son of Dares, the priest of Vulcan (Hephaes- 
tus), slain by Diomede.J 

Idalium ('IduAtov), a town in Cyprus, sacred 
to Venus (Aphrodite), who hence bore the sur- 
name Idalia. 

Idanthyksus ('IduvBvpcoc-), a king of the Scy- 
thians, under whom they overran Asia, and ad- 
vanced as far as Egypt. 

Idas (loac). 1. Son of Aphareus and Arene, 
the daughter of CEbalus, brother of Lynceus, 
husbaad of Marpessa, and father of Cleopatra or 
Alcyone. From the name of their father, Idas 
nnd Lynceus are called Apkaretidce or Apharldce. 
Apollo was in love with Marpessa, the daughter 
of Evenus, but Idas carried her off in a winged 
chariot which Neptune (Poseidon) had given 
him. Evenus could not overtake Idas, but 
Apollo found him in Messene and took the 
390 



maiden from him. The lovers fought for het 
possession, but Jupiter (Zeus) separated them, 
and left the decision with Marpessa, who chose 
Idas, from fear lest Apollo should desert her if 
she grew old. The Apharetidaa also took part 
in the Calydonian hunt, and in the expedition of 
the Argonauts. But the most celebrated part of 
their story is their battle with the Dioscuri, Cas- 
tor and Pollux, which is related elsewhere (p. 
266, b.). — [2. One of the guests at the marriage 
of Perseus, slain by Phineus. — 3. One of the com- 
panions of Diomedes, changed by Venus (Aphro- 
dite) into a bird. — 4. A Trojan warrior, mention- 
ed by Virgil, slain by Turnus in Italy. — 5. Two 
heroes in the Theban war, the one from Onches- 
tus, the other from Tosnarus.] 

[Ide ("16?i). 1. Daughter of Corybas and moth- 
er of Minos. — 2. A nymph, mother of Nisus by 
Hyrtacus.] 

Idistavisus Campus, a plain in Germany near 
the Weser, probably in the neighborhood of the 
P«*ta Westphalica, between Rinteln and Haus- 
berge, memorable for the victory of Germanieus 
over the Cherusci, A. D. 16. 

Idmon ("Id/uav). 1. Son of Apollo and Asteria, 
or Cyrene, was a soothsayer, and accompanied 
the Argonauts, although he knew beforehand 
that death awaited him. He was killed in the 
countiy of the Mariandynians by a boar or a 
serpent; or, according to others, he died there 
of a disease. — [2. A Rutulian, sent by Turnus to 
jEneas to propose to settle the dispute for the 
hand of Lavinia by single combat between the 
heroes.] 

Idomeneus ('Idofievevc). 1. Son of the Cretan 
Deucalion, and grandson of Minos and Pasiphae, 
was king of Crete. He is sometimes called 
Lyctius or Cnosius, from the Cretan towns of 
Lyctus and Cnosus. He was one of the suitors | 
of Helen ; and, in conjunction with Meriones, ! 
the son of his half-brother Molus, he led the 
Cretans in eighty ships against Troy. He was 
one of the bravest heroes in the Trojan war, 
and distinguished himself especially in the bat- 
tle near the ships. According to Homer, Idom- j 
eneus returned home in safety after the fall of 
Troy. Later traditions relate that once in a 1 
storm he vowed to sacrifice to Neptune (Posei- j 
don) whatever he should first meet on his land- | 
ing, if the god would grant him a safe return. 
This was his own son, whom he accordingly ' 
sacrificed. As Crete was thereupon visited by 
a plague, the Cretans expelled Idomeneus. He 
went to Italy, where he settled in Calabria, and | 
built a temple to Minerva (Athena). Prom thence I 
he is said to have migrated again to Colophon, \ 
on the coast of Asia. His tomb, however, was 
shown at Cnosus, where he and Meriones were 
worshipped as heroes. — 2. Of Lampsaeus, a 
friend and disciple of Epicurus, flourished about I 
B.C. 310-2'70. He wrote several philosophical 
and historical works, all of which are lost. 
The latter were chiefly devoted to an account 
of the private life of the distinguished men of 1 
Greece. 

Idothea (EMoflf a), daughter of Proteus, taught 
Menelaus how he might secure her father, and 
compel him to declare in what manner he might 
reach home in safety. 

Idbieus or Hidrieus ('Idptevc; 'ldpievc) king of 
Caria, second son of Hecatomnus, succeeded to 



IDUBEDA. 



ILIONEUS. 



the throne on the death of Artemisia, the widow 
of his brother Maussolus, in B.C. 351. He died 
in 344, leaving the kingdom to his sister Ada, 
whom he had married. 

Idubeda (bow Sierra de Oca and Lorenzo), a 
range of mountains in Spain, begins among the 
Cantabri, forms the southern boundary of the 
plain of the Ebro, and runs southeast to the 
Mediterranean. 

IdOjlea ('ISovftaia), is the Greek form of the 
scriptural name Edom, but the terms are not 
precisely equivalent. Iu the Old Testament, 
and in the time before the Babylonish captivity 
of the Jews, Edom is the district of Mount Seir, 
that is, the mountainous region extending north 
and south from the Dead Sea to the eastern 
head of the Red Sea, peopled by the descend- 
ants of Esau, and added by David to the Israel- 
itish monarchy. The decline of the kiugdom 
of Judaea, and at last its extinction by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, enabled the Edomites to extend 
their power to the northwest over the southern 
part of Judaea as far as Hebron, while their 
original territory was taken possession of by 
the Nabathasan Arabs. Thus the Idumaea of 
the later Jewish and of the Roman history is 
the southern part of Judasa and a small portion 
of the north of Arabia Petraea, extending north- 
west and southeast from the Mediterranean to 
the western side of Mount Seir. Under the 
Maccabees, the Idumaeans were again subject- 
ed to Judasa (B.C. 129), and governed, under 
them, by prefects (arparnyoi), who were very 
probably descended from the old princes of 
Edom; but the internal dissensions in the As- 
monaean family led at last to the establishment 
of an Idumaean dynasty on the Jewish throne. 
Vid. Antipater, Nos. 3, 4, Herodes. The Ro- 
man writers of the Augustan age and later use 
Idumasa and Judaaa as equivalent terms. Soon 
after the destruction of Jerusalem the name of 
Idumaea disappears from history, and is merged 
in that of Arabia. Both the old Edomites and 
the later Idumasans were a commercial peo- 
ple, and carried on a great part of the traffic be- 
tween the East and the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean. 

Idyia ('ISvta), daughter of Oceanus and Te- 
thys, and wife of the Colchian king Metes. 
Ierne. Vid. Hibernia. 

Ietje ('Ural : 'lerlvog : now Jato), a town in 
the interior of Sicily, on a mountain of the same 
name, southwest of Macella. 

[Igilgili ('lyiTi-yiAi : now Jigelli or Jigcl), a 
city of Mauretauia Csssariensis, west of the 
River Ampsaga, between the rivers Audus and 
Gulus.] 

Igiliom (now Giglio), a small island off the 
Etruscan coast, opposite Cosa. 

Ignatius ('lyvdrcoc), one of the apostolical 
fathers, was a hearer of the Apostle John, and 
succeeded Evodius as bishop of Antioeh in A.D. 
69. _ He was condemned to death by Trajan at 
Antioeh, and was taken to Rome, where he was 
thrown to the wild beasts in the amphitheatre. 
The date of his martyrdom is uncertain. Some 
lace it in 107, but others as late as 116. On 
is way from Antioeh to Rome, Ignatius wrote 
several epistles in Greek to various churches. 
There are extant at present fifteen epistles 
ascribed to Ignatius, but of these only seven are 



considered to be genuine ; and even these seven 
are much interpolated. The ancient Syriac ver- 
sion of some of these epistles, which has been 
recently discovered, is free from many of the 
interpolations found in the present Greek text, 
and was evidently executed when the Greek 
text was in a state of greater purity than it is 
at present. The Greek text has been publish- 
ed in the Patrea Apostolici by Cotelerius, Am- 
sterd., 1*724, and by Jacobson, Oxon., 1838 ; and 
the Syriac version, accompanied with the Greek 
text, by Cureton, Lond., 1849. 

Iguvium (Iguvlnus, Iguvinas, -atis : now Gab- 
bio or Eugubio), an important town in Umbria, 
on the southern slope of the Apennines. On a 
mountain in the neighborhood of this town was 
a celebrated temple of Jupiter (Zeus), in the 
ruins of which were discovered, four centuries 
ago, seven brazen tables, covered with Umbrian 
inscriptions, and which are still preserved at 
Gubbio. These tables, frequently called the 
Eugubian Tables, contain more than one, thou- 
sand Umbrian words, and are of great import- 
ance for a knowledge of the ancient languages 
of Italy. They are explained by Grotefend, Jtu- 
dimenta Lingual Umbricce, &e., Hannov., 1835, 
seq., and by Lepsius, Inscription.es, Umbricm et 
Oscx, Lips., 1841. 

Ilaira ('IMsipa), daughter of Leucippus and 
Philodice, and sister of Phoebe. The two sis- 
ters are frequently mentioned by the poets un- 
der the name of Lencippidue. Both were car- 
ried off by the Dioscuri, and Ilaira became the 
wife of Castor. 

Ilercaones, Ilercaonenses, or Illurgavo 
nenses, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis, ou 
the western coast, between the Iberus and Mons 
Idubeda. Their chief town was Dertosa. 

Ilerda (now Lerida), a town of the Ilergetes 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on a height 
above the River Sicoris (now Segre), which was 
here crossed by a stone bridge. It was after- 
ward a Roman colony, but in the time of Au- 
sonius had ceased to be a place of importance. 
It was here that Africanus and Petreius, the le- 
gates of Pompey, were defeated by Caesar (B.C. 
49). 

Ilergetes, a people in Hispania Tarraconen 
sis, between the Iberus and the Pyrenees. 

Ilia or Rhea Silvia. Vid. Romulus. 

Ilici or Illioe (now Elche), a town of the 
Contestanti, on the eastern coast of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, on the road from Carthago Nova 
to Valentia, was a colonia immuuis. The mod- 
ern Elche lies at a greater distance from the 
coast than the ancient town. 

Ilienses, an ancient people in Sardinia. 

Iliona ('lTiLovri), daughter of Priam and Hec- 
uba, wife of Polymnestor or Polymestor, king 
of the Thracian Chersonesus, to whom she bore 
a son Deipylus. At the beginning of the Trojan 
war her brother Polydorus was intrusted to her 
care, and she brought him up as her own son 
For details, vid. Polydorus. Iliona was the 
name of one of the tragedies of Pacuvius, 
(Hor, Sat., ii., 3, 61.) 

Ilioneus ('I/Uovf vc). L A son of Niobe, whom 
Apollo would have liked to save, because he was 
praying ; but the arrow was no longer under the 
control of the god. Vid. Niobe. — [2. A Trojan 
eon of Phorbas, slain in battle by Peneleus. — 
391 



ILIPA. 



ILLYRICUM. 



8. One of the companions of Jikieas. — i. A Tro- 
jan warrior, slain by Diomedes.] 

Ilipa (now Pennaflor), a town in Hispauia 
Bcetiea, on the right bank of the Baetis, which 
was navigable to this place with small vessels. 

[Ilipula ('lMTrovXa). 1. Called Magn,a, a 
city of Hispania Bcetiea, between the rivers 
Anas and Baetis. — 2. I. Minor (now Lepe di 
Rondo), also in Hispania Bsetica, belongrng to 
the district of Astigi.j 

Ilissus ('I/UctucV more rarely TZD.iaaog), a 
small river in Attica, rises on the northern 
slope of Mount Hymettus, receives the brook 
Eridanus near the Lyceum, outside the walls of 
Athens, then flows through the eastern side of 
Athens, and loses itself in the marshes in the 
Athenian plain. The Ilissus is now usually dry, 
as its waters are drawn off to supply the city. 

Ilithyia (EiXeidvta), also called Elithyia, Ile- 
thyia, or Eleutho, the goddess of birth, who 
came to the assistance of women in labor. 
When she was kindly disposed, she furthered 
the birth ; but when she was angiy, she pro- 
tracted the labor. In the Iliad the Ilithyiae (in 
the plural) are called the daughters of Hera 
(Juno). But in the Odyssey and Hesiod, and 
in the later poets in general, there is only one 
goddess of this name. Ilithyia was the servant 
of Hera (Juno), and was employed by the latter 
to retard the birth of Hercules. Vid. Hercules. 
The worship of Ilithyia appears to have been 
first established among the Dorians in Crete, 
where she was believed to have been born in a 
cave in the territory of Cnosus. From thence 
her worship spread over Delos and Attica. Ac- 
cording to a Delian tradition, Ilithyia was not 
born in Crete, but had come to Delos from the 
Hyperboreans, for the purpose of assisting Leto 
(Latona). In an ancient hymn attributed to 
Olen, which was sung in Delos, Ilithyia was 
called the mother of Eros (Love). It is proba- 
ble that Ilithyia was originally a goddess of the 
moon, and hence became identified with Arte- 
mis or Diana. The moou was supposed to ex- 
ercise great influence over growth in general, 
and consequently over that of children. 

Ilium. Vid. Troas. 

Illiberis ('lXA'Sepic). 1. (Now Tech), called 
Tichis or Techum by the Romans, a river in 
Gallia Narbonensis, in the territory of the Sar- 
dones, rises in the Pyrenees, and falls, after a 
short course, into the Mare Gallieum. — 2. (Now 
Elne), a town of the Santones, on the above- 
mentioned river, at the foot of the Pyrenees, 
was originally a place of importance, but after- 
ward sunk into insignificance. It was restored 
by Constautine, who changed its name into 
' Helena, after that of his mother, whence the 
modern Elne. 

Illiturgis or Illiturgi (now Andujar), an 
important townof the Turduli in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, situated on a steep rock near the 
Baetis, and on the road from Corduba to Cas- 
tulo : it was destroyed by Scipio B.C. 210, but 
was rebuilt, and received the name of Forum 
Julium. 

Illyricum or Illyris, more rarely Illyria 
(to '\XkvpiKov 'YkTivpic, 'IXXvpia), included, in 
its widest signification, all the land west of 
Macedonia and east of Italy and Raetia, extend- 
ing south as far as Epirus, aud north as far as 
392 



the valleys of the Savus and Dravus, and trie 
junction of these rivers with the Danube. This 
wide extent of country was inhabited by numer- 
ous Illyriau tribes, all of whom were more or 
less barbarous. They were probably of the 
same origin as the Thracians, but some Celts 
were mingled with them. The country was di- 
vided into two parts : 1. Illyris Barbara or 
Rojiana, the Roman province of Illyricum, ex- 
tended along the Adriatic Sea from Italy (Istria), 
from which it was separated by the Arsia, to 
the River Drilo, and was bounded on the east 
by Macedonia and Mcesia Superior, from which 
it was separated by the Driuus, and on the north 
by Pannonia, from which it was separated by 
the Dravus. It thus comprehended a part of 
the modern Croatia, the whole of Dalmatia, al- 
most the whole of Bosnia, and a part of Albania. 
It was divided in ancient times into three dis- 
tricts, according to the tribes by which it. was 
inhabited: Iapydia, the interior of the country 
on the north, from the Arsia to the Tedanius 
(vid. Iapydes); Liburnia, along the coast from 
the Arsia to the Titius (vid. Liburni) ; and Dal- 
matia, south of Liburnia, along the coast from 
the Titius to the Drilo. Vid. Dalmatia. The 
Liburnians submitted at an early time to the 
Romans ; but it was not till after the conquest 
of the Dalmatians, in the reign of Augustus, that 
the entire country was organized as a Roman 
province. From this time the lllyrians, and 
especially the Dalmatians, formed an important 
part of the Roman legions. — 2. Illyris Gr^eca, 
or Illyria proper, also called Epirds Nova, ex- 
tended from the Drilo, along the Adriatic, to the 
Ceraunian Mountains, which separated it from 
Epirus proper : it was bounded on the east by 
Macedonia. It thus embraced the greater part 
of the modern Albania. It was a mountainous 
country, but possessed some fertile land on the 
coast. Its principal rivers were the Aous, Ap- 
sus, Genusus, and Panyasus. In the interior 
was an important lake, the Lychnitis. On the 
coast there were the Greek colonies of Epidam- 
nus, afterward Dyrrhachium, and Apollonia. 
It was at these places that the celebrated Via 
Egnatia commenced, which ran through Mace- 
donia to Byzantium. The country was inhab- 
ited by various tribes, Atintanes, Taulantii, 
Parthini, Dassaretve, <£ic. In early times they 
were troublesome and dangerous neighbors to 
the Macedonian kings. They were subdued by 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, who 
defeated and slew in battle their king Bardylis, 
B.C. 359. After the death of Alexander the 
Great, most of the Illyrian tribes recovered 
their independence. At a later time, the injury 
which the Boman trade suffered from their pi- 
racies brought against them the avrus of the re- 
public. The forces of their queen Teuta were ' 
easily defeated by the Romans, and she was 
obliged to purchase peace by the surrender cf 
part of her dominions and the payment of au 
annual tribute, 229. The second IU.vuan war 
was finished by the Romans with the same ease. 
It was commenced by Demetrius of Pharos, who 
was guardian of Pineus, the son of Agvon, but 
he was conquered by the consul ^Emilips P.nv 
lus, 219. Pineus was succeeded by Plenratus, 
who cultivated friendly relations with the Ro- 
mans. His son Gentius formed an alliance 



ILUS. 



INDIA. 



with Perseus, king of Macedonia, agaiust 
Eome ; but he was conquered by the prsetor 
L. Anicius, in the same year as Perseus, 168; 
whereupon Illyria, as well as Macedonia, be 
came subject to Rome. In the new division of 
the empire under Constantioe, Illyricum form- 
ed one of the great provinces of the empire. _ It 
was divided into Illykicum Occidentale, which 
included Illyricum proper, Pannonia, and Nori- 
cum, and Illyricum Orientale, which compre- 
hended Dacia, Moesia, Macedonia, and Thrace. 

Ilus (TAof). 1. Son of Dardanus by Batea, 
the daughter of Teucer. Ilus died without is- 
sue, and left his kingdom to his brother, Erich- 
thonius. — 2. Son of Tros and Callirrhoe, grand- 
son of Erichthouius, and great-grandson of Dar- 
danus ; whence he is called Dardanides. He 
was the father of Laomedon and the grandfather 
of Priam. He was believed to be the founder 
of Ilion, which was also called Troy, after his 
father. Jupiter (Zeus) gave him the palladium, 
a statue of three cubits high, with its feet close 
together, holding a spear in its right hand, and a 
distaff in its left, and promised that as long as 
it remained in Troy, the city should be safe. 
The tomb of Ilus was shown in the neighbor- 
hood of Troy. — 3. Son of Mermerus, and grand- 
son of Jason and Medea. He lived at Ephyra, 
between Elis and Olympia ; and when Ulysses 
came to him to fetch the poison for his arrows, 
Ilus refused it, from fear of the vengeance of 
the gods. — [4. A Latin warrior, slain by Pallas, 
son of Evander.] 

Ilva. Vid jEthalia. 

Ilvates, a people in Liguria, south of the Po, 
in the modern Montferrat. 

Imaci-iara (Jmachareusis : now Maccara), a 
town in Sicily, in the Hera?au Mountains. 

[Imanuentius, king of the Trinobantes, slain 
by Cassivelaunus.] 

[Imaon, a Latin warrior, whom Halesus pro- 
tected when attacked by Pallas, son of Evander.] 

Imaus (to "\fiaov opoc), the name of a great 
mountain range of Asia, is one of those terms 
which the ancient geographers appear to have 
used indefinitely, for want of exact knowledge. 
In its most definite application, it appears to 
mean the western part of the Himalaya, between 
the Paropamisus and the Emodi Montes ; but 
when it is applied to some great chain, extend- 
ing much further to the north, and dividing 
Scythia into two parts, Scythia intra Imaum 
and Scythia extra Imaum, it must either be un- 
derstood to mean the modern Moussour or Al- 
tai Mountains, or else some imaginary range, 
which cannot be identified with any actually 
existing mountains. 

Imbrasus ("I/j.6paooc), a river in the island of 
Samos, formerly called Parthenius, flowing into 
the sea not far from the city of Samos. The 
celebrated temple of Juno (Hera) ("Hpaiov) 
stood near it, and it gave the epithet of Imbra- 
sia both to Juno (Hera) and to Diana (Artemis). 

[Imbrius ("ludpwc), son of Mentor of Pedasus 
in Caria, married an illegitimate daughter of 
Priam (named Medesicaste), and aided Priam 
agaiust the Greeks : he was slain by Teucer.] 

Imbros ("lfi6poc : "IfiSpioc : now Embro or Im- 
brus), an islaud in the north of the ^Egean Sea, 
near the Thraaian Chersonesus, about eighteen 
miles southeast of Samothrace, and about twen- 



ty-two northeast of Lemnos. It is about twen 
ty-five miles in circumference, and is hilly, bu/ 
contains many fertile valleys. Imbros, like the 
neighboring island of Samothrace, was in an- 
cient times one of the chief seats of the wor- 
ship of the Oabiri and Meroury (Hermes). There 
was a town of the same name on the east of 
the island, of which there are still some ruins. 

Inachis ('Ivax'iQ), a surname of Io, the daugh- 
ter of Inachus. The goddess Isis is also called 
Inachis, because she was identified with Io ; 
and sometimes Inachis is used as synonymous 
with an Argive or Greek woman. Inachides in 
the same way was used as a name of Epaphus, 
a grandson of Inachus, and also of Perseus, be- 
cause he was born at Argos, the city of Inachus. 

Inachus ("Ivaxoc), son of Oceanus and Tethys, 
and father of Phoroueus and JEgialeus, to whom 
others add Io, Argus Panoptes, and Phegeus or 
Pegeus. He was the first king and the most 
ancient hero of Argos, whence the country is 
frequently called the land of Inachus ; and he 
is said to have given his name to the River Ina- 
chus. The ancients made several attempts to 
explain the stories about Inachus : sometimes 
they looked upon him as a native of Argos, who, 
after the flood of Deucalion, led the Argives 
from the mountains into the plains ; and some- 
times they regarded him as the leader of an 
Egyptian or Libyan colony, which settled on 
the banks of the Inachus. 

Inachus ("Ivaxoc). 1. (Now Planitza or Zeria\ 
the chief river in Argolis, rises in the mouutain 
Lyrceus, on the borders of Arcadia, flows in a 
southeasterly direction, receives near Argos the 
Charadrus, and falls into the Sinus Argolicus 
south of Argos. — 2. [Now Kriheli, or, according 
to Leake, Ariadha], a river in Acarnania, which 
rises in Mount Lacmon, in the range of Pindus, 
and falls into the Achelous. 
Inarime. Vid. ^Enaria. 
Inaros ('Ivdpac, occasionally "Ivapoc), son of 
Psammitichus, a chief of some Libyan tribes 
to the west of Egypt, commenced hostilities 
against the Persians, which ended in a revolt of 
the whole of Egypt, B.C. 461. In 460 Inaros 
called in the Athenians, who, with a fleet of 
two hundred galleys, were then off Cyprus : the 
ships sailed up to Memphis, and, occupying two 
parts of the town, besieged the third. In the 
same year Inaros defeated the Persians in a 
great battle, in which Achaamenes, the brother 
of the king Artaxerxes, was slain. But a new 
army, under a new commander, Megabyzus, 
was more successful. The Egyptians and their 
allies were defeated ; and Inaros was taken by 
treachery and crucified, 455. 

India (ft Ivdia : 'lvdoc, Indus) was a name 
used by the Greeks aud Romans, much as the 
modern term East Indies, to describe the whole 
of the southeast part of Asia, to the east, south, 
and southeast of the great ranges of mountains 
now called the Soliman and Himalaya Mount- 
ains, including the two peninsulas of Hindus- 
tan, and of Burmah, Cochin-China, Siam, and 
Malacca, and also the islands of the Indian Ar- 
chipelago. There is ample evidence that com- 
mercial intercourse was carried on, from a very 
early time, between the western coast of Hindus- 
tan and the western parts of Asia, by the way of 
the Persian Gulf, the Euphrates, and across the 
393 



INDIBILIS. 



INDUS. 



Syrian Desert to Phoenicia, and also by way 
of the Red Sea and Idumasa, both to Egypt and 
to Phoenicia ; and so on from Phoenicia to Asia 
Minor and Europe. The direct acquaintance 
of the western nations with India dates from 
the reign of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who 
added to the Persian empire a part of its north- 
west regions, perhaps only as far as the Indus, 
certainly not beyond the limits of the Punjab ; 
and the slight knowledge of the country thus 
obtained by the Persians was conveyed to the 
Greeks through the inquiries of travellers, es- 
pecially Herodotus, and afterward by those 
Greeks who resided for some time in the Per- 
sian empire, such as Ctesias, who wrote a spe- 
cial work on India ('IvSiku). The expedition of 
Alexander into India first brought the Greeks 
into actual contact with the country ; but the 
conquests of Alexander only extended within 
Scinde and the Punjab, as far as the River Hy- 
phasis, down which he sailed into the Indus, 
and down the Indus to the sea. The Greek 
king of Syria, Seleucus Nicator, crossed the 
Hyphasis, and made war with the Prasii, a peo- 
ple dwelling on the banks of the upper Ganges, 
to whom he afterward sent ambassadors, na- 
med Megasthenes and Daimachus, who lived 
for several years at Palibothra, the capital of 
the Prasii, and had thus the opportunity of ob- 
taining much information respecting the parts 
of India about the Ganges. Megasthenes com- 
posed a work on India, which appears to have 
been the chief source of all the accurate in- 
formation contained in the works of later writ- 
ers. After the death of Seleucus Nicator, B.C. 
281, the direct intercourse of the Western na- 
tions with India, except in the way of com- 
merce, ceased almost entirely ; and whatever 
new information the later writers obtained was 
often very erroneous. Meanwhile, the founda- 
tion of Alexandrea had created an extensive 
commerce between India and the West, by way 
of the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and Egypt, 
which made the Greeks better acquainted with 
the western coast of the peuinsula, and extended 
their knowledge further into the Eastern seas ; 
but the information they thus obtained of the 
countries beyond Gape Comorin was extremely 
vague and scanty. Another channel of inform- 
ation, however, was opened, during this period, 
by the establishment of the Greek kingdom of 
Bactria, to which a considerable part of North- 
ern India appears to have been subject. The 
later geographers made two great divisions of 
India, which are separated by the Ganges, and 
are called India intra Gangem and India extra 
Gangem, the former including the peninsula of 
Hindustan, the latter the Burmese peninsula. 
They were acquainted with the division of the 
people of Hindustan into castes, of which they 
enumerate seven. . It is not necessary, for our 
object, to mention the other particulars which 
they relate concerning India and its people. 

Indibilis and Mandonius, two brothers, and 
chiefs of the Spanish tribe of the Ilergetes, who 
played an important part in the war between 
the Romans and Carthaginians in Spain during 
the second Punic war. For some years they 
were faithful allies of the Carthaginians; but 
in consequence of the generous treatment 
which the wife of Mandonius and the daughters 
394 



01 Indibilis received from P. Scipio when they 
fell into his hands, the two brothers deserted 
the Carthaginian cause, and joined Scipio in 
209 with all the forces of their nation. But in 
206, the illness and reported death of Scipio 
gave them hopes of shaking off the yoke of 
Rome, and they excited a general revolt not 
only among their own subjects, but the neigh- 
boring Celtiberian tribes also. They were de- 
feated by Scipio, and upon sueing for forgiveness 
were pardoned. But when Scipio left Spain in 
the next year (205), they again revolted. The 
Roman generals whom Scipio had left in Spain 
forthwith marched against them ; Indibilis was 
slain in battle, and Mandonius was taken soon 
afterward and put to death. 

Indicetae or Indigetes, a people in the north- 
east corner of Hispania Tarraconensis, close 
upon the Pyrenees. Their chief town was Em- 
porium. 

IndIcus Oceanus. Vid. Erythr^eum Mare. 

Indigetes, the name of those indigenous 
gods and heroes at Rome, who once lived on 
earth as mortals, and were worshipped after 
their death as gods, such as Janus, Picus, 
Faunus, iEneas, Evander, Hercules, Latinus, 
Romulus, and others. Thus iEneas, after his 
disappearance on the banks of the Numicus 
became a deus Indiges, pater Indiges, or Jupiter 
Indiges; and in like manner, Romulus became 
Quirinus, and Latinus Jupiter Zatiaris. The 
Indigetes are frequently mentioned together 
with the Lares and Penates ; and many writers 
connect the Indigetes with those divinities to 
whom a share in the foundation of the Latin 
and Roman state is ascribed, such as Mars, 
Venus, Vesta, &c. 

Indus or Sindus (Tvdoc : now Indus, Bind), a 
great river of India, rises in the table-land of 
Thibet, north of the Himalaya Mountains, flows 
nearly parallel to the great bend of that chain 
on its northern side, till it breaks through the 
chain a little east of AttocJc, in the northwest 
corner of the Punjab, and then flows southwest 
through the great plain of the Punjab into the 
Erythrseum Mare (now Indian Ocean), which 
it enters by several mouths, two according to 
the earlier Greek writers, six according to the 
later. Its chief tributaries are the Cophen (now 
Cabxd), which enters it from the northwest at 
Attack, and the Acesines on the east side. Vid. 
Hyphasis. Like the Nile, the Indus overflows 
its banks, but with a much less fertilizing re- 
sult, as the country about its lower course is 
for the most part a sandy desert, and the de- 
posit it brings down is much less rich than that 
of the Nile. The erroneous notions of the early 
Greeks respecting the connection between the 
southeastern parts of the continents of Africa 
and Asia, led to a confusion between the Indus 
and the Nile ; but this and other mistakes were 
corrected by the voyage of Alexander's fleet 
down the Hyphasis and the Indus. The an 
cient name of India was derived from the na- 
tive name of the Indus (now Sind). 

Indus ('lvdoc: now Hollomon-Chai), a con- 
siderable river of Asia Minor, rising in the 
southwest of Phrygia, and flowing through the 
district of Cibyratis and the southeastern corner 
of Caria into the Mediterranean, opposite to 
Rhodes. 



INDUTIOMARUS. 



10. 



Indutiomarus or Induciomarus, one of the 
leading chiefs of the Treviri in Gaul. As he 
was opposed to the Romans, Caesar induced 
the leading men of the nation to side with Cin- 
getorix, the son-in-law but rival of Indutiomarus, 
B.C. 54. Indutiomarus, in consequence, took up 
amis against the Romans, but was defeated and 
slain oy Labfenus. 

Inessa. Vid, .Etna, No. 2. 

Inferi, the gods of the Nether World, in 
contradistinction from the Superi, or the gods 
of heaven. In Greek the Inferi are called ol 
Kara, ol %d6vioi, ol vnb yalav, ol Hvepde, or .ol 
vnkvepde #eo£ ; and the Superi, ol dva, vnaroi 
and ovpdviot. But the word Inferi is also fre- 
quently used to designate the dead, in contra- 
distinction from those living upon the earth ; so 
that apud inferos is equivalent to " in Hades," 
or " in the lower world." The Inferi therefore 
comprise all the inhabitants of the lower world, 
the gods, viz., Hades or Pluto, his wife Perse- 
phone (Proserpina), the Erinnyes or Furies, and 
others, as well as the souls of departed men. The 
gods of the lower world are treated of in separate 
articles. 

Inferum Mare. Vid. Tyrrhenum Mare. 

Ing^evones. Vid. Germania, p. 327, a. 

Ingauni, a people in Liguria, on the coast, 
whose chief town was Albium Ingaunum. 

[Ingena (now Avranches), a town of the Ab- 
rineatui in Gallia Lugdunensis.] 

Ingenuus, one of the Thirty Tyrants, was gov- 
ernor of Pannonia when Valerian set out upon 
his campaign against the Persians, A.D. 258. He 
assumed the purple in his province, but was de- 
feated and slain by Gallienus. 

[Inguiomercs, brother of Sigimer and of Ar- 
miuius : he had been the adherent of Rome, 
but. afterward joined the party of Arminius. 
After having served for some time with them, 
envy of the fame or power of Arminius led him 
to abandon the cause of the Cheruseans : at the 
head of his clients he deserted to the Suevians, 
with whom he was defeated by Arminius.] 

Ino {'Ivu), daughter of Cadmus and Harmo- 
nia, and wife of Athamas. For details, vid. 
Athamas. 

Inous, a name both of Melicertes and of Pake- 
mon, because they were the sons of Ino. 

Insdbres, a Gallic people, who crossed the 
Alps, and settled in Gallia Transpadana, in the 
north of Italy. Their chief town was Medio- 
lanum. Next to the Boii, they were the most 
powerful and warlike of the Gallic tribes in Cisal- 
pine Gaul. They were conquered by the Romans 
shortly before the commencement of the second 
Punic war. 

Intaphernes ('IvratpepvTjc), one of the seven 
conspirators against the two Magi in Persia, 
B.C. 522. He was afterward put to death by 
Darius. ■ 

Intemelii, a people in Liguria, on the coast, 
whose chief town was Albium Intemelium. 

Interamna (Interamnas), the name of sev- 
eral towns in Italy, so called from their lying 
between two streams. 1. (Now Terni), an an- 
cient municipium in ITmbria, situated on the 
Nar, and surrounded by a canal flowing into 
this river, whence its inhabitants were called 
Interamnates Nartes. It was the birth-place of 
the historian Tacitus, as well as of the emperor 



of the same name. — 2. A town in Latium, on 
the Via Latina, and at the junction of the Ca- 
sinus with the Liris, whence its inhabitants are 
called Interamnates Urinates. It was made a 
Roman colony B.C. 312, but subsequently sunk 
into insignificence. 

Intercatia an important town of the Vaeceei 
m Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from As 
turica to Csesaraugusta. 

Intercisa or Petra Pertusa, a town in Um 
bria, so called because a road was here cut 
through the rocks by order of Vespasian. An 
ancient inscription on the spot still commem- 
orates this work. 

Internum Mare, the Mediterranean Sea, ex- 
tended on the west from the Straits of Hercu- 
les, which separated it from the Atlantic, to 
the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor on the east. 
In the northeast it was usually supposed to 
terminate at the Hellespont. From the Straits 
of Hercules to the furthest shores of Syria it is 
two thousand miles in length ; and, including 
the islands, it occupies an area of seven hun- 
dred and thirty-four thousand square miles. It 
was called by the Romans Mare Internum or 
Intestinum ; by the Greeks, ?/ eau ^dXarra or ij 
evrog ddTiarra, or more fully, rj kvrbc 'HpatcXet- 
(jv arnXdv ■&dlarra, and by Herodotus ?)<?£ ri 
■&d\arra ; and from its washing the coasts both 
of Greece and Italy, it was also called both by 
Greeks and Romans Our Sea (f) yuerepa d-dXar 
ra, 7j Kad' quag ■S-dXarra, Mare Nostrum). The 
term Mare Mediterraneum is not used by the 
best classical writers, and occurs first in Soli- 
nus. Most of the ancients believed that the 
Mediterranean received its waters from the At 
lantic, and poured them through the Hellespont 
and the Propontis into the Euxine ; but others, 
on the contrary, maintained that the waters 
came from the Euxine into the Mediterranean. 
The ebb and flow of the tide are perceptible in 
only a few parts of the Mediterranean, such as in 
the Syrtes on the coast of Africa, in the Adriatic, 
<fec. The different parts of the Mediterranean are 
called by different names, which are spoken of in 
separate articles. Vid. Mare Tyrrhenum or In- 
ferum, Adria or M Adriaticum or M. Superu^ 
M. Siculum, M. jEg^eum, &c. 

[Interocrea (now Introdoco), a town of the 
SaHnes in the interior of Samnium.] 

Intonsus, the Unshorn, a surname of Apolla 
and Bacchus, in allusion to the eternal youth of 
these gods, since the Greek youths allowed theii 
hair to grow until they attained manhood. 

Inui Castrum. Vid. Castrum, No. 1. 

Inycum ("ivvKov or -oc : 'Ivvkivoc : now Calda 
Bellota ?), a small town in the south of Sicily, noi 
far from Selinus, on the River Hypsas. 

Io ("I"), daughter of Inachus, the first king 
of Argos, or, according to others, of Iasus or 
Piren. Jupiter (Zeus) loved Io, but, on account 
of Juno's (Hera) jealousy, he metamorphosed 
her into a white heifer. The goddess, whe 
was aware of the change, obtained the heifer 
from Jupiter (Zeus), and placed her under the 
care of Argus Panoptes ; but Jupiter (Zeus) 
sent Mercury (Hermes) to slay Argus and de- 
liver Io. Vid. Argus. Juno (Hera) then tor- 
mented Io with a gad-fly, and drove her in a 
state of phrensy from land to land over the 
whole earth, until at length she found rest on 
395 



IOBATES. 



IONIA. 



the banks of the Kile. Here she recovered her 
original form, and bore a son to Jupiter (Zeus) 
called Epapbus. Vid. Epaphus. This is the 
common story, ^hich' appears to be very an- 
cient, since Homer constantly gives the epithet 
of Argiphontes (the slayer of Argus) to Mercury 
(Hermes). The wanderings of Io were very 
celebrated in antiquity, and were extended and 
embellished with the increase of geographical 
knowledge. Of these there is a full account in 
the Prometheus of iEschylus. The Bosporus 
is said to have derived its name from her swim- 
ming across it. According to some traditions 
Io married Telegonus, king of Egypt, and was 
afterward identified with Isis. The legend of 
Io is difficult to explain. It appears that Io 
was identical with the moon, which is prob- 
ably signified by her being represented as a wo- 
man, with the horns of a heifer. Her connection 
with Egypt seems to be an invention of later 
times, and was probably suggested by the resem- 
blance which was found to exist between the Ar- 
give Io and the Egyptian Isis. 

Iobates, king of Lycia. Vid. Bellerophon. 

Iol. Vid. (Lesarea, No. 4. 

IoLAENSES. Vid. lOLAUS. 

Iolaus ('16/laof) son of Iphicles and Autome- 
"usa. Iphicles was the half-brother of Hercu- 
ies, and Iolaus was the faithful companion and 
charioteer of the hero. Vid. Hercules. He 
assisted Hercules in slaying the Lernasan Hy- 
dra. After Hercules had instituted the Olym- 
pic games, Iolaus won the victory with the 
horses of his master. , Hercules sent him to 
Sardinia at the head of his sons whom he had 
by the daughters of Thespius. He introduced 
civilization among the inhabitants of that island, 
and was worshipped by them. Erom Sardinia 
he went to Sicily, and then returned to Hercu- 
les shortly before the death of the latter. After 
the death of the hero, Iolaus was the first who 
offered sacrifices to him as a demigod. Ac- 
cording to Pausanias, Iolaus died in Sardinia, 
whereas, according to others, he was buried 
in the tomb of his grandfather, Amphitryon. 
His descendants in Sardinia were called 'Io^a- 
elc and lolaensis. Vid. Sardinia. Iolaus, after 
his death, obtained permission from the gods 
of the nether world to come to the assistance of 
the children of Hercules. He slew Eurystheus, 
and then returned to the shades. 

Iolcus ('Iu/l/£6f, Ep. 'Iao/U6?, Dor. 'Ia/Uof : 
'IuA/aof), an ancient town in Magnesia in Thes- 
saly, at the top of the Pegasaean Gulf, seven 
stadia from the sea. It is said to have been 
founded by the mythical Cretheus, and to have 
been colonized by Minyans from Orchomenus. 
It was celebrated in mythology as the residence 
of Pelias and Jason, and as the place from which 
the Argonauts sailed in quest of the golden 
fleece. At a later time it fell into decay, and its 
inhabitants were removed to the neighboring 
town of Demetrias, which was founded by Deni- 
i etrius Poliorcetes. 

Iole ('I6A77), daughter of Eurytus of (Echalia, 
was beloved by Hercules. For details, vid. p. 
359, a. After the death of Hercules, she married 
his son Hyllus. 

Iollas or Iolaus ('IoAActf or '16/laoc). 1. Son 
of Antipater, and brother of Cassander, king 01 
Macedonia. He was cup-bearer to Alexander 
396 



at the period of his last illness. Those writers 
who adopt the idea of the king having been 
poisoned, represent Iollas as the person who ac- 
tually administered the fatal draught. — 2. Of Bi- 
thynia, a writer on materia medica, flourished in 
the third century B.C. 

Ion ("Iuv). 1. The fabulous ancestor of the 
Ionians, is described as the son of Apollo by 
Creusa, the daughter of Ereehtheus and wife 
of Xuthus. The most celebrated story about 
Ion is the one which forms the subject of the 
Ion of Euripides. Apollo had visited Creusa in 
a cave below the Propykea, at Athens ; and 
when she gave birth to a son, she exposed him 
in the same cave. The god, however, had the 
child conveyed to Delphi, where he was edu- 
cated by a priestess. Some time afterward 
Xuthus and Creusa came to consult the oracle 
about the means of obtaining an heir. They 
received for answer that the first human being 
which Xuthus met on leaving the temple should 
be his son. Xuthus met Ion, and acknowledged 
him as his son ; but Creusa, imagining him to 
be a son of her husband by a former mistress, 
caused a cup to be presented to the youth, 
which was filled with the poisonous blood of a 
dragon. However, her object was discovered 
for as Ion, before drinking, poured out a liba- 
tion to the gods, a pigeon which drank of it 
died on the spot. Creusa thereupon fled to the 
altar of the god. Ion dragged her away, and 
was on the point of killing her, wheu a priestess 
interfered, explained the mystery, and showed 
that Ion was the son of Creusa. Mother and 
son thus became reconciled, but Xuthus was 
not let into the secret. Among the inhabitants 
of the iEgialus, i. e., the northern coast of Pel- 
oponnesus, who were Ionians, there was an- 
other tradition current. Xuthus, when expelled 
from Thessaly, came to the iEgialus. After 
his death Ion was on the point of marching 
against the ^Egialeaus, when their king Seli- 
nus gave him his daughter Helice in marriage. 
On the death of Selinus, Ion succeeded to the 
throne, and thus the .(Egialeans received the 
name of Ionians, and the town of Helice was 
built in honor of Ion's wife. Other traditions 
represent Ion [as king of Athens between the 
reigns of Ereehtheus and Cecrops ; for it is 
said that his assistance was called in by the 
Athenians in their war with the Eleusiniaus, 
that he conquered Eumolpus, and then became 
king of Athens. He there became the father 
of four sons, Geleon, ^Egicores, Argades, and 
Hoples, whose names were given to the four 
Athenian classes. After his death he was buri- 
ed at Potamus. — 2. Of Chios, son of Orthomenes, 
was a celebrated tragic poet. He went to 
Athens when young, and there enjoyed the society 
of iEschylus and Cimon. The number of his 
tragedies is variously stated at twelve, thirty, 
and forty. We have the titles and a few frag- 
ments of eleven. Ion also wrote other kinds of 
poetry, and prose works both in history and phi- 
losophy. [The fragments of his tragedies are 
contained in Wagner's Fragm. Trag. Grcsc, p. 21 
-36.] — 3. Of Ephesus, a rhapsodist in the time 
of Socrates, from whom one of Plato's dialogues 
is named. 

Ionia ('lovta : loveg) and Ionis (Rom. poet.) 
a district on the western coast of Asia Minor 



* 



IONIA. 

bo called from the Ionian Greeks who colonized 
it at a time earlier than any distinct historical 
records. The mythical account of " the great 
Ionic migration" relates that in consequence 
of the disputes between the sons of Codrus, 
king of Athens, about the succession to his gov- 
ernment, his younger sons, Neleus and Andro- 
clus, resolved to seek a new home beyond the 
iEgean Sea. Attica was at the time overpeo- 
pled by numerous exiles, whom the great rev- 
olution, known as " the return of the Heraeli- 
das," had driven out of their own states, the 
chief of whom were the Ionians who had been 
expelled from Peloponnesus by the Dorian in- 
vaders. A large portion of this superfluous 
population went forth as Athenian colonists, 
under the leadership of Androclus and Neleus, 
and of other chieftains of other races, and set- 
tled on that part of the western shores of Asia 
Minor, which formed the coast of Lydia and 
part of Caria, and also in the adjacent islands 
of Chios and Samos, and in the Cyclades. The 
mythical chronology places this great move- 
ment one hundred and forty years after the 
Trojan war, or sixty years after the return of 
the Heraclidae, that is, in B.C. 1060, or 1044, 
according to the two chief dates imagined for 
the Trojan war. Passing from mythology to 
history, the earliest authentic records show us 
the existence of twelve great cities on the above- 
named coast, claiming to be (though some of 
them only partially) of Ionic origin, and all 
united into one confederacy, similar to that of 
the twelve ancient Ionian cities on the northern 
coast of the Peloponnesus. The district they 
possessed formed a narrow strip of coast, ex- 
tending between, and somewhat beyond, the 
mouths of the rivers Mseander on the south, 
and Hermus on the north. The names of the 
twelve cities going from south to north, were 
Miletus, Myus, Priene, Samos (city and island), 
Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos, Erythrye, 
Chios (city and island), Clazomen/e, and Pho- 
Cyea ; the first three on the coast of Caria, 
the rest on that of Lydia: the city of Smyrna, 
which lay within this district, but was of ^Eolic 
origiu, was afterward (about B.C. 700) added 
to the Ionian confederacy. The common sanc- 
tuary of the league was the Panionium (xaviu- 
vlov), a sanctuary of Neptune (Poseidon) Heli- 
conius, on the northern side of the promontory 
of Mycale, opposite to Samos ; and here was 
held the great national assembly (Travjjyvpit;) 
of the confederacy, called Panionia (-iravcuvta : 
vid. Diet, of Antiq., s. v.). It is very import- 
ant to observe that the inhabitants of these 
cities were very far from being exclusively 
and purely of Ionian descent. The traditions 
of the original colonization and the accounts 
of the historians agree in representing them 
as peopled by a great mixture, not only of 
Hellenic races, but also of these with the earlier 
inhabitants, such as Carians, Leleges, Lydians, 
Cretans, and Pelasgians ; their dialects, Herodo- 
tus expressly tells us, were very different, and 
nearly all of them were founded on the sites 
of pre existing native settlements. The reli- 
gious rites, also, which the Greeks of Ionia ob- 
served, in addition to their national worship of 
Neptune ' (Poseidon), were borrowed in part 
from the native communities; such were the 



IONIA. 

worship of Apollo Didymaeus at Branchidse, 
near Miletus, of Diana (Artemis) at Ephesus, 
and of Apollo Clarius at Colophon. All these 
facts point to the conclusion that the Greek 
colonization of this coast was effected, not by 
one, but by successive emigrations from different 
states, but chiefly of the Ionic race. The cen- 
tral position of this district, its excellent har- 
bors, and the fertility of its plains, watered by 
the Mseander, the Cayster, and the Hermus, 
combined with the energetic character of the 
Ionian race to confer a high degree of prosper- 
ity upon these cities ; and it was not long before 
they began to send forth colonies to many 
places on the shores of the Mediterranean and 
the Euxine, and even to Greece itself. During the 
rise of the Lydian empire, the cities of Ionia 
preserved their independence until the reign of 
Croesus, who subdued those on the main land, 
but relinquished his design of attacking the 
islands. When Cyrus had overthrown Croesus, 
he sent his general Harpagus to complete the 
conquest of the Ionic Greeks, B.C. 557. Under 
the Persian rule they retained their political 
organization, subject to the government of the 
Persian satraps, and of tyrants who were set up 
in single cities, but they were required to render 
tribute and military service to the king. In 
B.C. 500 they revolted from Darius Hystaspis, 
under the leadership of Histiyeus. the former 
tyrant of Miletus, and his brother-in-law Aris- 
tagoras, and supported by aid from the Athe- 
nians. The Ionian army advanced as far as 
Sardis, which they took and burned, but they 
were driven back to the coast, and defeated 
near Ephesus, B.C. 499. The re-conquest of 
Ionia by the Persians was completed by the 
taking of Miletus in 496, and the Ionians were 
compelled to furnish ships, and to serve as sol- 
diers in the two expeditions against Greece. 
After the defeat of Xerxes, the Greeks carried 
the war to the coasts of Asia, and effected the 
liberation of Ionia by the victories of Mycale 
(479) and of the Eurymedon (469). In 387 the 
peace of Antalcidas restored Ionia to Persia ; 
and after the Macedonian conquest, it formed 
part, successively, of the kingdom of Pergamus, 
and of the Roman province of Asia. For the 
history of the several cities, see the respective 
articles. In no country inhabited by the Hel- 
lenic race, except at Athens, were the refine- 
ments of civilization, the arts, and literature, 
more highly cultivated than in Ionia. The rest- 
less energy and free spirit of the Ionic race, 
the riches gained by commerce, and the neigh- 
borhood of the great seats of Asiatic civilization, 
combined to advance with rapidity the intel- 
lectual progress and the social development of 
its people ; but these same influences, unchecked 
by the rigid discipline of the Doric race, or the 
simple earnestness of the ./Eolic, imbued their 
social life with luxury and licence, and invested 
their works of genius with the hues of enchant- 
ing beauty at the expense of severe good 
taste and earnest purpose. Out of the long 
list of the authors and artists of Ionia, we may 
mention Mimnermus of Colophon, the first poet 
of the amatory elegy ; Anacreon of Teos, who 
sang of love aud wine to the music of the lyre , 
Thales of Miletus, Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, 
and several other early philosophers ; the early 
397 



f 



IONIUM MARE. 

a.ai&iitrfe, Cadmus, Dionysius, and Heeataeus, 
all of Mifetus ; and, hi the fine arts, besides 
being the home of that exquisitely beautiful 
order of architecture, the Ionio, and possess- 
ing many of the most magnificent temples in 
the 'world, Tonia was the native country of 
that refined school of painting, ^yhieb. boasted 
the names of Zeuxis, Apelles, and Parrha- 
sius. The most flourishing period in the his- 
tory of Ionia is that during which it was subject 
to Persia ; but its prosperity lasted till the 
decline of the Roman empire, under which its 
cities were among the chief resorts of the cel- 
ebrated teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. 
The important place which some of the chief 
cities of Ionia occupy in the early history of 
Christianity is attested by the Acts of the Apos- 
tles, and the Epistles of St. Paul to the Ephe- 
sians, and of St. John to the seven churches of 
Asia. 

Ionium Mare ('lovioc novroc, 'loviov Tzekayoe, 
'loviri ftdTiaTTa, 'lovioc Tzopoc), a part of the 
Mediterranean Sea between Italy and Greece, 
was south of the Adriatic, and began on the 
west at Hydruntum in Calabria, and on the east 
at Oricus in Epirus, or at the Ceraunian Mount- 
ains. In more ancient times the Adriatic was 
called 'lovioc jwxoc or 'lovioc koX-xoc ; while at a 
later time the Ionium Mare itself was included 
in the Adriatic. In its widest signification, the 
Ionium Mare included the Mare Siculum, Creti- 
eum, and Icarium. Its name was usually de- 
rived by the ancients from the wanderings of 
Io, but it was more probably so called from the 
Ionian colonies, which settled in Cephallenia 
and the other islands off the western coasts of 
Greece. 

[Iopas, a bard at the court of Queen Dido, 
who is represented by Virgil as singing at the 
entertainment given by the queen to ^Eneas.] 

Iophon ('lofuv), son of Sophocles by Nieos- 
trate, was a distinguished tragic poet. He 
brought out tragedies during the life of his 
father, and was still flourishing B.C. 405, the 
y«ar in which Aristophanes brought out the 
Frogs. For the celebrated story of his undutiful 
charge against his father, vid. Sophocles. 

[Ios ('loc, now Nio), a small island in the clus- 
ter of the Sporades, south of Naxos, said to have 
«ontained the tomb of Homer.] 

[foxus ("Iofoc), son of Melanippus, grandson 
of Theseus, leader of a colony to Caria.] 

[Ipheus ('l<pevc), a Lycian warrior, slain by 
Patroclus.] 

[Iphianassa ('IQiuvaoo-a). 1. Daughter of Prce- 
tus. Vid. Proztus. — 2. Daughter of Agamem- 
non and Clytaemuestra, same as Iphigenia.] 

Iphias ('l(j>idc), i. e., Evadne, a daughter of 
Iphis, and wife of Capaneus. 

Iphioles, or Iphiclus ('Iijk/c/UJc, "\<j>iKkoc, or 
'lij>iKAevc). 1. Son of Amphitryon and Alcmene 
of Thebes, was one night younger than his 
half-brother Hercules. He was first married 
to Automedusa, the daughter of Alcathous, by 
whom he became the father of Iolaus, and after- 
ward to the youngest daughter of Creon. He 
accompanied Hercules on several of his expedi- 
tions, and also took part in the Calydonian hunt. 
He fell iu battle against the sons of Hippocoon, 
or, according to another account, was wounded 
iu the battle against the Molionidse, and was car- 
398 



IPHICRATES. 

ried to Pheaeus, where he died. — 2. Son of The* 
tius by Laophonte, or De'idamia, or Eurythemis, 
or Leucippe. He took part in the Calydonian 
hunt and the expedition of the Argonauts. — 3. 
Son of Phylacus, and grandson of Deion and 
Clymene, or son of Cephalus and Clymene, the 
daughter of Minyas. He was married to Dio- 
media or Astyoche, and was the father of Po- 
darces and Protesilaus. He was also one of 
the Argonauts ; and he possessed large herds 
of oxen, which he gave to the seer Melampus. 
He was also celebrated for his swiftness ia run- 
ning. 

Iphicrates ('l<jiiKpilT7ic), the famous Athenian 
general, was the son of a shoemaker. He dis- 
tinguished himself at an early age by his gal- 
lantry in battle ; and in B.C.' 394, when he w^s 
only twenty-five years of age, he was appointed 
by the Athenians to the command of the forces 
which they sent to the aid of the Boeotians 
after the battle of Coronea. In 393 he com- 
manded the Athenian forces at Corinth, and at 
the same time introduced an important im- 
provement in military tactics, the formation of 
a body of targeteers (ireXTaarai), possessing, to 
a certain extent, the advantages of heavy and 
light-armed forces. This he effected by sub- 
stituting a small target for the heavy shield, 
adopting a longer sword and spear, and repla- 
cing the old coat of mail by a linen corslet. A4 
the head of his targeteers he defeated and 
nearly destroyed a Spartan Mora in the follow- 
ing year (392), an exploit which became very 
celebrated throughout Greece. In the same 
year he was succeeded in the command at 
Corinth by Chabrias. In 389 he was sent to 
the Hellespont to oppose Anaxibius, who was 
defeated by him and slain in the following 
year. On the peace of Antalcidas in 38*7, 
Iphicrates went to Thrace to assist Seutb.es 
king of the Odrysre, but he soon afterward 
formed an alliance with Cotys, who gave him 
his daughter in marriage. In 377 Iphicrates 
was sent by the Athenians, with the command 
of a mercenary force, to assist Pharnabazus 
in reducing Egypt to subjection ; but the ex- 
pedition failed through a misunderstanding be- 
tween Iphicrates and Pharnabazus. In 373 
Iphicrates was sent to Corcyra, in conjunction 
with Callistratus and Chabrias, in the com- 
mand of an Athenian force, and he remained 
in the Ionian Sea till the peace of 371 put au 
end to hostilities. About 367 he was sent 
against Amphipolis, and after carrying on the 
war against this place for three years, was 
superseded by Timotheus. Shortly afterward, 
he assisted his father-in-law Cotys in his war 
against Athens for the possession of the Thra- 
cian Chersonesus. But his conduct in this 
matter was passed over by the Athenians. 
After the death of Chabrias (375), Iphierates, 
Timotheus, and Menestheus were joined with 
Chares as commanders in the Social war, and 
were prosecuted by their unscrupulous col- 
league, because they had refused to risk au en- 
gagement in a storm. Iphicrates was acquit- 
ted. From the period of his trial he seems to 
have lived quietly at Athens. He died before 
348. Iphicrates has been commended for his 
combined prudence and etergy as a general. 
The worst words, he said, that a commander 



IPHIDAMAS. 



IRA. 



eould utter were, " I should not have expected 
it" His services were highly valued by the 
Athenians, and were rewarded by them with 
almost unprecedented honors. 

[Iphidamas ('IQidafiac), son of Antenor and 
Theauo, brother of Coon, came with twelve ships 
from Thrace to the assistance of the Trojans ; 
wss slain, together with his brother, by Aga 
memnon.] 

Iphigenia ('IQiyeveia), according to the most 
eommon tradition, a daughter of Agamemnon 
and Clytaemnestra, but according to others, a 
daughter of Theseus and Helena, and brought 
up by Clytaemnestra as a foster-child. Aga- 
memnon had once killed a stag in the grove of 
Diana (Artemis) ; or he had boasted that the 
goddess herself could not hit better ; or he had 
vowed in the year in which Iphigenia was born 
to sacrifice the most beautiful production of 
that year, but had afterward neglected to ful- 
fill his vow. One of these circumstances is 
said to have been the cause of the calm which 
detained the Greek fleet in Aulis when the 
Greeks wanted to sail against Troy. The seer 
Calchas declared that the sacrifice of Iphigenia 
was the only means of propitiating Diana (Ar- 
temis). Agamemnon was obliged to yield, and 
Iphigenia was brought to Chalcis under the 
pretext of being married to Achilles. When 
Iphigenia was on the point of being sacrificed, 
Diana (Artemis) carried her in a cloud to 
Tauris, where she became the priestess of the 
goddess, and a stag was substituted for her by 
Diana (Artemis). While Iphigenia was serv- 
ing Diana (Artemis) as priestess in Tauris, her 
brother Orestes and his friend Pylades came to 
Tauris to carry off the image of the goddess at 
this place, which was believed to have fallen 
from heaven. As strangers, they were to be 
sacrificed in the temple of Diana (Artemis) ; 
but Iphigenia recognized her brother, and fled 
with him and the statue of the goddess. In the 
mean time, Electra, another sister of Orestes, 
had heard that he had been sacrificed in Tauris 
by the priestess of Diana (Artemis). At Delphi 
she met Iphigenia, who, she supposed, had mur- 
dered Orestes. She therefore resolved to de- 
prive Iphigenia of her sight, but was prevented 
by the interference of Orestes ; and a scene 
of recognition took place. All now returned 
to Mycenae ; but Iphigenia carried the statue 
of Diana (Artemis) to the Attic town of Brau- 
ron, near Marathon. She there died as priestess 
of the goddess. As a daughter of Theseus, 
Iphigenia was connected with the heroic fami- 
lies of Attica, and after her death the veils 
and most costly garments which had been worn 
by women who had died in childbirth were 
dedicated to her. According to some tradi- 
tions, Iphigenia never died, but was changed 
by Diana (Artemis) into Hecate, or was en- 
dowed by the goddess with immortality and 
eternal youth, and under the name of Orilochia 
became the wife of Achilles in the island of 
Leuce. The Lacedaemonians maintained that 
the image of Diana (Artemis), which Iphigenia 
and Orestes had carried away from Tauris, was 
preserved in Sparta and not in Attica, and was 
worshipped in the former place under the name 
of Diana (Artemis) Orthia. Both in Attica and 
in Sparta human sacrifices were offered to Iphi- 



genia in early times. In place of these human 
sacrifices the Spartan youths were afterward 
scourged at the festival of Diana (Artemis) Or- 
thia. It appears probable that Iphigenia was 
originally the same as Diana (Artemis) her- 
self. 

IphijiedJa or Iphimede ('I^i/nideta, 'l<pLuiSrj), 
daughter of Triops, and wife of Aloeus. Being 
in love with Neptune (Poseidon), she often 
walked on the sea-shore, and collected its wa- 
ters in her lap, whence she became, by Neptune 
(Poseidon), the mother of the Aloidaa, Otus and 
Ephialtes. While Iphimedia and her daughter 
Pancratis were celebrating the orgies of Bac- 
chus (Dionysus) on Mount Drius, they were 
carried off by Thraeian Pirates to Naxos or 
Strongyle ; but they were delivered by the Al 
oidas. 

[Iphimedon ('Itpifieduv), a son of Eurystheus. 
slain in battle in the attempt to repel the inva 
sion of Peloponnesus by the Heraclidas.] 

[Iphinous ('iQtvoog), son of Dexius, a Greek 
slain by the Lycian Glaucus before Troy.] 

Iphis ( 7 l<j>tg). 1. Son of Alector, and father 
of Eteoclus and Evadne, the wife of Capaneus 
was king of Argus. He advised Polynices tc 
give the celebrated uecklace of Harmonia tc 
Eriphyle, that she might persuade her husband 
Amphiaraus to take part in the expedition against 
Thebes. He lost his two children, and therefore 
left his kingdom to Sthenelus, son of Capaneus. 
— 2. Son of Sthenelus, and brother of Eurys- 
theus, was one of the Argonauts who fell in the 
battle with iEetes. — 3. A youth in love with 
Anaxarete. Vid. Anaxarete. — 4. Daughter of 
Ligdus and Telelhusa, of Phaestus in Crete. 
She was brought up as a boy, on the advice of 
Isis, because her father, previous to her birth, 
had ordered the child to be killed if it should be 
a girl. When Iphis had grown up, and was to 
be betrothed to Iauthe, she was metamorphosed 
by Isis into a youth. — [5. Daughter of Enyeus 
of Scyrus, celebrated for her beauty, presented 
by Achilles to Patroclas.] 

[Iphition Ctymuv), son of Otrynteus and a 
Naiad, came from Hyde, at the foot of Tmolus in 
Lydia, to the Trojan war ; slain by Achilles.] 

Iphitus ('lipiToc) 1. Son of Eurytus of (Echa- 
lia, one of the Argonauts, was afterward killed 
by Hercules. (For details, vid. p. 358, b, 359, a.) 
— 2. Son of Naubolus, and father of Sehedius, 
Epistrophus, and Eurynome, in Phocis, likewise 
one of the Argonauts. — 3. Son of Hasmon, or 
Praxonides, or Iphitus, king of Elis, restored the 
Olympic games, and instituted the cessation of 
all war during their celebration, B.C. 884. 

[Iphthime ('l<j)6tfi7i), daughter of Iearius, sister 
of Penelope ; under her form Minerva appeared 
to Penelope to console her when disquieted at 
the departure of Telemachus from Ithaca.] 

Ipsus ("hpaog), a small town in Great Phrygia, 
celebrated in history as the s*cene of the deci- 
sive battle which closed the great contest 'be- 
tween the generals of Alexander for the succes- 
sion to his empire, and in which Antigonus was 
defeated and slain, B.C. 301. Vid. Antigonus. 
The site is unknown, but it appears to have 
been about the centre of Phrygia, not far from 
Synnada. 

Ira (Elpa, 'Ipd), a mountain fortress in Mes- 
I senia, memorable as the place where Aristom- 
399 



IREN^EUS. 



ISAURIA. 



enes defended himself for eleven years against 
the Spartans. Its capture by the Spartans in B. 
C. 668 put an end to the second Messenian war. 
It is doubtful -whether it is the same as Ira (//., 
ix., 150), one of the seven cities which Agamem- 
non promised to Achilles. 

Irenjlus (Eiprjvalog), one of the early Christian 
fathers, was probably born at Smyrna between 
A.D, 120 and 140. In his early youth he heard 
Polyearp. He afterward went to Gaul, and in 
177 succeeded Pothiuus as bishop of Lyon. He 
made many converts from heathenism, and was 
most active in opposing the Gnostics, especially 
the Valentinians. He seems to have lived till 
about the end of the second century. The only 
work of Irenaeus now extant, Adversus Herwses, 
is intended to refute the Gnostics. The original 
Greek is lost, with the exception of a few frag- 
ments, but the work exists in a barbarous but 
ancient Latin version. Edited by Grabe, Oxon., 
1702; [and by Stieren, Leipzig, 1848, seqq., 2 
vols. 8vo.] 

Irene (EipijvTf), called Pax by the Romans, 
the goddess of peace, was, according to Hesiod, 
a daughter of Jupiter (Zeus) and Themis, and 
one of the Horse. Vid. Hor^e. After the vic- 
tory of Timotheus over the Lacedaemonians, 
altars were erected to her at Athens at the pub- 
lic expense. Her statue at Athens stood by the 
side of that of Amphiaraus, carrying in its arms 
Plutus, the god of wealth, and another stood 
near that of Hestia in the Prytaneum. At Rome, 
where peace was also worshipped as a goddess, 
she had a magnificent temple, which was built 
by the Emperor Vespasian. Pax is represented 
on coins as a youthful female, holding in her 
left arm a cornucopia, and in her right hand an 
olive-branch or the staff of Mercury. Some- 
times she appears in the act of burning a pile 
of arms, or carrying corn-ears in her hand or 
upon her head. 

Iris ('Ipif), daughter of Thaumas (whence 
Bhe is called Utaumantias) and of Electra, and 
sister of the Harpies. Ifc the Iliad she appears 
as the messenger of the gods, especially of Ju- 
piter (Zeus) and Juno (Hera). In the Odyssey, 
Mercury (Hermes) is the messenger of the gods, 
and Iris is never mentioned. Iris appears to 
have been originally the personification of the 
rainbow, for this brilliant phenomenon in the 
skies, which vanishes as quickly as it appears, 
was regarded as the swift messenger of the gods. 
Some poets describe Iris as the rainbow itself, 
but other writers represent the rainbow as only 
the road on which Iris travels, and which there- 
fore appears whenever the goddess wants it, and 
vanishes when it is no longer needed. In the 
earlier poets Iris appears as a virgin goddess, 
but in the later she is the wife of Zephyrus and 
the mother of Eros. Iris is represented in 
works of art dressed in a long and wide tunic, 
over which hangs a light upper garment, with 
wings attached to her shoulders, carrying the 
herald's staff in her left hand, and sometimes also 
holding a pitcher. 

Iris ( r Iptf : now Yeshil-Irmak), a considerable 
river of Asia Minor, rises on the northern side of 
the northernmost range of the Anti-Taurus, in 
the south of Pontus. and flows first west past 
Comana Pontica, then north to Amasia, where it 
turns to the east of Eupatoria (Megalopolis), 
400 



where it receives the Lyeus, and then flows 
north through the territory of Themiscyra into 
the Sinus Amisenus. Xenophon states its breadth 
at three plethra (three hundred feet). 

Irus ( T Ipoc). 1. Son of Actor, and father of 
Eurydamas and Eurytion. He purified Peleus, 
when the latter had murdered his brother ; but, 
during the chase of the Galydonian boar, Peleus 
unintentionally killed Eurytion, the son of Irus. 
Peleus endeavored to soothe him by offering him 
his flocks ; but Irus would not accept them, and 
at the command of an oracle Peleus allowed 
them to run wherever they pleased. A wolf 
devoured the sheep, hut was thereupon changed 
into a stone, which was shown, in later times, on 
the frontier between Loeris and Phocis. — 2. The 
well-known beggar of Ithaca. His real name 
was Arnaeus, but he was called Irus because he 
was the messenger of the suitors of Penelope. 
He was slain by Ulysses. 

Is ("If : now Hit), a city on the south of Mes- 
opotamia, eight days' journey from Babylon, on 
the western bank of the Euphrates, and upon a 
little river of the same name. In its neighbor- 
hood were the springs of asphaltus, from which 
was obtained the bitumen that was used, instead 
of mortar, in the walls of Babylon. 

Is^eus ('Icmoc). 1. One of the ten Attic ora- 
tors, was born at Chalcis, and came to Athens 
at an early age. He was instructed in oratory 
by Lysias and Isocrates. He was afterward 
engaged in writing judicial orations for others, 
and established a rhetorical school at Athens, 
in which Demosthenes is said to have been his 
pupil. It is further said that Isaeus composed 
for Demosthenes the speeches against his guard- 
ians, or at least assisted bim in the composition. 
We have no particulars of his life. He lived 
between B.C. 420 and 348. Isceus is said to 
have written sixty-four orations, but of these 
only eleven are extant. They all relate to ques- 
tions of inheritance, and afford considerable in- 
formation respecting this branch of the Attic 
law. The style of Isaeus is clear and concise, 
and, at the same time, vigorous and powerful. 
His orations are contained in the collections of 
the Greek orators. Vid. Demosthenes. There 
is a good separate edition by Schomaun, Greifs- 
wald, 1831. — 2. A sophist and rhetorician, a na- 
tive of Assyria, taught at Rome in the time of 
the younger Pliny. 

IsXgoras ('lcayopae), the leader of the oligar- 
chical party at Athens, in opposition to Clis- 
thenes, B.C. 510. He was expelled from Athens 
by the popular party, although supported by 
Cleomeues and the Spartans. 

Isander ("laavdpoc:), son of Bellerophon, killed 
by Mars (Ares) in the fight with the Solymi. 

Isara (uow here), a river in Gallia Narbonen- 
sis, descends from the Graian Alps, flows west 
with a rapid stream, and flows into the Rhone 
north of Valentia. At its junction with the 
Rhone, Fabius ^Emiliauus defeated the Allobro- 
ges and Arverni, B.C. 121. 

Isauria (?/ 'laavpia, 7/ 'laavpiKrj), a district of 
Asia Minor, on the northern side of the Taurus, 
between Pisidia and Cilicia, of which the an- 
cients knew little beyond the troublesome fact 
that its inhabitants, the Isauri ("laavpoi), were 
daring robbers, whose incursions into the sur- 
rounding districts received only a temporary 



ISCA. 



ISMENUS. 



eheck from the victory over them, which gain- 
ed for Lucius Servilius the surname of Isau- 
rieus (B.C. 75). Their chief city was called 
Isaura. 

Isca. l.^fNow Axminster, or Bridport, or Ex- 
eter), the capital of the Damnonii or Dumnonii 
in the southwest of Britain. — 2. (Now Ceer Leon, 
at the mouth of the Usk), a town of the Silures 
in Britain, and the head-quarters of the Legio 
II. There are many Roman remains at Ceer 
Leon. The word Leoh is a corruption of Legio : 
Ceer is the old Celtic name for " city." 

ISOHYS. Vid. .iEsCULAPIUS. 

Isidorus {'lmdapoc). 1. Of Mgse, a Greek 
poet of uncertain age, five of whose epigrams 
are contained in the Greek Anthology.— 2. Of 
Charax, a geographical writer, who probably 
lived under the early Roman emperors. His 
work, Iradjiol TLapdiK.ol,'vs, printed in the edition 
of the minor geographers, by Hudson, Oxon., 
1*703. — 3. Of Gaza, a Neo-Platonic philosopher, 
the friend of Proclus and Marinus, whom he 
succeeded as chief of the school. — 4. Of Pelu- 
sium, a Christian exegetical writer, a native of 
Alexandrea, who spent his life in a monastery 
near Pelusium, of which he was the abbot. He 
died about A.D. 450. As many as two thousand 
and thirteen of his letters are extant. They are 
almost all expositions of Scripture. Published 
at Paris, 1638. — 5. Bishop of Hispalis (now Se- 
ville) in Spain, from A.D. 600 to 636, one of the 
most learned men of his age, and an ardent 
cultivator of ancient literature. A great num- 
ber of his works is still extant, but by far the 
most important of them is his Originum s. Ety- 
mologiarum Libri XX. This work is an Ency- 
clopaedia of Arts and Sciences, and treats of all 
subjects in literature, science, and religion, which 
were studied at that time. It was much used in 
the Middle Ages. Published in the Corpus 
Grammaticorum Veterum, Lindemann, Lips., 
1833. A complete collection of the works of 
Isidorus was published by Arevali, Rom., 1797- 
1803, 1 vols. 4to.— 6. Of Miletus, the elder and 
younger, were eminent architects in the reign of 
Justinian. 

Isigojjos ('lo'iyovos), a Greek writer, of uncer- 
tain date, but who lived before the time of Pliny, 
wrote a work entitled "Amara, a few fragments 
of which are extant. Published in Westermann's 
Paradoxographi, Brunswick, 1839. 

Isionda {'laiovda : 'lawvdevc, Isiondensis), a 
city of Pisidia in Asia Minor, east of the district 
of Cibyra, and five Roman miles northwest of 
Termessus. Mr. Fellows lately discovered con- 
siderable ruins twelve miles from Perge, which 
he supposes to be those of Isionda. 

Isis ( r laie), one of the principal Egyptian di- 
vinities. The ideas entertained about her un- 
derwent very great changes in antiquity. She 
is described as the wife of Osiris and the mother 
of Horus. As Osiris, the god of the Nile, taught 
the people the use of the plough, so Isis invent- 
ed the cultivation of wheat and barley, which 
were carried about in the processions at her fes- 
tival She was the goddess of the earth, which 
the Egyptians called their mother : whence she 
and Osiris were the only divinities that were 
worshipped by all the Egyptians. This simple 
and primitive notion of the Egyptians was modi- 
fied at an early period through the influence of 
26 



the East, with which Egypt came into contact, 
and at a later time through the influence of the 
Greeks. Thus Osiris and Isis came gradually 
to be considered as divinities of the sun and tlie 
moon. The Egyptian priests represented that 
the principal religious institutions of Greece 
came from Egypt ; and, after the time of He- 
rodotus, this belief became established among 
the learned men in Greece. Hence Isis was 
identified with Ceres (Demeter), and Osiris with 
Bacchus (Dionysus), and the sufferings of Isis 
were accordingly modified to harmonize with 
the mythus of the unfortunate Ceres (Demeter). 
As Isis was the goddess of the moon, she waa 
also identified with lo. Vid. Io. The worship 
of Isis prevailed extensively in Greece. It was 
introduced into Rome in the time of Sulla ; and 
though the senate made many attempts to sup- 
press her worship, and ordered her temples to 
be destroyed, yet the new religious rites took 
deep root at Rome, and became very popular. 
In B.C. 43 the triumvirs courted the popular 
favor by building a new temple of Isis and Se- 
rapis. Augustus forbade any temples to be 
erected to Isis in the city ; but this command 
was afterward disregarded ; and under the early 
Roman emperors the worship of Isis and Se- 
rapis became firmly established. The most im- 
portant temples of Isis at Rome stood in the 
Campus Martius, whence she was called Isis 
Campensis. The priests and servants of the 
goddess wore linen garments, whence she her- 
self is called linigera. Those initiated in her 
mysteries wore in the public processions masks 
representing the heads of dogs. In works of 
art Isis appears in figure and countenance like 
Juno (Hera) : she wears a long tunic, and her 
upper garment is fastened on her breast by a 
knot : her head is crowned with a lotus flower, 
and her right hand holds the sistrum. Her son 
Horus is often represented with her as a fine 
naked boy, holding the fore-finger on the mouth, 
with a lotus flower on his head, and a cornuco- 
pia in his left hand. The German goddess Isis 
mentioned by Tacitus is probably the same as 
Hertha. 

[ISMARIS. Vid. ISMARUS.] 

Ismarus ("lofiapoc : 'loy.dpwe), a town in Thrace 
near Maronea, situated on a mountain of the 
same name, which produced excellent wine. It 
is mentioned in the Odyssey as a town of the Ci- 
cones. Near it was the Lake Ismaris {'lafiaplc) 
The poets frequently use the adjective Ismarius 
as equivalent to Thracian. Thus Ovid calls Te- 
reus, king of Thrace, Ismarius tyrannus {Am., ii, 
6, 1), and Polymnestor, king of Thrace, Ismarius 
rex {Met, xiii., 530). 

Ismene {'lofj.?/v7j). 1. Daughter of Asopus, 
wife of Argus, and mother of Iasus and Io. — 2. 
Daughter of Qildipus and Jocasta, and sister of 
Antigone. 

Ismenus {'Icifiijvoc), a small river in Bceotia, 
which rises in Mount Cithaeron, flows through 
Thebes, and falls into the Lake Hylice. The 
brook Dirce, so celebrated in Thebau story, flow- 
ed into the Ismenus. From this river Apollo 
was called Ismenius. His temple, the Ismenium, 
at which the festival of the Daphnephoria was 
celebrated, was situated outside the city. The 
river is said to have been originally called La- 
don, and to have derived its subsequent name 
401 



ISOCRATES. 



ISTJS. 



from Ismenus, a son of Asopus and Metope. 
According to other traditions, Ismenus was a 
sop of Amphion and Niobe, who, when struck by 
the arrow of Apollo, leaped into a river near 
Thebes, which was hence called Ismenus. 

Isocrates ('laoKpu.T7]c). 1. One of the ten Attic 
orators, was the son of Theodorus, and was 
born at Athens B.C. 436. Theodorus was a 
man of wealth, and educated his son with the 
greatest care. Among his teachers were Tisias, 
Gorgias, Prodicus, and also Socrates. Since 
Isocrittes was Daturally timid, and of a weakly 
constitution, he did not come forward as a pub- 
lic speaker himself, but devoted himself to giv- 
ing instruction in oratory, and writing orations 
for others. He first taught rhetoric in Chios, 
and afterward at Athens. At the latter place 
he met with great success, and gradually ac- 
quired a large fortune by his profession. He 
had one hundred pupils, every one of whom paid 
him one thousand drachmae. He also derived 
a large income from the orations which he wrote 
for others ; thus he received twenty talents for 
the speech which he composed for Nicocles, 
king of Cyprus. Although Isocrates took no 
part in public affairs, he was an ardent lover of 
Iris country ; and, accordingly, when the battle 
of Chasronea had destroyed the last hopes of 
freedom, he put an end to his life, B.C. 338, at 
the age of ninety-eight. The school of Isoc- 
rates exercised the greatest influence upon the 
development of public oratory at Athens. No 
other rhetorician had so many disciples of ce- 
lebrity. The language of Isocrates forms a 
great contrast with the natural simplicity of 
Lysias, as well as with the sublime power of 
Demosthenes. His style is artificial. The care- 
fully-rounded periods, and the frequeut applica- 
tion of figurative expressions, are features which 
remind us of the sophists. The immense care 
he bestowed upon the composition of his ora- 
tions may be inferred from the statement that 
he was engaged for ten, or, according to others, 
fifteen years, upon his Panegyric oration alone. 
There were in antiquity sixty orations which 
went under the name of Isocrates, but they were 
not all recognized as genuine. Only twenty- 
one have come down to us. Of these, eight 
were written for the courts ; all the others are 
political discourses, intended to be read by a 
large public. The most celebrated is his Pane- 
gyric oration, in which he shows what services 
Athens had rendered to Greece in every period 
of her history, and contends that she, and not 
Sparta, deserves the supremacy in Greece. The 
orations are printed in the collections of the 
Greek orators. The best separate edition is by 
Baiter and Sauppe, Turici, 1839. — [2. Of Apol- 
lonia, a disciple of the foregoing, enjoyed con- 
siderable reputation as an orator ; the titles of 
five of his orations are mentioned, but none 
have come down to us. Some critics have as- 
cribed to him the rix v V fiiropucrj, which was 
included among the works of Isocrates of Ath- 
ens.] 

Issa ("Icaa), daughter of Macareus of Lesbos, 
and beloved by Apollo, from whom the Lesbian 
town of Issa is said to have received its name. 

Issa (Issaeus : now Lissa), a small island in the 
Adriatic Sea, with a town of the same name off 
the coast of Dalmatia, was colonized at an early 
402 



period by Greeks. It was inhabited by a hardy 
race of sailors, whose barks (lembi Isscei) were 
much prized." The Isssei placed themselves un- 
der the protection of the Romans when they were 
attacked by the Illyrian queen Teulfc B.C. 229 : 
and their town is spoken of as a place of import- 
ance in Caesar's time. 

Issedoijes ('loc?]S6veg), a Scythian tribe, in 
Scythia extra Imaum, the easternmost people 
with whom the Greeks of the time of Herodotus 
had any intercourse. Their country was in 
Cheat Tartary, near the Massagetee, whom they 
resembled in their manners. They are repre- 
sented as extending as far as the borders of 
S erica. 

Issfcus Sinus (6 'lacsLubs koKkoq : now Gidf of 
hkenderoori), the deep gulf at the northeast 
corner of the Mediterranean, between Cilieia and 
Syria, named after the town of Issus. The 
width is about eight miles. The coast is much 
altered since ancient times. 

Issoeia ('laaapia), a surname of Diana (Arte- 
mis), derived from Mount Issorion, in Laconia, 
on which she had a sanctuary. 

Issus ('laaog, also 'laao'i, Xen. : 'laaalog), a 
city in the southeastern extremity of Cilieia, 
near the head of the Issicus Sinus, aod at the 
northern front of the pass of Mons Amanus call- 
ed the Syrian Gates ; memorable for the great 
battle iu which Alexander defeated Darius Co- 
domaunus (B.C. 333), which was fought in a 
narrow valley near the town. It was at that 
time large and flourishing, but its importance 
was much diminished by the foundation of Alcx- 
andrea in its neighborhood. Its exact site is 
doubtful. 

Ist.evones. Vid. Germania, p. 327, a. 
Ister. Vid. Danubius. 

Ister, a Greek historian, was at first a slave of 
Callimachus, and afterward his friend, and ac- 
cordingly lived in the reign of Ptolemy Everge- 
tes (B.C. 247-222). He wrote a large number 
of works, the most important of which was an 
Atthis, or history of Attica. His fragments are 
published by C. and Th. Miiller, Fragmenta His- 
tor. Grcec, vol. i., p. 418-427. 

Istria or Histria, a peninsula at the north- 
ern extremity of the Adriatic, between the Sinus 
Tergestinus on the west and the Sinus Flanati- 
cus on the east. . It was separated from Venetia 
on the northwest by the River Timavus, and 
from Illyricum on the east by the River Arsia. 
Its inhabitants, the Istri or Histri, were a war- 
like Illyrian race, who carried on several wars 
with the Romans, till their final subjugation by 
the consul C. Claudius Pulcher, B.C. 177. Their 
chief towus were Tergeste and Pola. Istria 
was originally reckoned part of Illyricum, but 
from the time of Augustus it formed one of the 
divisions of Upper Italy. In consequence of 
its name, it was believed at one time that a 
branch of the River Ister (Danube) flowed into 
the Adriatic. 

Istropolis, Istros or Istria ('IcrpoTro/Uf, Icr- 
rpor, 'larpirj, Herod., ii., 33 : now Istcre), a town 
in Lower Moesia, not far from the mouth of tho 
Danube, and at a little distance from the coast, 
was f colony from Miletus. 

[If ~H ('Icoc), a natural son of Priam, who, 
with .ntTjhus, pastured their flocks on Mount 
Iila ^ere t*>th captured by Achilles, but 



ITALIA. 

■were ransomed ; afterward they were both slain 
by Agamemnon.] 

Italia ('Iral'ia), signified, from the time of 
Augustus, the country which we call Italy. • It 
was bounded on the west by the Mare Ligusti- 
cum and Tyrrhenum, Tuscum or Inferum ; on 
the south by the Mare Siculum or Ausonium ; on 
the east by the Mare Adriaticum or Superum ; 
and on the north by the Alps, which sweep 
round it in a semicircle, the River Varus (now 
Var, Varo) separating it on the northwest from 
Transalpine Gaul, and the River Arsia (now 
Arsa) on the northeast from Ulyricum. The 
name Italia, however, was originally used to 
indicate a much more limited extent of country. 
Most of the ancients, according to their usual 
custom, derived the name from an ancient king 
Italus ; but others, still more absurdly, connect- 
ed it with the old Italian word Italus (in Oscan, 
vitlu or vitelu), an ox, because the country was 
rich in oxen ! . But there can be no doubt that 
Italia, or Vitalia, as it was also called, was the 
land of the Itali, Vitali, Vitelli, or Vituli, an an- 
cient race, who are better known under the 
name of Siculi. This race was widely spread 
over the southern half of the peninsula, and may 
be said to have been bounded on the north by a 
line drawn from Mount Garganus on the east 
to Terracina on the west. The Greeks were 
ignorant of this wide extent of the name. Ac- 
cording to them, Italia was originally only the 
southernmost part of what was afterward called 
Bruttium, and was bounded on the north by a 
line drawn from the Lametic to the Scylletic 
Gulf. They afterward extended the name to 
signify the whole country south of Posidonia on 
the west and Tarentum on the east. After the 
Romans had conquered Tarentum and the south- 
ern part of the peninsula, about B.C. 272, the 
name Italia had a still further extension given 
to it. It then signified the whole country sub- 
ject to the Romans, from the Sicilian Straits as 
far north as the Arnus and the Rubico. The 
country north of these rivers continued to be 
called Gallia Cisalpina and Liguria down to the 
end of the republic. Augustus was the first 
who extended the name of Italia, so as to com- 
prehend the whole of the basin of the Po and 
the southern part of the Alps, from the Mari- 
time Alps to Pola in Istria, both inclusive. In 
the later times of the empire, when Maximian 
had transferred the imperial residence to Milan, 
the name Italia was again used in a narrower 
compass. As it had originally signified . only the 
south of the country, so now it was restricted 
to the north, comprising the five provinces of 
-ifimilia, Liguria, Flaminia, Venetia, and Istria. 
Besides Italia, the country was called by vari- 
ous other names, especially by the poets. These 
were Hespeeia, a name which the Greeks gave 
to it because it lay to the west of Greece, or 
Hesperia Magna, to distinguish it from Spain 
{vid. Hesperia), and Saturxia, because Saturn 
was said to have once reigned in Latium. The 
names of separate parts of Italy were also ap- 
plied by the poets to the whole country. Thus 
it was called GSnotria, originally the land of 
the CEuotri, in the country afterward called 
Bruttium and Lucania : Ausonia, or Opioa, or 
Opicia, originally the land of the Ausones or 
Ausonii. Opici or Osci, on the western coast, 



ITALIA. 

in the country afterward called Campania 
Tyrrhenia, properly the land of the Tyrrheni 
also on the western coast, north of Ausonia or 
Opica, and more especially in the country after- 
ward called Etruria : Iapygia, properly the land 
of the Iapyges, on the eastern coast, in the 
country afterward called Calabria : and Ombrica, 
the land of the Umbri, on the eastern coast, 
alongside of Etruria. Italy was never inhabit- 
ed by one single race. It contained a great 
number of different races, who had migrated 
into the country at a very early period. The 
most ancient inhabitants were Pelasgians or 
OEnotrians, a branch of the same great race 
who originally inhabited Greece and the coasts 
of Asia Minor. They were also called Aborig- 
ines and Siculi, who, as we have already seen, 
were the same as the Vitali or Itali. At the 
time when Roman history begins, Italy was in- 
habited by the following races. From the mouth 
of the Tiber, between its right bank and the 
sea, dwelt the Etruscans, who extended as far 
north as the Alps. Alongside of these, between 
the left bank of the Tiber and the Adriatic, 
dwelt the Umbriaus. To the eouth of the Etrus- 
cans were the Sacrani, Casci, or Prisci, Oscan 
tribes, who had been driven out of the mount- 
ains by the Sabines, had overcome the Pelas- 
giau tribes of the Siculi, Aborigines, or Latins, 
aud, uniting with these conquered people, had 
formed the people called Prisci Latini,* subse- 
quently simply Latini. South of these again, as 
far as the River Laus, were the Opici, who were 
also called Ausones or Aurunei, and to whom 
the Volsci, Sidicini, Satieuli, and ^Equi also be 
longed. The south of the peninsula was in- 
habited by the (Euotrians, who were subse- 
quently driven into the interior by the numer- 
ous Greek colonies founded along the coasts. 
South of the Umbrians, extending as far as 
Mount Garganus, dwelt the various Sabellian 
or Sabine tribes, the Sabines proper, the Peligm, 
Marsi, Marrucini, Vestini, and Hernici, from 
which tribes the warlike race of the Samnites 
subsequently sprung. Prom Mount Garganus 
to the southeastern extremity of the peninsula, 
the country was inhabited by the Daunians or 
Apulians, Peucetii, Messapii, and Sallentini. An 
account of these people is given in separate ar- 
ticles. They were all eventually subdued by the 
Romans, who became the masters of the whole 
of the peninsula. At the time of Augustus the 
following were the chief divisions of Italy, an 
account of which is also given in separate ar- 
ticles : I. Upper Italy, which extended from 
the Alps to the Rivers Macra on the west and 
Rubico on the east. It comprehended, 1. Ligu- 
ria. 2. Gallia Cisalpina. 3. Venetia, includ- 
ing Carnia. 4. Istria. — II. Central Italy, 
sometimes called Italia Propria (a term not 
used by the ancients), to distinguish it from Gal- 
lia Cisalpina or Upper Italy, and Magna Gra?eia 
or Lower Italy, extended from the Rivers Macra 
on the west aud Rubico on the east, to the Riv 
ers Silarus on the west and Erento on the east 
It comprehended, 1. Etruria. 2. Umbria. ,3 
Picenum. 4. Samnium, including the country 
of the Sabini, Vestini, Marrucini, Marsi, Peligni, 
&c. 5. Latium. 6. Campania. — III. Lower 
Italy, or Magna Gr/ecta, included the remain- 
ing part of the peninsula, south of the Rivers 
403 



ITALIA. 



ITHOME 



Silatus an! Frento. It comprehended, 1. Apu- 
lia, including Calabria. 2. Lucania. 3. Beut- 
tium. Augustus divided Italy into the follow- 
ing eleven Regiones. 1. Latium and Campania. 

2. The land of the Hirpini, Apulia and Calabria. 

3. Lucania and Bruttium. 4. The land of the 
Frentani, Marrucini, Peligni, Marsi, Vestini, and 
Sabini, together with Samnium. 6. Piceuum. 
6. Umbria and the district of Ariminum, in what 
was formerly called Gallia Cisalpina. 7. Etru- 
ria. 8. Gallia Cispadana. 9. Liguria. 1 0. The 
eastern part of Gallia Transpadana, Venetia, 
Carnia, and Istria. 11. The western part of 
Gallia Transpadana. The leading features of 
the physical geography of Italy are so well de- 
scribed by a modern writer, that we can not do 
better than quote his words. " The mere plan- 
geography of Italy gives us its shape and the po- 
sition of its towns ; to these it may add a semi- 
circle of mountains round the northern boundary, 
to represent the Alps ; and another long line 
stretching down the middle of the country, to 
represent the Apennines. But let us cany this 
on a little further, and give life and harmony to 
what is at present at once lifeless and confused. 
Observe, in the first place, how the Apennine 
line, beginning from the southern extremity of 
the Alps, runs across Italy to the very edge 
of the Adriatic, and thus separates naturally 
the Italy proper of the Romans from Cisal- 
pine Gaul. Observe, again, how the Alps, after 
running north and south where they divide Italy 
from France, turn then away to the eastward, 
running parallel to the Apennines, till they too 
touch the head of the Adriatic, on the confines 
of Istria. Thus between these two lines of 
mountains there is inclosed one great basin or 
plain ; inclosed on three sides by mountains, 
open only on the east to the sea. Observe how 
widely it spreads itself out, and then see how 
well it is watered. One great river (the Po) 
flows through it in its whole extent ; and this 
is fed by streams almost unnumbered, descend- 
ing toward it on either side, from the Alps on 
one side, and from the Apennines on the other. 
Then, descending into Italy proper, we find the 
complexity of its geography quite in accordance 
with its manifold political divisions. It is not 
one simple central ridge of mountains, having 
a broad belt of level country on either side be- 
tween it and the sea, nor yet is it a chain rising 
immediately from the sea on one side, like the 
Andes in South America, and leaving room 
therefore on the other side for wide plains of 
table-land, and for rivers with a sufficient length 
of course to become at last great and navigable. 
It is a back-bone, thickly set with spines of un- 
equal length, some of them running out at reg- 
ular distances parallel to each other, but others 
twisted so strangely that they often run for a 
long way parallel to the back-bone, or main 
ridge, and interlace with one another in a maze 
almost inextricable. And, as if to complete the 
disorder, in those spots where the spines of the 
Apennines, being twisted round, run parallel to 
the sea and to their own central chain, and thus 
leave an interval of plain between their bases 
and the Mediterranean, volcanic agency has 
broken up the space thus left with other and 
distinct groups of hills of its own creation, as 
in the case of Vesuvius and of the Alban hills 

404 



near Rome. Speaking generally, then, Italy is 
made up of an infinite multitude of valleys pent 
in between high and steep hills, each forming a 
country to itself, and cut off by natural barriers 
from the others. Its several parts are isolated 
by nature, and no art of man can thoroughly 
unite them. Hence arises the romantic char- 
acter of Italian scenery : the constant combina- 
tion of a mountain outline, and all the wild feat- 
ures of a mountain country, with the wild vege 
tation of a southern climate in the valleys." 
More minute details respecting the physical 
features of the different parts of Italy are giver, 
in the articles on the separate provinces inte 
which it is divided. 

Italica. I. (Now Sevilla la vieja, near San- 
tiponce), a municipium in Hispania Bsetica, on 
the western bank of the Baetis, northwest of 
Hispalis, was founded by Scipio Africanus in 
the second Punic war, who settled here some 
of his veterans. It was the birt^-place of the 
emperors Trajan and Hadrian.— 2. The name 
given to Corfinium by the Italian Socii during 
their war with Rome. Vid. Corfinium. 

Italicus, Silius. Vid. Silius. 

Italus (TraAoc), an ancient king of the Pelas- 
gians, Siculians, or GEnotrians, from whom Italy 
was believed to have derived its name. Some 
call him a son of Telegonus by Penelope. 

Itanus ("Iravoc), a town on the eastern coast 
of Crete, near a promontory of the same name, 
founded by the Phoenicians. 

Ithaca ('Wuki; : 'WaKr/aioc : now Thiaki), a 
small islaud in the Ionian Sea, celebrated as the 
birth-place of Ulysses, lies off the coast of Epi- 
rus, and is separated from Cephalonia by a chan- 
nel about three or four miles wide. The island 
is about twelve miles long, and four in its great- 
est breadth. It is divided into two parts, which | 
are connected by a narrow isthmus, not more 
than half a mile across. In each of these parts 1 
there is a mountain ridge of considerable height ; 
the one in the north called Neritum (J^r/piTmi, 
now Anoi), and the one in the south Neium \ 
(Nijiov, now Stefano). The city of Ithaca, the i 
residence of Ulysses, was situated on a precip- | 
itous conical hill, now called Aeto, or " eagle's ! 
cliff," occupying the whole breadth of the isth- 
mus mentioned above. The acropolis, or cas- | 
tie of Ulysses, crowned the extreme summit of 
the mountain, and is described by a modern 
traveller as " about as bleak and dreary a spot 
as can well be imagined for a princely resi- , 
dence." Hence Cicero (De Oral., i., 44) de- i 
scribes it, in asperrimis saxulis tanquamnidulus I 
affixa. It is at the foot of Mount Neium, and 
is hence described by Telemachus as " Under- 
Ne'ium" ('18'lKrjg 'Tttovii'lov, Horn., Od., iii., 81). 
The walls of the ancient city are in many places 
well preserved. Ithaca is one of the seven Ioni- 
an islands under the protection of Great Britain 

[Ithacus ("Watioc), son of Pterelaus, a hero, 
from whom Ithaca was said to hav.e derived its 
name.] 

[Ith^mknes ('Waifter7](), a Trojan or Lycian 
warrior in the Iliad, father of Sthenelaus.] 

Ithome ('ldafin : 'Idun'iTiic, 'Wu^iaiog). 1. A 
strong fortress in Messenia, situated on a mount- 
ain of the same name, which afterward formed 
the citadel of the town of Messene. On the 
summit of the mountain stood the ancient tern- 



ITIUS PORTUS. 



JAN" A. 



^•m of Jupiter (Zeus), -who was hence' surnamed I 
Ithometas {'Wofivnic, Dor. 'W-Ofiarac). Ithome 
was taken by the Spartans B. C. 723, at the end 
of the first Messenian war, after a heroic defence 
by Aristodemus, and again in 455, at the end of 
the third Messenian war. — 2. A mountain fortress 
in Pelasgiotis, in Thessaly, near Metropolis, also 
called Thome. 

Itids Pobtus, a harbor of the Morini, on the 
northern coast of Gaul, from which Ctesar set 
sail for Britain. The position of this harbor is 
much disputed. It used to be identified with 
Gesoriaeum or Boulogne, but it is now usually 
supposed to be some harbor near Calais, probably 
Vissant or Witsand. 

Iton. Vid. Itonia. 

Itonia, Itonias, or Itonis ('Iruvla, 'Ituvlu^, 
or 'Ituvls), a surname of Minerva (Athena), de- 
rived from the town of Iton, in the south of 
Phthiotis in Thessaly. The goddess there had 
a celebrated sanctuary and festivals, and hence 
is called Incola Itoni. From Iton her worship 
spread into Bceotia and the couutiy about Lake 
Copais, where the Pambceotia was celebrated, in 
the neighborhood of a temple and grove of Min- 
erva (Athena). According to another tradition, 
Minerva, (Athena) received the surname of Itonia 
from Itonus, a king or priest. 

Itltcci ('Itvkkj], App.) a town in Hispania 
Bastiea, in the district of Hispalis, and a Roman 
colony, under the name of Virtus Julia. 

It una (now Solway Frith), an asstuary on the 
western coast of Britain, between England and 
Scotland. 

ItuBjEA, Itye^ea ('Irovpala : 'IrovpaloL, Iturasi, 
Ityraei : now El-Jeidur), a district on the north- 
eastern borders of Palestine, bounded on the 
north by the plain of Damascus, on the west by 
the mountain-chain (now Jcbel-Heish) which forms 
the eastern margin of the valley of the Jordan, 
on the southwest and south by Gaulanitis, and 
on the east by Auranitis and Trachonitis. It 
occupied a part of the elevated plain into which 
Mount Hermon sinks down on the southeast, 
and was inhabited by an Arabian people, of war- 
like and predatory habits, which they exercised 
upon the caravans from Arabia to Damascus, 
whose great road lay through their country. In 
the wars between the Syrians and the Israelites, 
they are found acting as allies of the kings of 
Damascus. They are scarcely heard of again 
till B.C. 105, when they were - conquered by the 
Asmona?an king of Judah, Aristobulus, who 
compelled them to profess Judaism. Restored 
to independence by the decline of the Asmo- 
nasan house, they seized the opportunity offer- 
ed, on the other side, by the weakness of the 
kings of Syria, to press their predatory incur- 
sions into Ccele-Syria, and even beyond Leba- 
non, to Byblos, Botrys, and other cities on the 
coast of Phcenice. Pompey reduced them again 
to order, and many of their warriors entered 
the Roman army, in which they became cele- 
brated for their skill in horsemanship and arch- 
ery. They were not, however, reduced to com- 
plete subjection to Rome until after the civil 
wars Augustus gave Ituraea, which had been 
hitherto ruled by its native princes, to the fam- 
ily of Herod. During the ministry of our Sa- 
viour, it was governed by Philip, the brother 
of Herod Antipas, as tatrarch. Upon Philip's 



death in A.D. 37, it was united to the RornaD 
province of Syria, from which it was presently 
again separated, and assigned partly to Herod 
Agrippa 1, and partly to Soa?mus, the prince of 
Emesa. In A.D. 50 it was finally reunited by 
Claudius to the Roman province of Syria, and 
there are inscriptions which prove that the 
Ituroaans continued to serve with distinction 
in the Roman armies. There were no cities or 
large towns in the country, a fact easily explain- 
ed by the unsettled character of the people, who 
lived in the Arab fashion, in unwalled villages 
and tents, and even, according to some state- 
ments, in the natural caves with which the 
country abounds. 

[Itylus ("ItzjAoc), son of Zethus and Aedoa 
Vid. Aedon.] 

[Itymoneus ^IrvjiovEvc), son of Hyperochus 
of Elis, slain by Nestor.] 

Iirs. 1. Vid. Tereus. — [2. A Trojan hero, 
accompanied iEneas to Italy, and was slain by 
Turnus.] 

Iulis (TouAic : 'lov?urjTJig, 'Iov?nevc), the chief 
town in Ceos ; the birth-place of Simonides. 
Vid. Ceos. 

Iulus. 1. Son of JEneas, usually called As- 
canius. Vid. Ascanius. — 2. Eldest son of As- 
canius, who claimed the government of Latium, 
but was obliged to give it up to his brother Sil- 
vius. 

Ixion ('Ilttw), son of Phlegyas, or of Antion 
and Perimela, or of Pasion, or of Mars (Ares). 
According to the common tradition, his mother 
was Dia, a daughter of Deioneus. He was king 
of the Lapithae or Phlegyes, and the father of 
Pirithous. When Deioneus demanded of Ixion 
the bridal gifts he had promised, Ixion treach- 
erously invited him to a banquet, and then con- 
trived to make him fall into a pit filled with fire. 
As no one purified Ixion of this treacherous 
murder, Jupiter (Zeus) took pity upon him, puri- 
fied him, carried him to heaven, and caused 
him to sit down at his table. But Ixion was 
ungrateful to the father of the gods, and at- 
tempted to win the love of Juno (Hera). Ju- 
piter (Zeus) thereupon created a phantom re- 
sembling Juno (Hera), and by it Ixion became 
the father of a Centaur. Vid. Centacri. Ix- 
ion was fearfully punished for his impious in- 
gratitude. His hands and feet were chained 
by Mercury (Hermes) to a wheel, which is said 
to have rolled perpetually in the air or in the 
lower world. He is further said to have been 
scourged, and compelled to exclaim, " Benefactors 
should be honored." 

Ixionides, i. e., Pirithous, the son of Ixion. The 
Centaurs are also called Ixionidce. 

Ixros ("If(oc), a surname of Apollo, derived 
from a district of the island of Rhodes which was 
called Ixise or Ixia. 

Iynx {"Ivytj), daughter of Peitho and Pan, or 
of Echo. She endeavored to charm Jupiter 
(Zeus,) or make him fall in love with Io ; but she 
was metamorphosed by Juno (Hera) into the bird 
called lynx 

■ - ' ■ J. 

Jaccetani, a people in Hispania Tarraconeo- 
sis, between the Pyrenees and the Iberus. 
I Jana. Vid. Janus. 

405 



JANICTJLUM. 



JASON. 



Janiculuh. Vid. Roma. 

Janus and Jana, a pair of ancient Latin di- 
vinities, who were worshipped as the sun and 
moon. The names Janus and Jana are only- 
other forms of Dianus and Diana, which words 
contain the same root as dies, day. Janus was 
worshipped both by the Etruscans and Romans, 
and occupied an important place in the Roman 
religion. He presided over the beginning of 
every thing, and was therefore always invoked 
first in every undertaking, even before Jupiter. 
He opened the year and the seasons, and hence 
the first month of the year was called after him. 
He was the porter of heaven, and therefore bore 
the surnames Patulous or Patulcius, the " open- 
er," and Clusius or Clusivius, the " shutter." 
In this capacity he is represented with a key in 
his left hand, and a staff or sceptre in his right. 
On earth also he was the guardian deity of 
gates, and hence is commonly represented with 
two heads, because every door looks two ways 
(Ja?ius bifrons). He is sometimes represented 
with four heads (Janus quadrifrons), because he 
presided over the four seasons. Most of the 
attributes of this god, which are very numerous, 
are connected with his being the god who opens 
and shuts ; and this latter idea probably has 
reference to his original character as the god 
of the sun, in connection with the alternations 
of day and night. At Rome, Numa is said to 
have dedicated to Janus the covered passage 
bearing his name, which was opened in times 
of war, and closed in times of peace. This 
passage is commonly, but erroneously, called a 
temple. It stood close by the forum. It ap- 
pears to have been left open in war to indicate 
symbolically that the god had gone out to assist 
the Roman warriors, and to have been shut in 
time of peace, that the god, the safeguard of the 
city, might not escape. A temple of Janus was 
built by 0. Duilius in the time of the first Punic 
war : it was restored by Augustus, and dedi- 
cated by Tiberius. On new year's day, which 
was the principal festival of the god, people 
gave presents to one another, consisting of 
sweetmeats and copper coins, showing on one 
side the double head of Janus, and on the other 
a ship. The general name for these presents 
was strenaz. The sacrifices offered to Janus con- 
sisted of cakes (called janual), barley, incense, 
and wine. 

Jason ('Tuauv). 1. The celebrated leader of 
the Argonauts, was a son of jEson and Poly- 
mede or Alcimede, and belonged to the family 
of the iEolidse, at Iolcus in Thessaly. Cre- 
theus, who had founded Iolcus, was succeeded 
by his son iEson ; but the latter was deprived 
of the kingdom by his half brother Pelias, who 
attempted to take the life of the infant Jason. 
He was saved by his friends, who pretended 
that he was dead, and intrusted him to the care 
of the centaur Chiron. Pelias was now warn- 
ed by an oracle to be on his guard against the 
one-sandaled man. When Jason had grown up, 
he came to claim the throne. As he entered 
the market-place, Pelias, perceiving he had only 
one sandal, asked him who he was ; whereupon 
Jason declared his name, and demanded the 
kingdom. Pelias consented to surrender it to 
him, but persuaded him to remove the curse 
whicj, rested on the family of the iEolidse by 
406 



I fetching the golden fleece and soothing the 
spirit of Phrixus. Another tradition related 
that Pelias, once upon a time, invited all his 
subjects to a sacrifice, which he intended to 
offer to Neptune (Poseidon). Jason came with 
the rest, but on his journey to Iolcus he lost 
one of his sandals in crossing the River Anau- 
rus. Pelias, remembering the oracle about the 
one-sandaled man, asked Jason what he would 
do if he were told by an oracle that he should 
be killed by one of his subjects ? Jason, on the 
suggestion of Juno (Hera), who hated Pelias, 
answered, that he would send him to fetch the 
golden, fleece. Pelias accordingly ordered Jason 
to fetch the golden fleece, which was in the pos- 
session of King JSetes, in Colchis, and was 
guarded by an over-watchful dragon. Jason 
willingly undertook the enterprise, and set sail j 
in the ship Argo, accompanied by the chief i 
heroes of Greece. He obtained the fleece with I 
the assistance of Medea, whom he made his 
wife, and along with whom he returned to Iol- j 
cus. The history of his exploits on this mem- 
orable enterprise, and his adventures on his re- ' 
turn home, are related elsewhere. Vid. An- ' 
gonauive. On his arrival at Iolcus, Jason, ac- 
cording to one account, found his aged father 
^Eson still alive, and Medea made him young 
again ; but, according to the more common tra- 
dition, jEson had been slain by Pelias during 
the absence of Jason, who accordingly called i 
upon Medea to take vengeance on Pelias. Me- ' 
dea thereupon persuaded the daughters of Pelias ; 
to cut their father to pieces and boil him, in or- 
der to restore him to youth and vigor, as she | 
had before changed a ram into a lamb by boiling 
the body in a cauldron. But Pelias was never 
restored to life, and his sou Acastus expelled 
Jason and Medea from Iolcus. They then went I 
to Corinth, where they lived happily for several 
years, until Jason deserted Medea, in order to 
marry Glauce or Creusa, daughter of Creon, the 
king of the country. Medea fearfully revenged j 
this insult. She sent Glauce a poisoned garment, j 
which burned her to death when she put it on. i 
Creon likewise perished in the flames. Medea 
also killed her children by Jason, viz., Mermerus i 
and Pheres, and then fled to Athens in a chariot 
drawn by winged dragons. Later writers rep- i 
resent Jason as becoming in the end reconciled ( 
to Medea, returning with her to Colchis, and 
there restoring iEetes to his kingdom, of which 
he had been deprived. The death of Jason , 
is related differently. According to some, hs [ 
made away with himself from grief ; according 
to others, he was crushed by the poop of the 
ship Argo, which fell upon him as he was lying 
under it. — 2. Tyrant of Phera? and Tagus of 
Thessaly (vid. JDict. of Antiq., art. Tagus), was . 
probably the son of Lycophron, who established ' 
a tyranny on the ruins of aristocracy at Pherje. 
He succeeded his father as tyrant of Pheraa soon t 
after B.C. 395, and in a few years extended his 
power over almost the whole of Thessaly. Phar- ! 
salus was the only city in Thessaly which main- 
tained its independence under the government 
of Polydamus ; but even this place submitted to 1 
him in 375. In the following year (374) he was f 
elected Tagus or generalissimo of Thessaly 
His power was strengthened by the weakness i 
of the other Greek states, and by the exhaust ! 



JAVOLENUS PRISCUS. 

iDg contest in -which Thebes and Sparta were 
engaged. He was now in a position which held 
out to him every prospect of becoming master 
of Greece ; but when at the height of his power, 
he was assassinated at a public audience, 370. 
Jason had an insatiable appetite for power, 
which he sought to gratify by any and every 
means. With the chief men in the several 
states of Greece, as, e. g., Avith Timotheus and 
Pelopidas, he cultivated friendly relations. He 
is represented as having all the qualifications of 
a great general and diplomatist — as active, tem- 
perate, prudent, capable of enduring much fa- 
tigue, and skillful in concealing his own designs 
and penetrating those of his enemies. He was 
an admirer of the rhetoric of Gorgias ; and 
Isocrates was one of his friends. — 3. Of Argos, 
an historian, lived under Hadrian, and wrote a 
work on Greece in four books. 

Javolenus Priscus, an eminent Roman jurist, 
was born about the commencement of the reign 
of Vespasian (A.D. 79), and was one of the 
council of Antoninus Pius. He was a pupil of 
Caalius Sabinus, and a leader of the Sabinian or 
Cassian school. Vid. p. 170, b. There are two 
hundred and six extracts from Javolenus in the 
Digest. 

Jaxartes (TafcipnK : now Syr, Syderia, or Sy- 
houn), a great river of Central Asia, about which 
the ancient accounts are very different and con- 
fused. It rises in the Comedi Montes (now 
Moussour), and flows northwest into the Sea of 
Aral : the ancients supposed it to fall into the 
northern side of the Caspian, not distinguishing 
between the two seas. It divided Sogdiana from 
Scythia. On its banks dwelt a Scythian tribe 
called Jaxartaj. 

JebIcho or Hierichus ('Iep^w, 'Ispixovg :. now 
Er-Riha ? ruins), a city of the Canaanites, in a 
plain on the western side of the Jordan, near its 
mouth, was destroyed by Joshua, rebuilt in the 
time of the Judges, and formed an important 
frontier fortress of Judsea. It was again de- 
stroyed by Vespasian, rebuilt under Hadrian, 
and finally destroyed during the crusades. 

Jerom. Vid. Hieronymus. 

Jerusalem or HLerosolyma ('lepovcuXijfi, 'le- 
pocdhufia : 'lEpoaoTtVjurrjg : now Jerusalem, Arab. 
El-Kiids, i. e., the Holy City), the capital of Pal- 
estine in Asia. At the time of the Israelitish 
conquest,of Canaan, under Joshua, Jerusalem, 
then called Jebus, was the chief city of the Jeb- 
usites, a Canaanitish tribe, who were not en- 
tirely driven out from it till B.C. 1050, when 
David took the city, and made it the capital of 
the kingdom of Israel. It was also established 
as the permanent centre of the Jewish religion, 
by the erection of the temple of Solomon. Aft- 
er the division of the kingdom under Rehoboam, 
it remained the capital of the kingdom of Jirdah 
until it was entirely destroyed, and its inhabit- 
ants were carried into captivity by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, king of Babylon, B.C. 588. In B.C. 536, 
the Jewish exiles, having been permitted by Cy- 
rus to return, began to rebuild the city and tem- 
ple ; and the work was completed in about 
twenty-four years. In B.C. 332 Jerusalem qui- 
etly submitted to Alexander. During the wars 
which followed his death, the city was taken 
by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus (B.C. 320), and 
remained subject to the Greek kings of Egypt 



JERUSALEM. 

till the conquest of Palestine by Antiochus III. 
the Great, king of Syria, B.C. 198. Up to this 
time the Jews had been allowed the free enjoy- 
ment of their religion and their own internal 
government, and Antiochus confirmed them in 
these privileges ; but the altered government 
of his son, Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, provoked 
a rebellion, which was at first put down when 
Antiochus took Jerusalem and polluted the tem- 
ple (B.C. 170) ; but the religious persecution 
which ensued drove the people to despair, and 
led to a new revolt under the Maccabees, by 
whom Jerusalem was retaken, and the temple 
purified in B.C. 163. Vid. Maccab^ei. In B.C. 
133 Jerusalem was retaken by Antiochus VII. 
Sidetes, and its fortifications dismantled, but 
its government was left in the hands of the 
Maceabee, John Hyrcanus, who took advantage 
of the death of Antiochus in Parthia (B.C 128) 
to recover his full power. His son Aristobulus 
assumed the title of king of Juda3a, and Jeru- 
salem continued to be the capital of the king- 
dom till B.C. 63, when it was taken by Pompey, 
and the temple was again profaned. For the 
events which followed, vid. Hyrcanus, Herodes, 
and Pal^stina. In A.D. 70, the rebellion of 
the Jews against the Romans was put down, 
and Jerusalem was taken by Titus, after a siege 
of several months, during which the inhabitants 
endured the utmost horrors ; the survivors were 
all put to the sword or sold as slaves, and 
the city and temple were utterly razed to the 
ground. In consequence of a new revolt of 
the Jews, the Emperor Hadrian resolved to 
destroy all vestiges of their national and reli 
gious peculiarities ; and, as one means to this 
end, he established a new Roman colony, on 
the ground where Jerusalem had stood, by the 
name of jElia Capitolina, and built a temple 
of Jupiter Capitolinus on the site of the temple 
of Jehovah. A.D. 135. The establishment of 
Christianity as the religion of the Roman em- 
pire restored to Jerusalem its sacred character, 
and led to the erection of several churches ; 
but the various changes which have taken place 
in it since its conquest by the Arabs under 
Omar in A.D. 638, have left very few vestiges 
even of the Roman city. Jerusalem stands due 
west of the head of the Bead Sea, at the dis- 
tance of about twenty miles (in a straight line), 
and about thirty-five miles from the Mediterra- 
nean, on an elevated platform, divided, by ti 
series of valleys, from hills which surround it 
on every side. This platform has a general 
slope from west to east, its highest point being 
the summit of Mount Zion, in the southwestern 
corner of the city, on which stood the original. 
" City of David." The southeastern part of the 
platform is occupied by the hill called Moriah, 
on which the temple stood, and the eastern part 
by the hill called Acra ; but these two summits 
are now hardly distinguishable from the general 
surface of the platform, probably on account of 
the gradual filling up of the valleys between. 
The height of Mount Zion is two thousand five 
hundred and thirty-five feet above the level of 
the Mediterranean, and about three hundred feet 
above the valley below. The extent of the plat- 
form is five thousand four hundred feet from 
north to south, and one thousand one hundred 
feet from east to west. 

407 



JOCASTE. 



JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS. 



Jocaste {'loKdarri), called Epicaste in Homer, 
uaughter of Menceeeus, and wife of the Thebau 
king Laius, by whom she became the mother of 
OEdipus. She afterward married (Edipus, not 
knowing that he was her son ; and when she dis- 
covered the crime she had unwittingly com- 
mitted, she put an end to her life, for details, 
vid. (Edipus. 

Joppe, Joppa ('Iottttti : in the Old Testament, 
Japho : now Jaffa), a very ancient maritime city 
of Palestine, and, before the building of Cassa- 
rea, the only sea-port of the whole country, and 
therefore called by Strabo the port of Jerusalem, 
lay just south of the boundary between Juda?a 
and Samaria, southwest of Antipatris, and north- 
west of Jerusalem. 

• Jokdanes {'lopddvrjc, 'UpSavoc : now Jordan, 
Arab. Esh-Sheriah el-Kehir, or el-Urdun), has 
its source at the southern foot of Mons Hermon 
(the southernmost part of Anti-Li banus), [about 
twenty miles above] Paneas (afterward Caes- 
area Philippi), whence it flows south into the 
little lake Semechonitis (now Bahr el-Huleh), 
and thence [after a course of twelve miles] into 
the Sea of Galilee (Lake of Tiberias), and thence 
through a narrow plain, depressed below the 
level of the surrounding country, into the Lake 
Asphaltites (now Dead Sea), where it is finally 
lost. Vid. Paljestina. Its course, from the 
Lake of Tiberias to the Dead Sea, [in a dis- 
tance of sixty miles, is, according to Lieuteuant 
Lynch, about two hundred miles, and within 
that distance there are no less than twenty- 
seven considerable rapids, with many others of 
less descent ; thus giving an average of five feet 
descent to the mile in its whole extent] ; the 
depression through which it runs consists, first, 
of a sandy valley, from five to ten miles broad, 
within which is a lower valley, in width about 
half a mile, and, for the most part, beautifully 
clothed with grass and trees ; and, in some 
places, there is still a lower valley within 
this. The average width of the river itself 
is calculated at thirty yards, and its average 
depth at nine feet. It is fordable in many 
places in summer, but in spring it becomes much 
deeper, and often overflows its banks. Its bed 
is considerably below the level of the Mediter- 
ranean. 

Jornandes or Jokdanes, an historian, lived 
in the time of Justinian, or in the sixth century 
of our era. He was a Goth by birth ; was sec- 
retary to the King of the Alani, adopted the 
Christian religion, took orders, and was made 
a bishop in Italy. There is not sufficient evi- 
dence for the common statement that he was 
bishop of Ravenna. He wrote two historical 
works in the Latin language : 1. Be Getarum 
(Gothorum) Origine et Rebus Gestis, containing 
the history of the Goths from the earliest times 
down to their subjugation by Belisarius in 541. 
The work is abridged from the lost history of 
the Goths by Cassiodorus, to which Jornandes 
added various particulars ; but it is compiled 
without judgment, and is characterized by par- 
tiality to the Goths. 2. Be Regnorum ac Tem- 
porum Successione, a short compendium of his- 
tory from the creation down to the victory ob- 
tained by Narses in 652 over King Theodatus. 
It is only valuable for some accounts of the bar- 
barous nations of the North, and the countries 
408 



which they inhabited. Edited by Lindenbrog, 
Hamburg, 1611. 

Josephcs, Flavius, the Jewish historian, was 
born at Jerusalem A.D. 3*7. On his mother's 
side he was descended from the Asmonasan 
princes, while from his father, Matthias, he in- 
herited the priestly office. He enjoyed an ex- 
cellent education ; and at the age of twenty-six 
he went to Rome to plead the cause of some 
Jewish priests whom Felix, the procurator of 
Judaea, had sent thither as prisoners. After a 
narrow escape from death by shipwreck, he 
safely landed at Puteoli ; and being introduced 
to Poppaea, he not only effected the release of 
his friends, but received great presents from 
the empress. On his return to Jerusalem he 
found his countrymen eagerly bent on a re- 
volt from Rome, from which he used his best 
endeavors to dissuade them ; but failing in 
this, he professed to enter into the popular de- 
signs. He was chosen one of the generals 
of the Jews, and was sent to manage affairs j 
in Galilee. When Vespasian and his army en- 
tered Galilee, Josephus threw himself into Io- 
tapata, which he defended for forty-seven days. 
When the place was taken, the life of .Josephus 
was spared by Vespasian through the interces- 
sion of Titus. Josephus thereupon assumed the 
character of a prophet, and predicted to Vespa- 
sian that the empire should one day be his and | 
his son's. Vespasian treated him with respect, 
but did not release him from captivity till he 
was proclaimed emperor nearly three years aft- 
erward (A.D. 10). Josephus was present with 
Titus at the siege of Jerusalem, and afterward 
accompanied him to Rome. He received the 
freedom of the city from Vespasian, who as- 
signed him, as a residence, a house formerly , 
occupied by himself, and treated him honorably 
to the end of his reign. The same favor was I 
extended to him by Titus and Domitian as well. 
He assumed the name of Flavius, as a depend- 
ent of the Flavian family. His time at Rome j 
appears to have been employed mainly in the i 
composition of his works. He died about 100. 
The works of Josephus are written in Greek. 
They are, 1. TJie History of the Jewish War 
(Jlepl tov 'lovdaiKov tto?,£{iov t} 'lovSainrjc ioTop'iag 
Trepl a/lwcrewc), in seven books, published about 
AD. "75. Josephus first wrote it in Hebrew, and 
then translated it into Greek. It commences 
with the capture of Jerusalem by Antiochus 
Epiphanes in B.C. 170, runs rapidly over the 
events before Josephus's own time, and gives a 
detailed account of the fatal war with Rome. 2. 
The Jewish Antiquities ('lovdaiKij upxatoXoyca), 
in twenty books, completed about A.D. 93, and 
addressed to Epaphroditus. The title as well 
as the number of books may have been sug- 
gested by the 'Poi/iain?/ dpxaioTioyia of Dionysius 
of Halicarnassus. It gives an account of Jew- 
ish history from the creation of the world to 
A.D. 66, the twelfth year of Nero, in which the 
Jews were goaded to rebellion by Gessius Flo-, 
rus. In this work Josephus seeks to accom- 
modate the Jewish religion to heathen tastes 
and prejudices. Thus he speaks of Moses and 
his law in a tone which might be adopted by 
any disbeliever in his divine legation. He says 
that Abraham went into Egypt (Gen., xii.), in- 
tending to adopt the Egyptiau views of religion 



JOVIANUS. 



JUGURTHA. 



should lie find them better than his own. He 
speaks doubtfully of the preservation of Jonah 
by the whale. He intimates a doubt of there 
having been any miracle in the passage of the 
Red Sea, and compares it with the passage of 
Alexander the Great along the shore of the sea 
of Pamphylia. He interprets Exod., xxii., 28, 
as if it conveyed a command to respect the idols 
of the heathen. Many similar instances might 
be quoted from his work. 3. His own Life, in 
one book. This is an appendage to the Archae- 
ologia, and is addressed to the same Epaphro- 
ditus. It was not written earlier than A.D. 97, 
since Agrippa II. is mentioned in it as no longer 
living. 4. A treatise on the Antiquity of the Jews, 
or Against Apion, in two books, also addressed 
to Epaphroditus. It is in answer to such as 
impugned the antiquity of the Jewish nation on 
the ground of the silence of Greek writers re- 
specting it. Vid. Apion. The treatise exhibits 
extensive acquaintance with Greek literature and 
philosophy. 5. Elg MaiacaSaiovc jj irepl avroKpu- 
ropoc Aoyiafiov, in one book. Its genuineness is 
doubtful. It is a declamatory account of the 
martyrdom of Eleazar (an aged priest), and of 
seven youths and their mother, in the persecu- 
tion under Antiochus Epiphanes. The best edi- 
tions of Josephus are by Hudson, Oxon., 1720 ; 
by Havercamp, Amst., 1726 ; [and by W. Din- 
dorf in Didot's Bibliotheca GrEeca ; the best edi- 
tion of the Jewish War, separately, is by Card- 
well, Oxford, 1837, 2 vols.] 

Jovianus, Flavius Claudius, was elected em- 
peror by the soldiers in June, A.D. 363, after the 
death of Julian (vid. Julianos), whom he had 
accompanied in Iris campaign against the Per- 
sians. In order to effect his retreat in safety, 
Jovian surrendered to the Persians the Roman 
conquests beyond the Tigris, and several for- 
tresses in Mesopotamia. He died suddenly at 
a small town on the frontiers of Bithynia and 
Galatia, February 17, 364, after a reign of little 
more than seven months. Jovian was a Chris- 
tian, but he protected the heathens. 

Juba ('loBac). 1. King of Numidia, was son 
of Hiempsal, who was re-established on the 
throne by Pompey. On the breaking out of the 
civil war between Cassar and Pompey, he act- 
ively espoused the cause of the latter ; and, ac- 
cordingly, when Cassar sent Curio into Africa 
(B C. 49), he supported the Pompeian general 
Attius Varus with a large body of troops. Curio 
was defeated by their united forces, and fell in 
the battle. In 46 Juba fought along with Scipio 
against Csssar himself, and was present at the 
decisive battle of Thapsus. After this defeat 
he wandered about for some time, and then put 
an end to his own life. — 2. King of Mauretania, 
son of the preceding, was a mere child at his 
father's death (46), was carried a prisoner to 
Rome by Caesar, and compelled to grace the 
conqueror's triumph. He was brought up in 
Italy, where he received an excellent education, 
.and applied himself with such diligence to study, 
that he turned out one of the most learned men 
of his day. After the death of Antony (30), 
Augustus conferred upon Juba his paternal 
kingdom of Numidia, and, at the same time, 
gave him in marriage Cleopatra, otherwise call- 
ed Selene, the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra. 
At a subsequent period (25), Augustus gave him 



Mauretania in exchange for Numidia, which 
was reduced to a Roman province. He contin- 
ued to reign in Mauretania till his death, which 
happened about A.D. 19. He was beloved by 
his subjects, among whom he endeavored to in- 
troduce the elements of Greek and Roman civ- 
ilization ; and, after his death, they • even paid 
him divine honors. Juba wrote a great number 
of works in almost every branch of literature. 
They are all lost, with the exception of a few 
fragments. They appear to have been all writ- 
ten in Greek. The most important of them 
were, 1. A History of Africa (A.i6vku), in which 
he made use of Punie authorities. 2. On the 
Assyrians. 3. A History of Arabia. 4. A Jto- 
man History ('~Po>fiaiit7) lo-Topia). 5. QearpiKijh- 
ropia, a general treatise on all matters connect- 
ed with the stage. 6. Hepl ypatyucyc, or irepl 
t^uyputyuv, seems to have been a general history 
of painting. He also wrote some treatises on 
botany and on grammatical subjects. [The few 
fragments of Juba's historical works still extant 
are collected in Muller's Fragm. Hist. Q-rcec., 
vol. iii., p. 465-484.] 

JlJDvEA, JuDjEI. Vid. Pal^stina. 

Jugunthi, a German people, sometimes da 
scribed as a Gothic, and sometimes as an Ale- 
mannic tribe. 

J ugurtha ('lovyovpdac 'loyopdac), king of 
Numidia, was an illegitimate son of Mastanabal, 
and a grandson of Masinissa. He lost his father 
at an early age, but was adopted by his uncle 
Micipsa, who brought him up with his own sons, 
Hiempsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha quickly dis- 
tinguished himself both by his abilities and his 
skill in all bodily exercises, and rose to so much 
favor and popularity with the Numidians, that 
he began to excite the jealousy of Micipsa. In 
order to remove him to a distance. Micipsa sent 
him, in B.C. 134, with an auxiliary force, to as- 
sist Scipio against Numantia. Here his zeal, 
courage, and ability gained for him the favor 
and commendation of Scipio, and of all the lead- 
ing nobles in the Roman camp. On his return 
to Numidia he was received with honor by Mi- 
cipsa, who was obliged to dissemble the fears 
which he entertained of his ambitious nephew. 
Micipsa died in 118, leaving the kingdom to Ju- 
gurtha and his two sons, Hiempsal and Adher- 
bal, in common. Jugurtha soon showed that 
he aspired to the sole sovereignty of the coun- 
try. In the course of the same year he found 
an opportunity to assassinate Hiempsal at Thir- 
mida, and afterward defeated Adherbal in bat- 
tle. Adherbal fled to Rome to invoke the as- 
sistance of the senate ; but J ugurtha, by a lav- 
ish distribution of bribes, counteracted the just 
complaints of his enemy. The senate decreed 
that the kingdom of Numidia should be equally 
divided between the two competitors ; but the 
senators intrusted with the execution of this 
decree were also bribed by Jugurtha, who thus 
succeeded in obtaining the western division of 
the kingdom, adjacent to Mauretania, by far the 
larger and richer portion of the two (117). But 
this advantage was far from contenting him. 
Shortly afterward he invaded the territories of 
Adherbal with a large army, and defeated him. 
Adherbal made his escape to the strong fortress 
of Cirta, where he was closely blockaded by 
Jugurtha The Romans commanded Jugurtha 
409 



JULIA. 



JULIANUS. 



to abstain from further hostilities , but he paid 
no attention to thei r commands, and at length 
gained possession of Oirta, and put Adherbal to 
death, 112. "War was now declared against 
Jugurtha at Rome, and the consul, L. Calpur- 
i nius Bestia, was sent into Africa, 111. Ju- 
gurtha had recourse to his customary arts ; aud, 
by means of large sums of money given to Bes- 
tia and M. Scaurus, his principal lieutenant, he 
purchased from them a favorable peace. The 
conduct of Bestia excited the greatest indigna- 
tion at Borne, and Jugurtha was summoned to 
the city under a safe conduct, the popular party 
hoping to be able to convict the nobility by 
means of his evidence. The scheme, however, 
failed ; since one of the tribunes, who had been 
gained over by the friends of Bestia and Scau- 
rus, forbade the king to give evidence. Soon 
afterward Jugurtha was compelled to leave 
Italy, in consequence of his having ventured on 
the assassination of Massiva, whose counter-in- 
fluence he regarded with apprehension. Vid. 
Massiva. The war was now renewed ; but the 
consul, Sp. Postumius Albinus, who arrived to 
conduct it (110), was able to effect nothing 
against Jugurtha. When the consul went to 
Borne to hold the comitia, he left his brother 
Aulus in command of the army. Aulus was de- 
feated by Jugurtha ; great part of his army was 
cut to pieces, and the rest only escaped a simi- 
lar fate by the ignominy of passing under the 
yoke. But this disgrace at once roused all 
the spirit of the Boman people : the treaty con- 
cluded by Aulus was instantly annulled ; and 
the consul Q. Cascilius Metellus was sent into 
Africa at the head of a new army (109). Metel- 
lus was an able general and an upright man, 
whom Jugurtha was unable to cope with in the 
field, or to seduce by bribes. In the course of 
two years Metellus frequently defeated Jugur- 
tha, and at length drove him to take refuge 
among the Gsetuliaus. In 107 Metellus was 
succeeded in the command by Marius ; but the 
cause of Jugurtha had meantime been espoused 
by his father-in-law Bocchus, king of Maureta- 
nia, who had advanced to his support with a 
large army. The united forces of Jugurtha aud 
Bocchus were defeated in a decisive battle by 
Marius ; and Bocchus purchased the forgive- 
ness of the Bomans by surrendering his son-in- 
law to Sulla, the qusestor of Marius (106). Ju- 
gurtha remained in captivity till the return of 
Marius to Borne, when, after adorning the tri- 
umph of his conqueror (Jan. 1, 10-1), he was 
thrown into a dungeon, and there starved to 
death. 

Julia. 1. Aunt of Caasar the dictator, and 
wife of C. Marius the elder. She died B.C. 68, 
and her nephew pronounced her funeral oration. 
— 2. Mother of M. Antonius the triumvir. In 
the proscription of the triumvirate (43) she 
saved the life of her brother, L. Caesar. Vid. 
Cesar, No. 6. — 3. Sister of Caesar the dictator, 
and wife of M. Atius Balbus, by whom she had 
Atia, the mother of Augustus. Vid. Atia. — 
4. Daughter of Csesar the dictator, by Cornelia, 
and his only child in marriage, was married to 
Cn. Pompey in 69. She was a woman of beauty 
and virtue, and was tenderly attached to he;' 
husband, although twenty-three years older than 
herself She died in childbed in 54. — 5. Daugh- 
410 



ter of Augustus by Scribonia, and his only child 
was born in 39. She was educated with great 
strictness, but grew up one of the most profligate 
women of her age. She was thrice married : 
first, to M. Mareellus, her first cousin, in 25 ; sec- 
ondly, after his death (23) without issue, to M. 
Agrippa, by whom she had three sons, C. and 
L. Caesar, and Agrippa Postumus, and two 
daughters, Julia and Agrippina; and thirdly, 
after Agrippa's death in 12, to Tiberius Nero, the 
future emperor. In B.C. 2 Augustus at length 
became acquainted with the misconduct of his 
daughter, whose notorious adulteries had been 
one reason why her husband Tiberius had quit- 
ted Italy four years before. Augustus was in- 
censed beyond measure, and banished her to 
Pandataria, an island off the coast of Campania. 
At the end of five years she was removed to 
Rhegium, but she was never suffered to quit 
the bounds of the city. Even the testament of 
Augustus showed the inflexibility of his anger. 
He bequeathed her no legacy, and forbade her 
ashes to repose in his mausoleum. Tiberius, 
on his accession (A.D. 14), deprived her of almost 
all the necessaries of life, and she died in the 
course of the same year. — 6. Daughter of the 
preceding, and wife of L. jEmilius Paulus. She 
inherited her mother's licentiousness, and was, 
in consequence, banished by her grandfather 
Augustus to the little island Tremerus, on the 
coast of Apulia, A.D. 9, where she lived neavlv 
twenty years. She died in 28. It was probably 
this Julia whom Ovid celebrated as Corinna in 
his elegies and other erotic poems ; and his in- 
trigues with her appear to have been the cause 
of the poet's banishment in A.D. 9. — 7. Young- 
est child of Germanicus and Agrippina, was 
bom A.D. 18; was married to M. Vinicius in 
33 ; and was banished in 37 by her brother Ca- 
ligula, whp was believed to have had an incest- 
uous intercourse with her. She was recalled 
by Claudius, but was afterward put to death by 
this emperor at Messalina's instigation. The 
charge brought against her was adultery, and 
Seneca, the philosopher, was banished to Cor- 
sica as the partner of her guilt. — 8. Daughter 
of Drusus and Livia, the sister of Germanicus. 
She was married, A.D. 20, to her first cousin, 
Nero, sou of Germanicus and Agrippina, and, 
after Nero's death, to Rubellius Blaudus, by 
whom she had a son, Rubellius Plautus. She, 
too, was put to death by Claudius, at the insti- 
gation of Messalina, 59. — 9. Daughter of Titus, 
the son of Vespasian, married Flavius Sabiuus, 
a nephew of the Emperor Vespasian. Julia 
died of abortion, caused by her uncle Domitiau, 
with whom she lived in criminal intercourse, 
— 10. Domxa. Vid. Dojixa. — 11. Drusilla. 
Vid. Drusilla. — 12. Mjesa. Vid. M^sa. 

Julia Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
houses at Rome, was of Alban origin, and was 
removed to Rome by Tullus Hostilius upon the 
destruction of Alba Longa. It claimed descent 
from the mythical lulus, the son of Venus and 
Anchises. The most distinguished family in 
the gens is that of -Cesar. Under the empire 
we find an immense number of persons of the 
name of Julius, the most important of whom 
are spoken of under their surnames. 

Jolianus Didius. Vid. Didics. 

Julianus, Flavius Claudius, usually called 



JULIANUS, FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS. 



JULIANUS, SALVIUS. 



Julian, and surnained the Apostate, Roman 
emperor A.D. 361-363. He "was born at Con- 
stantinople A.D. 331, and was the son of Julius 
Constantius by his second wife, Basilina, and 
the nephew of Constantine the Great. Julian 
and his elder brother, Gallus, were the only 
members of the imperial family whose lives 
were spared by the sons of Constantine the 
Great, on the death of the latter in 337. The 
two brothers were educated with care, and were 
brought up in the principles of the Christian re- 
ligion ; but as they advanced to manhood, they 
were watched with jealousy and suspicion by 
the Emperor Constantly. After the execution 
of Gallus in 354 (vid. Gallus), the life of Julian 
was in great peril ; but he succeeded in pacify- 
ing the suspicions of the emperor, and was al- 
lowed to go to Athens in 355 to pursue his stud- 
ies. Here he devoted himself with ardor to the 
study of Greek literature and philosophy, and 
attracted universal attention both by his attain- 
ments and abilities. Among his fellow-students 
were Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil, both of 
whom afterward became so celebrated in the 
Christian church. Julian had already abandon- 
ed Christianity in his heart and returned to the 
pagan faith of his ancestors, but fear of Con- 
stantius prevented him from making an open 
declaration of his apostasy. Julian did not re- 
main long at Athens. In November, 355, he 
received from Constantius the title of Caesar, 
and was sent to Gaul to oppose the Germans, 
who had crossed the Rhine, and were ravaging 
some of the fairest provinces of Gaul. During 
the next five years (356-360) Julian carried on 
war against the two German confederacies of 
the Alemanni and Franks with great success, 
and gained many victories over them. His in- 
ternal administration was distinguished by jus- 
tice and wisdom, and he gained the good will 
and affection of the provinces intrusted to his 
care. His growing popularity awakened the 
jealousy of Constantius, who commanded him 
to send some of his best troops to the East, to 
serve against the Persians. His soldiers re- 
fused to leave their favorite general, and pro- 
claimed him emperor at Paris in 360. After 
several fruitless negotiations between Julian 
and Constantius, both parties prepared for war. 
In 361 Julian marched along the valley of the 
Danube toward Constantinople ; but Constan- 
tius, who had set out from Syria to oppose his 
rival, died on his march in Cilicia. His death 
left J ulian the undisputed master of the empire. 
On the 11th of December Julian entered Con- 
stantinople. He lost no time in publicly avow- 
ing himself a pagan, but he proclaimed that 
Christianity would be tolerated equally with 
paganism. He did not, however, act impartial- 
ly toward the Christians. He-preferred pagans 
as his civil and military officers, forbade the 
Christians to teach rhetoric and grammar in 
the schools, and, in order to annoy them, allow- 
ed the Jews to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. 
In the following year (362) Julian went to Syria 
in order to make preparations for the war against 
the Persians. He spent the winter at Antioch, 
where he made the acquaintance of the orator 
Libanius ; and in the spring of 363 he set out 
against the Persians. He crossed the Euphrates 
and the Tigris ; and after burning his fleet on 



the Tigris, that it might not fall into the hands 
of the enemy, he boldly marched into the in- 
terior of the country in search of the Persian 
king. His army suffered much from the heat, 
want of water, and provisions, and he was at 
length compelled to retreat. The Persians now 
appeared and fearfully harassed his rear. Still 
the Romans remained victorious in many a 
bloody engagement ; but in the last battle fought 
on the 26th of June, Julian was mortally wound- 
ed by an arrow, and died in the course of the 
day. Jovian was chosen emperor in his' stead, 
on the field of battle. Vid. Jovianus. Julian 
was an extraordinary character. As a monarch, 
he was indefatigable in his attention to busi- 
ness, upright in his administration, and compre- 
hensive in his views ; as a man, ho was virtu- 
ous in the midst of a profligate age, and did not 
yield to the luxurious temptations to which he 
was exposed. In consequence of his apostasy 
he has been calumniated by Christian ■writers ; 
but, for the same reason, he has been unduly ex- 
tolled by heathen authors. He wrote a large 
number of works, many of which are extant. 
He was a man of reflection and thought, but 
possessed no creative genius. He did not, how- 
ever, write merely for the sake of writing, like 
so many of his contemporaries ; his works show 
that he had his subjects really at heart, and that 
in literature as well as in business his extraor- 
dinary activity arose from the wants of a pow- 
erful mind, which desired to improve itself and 
the world. The style of Julian is remarkably 
pure, and is a close imitation of the style of the 
classical Greek writers. The following are his 
most important works : 1. Letters, most of which 
were intended for public circulation, and are of 
great importance for the history of the time. 
Edited by Heyler, Mainz, 1828. — 2. Orations, 
on various subjects, as, for instance, On the 
Emperor Constantius, On the worship of the 
sun, On the mother of the gods (Cybele), On 
true and false Cynicism, &o. — 3. The Ccesars, or 
the Banquet (Kacaapec rj IfV/nroaiov), a satirical 
composition, which is one of the most agreea- 
ble and instructive productions of ancient wit. 
Julian describes the Roman emperors approach- 
ing one after the other to take their seat round 
a table in the heavens ; and as they come up, 
their faults, vices, and Crimea are censured 
with a sort of bitter mirth by old Silenus, where- 
upon each Caesar defends himself as well as he 
can. Edited by Heusinger, Gotha, 1*736, and by 
Harless, Erlangen, 1*785. — 4. Misopogon, or the 
Enemy of the Beard (Mwoirpyov), a severe satire 
on the licentious and effeminate manners of the. 
inhabitants of Antioch, who had ridiculed Ju- 
lian, when he resided in the city, on account of 
his austere virtues, and had laughed at his al- 
lowing his beard to grow in the ancient fashion. 
— 5. Against the Christians (Kara Xptartavtiv). 
This work is lost, but some extracts from it are 
given in Cyrill's reply to it, which is still ex- 
tant. The best edition of the collected works 
of Julian is by Spanheim, Lips.. 1696. 

Julianus, Salvius, an eminent Roman jurist 
who flourished under Hadrian and the Anto- 
nines. He was praefectus urbi, and twice con- 
sul, but his name does not appear in the Fasti. 
By the order of Hadrian, he drew up the edictum 
perpetuum, which forms an epoch in the history 



JULIAS. 



JUPITER. 



of Roman jurisprudence. His work appears to 
have consisted in collecting and arranging the 
clauses which the praetors were accustomed to 
insert in their annual edict, in condensing the 
materials, and in omitting antiquated provisions. 
He was a voluminous legal writ er, and his works 
are cited in the Digest. 

Julias ('lovXiac : Bib. Bethsaida: ruins at Et- 
Tell), a city of Palestine, on the eastern side of 
the Jordan, north of the Lake of Tiberias, so 
called by the tetrarch Philip, in honor of Julia, 
the daughter of Augustus. 

JuliobeTga (now Retortillo, near Reynosa), a 
town of the Cantabri in Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, near the sources of the Iberus. 

Juliomagus. Vid. Andkoavi. 

JdXIOPOLIS ('IovAtOTTO/Uf). Vid. GoKDIUM, TAR- 
SUS. 

Julius. Vid. Julia Gens. 

Juncabja (now Junquefa), a town of the In- 
digetes in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road 
from Barcino to the frontiers of Gaul, in a plain 
covered with rushes ('lovynupiov -ireicov). 

JtJnia. 1. Half-sister of M. Brutus, the mur- 
derer of Csesar, and wife of M. Lepidus, the 
triumvir. — 2. Teetia or Teetulla, own sister 
of the preceding, was the wife of C. Cassius, 
one of Caesar's murderers. She survived her 
husband a long while, and did not die till A.D. 
22. 

Junia Gens, an ancient patrician house at 
Rome, to which belonged the celebrated M. 
Junius Brutus, who took such an active part in 
expelling the Tarquins. But afterward the gens 
appears as only a plebeian one. Under the 
republic the chief families were those of Beu- 

TUS, BUBULCUS, GeAOCHAKUS, IfORBANUS, PcLLUS, 

Silanus. The Junii who lived under the em- 
pire are likewise spoken of under their various 
surnames. 

Juno, called Heea by the Greeks. The Greek 
goddess is spoken of in a separate article. Vid. 
Heea. The word Ju-no contains the same root 
as Jvrpiter. As Jupiter is the king of heaven 
and of the gods, so Juno is the queen of heaven, 
or the female Jupiter. She was worshipped at 
Rome as the queen of heaven, from early times, 
with the surname of Regina. At a later period 
her worship was solemnly transferred from Veii 
to Rome, wher* .a sanctuary was dedicated to 
her on the Aventine. As Jupiter was the pro- 
tector of the male sex, so Juno watched over 
the female sex. She was supposed to accom- 
pany every woman through life, from the mo- 
ment of her birth to her death. Hence she bore 
the special surnames of Virginalis and Matrona, 
as well as the general ones of Opigena and 
Sospita, and under the last-mentioned name 
she was worshipped at Lanuvium. On their 
birth-day women offered sacrifices to Juno 
surnamed Natalis, just as men sacrificed to 
their genius natalis. The great festival, cele- 
brated by all the women, in honor of Juno, was 
called Matronalia (vid. Diet, of Antiq., s. v.), and 
took place on the 1st of March. Her protection 
of women, and especially her power of making 
them fruitful, is further alluded to in the festival 
JPopulifugia (Diet, of Antiq., s. v.), as well as in 
the surname of Fcbrulis, Februata, Februta, or 
Februalis. Juno was further, like Saturn, the 
guardian of the finances, and under the name 
412 



of Moneta she had a temple on the Capitoline 
Hill, which contained the mint. The most im- 
portant period in a woman's life is that of her 
marriage, and she was therefore believed es- 
pecially to preside over marriage. Hence she 
was called Juga or Jugalis, and had a variety 
of other names, such as Pronuba, Ginxia, Luci- 
na, &o. The month of June, which is said to 
have been originally called Junonius, was consid- 
ered to be the most favorable period for marry- 
ing. "Women in childbed invoked Juno Lucina 
to help them, and newly-born children were like- 
wise under her protection ; hence she was some- 
times confounded with the Greek Artemis or 
Ilithyia. In Etruria she was worshipped un- 
der the name of Oupra. She was also wor- 
shipped at Falerii, Lanuvium, Aricia, Tibur, 
Praeneste, and other places. In the represent- 
ations of the Roman Juno that have come down 
to us, the type of the Greek Hera is commonly 
adopted. 

Jupiter, called Zeus by the Greeks. The 
Greek god is spoken of j in a separate article. 
Vid. Zeus. Jupiter was originally an elemental 
divinity, and his name signifies the father or 
lord of heaven, being a contraction of Diovis 
pater or Diespiter. Being the lord of heaven, 
he was worshipped as the god of rain, storms, 
thunder, and lightning, whence he had the epi- 
thets of Pluvius, Fulgurator, Tonitrualis, To- 
nans, and Fulminator. As the pebble or flint 
stone was regarded as the symbol of lightning, 
Jupiter was frequently represented with such a 
stone in his hand instead of a thunderbolt. In 
concluding a treaty, the Romans took the sa- 
cred symbols of Jupiter, viz., the sceptre and 
flint stone, together with some grass from his 
temple, and the oath taken on such an occasion 
was expressed by per Jovem Lapidem jurare. 
In consequence of his possessing such powers 
over the elements, and especially of his always 
having the thunderbolt at his command, he was 
regarded as the highest and most powerful 
among the gods. Hence he is called the Best 
and Most High ( Optimus Maximus). His tem- 
ple at Rome stood on the lofty hill of the Capi- 
tol, whence he derived the surnames of Capi- 
tolinus and Tarpeius. He was regarded as the 
special protector of Rome. As such he was 
worshipped by the consuls on entering upon 
their office ; and the triumph of a victorious 
general was a solemn procession to his temple. 
He therefore bore the surnames of Imperator, 
Victor, Invictus, Stator, Opitulus, Feretrius, Pre- 
dator, Triumphator, and the like. Under all 
these surnames he had temples or statues a^ 
Rome ; and two temples, viz., those of Jupiter 
Stator and of Jupiter Feretrius, were believed 
to have been built in the time of Romulus. Un- 
der the name of Jupiter Gapitolinus, he presided 
over the great Roman games ; and under the 
name of Jupiter Zatialis or Latiaris, over the 
Feriae Latinae. Jupiter, according to the belief 
of the Romans, determined the course of all 
human affairs. He foresaw the future, and the 
events happening in it were the results of his 
will. He revealed the future to man through 
signs in the heavens and the flight of birds, 
which are hence called the messengers of Ju- 
piter, while the god himself is designated as 
Prodigialis, that is, the sender of prodigies. 



JURA. 

For the same reason the god was invoked at 
the beginning of every -undertaking, whether 
sacred or profane, together with Janus, who 
blessed the beginning itself. Jupiter was fur- 
ther regarded as the guardian of law, and as 
the protector of justice and virtue. He main- 
tained the sanctity of an oath, and presided over 
all transactions which were based upon faithful- 
ness and justice. Hence Fides was his com- 
panion on the Capitol, along with Victoria ; and 
hence a traitor to his country, and persons 
guilty of perjury, were thrown down from the 
Tarpeian rock. As Jupiter was the lord of 
heaven, and consequently the prince of light, 
the white color was sacred to him, white ani- 
mals were sacrificed to him, his chariot was be- 
lieved to be drawn by four white horses, his 
priests wore white caps, and the consuls were 
attired in white when they offered sacrifices in 
the Capitol the day they entered on their office. 
The worship of Jupiter at Rome was under the 
special care of the Flarnen Dialis, who was the 
highest iu rank of all the flamens. Vid. Diet, 
of Antiq., art. Flamen. The Romans, in their 
representations of the god, adopted the type of 
the Greek Zeus. 

Jura or Jurassus Mons (now Jura), a range 
of mountains, which run north of the Lake Le- 
manus as far as Augusta Rauracorum (now Au- 
gust, near Basle), on the Rhine, forming the 
boundary between the Sequani and Helvetii. 

Justiniana. 1. Prima, a town in Elyria, near 
Tauresium, was the birthplace of Justinian, and 
was built by that emperor ; it became the resi- 
dence of the archbishop of Illyria, and, in the 
Middle Ages, of the Servian kings. — 2. Secunda, 
also a town in Illyria, previously called Ulpiana, 
was enlarged and embellished by Justinian. 

Justinianus, surnamed the Great, emperor 
of Constantinople A.D. 527-565. He was born 
near Tauresium, in Illyria, A.D. 483 ; was adopt- 
ed by his uncle, the Emperor Justinus, in 520 ; 
succeeded his uncle in 527 ; married the beau- 
tiful but licentious actress, Theodora, who ex- 
ercised great influence over him ; and died in 
565, leaving the crown to his nephew, Justin II. 
He was, during the greater part of his reign, a 
firm supporter of orthodoxy, and thus has re- 
ceived from ecclesiastical writers the title of 
Great ; but toward the end of his life he became 
a heretic, being one of the adherents of Nesto- 
rianism. His foreign wars were glorious, but 
all his victories were won by his generals. The 
empire of the Vandals in Africa was overthrown 
by Belisarius, and their king Gelimer led a 
prisoner to Constantinople ; and the kingdom 
of the .Ostrogoths in Italy was likewise destroy- 
ed by the successive victories of Belisarius and 
Narses. Vid. Beljharius, Narses. Justinian 
adorned Constantinople with many public build- 
ings of great magnificence ; but the cost of their 
erection, as well as the expenses of his foreign 
wars, obliged him to impose many new taxes, 
which were constantly increased by the natural 
covetousness and rapacity of the emperor. 
The great work of Justinian is his legislation. 
He resolved to establish a perfect system of 
written legislation for all his dominions ; and, 
for this end, to make two great collections, one 
of the imperial constitutions, the other of all 
that was valuable in the works of jurists. His 



JUSTINIANUS. 

first work was the collection of the imperial 
constitutions. This he commenced in 528, in 
the second year of his reign. The task was 
intrusted to a commission of ten, who complet- 
ed their labors in the following year (529) ; and 
their collection was declared to be law under 
the title of Justinianeus Codex. In 580, Tribo- 
nian, who had been one of the commission of 
ten employed in drawing up the Code, was au- 
thorized by the emperor to select fellow-laborera 
to assist him in the other division of the under- 
taking. Tribonian selected sixteen coadjutors ; 
and this commission proceeded at once to lay 
under contribution the works of those jurists 
who had received from former emperors "auc- 
toritatem conscribendarum interpretandique le- 
gum." They were ordered to divide their ma- 
terials into fifty books, and to subdivide each 
book into Titles (Tituli). Nothing that was 
valuable was to be excluded, nothing that was 
obsolete was to be admitted, and neither repe- 
tition nor inconsistency was to be allowed. 
This work was to bear the name Digesta or 
Pandectce. The work was completed, in accord- 
ance with the instructions that had been given, 
in the short space of three years ; and on the 
30th of December, 533, it received from the im- 
perial sanction the authority of law. It com- 
prehends upward of nine thousand extracts, in 
the selection of which the compilers made use 
of nearly two thousand different books, con- 
taining more than three million lines. The 
Code and the Digest contained a complete body 
of law ; but as they were not adapted to ele- 
mentary instruction, a commission was appoint- 
ed, consisting of Tribonian, Theophilus, and Do- 
rotheus, to compose an institutional work, which 
should contain the elements of the law (legum 
incunabula), and should not be encumbered with 
useless matter. Accordingly, they produced a 
treatise under the title of Institutiones, which 
was based on elementary works of a similar 
character, but chiefly on the Institutiones of 
Gaius. Vid. Gaius. The Institutiones consist- 
ed of four books, and were published with the 
imperial sanction at the same time as the Di- 
gest. After the publication of the Digest and 
the Institutiones, fifty decisiones and some new 
constitutiones also were promulgated by the 
emperor. This rendered a revision of the Code 
necessary ; and, accordingly, a new Code was 
promulgated at Constantinople on the 16th of 
November, 534, and the use of the decisiones, 
of the new constitutiones, and of the first edition 
of the Code was forbidden. The second edition 
(Codex Repetitx Prmlectionis) is the code that 
we now possess, in twelve books, each of which 
is divided into titles. Justinian subsequently 
published various new constitutiones, to which 
he gave the name of Novellce Constitutiones. 
These Constitutiones form a kind of supplement 
to the Code, and were published at various times 
from 535 to 565, but most of them appeared be- 
tween 535 and 539. It does not seem, how- 
ever, that any official compilation of these No- 
vellm appeared in the lifetime of Justinian. The 
four legislative works of Justinian, the Institu- 
tiones, Digesta or Pandedai, Codex, and Novella, 
are included under the general name of Corpus 
Juris Civilis, and form the Roman law, as re- 
ceived in Europe. The best editions of the 
413 



JUSTINUS. 



LABDA 



Corpus for general use are by Gothofredus and 
Van Leeuwen, Amst., 1663, 2 vols. fol. ; by Ge- 
bauer and Spangenberg, Gotting., 1776— 1797, 2 
vols. 4to ; and by Beck, Lips., 1836, 2 vols. 4to. 

Jhstinus. 1. The historian, of uncertain 
date, but who did not live later than the fourth 
or fifth century of our era, is the author of an 
extant work entitled Historiarum Philippicarum 
Libri XLIV. This work is taken from the His- 
toric Philippicce of Trogus Pornpeius, who lived 
in the time of Augustus. The title Philippics 
was given to it, because its main object was to 
give the history of the Macedonian monarchy, 
with all its branches ; but in the execution of 
this design, Tragus permitted himself to indulge 
in so many excursions, that the work formed a 
kind of universal history from the rise of the 
Assyrian monarchy to the conquest of the East 
by Rome. The original work of Trogus, which 
was one of great value, is lost. The work of 
Justin is not so much an abridgment of that of 
Trogus, as a selection of such parts as seemed 
to him most worthy of being generally known. 
Edited by Graevius, Lugd. Bat., 1683 ; by Gro- 
novius, Lugd. Bat, 1719 and 1760 ; and by 
Frotscher, Lips., 1827, 3 vols. — 2. Surnamed 
the Martyr, one of the earliest of the Christian 
writers, was born about A.D. 103, at Flavia Ne- 
apolis, the Shechem of the Old Testament, a city 
in Samaria. He was brought up as a heathen, 
and in his youth studied the Greek philosophy 
with zeal and ardor. He was afterward con- 
verted to Christianity. He retained as a Chris- 
tian the garb of a philosopher, but devoted him- 
self to the propagation, by writing and other- 
wise, of the faith which he had embraced. He 
was put to death at Rome in the persecution 
under Marcus Antoninus, about 165. Justin 
wrote a large number of works in Greek, sev- 
eral of which have come down to us Of these 
the most important are, 1. An Apology for the 
Christians, addressed to Antoninus Pius, about 
139 ; 2. A Second Apology for the Christians, ad- 
dressed to the emperors M. Aurelius and L. 
Verus ; 3. A dialogue with Tryphon the Jew, in 
which Justin defends Christianity against the 
objections of Tryphon. The best edition of the 
collected works of Justin is by Otto, Jena, 1842- 
1844, 2 vols. 8vo; [second edition, Jena, 1848- 
50, 3 vols. 8vo.] 

Justus, a Jewish historian of Tiberias in Gal-- 
ila?a, was a contemporary of the historian Jo- 
sephus, who was very hostile to him. 

J uturna, the nymph of a fountain in Latium, 
famous for its healing qualities. Its water was 
used in nearly all sacrifices ; a chapel was ded- 
icated to its nymph at Rome in the Campus 
Martius by Lutatius Catulus ; and sacrifices 
were offered to her on the 11th of January. A 
pond in the forum, between the temples of Cas- 
tor and Vesta, was called Laeus Juturnae, 
whence we must infer that the name of the 
nymph Juturna is not connected with jugis, but 
probably with juvare. She is said to have been 
beloved by Jupiter, who rewarded her with im- 
mortality and the rule over the waters. Some 
writers call her the wife of Janus and mother 
of Fontus, but in the iEneid she appears as the 
affectionate sister of Turnus. 

Juvavum or Juvavia (now Salzburg), a town 
in Noricum, on the River Jovavus or Isonta 
414 



(now Salza), was a Roman colony founded by 
Hadrian, and the residence of the Roman gov- 
ernor of the province. It was destroyed by the 
Heruli in the fifth century, but was afterward 
rebuilt. 

Juvenilis, Decimus Junius, the Great Roman 
satirist, but of whose fife we have few authentic 
particulars. His ancient biographers relate 
that he was either the son or the " alumnus " of 
a rich freedman ; that he occupied himself, until 
he had nearly reached the term of middle fife, 
in declaiming ; that, having subsequently com- 
posed some clever lines upon Paris the panto- 
mime, he was induced to cultivate assiduously 
satirical composition ; and that, in consequence 
of his attacks upon Paris becoming known to 
the court, the poet, although now an old man of 
eighty, was appointed to the command of a body 
of troops, in a remote district of Egypt, where 
he died shortly afterward. It is supposed by 
some that the Paris who was attacked by Ju 
venal was the contemporary of Domitian, and 
that the poet was accordingly banished by this 
emperor. But this opinion is clearly untena- 
ble. 1. "We know that Paris was killed in A.D. 
83, upon suspicion of an^ intrigue with the Em- 
press Domitia. 2. The fourth satire, as appears 
from the concluding lines, was written after the 
death of Domitian, that is, not earlier than 96. 
3. The first satire, as we learn from the forty- 
ninth fine, was written after the condemnation 
of Marius Priscus, that is, not earlier than 100. 
These positions admit of no doubt ; and hence 
it is established that Juvenal was alive at least 
seventeen years after the death of Paris, and 
that some of his satires were composed after 
the death of Domitian. The only facts with 
regard to Juvenal upon which we can implicitly 
rely are, that he flourished toward the close of 
the first centuiy ; that Aquinum, if not the place 
of his nativity, was at least his chosen residence 
(Sat, iii, 319) ; and that he is, in all probability, 
the friend whom Martial addresses in three epi- 
grams. There is, perhaps, another circum- 
stance which we may admit. We are told that 
he declaimed for many years of his life ; and 
every page in his writings bears evidence to 
the accuracy of this assertion. Each piece is 
a finished rhetorical essay, energetic, glowing, 
and sonorous. He denounces vice in the most 
indignant terms ; but the obvious tone of exag- 
geration which pervades all his invectives 
leaves us in doubt how far this sustained pas- 
sion is real, and how far assumed for show. 
The extant works of Juveual consist of sixteen 
satires, the last being a fragment of very doubt- 
ful authenticity, all composed in heroic hexam- 
eters. Edited by Ruperti, Lips., 1819 ; and by 
Heinrich, Bonn, 1839. 
Jcventas. Vid. Hebe. 

Juventius. 1. Celsus. Vid. Celrus. — 2. 
Laterensis. Vid. Laterensis. — 3. Thalna. — 
Vid. Thalna. 

[Juverna, another name for Hibernia. Vid. 
Hibernia.] 

" mmHwG I^ ■ 

Labda (Aa'6i5a), a daughter of the Bacchiad Am- 
phion, and mother of Cypselus by Eetion. Vid 
Ctpselus. 



LABDACIDiE. 



LABUS. 



LabdaoiDjE. Vid. Labdacus. 
.Labdacus (Ad66aKoc), son of the Theban king 
Polydorus, by Nycteis, daughter of Nycteus. 
Labdaeus lost his father at an early age, and 
was placed under the guardianship of Nycteus, 
and afterward under that of Lycus, a brother 
of Nycteus. When Labdaeus had grow up to 
manhood, Lycus surrendered the government 
to him ; and on the death of Labdacus, which 
occurred soon after, Lycus undertook the guard- 
ianship of his son Laius, the father of (Edipus. 
The name Labdacidx is frequently given to the 
descendants of Labdaeus — (Edipus, Polynices, 
Eteocles, and Antigone. 

Labdalum. Vid. Syracuse. 
Labeates, a warlike people in Dalmatia, 
whose chief town was Seodra, and in whose 
territory was the Labeatis Palus (now Lake of 
Scutari), through which the River Barbana (now 
Bogana) runs. 

Labeo, Antistius. 1. A Roman jurist, was 
one of the murderers of Julius Caesar, and put 
an end to his life after the battle of Philippi, B.C. 
42. — 2. Son of the preceding, and a still more 
eminent jurist. He adopted the republican opin- 
ions of his father, and was, in consequence, dis- 
liked by Augustus. It is probable that the 
Labeone insanior of Horace (Sat., i., 3, 80) was 
a stroke levelled at the jurist, in order to please 
the emperor. Labeo wrote a large number of 
works, which are cited in the Digest. He was 
the founder of one of the two great legal schools 
spoken of under Capito. 

Labeo, Q. Fabius, quaestor urbanus B.C. 196 ; 
praetor 189, when he commanded the fleet in the 
war against Antiochus ; and consul 183. 

Laberius, Decimus, a Roman eques, and a 
distinguished writer of mimes, was born about 
B.C. 107, and died in 43 at Puteoli, in Campa- 
nia. At Caesar's triumphal games in October, 
45, P. Syrus, a professional mimus, seems to 
have challenged all his craft to a trial of wit in 
extemporaneous farce, and Caesar offered Labe- 
rius five hundred thousand sesterces to appear 
on the stage. Laberius was sixty years old, 
and the profession of a mimus was infamous, 
but the wish of the dictator was equivalent to 
a command, and he reluctantly complied. He 
had, however, revenge in his power, and took 
it. His prologue awakened compassion, and 
perhaps indignation ; and, during the perform- 
ance, he adroitly availed himself of his various 
characters to point his wit at Caesar. In the 
person of a beaten Syrian slave he cried out, 
" Marry ! Quirites, but we lose our freedom" 
(Porro, Quirites, libertatem perdidimus), and all 
eyes were turned upon the dictator ; and in an- 
other mime he uttered the pregnant maxim, 
"Needs must he fear who makes all else 
adread" (Necesse est multos timeat quem multi 
timent). Caesar, impartially or vindictively, 
awarded the prize, to Syrus. The prologue of 
Laberius has been preserved by Macrobius (Sat., 
ii., V); and, if this may be taken as a specimen 
of his style, he would rank above Terence, and 
second only to Plautus, in dramatic vigor. La- 
berius evidently made great impression on his 
contemporaries, although he is depreciated by 
Horace (Sat., i., 10, 6). 

Labioum, LAbici, Lavioum, Lavici (Labica-, 
mis : now Golonna), an ancient town in Latium 



on one of the hills of the Alban Mountain, fifteen 
miles southeast of Rome, west of Praeneste, and 
northeast of Tusculum, It was an ally of the 
Mqoi ; it was taken and was colonized by the 
Romans, B.C. 418. 

Labienus. 1. T., tribune of the plebs B.C. 
63, the year of Cieero's consulship. Under pre- 
tence of avenging his uncle's death, who had 
joined Saturninus (100), and had perished along 
with the other conspirators, he accused Rabir- 
ius of perduellio or high treason. Rabirius was 
defended by Cicero. Vid. Rabirius. In bis 
tiibuneship Labienus was entirely devoted to 
Caesar's interests. Accordingly, when Cassar 
went into Transalpine Gaul in 58, he took Labi- 
enus with him as his legatus. Labienus con- 
tinued with Ca?sar during the greater part of 
his campaigns in G-aul, and was the ablest offi- 
cer he had. On the breaking out of the civil 
war in 49, he deserted Caesar and joined Pom- 
pey. His defection caused the greatest joy 
among the Pompeian party ; but he disappoint- 
ed the expectations of his new friends, and 
never performed any thing of importance. He 
fought against his old commander at the battle 
of Pharsalia in Greece, 48, at the battle of Thap- 
sus in Africa, 46, and at the battle of Munda in 
Spain, 45. He was slain in the last 'of these 
battles. — 2. Q., son of the preceding, joined the 
party of Brutus and Cassius after the murder 
of Caesar, and was sent by them into Parthia to 
seek aid from Orodes, the Parthian king. Be- 
fore he could obtain any definite answer from 
Orodes, the news came of the battle of Philippi, 
42. Two years afterward he persuaded Orodes 
to intrust him with the command of a Parthian 
army ; and Pacorus, the son of Orodes, was as- 
sociated with him in the command. In 40 they 
crossed the Euphrates and met with great suc- 
cess. They defeated Decidius Saxa, the lieu- 
tenant of Antony, obtained possession of the 
two great towns of Antiooh and Apamea, and 
penetrated into Asia Minor. But in the follow- 
ing year, 39, P. Ventidius, the most able of An- 
tony's legates, defeated the Parthians. Labi- 
enus fled in disguise into Cilicia, where he was 
apprehended and put to death. — 3. T., a cele- 
brated orator and historian in the reign of Au- 
gustus, either son or grandson of No. 1. He re- 
tained all the republican feelings of his family 
and never became reconciled to the imperial 
government, but took every opportunity to attack 
Augustus and his friends. His enemies obtained 
a decree of the senate that all his writings should 
be burned ; whereupon he shut himself up in the 
tomb of his ancestors, and thus perished, about 
A.D. 12. 

Labranda (to. AdBpavda : AaSpavdsvc, Aa6pav- 
Srivbc, Labrandeuus), a town in Caria. sixty-eight 
stadia north of Mylasa, celebrated for its temple 
of Jupiter (Zeus) Stratios or Labrandenus, on a 
hill near the city. Mr. Fellowes considers some 
ruius at Jahli to be those of the temple ; but this 
is doubtful. 

Labeo, a sea port in Etruria, mentioned by 
Cicero along with Pisa;, and supposed by some 
to be the Liburnum mentioned by Zosimus, and 
the modern Livorno or Leghorn. Others, how- 
ever, maintain that the ancient Portus Pisanus 
corresponds to Leghorn. 

Labus or Labutas (AuGoq or Aa6ovrag : now 
415 



LABYNETUS. 



LACTANTHJS. 



Sobad Koh, part of the JElburz), a mountain of 
Parthia, between the Coronus and the Sariphi 
Montes. 

Labynetus (AabvvtfToc), a name common to 
several of the Babylonian monarehs, seems to 
have been a title rather than a proper name. The 
Labynetus mentioned by Herodotus (i., 74) as 
mediating a peace between Oyaxares and Alyat- 
tes is the same with Nebuchadnezzar. The 
Labynetus who is mentioned by Herodotus (i., 
77) as a contemporary of Cyrus and Crcesus is 
the same with the Belshazzar of the prophet 
Daniel. By other writers he is called Nabona- 
dius or Nabonidus. He was the last king of 
Babylon. Vid. Cyrus. 

Labyrinthus. Vid. Diet, of Antiq., s. v. 

Laced^emon (AaK.edaip.uv), son of Jupiter 
(Zeus) and Taygete, was married to Sparta, the 
daughter of Eurotas, by whom he became the 
father of Amyclas, Eurydice, and Asine. He 
was king of the country which he called after 
bis own name, Lacedsemon, while he called the 
capital Sparta after the name of his wife. Vid. 
Sparta. 

Laced^emonIus (Aafcedaifiovtoc), son of Cimon, 
so named in honor of the Lacedaemonians. 

Laoedas (AaKqdac) or Leocedes (Herod., vi., 
127), king of Argos, and father of Melas. 

Lacetani, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
at the foot of the Pyrenees. 

Lachaees (Aaxtlpvs)- I. An Athenian dema- 
gogue, made himself tyrant of Athens B.C. 
296, when the city was besieged by Demetrius. 
When Athens was on the point of falling into 
the hands of Demetrius, Lachares made his 
escape to Thebes. — 2. An eminent Athenian 
rhetorician, who flourished in the fifth century 
of our era. 

Laches (Auxvs), an Athenian commander in 
the Peloponnesian war, is first mentioned in 
B.C. 427. He fell at the battle of Mantinea, 
418. In the dialogue of Plato which bears his 
name, he is represented as not over-acute in ar- 
gument, and with temper on a par with his 
acuteness. 

Lachesis, one of the Pates. Vid. Mcer^e. 

Lacia or LaciadjE {Aan'ia, AaK.Lu.5ai : AaKiddrje, 
AaKuvc), a demus in Attica, belonging to the 
tribe (Eneis, west of, and near to Athens. 

Laoinium (Aaniviov aapov), a promontory on 
the eastern coast of Bruttium, a few miles south 
of Croton, and forming the western boundary 
of the Tarentine Gulf. It possessed a cele- 
brated temple of Juno, who was worshipped here 
under the surname of Laciuia. The remains of 
this temple are still extant, and have given the 
modern name to the promontory, Capo delle Co- 
lonne or Gapo di Nao (vabe). Hannibal dedicat- 
ed in this temple a bilingual inscription (in Punic 
and Greek), which recorded the history of his 
campaigns, and of which Polybius made use in 
writing his history. 

Laoippo (now Alecippe), a town in Hispania 
Baetica, not far from the sea, and west of Mal- 
aca. 

Laomon or Lacmus (Adufiuv, Aduiioc), the 
northern part of Mount Pindus, in which the 
River Aous has its origin. 

Lacobriga. 1, (Now Lobcra), a town of the 
Vaccoei in the north of Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, on the road from Asturica to Tarraco. — 2. 
416 



(Now Lagoa), a town on the southwest ol Lusi- 
tania, east of the Promontorium Sacrum. 

Laconica (AaKuvLK-q), sometimes called Laco- 
nia by the Romans, a country of Peloponnesus, 
was bounded on the north by Argolis and Ar- 
cadia, on the west by Messenia, and on the east 
and south by the sea. Laconica was a long 
valley, running southward to the sea, and was 
inclosed on three sides by mountains. On the 
north it was separated by Mount Parnon from 
Argolis, and by Mount Sciritis from Arcadia. 
It was bounded by Mount Taygetus on the west, 
and by Mount Parnon on the east, which are 
two masses of mountains extending from Ar- 
cadia to the southern extremities of the Pelo- 
ponnesus, Mount Taygetus terminating at the 
Promontorium Tamarum, and Mount Parnon 
continued under the names of Thornax and 
Zarex, terminating at the Promontorium Malea. 
The River Eurotas flows through the valley 
lying between these mountain masses, and falls 
into the Laconian Gulf. In the upper part of 
its course the valley is narrow, and near Sparta 
the mountains approach so close to each other 
as to leave little more than room for the chan 
nel of the river. It is for this reason that we 
find the vale of Sparta called the hollow Lace- 
daimon. Below Sparta the mountains recede, 
and the valley opens out into a plain of consid- 
erable extent. The soil of this plain is poor, 
but on the slopes of the mountains there is land 
of considerable fertility. There were valuable 
marble quarries near Tsenarus. Off the coast 
shell-fish were caught, which produced a purple 
dye inferior only to the Tyrian. Laconica is 
well described by Euripides as difficult of access 
to an enemy. On the north the country could 
only be invaded by the valleys of the Eurotas 
and the (Enus ; the range of Taygetus formed 
an almost insuperable barrier on the west ; and 
the want of good harbors on the eastern coast 
protected it from invasion by sea on that side. 
Sparta was the only town of importance in the 
country. Vid. Sparta. The most ancient in- 
habitants of the country are said to have been 
Cynurians and Leleges. They were expelled 
or conquered by the Achreans, who were the 
inhabitants of the country in the heroic age. 
The Dorians afterward invaded Peloponnesus 
and became the ruling race in Laconica. Some 
of the old Achasan inhabitants were reduced to 
slavery ; but a great number of them became 
subjects of the Dorians under the name of JPcri- 
ceci (HepioiKoi). The general name for the in- 
habitants is Lacones (Aukcjvcc) or Laced,emonh 
(Aaicedaipovtot) ; but the Perieeci are frequently 
called Lacedtemonii, to distinguish them from the 
Spartans. ' 

Laconicus Sinus (kCXtzoc Aokuvikoc), a gulf 
in the south of Peloponuesus, into which the 
Eurotas falls, beginning west at the Promonto- 
rium Taenarum, and east at the Promontorium 
Malea. 

[Lacratides (AaKpartdiig), said to have been 
an archon at Athens at the time of the Persian 
invasion : in his archonship there was so heavy 
a fall of snow, and so intense cold, that the 
epithet " Zacratidian" became proverbial for in- 
tense cold.] 

Laotantius, a celebrated Christian father, 
but his exact name, the place of his nativity. 



LACTARIUS MONS. 



L.ELIUS. 



and the date of his birth, are uncertain. In 
modern works we find him denominated Lucius 
Ccelius Firmianus Laclantius; but the two for- 
mer appellations, in the second of which Gcecil- 
ius is often substituted for Coelius, are omitted 
in many MSS., while the two latter are fre- 
quently presented in an inverted order. Since 
he is spoken of as far advanced in life about 
A.D. 315, he must have been born not later than 
the middle of the third century, probably in 
Italy, possibly at Firmurn, on the Adriatic, and 
eertaiuly studied in Africa, where he became 
the pupil of Arnobius, who taught rhetoric at 
Sicca. His fame became so widely extended, 
that about 301 he was invited by Diocletian to 
6ettle at Nicomedia, and there to practice his 
art. At this period he appears to have become 
a Christian. He was summoned to Gaul about 
312-318, when now an old man, to superintend 
the education of Crispus, son of Constantine, 
and he probably died at Treves some ten or 
twelve years afterward (325-330). The extant 
works of Lactantius, are, I. Divinarum Institu- 
tionum Libri VII., a sort of introduction to 
Christianity, intended to supersede the less per- 
fect treatises of Minucius Felix, Tertullian, and 
Cyprian. Each of the seven books bears a sep- 
arate title : (1.) De Falsa Religione. (2.) De 
Origine Frroris. (3.) De Falsa Sapientia. (4.) 
De Vera Sapientia et Religione. (5.) De Justitia. 
(6.) De Vero Cultu. (7.) De VitaBeata. — n. An 
Epitome of the Institutions. — in. De Ira Dei. — 
rv. De Opificio Dei s. De Formatione Hominis. — 
v. De Mortibus Persecutorum. — vi. Various Po- 
ems, most of which were probably not written by 
Lactantius. The style of Lactantius, formed 
upon the model of the great orator of Rome, has 
gained for him the appellation of the Christian 
Cicero, and not undeservedly. The best edition 
of Lactantius is by Le Brun and Lenglet du 
Fresnoy, Paris, 1748. 

Lactarius Moms or Lacks Mons, a mountain 
in Campania, belonging to the Apennines, four 
miles east of Stabise, so caHed because the cows 
which grazed upon it produced excellent milk. 
Here Narses gained a victory over the Goths, 
A.D. 553. 

[Lactodurum (now probably Towcester), a city 
of the Catyeuchlani in Britannia Romana, on the 
way from Londinium to Lindum.] 

Lacydes (Aanvdnc,) a native of Cyrene, suc- 
ceeded Arcesilaus as president of the Academy 
at Athens. The place where his instructions 
were delivered was a garden, named the Lacy- 
deum (Aanvdeiov), provided for the purpose by 
his friend Attalus Philometor, king of Pergamus. 
This alteration in the locality of the school seems 
at least to have contributed to the rise of the 
name of the New Academy. He died about 215 
from the effects, it is said, of excessive drink- 
ing- 

Lade (Au&rf), an island off the western coast 
of Caria, opposite to Miletus and to the bay into 
which the Maaander falls. 

[Lades, son of Imbrasus, a follower of jEueas, 
slain by Turnus in Italy.] 

Ladon (Adduv). 1. The dragon who guard- 
ed the apples of the Hesperides, was the off- 
spring of Typhon and Echidna, or of Terra (Ge), 
or of Phorcys and Ceto. He was slain by Her- 
cules ; and the representation of the battle was 
27 



placed by Jupiter (Zeus) among the stars.- -^2. 
An Arcadian, companion and friend of ^Eneas, 
slain by Halesus.] 

Ladon (Audov). 1. A river in Arcadia, which 
rose near Clitor, and fell into the Alpheus be- 
tween Herse and Phrixa. In mythology Ladon 
is the husband of Stymphalis, and the father of 
Daphne and Metope. — 2. A small river in Elis, 
which rose on the frontiei's of Achaia and fell into 
the Peneus. 

L^setani, a people on the eastern coast of 
Hispania Tarraconensis, near the mouth of the 
River Rubicatus (now Llobregat), probably the 
same as the Laletani, whose country, Lale- 
tania, produced good wine, and whose chief 
town was Barcino. 

L^elaps (AaiXaty), i. e., the storm wind, per- 
sonified in the legend of the dog of Proeris 
which bore this name. Proeris had received 
this swift animal from Diana (Artemis), and 
gave it to her husband Cephalus. When the 
Teumessian fox was sent to punish the The- 
bans, Cephalus sent the dog Lffilaps against the 
fox. The dog overtook the fox, but Jupiter 
(Zeus) changed both animals into a stone, which 
was shown in the neighborhood of Thebes. 

L.elianus, one of the thirty tyrants, emper- 
or in Gaul after the death of Postumus, A.D. 
267, was slain, after a few months, by his own 
soldiers, who proclaimed Victorinus in his 
stead. 

L^slius. 1. G, was from early manhood the 
friend and companion of Scipio Africanus the 
elder, and fought under him in almost all his 
campaigns. He was consul B.C. 190, and ob- 
tained the province of Cisalpine Gaul. — 2. C, 
surnamed Sapiens, son of the preceding. His 
intimacy with Scipio Africanus the younger was 
as remarkable as his father's friendship with the 
elder, and it obtained an imperishable monument 
in Cicero's treatise Lodius sive de Amicitia. He 
was born about 186, was tribune of the plebs 
151, prsetor 145, and consul 140. Though not 
devoid of military talents, as his campaign 
against the Lusitanian Viriathus proved, he 
was more of a statesman than a soldier, and 
more of a philosopher than a statesman. From 
Diogenes of Babylon, and afterward from Pa- 
nastius, he imbibed the doctrines of the Stoic 
school ; his father's friend Polybius was his 
friend also ; the wit and idiom of Terence 
were pointed and polished by his and Scipio's 
conversation ; and the satirist Lucilius was his 
familiar companion. The political opinions of 
Laelius were different at different periods of his 
life. He endeavored, probably during his trib- 
unate, to procure a redivision of the public land, 
but he desisted from the attempt, and for his 
forbearance received the appellation of the Wise 
or the Prudent. He afterward became a stren- 
uous supporter of the aristocratical party. Sev- 
eral of his orations were extant in the time of 
Cicero, but were characterized more by smooth- 
ness (lenitas) than by power. Lajlius is the 
principal interlocutor in Cicero's dialogue De 
Amicitia, and is one of the speakers in the De 
Senectute and in the De Republica. His twr- 
daughters w ere married, the one to Q. Mucius 
Scsevola, the augur, the other to C. Fanuius 
Strabo. The opinion of his worth seems to 
have been universal, and it is one of Seneca's 
417 



L^ENAS, popilius. 



LAIUS. 



injunctions to his friend Lucilius " to live like 
Lsalius." 

L^nas, Popilius, plebeians. The family was 
unfavorably distinguished, even among the Ro- 
mans, for their sternness, cruelty, and haughti- 
ness of character. 1. M., four times consul, B. 
C. 359, 356, 350, 348. In his third consulship 
(350) he won a hard-fought battle against the 
Gauls, for which he celebrated a triumph — the 
first ever obtained by a plebeian. — 2. M., praetor 
176, consul 172, and censor 159. In his con- 
sulship he defeated the Ligurian mountaineers ; 
and when the remainder of the tribe surrender- 
ed to him, he sold them all as slaves. — 3. C, 
brother of No. 2, was consul 172. He was aft- 
erward sent as ambassador to Antiochus, king 
of Syria, whom the senate wished to abstain 
from hostilities against Egypt. Antiochus was 
just marching upon Alexandrea when Popilius 
gave him the letter of the senate, which the 
king read, and promised to take into considera- 
tion with his friends. Popilius straightway de- 
scribed with his cane a circle in the sand round 
the king, and ordered him not to stir out of it 
before he had given a decisive answer. This 
boldness so frightened Antiochus, that he at 
once yielded to the demand of Rome. — 4. P., 
consul 132, the year after the murder of Tib. 
Gracchus. He was charged by the victorious 
aristocratical party with the prosecution of the 
accomplices of Gracchus ; and in this odious 
task he showed all the hard-heartedness of his 
family. He subsequently withdrew hi m self, by 
voluntary exile, from the vengeance of C. Grac- 
chus, and did not return to Rome till after his 
death. 

[Laehces (Aaep/o?c). 1. Father of Alcimedou, 
one of the chiefs of the Myrmidons under Achil- 
les. — 2. An artist employed by Nestor to gild 
the horns of the victims sacrificed to the gods.] 

Laeetes (Aaeprnc), king of Ithaca, was son 
of Acrisius and Chalcomedusa, and husband of 
Anticlea, by whom he became the father of Ulys- 
ses and Ctimene. Some writers call Ulysses 
the son of Sisyphus. Vid. Anticlea. Laertes 
took part in the Calydonian hunt, and in the 
expedition of the Argonauts. He was still alive 
when Ulysses returned to Ithaca after the fall of 
Troy. 

Laertius, Diogenes. Vid. Diogenes. 

Lvestrygones (Aaiarpvyovec), a savage race 
of cannibals, whom Ulysses encountered in his 
wanderings. They were governed by Antiph- 
ates and Lamus. They belong, however, to my- 
thology rather than to history. The modern in- 
terpreters of Homer place them on the north- 
western coast of Sicily. The Greeks themselves 
placed them on the eastern coast of the island, in 
the plains of Leontini, which are therefore called 
Lcestrygonii Campi. The Romans, however, and 
more especially the Roman poets, who regarded 
the Promontorium Circeium as the Homeric 
island of Circe, transplanted the Laestrygones 
to the southern coast of Latium, in the neighbor- 
hood of Formife, which they supposed to have 
been built by Lamus, the king of this people. 
Hence Horace (Carm., iii., 16, 34) speaks of 
Lmslrigonia Bacchus in amphora, that is, For- 
mian wine ; and Ovid {Met, xiv., 233) calls Formiae 
LoEstrygonis Lami Urbs, 

L^vi or Levi, a Ligurian people in Gallia 
418 



Transpadana, on the River Tieinus, who, hi con. 
junction with the Marici, built the town of Ti- 
cinum (now Pavia.) 

Laevinus, Valerius. 1. P., consul B.C. 280, 
had the conduct of the war against Pyrrhus. 
The king wrote to Laevinus, offering to arbitrate 
between Rome and Tarentum ; but Laevinus 
bluntly bade him mind his own business, and 
begone to Epirus. An Epirot spy having been 
taken in the Roman lines, Laevinus showed him 
the legions under arms, and bade him tell his 
master, if he was curious about the Roman men 
and tactics, to come and see them himself. In 
the battle which followed, Ltevinus was defeat- 
ed by Pyrrhus on the banks of the Siris. — 2. M., 
praetor 215, crossed over to Greece and carried 
on war against Philip. He continued in the 
command in Greece till 211, when he was elect- 
ed consul in his absence. In his consulship 
(210) he carried on the war in Sicily, and took 
Agrigentum. He continued as proconsul in 
Sicily for several years, and in 208 made a de- 
scent upon the coast of Africa. He died 200, 
and his sons Publius and Marcus honored his 
memory with funeral games and gladiatorial 
combats, exhibited during four successive days 
in the forum. — 3. C, son of No. 2, was by the mo- 
ther's side brother of M. Fulvius Nobilior, consul 
189. Laevinus was himself consul in 176, and 
carried on war against the Ligurians. 

Lagos, a city in great Phrygia. 

Lagus (Adyoc), a Macedonian of obscure birth, 
was the father, or reputed father, of Ptolemy, 
the founder of the Egyptian monarchy He 
married Arsinoe, a concubine of Philip of Mace- 
don, who was said to have been pregnant at the 
time of their marriage, on which account the 
Macedonians generally looked upon Ptolemy as 
the son of Philip. 

Lais. (Aaic), the name of two celebrated 
Grecian Hetaerae or courtezans. 1. The elder, 
a native probably of Corinth, lived in the time 
of the Peloponnesian war, and was celebrated 
as the most beautiful woman of her age. She 
was notorious also for her avarice and caprice. 
— 2. The younger, was the daughter of Timan- 
dra, and was probably born at Hyccara in Sicily. 
According to some accounts she was brought 
to Corinth when seven years old, having been 
taken prisoner in the Athenian expedition to 
Sicily, and bought by a Corinthian. This story, 
however, involves numerous difficulties, and 
seems to have arisen from a confusion between 
this Lais and the elder one of the same name. 
She was a contemporary and rival of Phryne. 
She became enamored of a Thessalian named 
Hippolochus or Hippostratus, and accompanied 
him to Thessaly. Here, it is said, some Thessa- 
lian women, jealous of her beauty, enticed her 
into a temple of Venus (Aphrodite), and there 
stoned her to death. 

[Laispodias (Aatonodiac), an Athenian com- 
mander in the Peloponnesian war. In B. C. 411 
one of the envoys s-ent by the Four Hundred to 
Sparta.] 

Laius (Aai'oc), son of Labdacus, lost his father 
at an early age, and was brought up by Lycus. 
Vid. Labdacus. When Lycus was slain by Am- 
phion and Zethus, Laius took refuge with Pe- 
lops in Peloponnesus. After the death of Am- 
phion and Zethus, Laius returned to Thebes, 



! 



LALA. 



LAMPUS. 



aDd ascended the throne of his father. He 
married Jocasta, and became by her the father 
of (Edipus, by whom he was slain. For details, 
vid. CEdipds. 

[Lala, of Cyzicus, a female painter, who 
lived at Eome about B.C. 74 ; celebrated espe- 
cially for her portraits of women.] 

Lalage, a common name of courtezans, from 
the Greek Xa^ayij, prattling, used as a term of 
endearment, " little prattler." 

Laleta.ni. Vid. LjEetani. 

Lamachus (Aufxaxoc), an Athenian, son of 
Xenojshanes, was the colleague of Alcibiades 
and Nieias in the great Sicilian expedition, B. 
C. 415. He fell under the walls of Syracuse, 
in a sally of the besieged. He appears among 
the dramatis personae of Aristophanes as the 
brave and somewhat blustering soldier, delight- 
ing in the war, and thankful, moreover, for its 
pay. Plutarch describes him as brave, but so 
poor, that on every fresh appointment he used 
to beg for money from the government to buy 
clothing and shoes. 

[Lambbus (now Lambro), a river in Gallia 
Transpadana, which rose in the Lake Eupilis 
(now Lago di Pusiano), and fell into the Po be- 
tween Ticinum and Placentia.] 

Lametus (now Lamaia), a river in Bruttium, 
near Croton, which falls into the Lameticds 
Sinus. Upon it was the town Lametini (now 
St. Evfemia). 

Lamia (Aafita). 1. A female phantom. Vid. 
Empusa. — 2. A celebrated Athenian courtezan, 
was a favorite mistress for many years of De- 
metrius Poliorcetes. 

Lamia, ^Elius. This family claimed a high 
antiquity, and pretended to be descended from 
the mythical hero Lamus. 1. L., a Roman 
eques, supported Cicero in the suppression of 
the Catilinarian conspiracy, B.C. 63, and was 
accordingly banished by the influence of the 
consuls Gabinius and Piso in 58. He was sub- 
sequently recalled from exile, and during the 
civil wars espoused Caesar's party. — 2. L., son 
of the preceding, and the friend of Horace, was 
consul A.D. 3. He was made praefectus urbi 
in 32, but he died in the following year. — 3. L., 
was married to Domitia Longina, the daughter 
of Corbulo; but during the lifetime of Vespa- 
sian he was deprived of her by Domitian, who 
first lived with her as his mistress, and subse- 
quently married her. Lamia was put to death 
by Domitian after his accession to the throne. 

Lamia (Aa/ua : Aafiievg, AajuuTrjc : now Zeitun 
or Zeituni), a town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, 
situated on the small river Achelous, and fifty 
stadia inland from the Maliac Gulf, on which it 
possessed a harbor, called Phalara. It has given 
its name to the war, which was carried on by 
the confederate Greeks against Antipater after 
the death of Alexander, B.C. 323. The con- 
federates under the command of Leosthenes, 
the Athenian, defeated Antipater, who took ref- 
uge in Lamia, where he was besieged for some 
months. Leosthenes was killed during the 
siege ; and the confederates were obliged to 
raise it in the following year (322), in conse- 
quence of the approach of Leonnatus. The 
confederates under the command of Antiphilus 
defeated Leonnatus, who was slain in the ac- 
tion. Soon afterward Antipater was joined by 



Craterus ; and, thus strengthened, he gained a 
decisive victory over the confederates at the 
battle of Cranon, which put an end to the La- 
mian war. 

Laminium (Laminitanus), a town of the Car- 
petani in Hispania Tarraconensis, ninety-five 
miles southeast of Toletum. 

Lampa or Lappa (Ad/nri}, Admrr/ : Aajinalo^, 
Aa^nsvo), a town in the north of Crete, a little 
inland, south of Hydramum, said to have been 
built by Agamemnon, but to have been called 
after Lampus. 

Lampea (rj AdfiTiELa), or Lampeus Mons, a part 
of the mountain range of Erymanthus, on the 
frontiers of Achaia and Elis. 

Lampetia (Aa/nrenTj), daughter of Helios by 
the nymph Neaera. She and her sister Phae- 
thusa tended the flocks of their father in Sicily. 
In some legends she appears as one of the sis- 
ters of Phaethon. 

Lampon (Adfinov). 1. An ^Eginetan, son of 
Pytheas, urged Pausanias, after the battle of 
Plataeae, to avenge the death of Leonidas by in- 
sulting the corpse of Mardonius. — 2. An Athe- 
nian, a celebrated soothsayer and interpreter of 
oracles. In conjunction with Xenocritus, he 
led the colony which founded Thurii in Italy, B. 
C. 443. 

Lamponja or -ium (Aa/iTruveca, -6viov), an 
important city of Mysia, in the interior of the 
Troad, near the borders of JSolis. 

[Lamponius M., a Lucanian, one of the prin- 
cipal captains of the Italians in the war of the 
allies With Rome, B.C. 90-88.] 

LAMPRA, LAMPKyE, or Lahptr^e (Aa/UTTpd, 

AafiTvpat, AafiTrrpat : Aa/iirpevc : now Lamorica), 
a demus on the western coast of Attica, near 
the promontory Astypahea, belonging to the 
tribe Erechtheis. It was divided into an upper 
and a lower city. 

Lampridius, JElius, one of the Scriptores 
Historic Augustce, lived in the reigns of Diocle- 
tian and Coustantine, and wrote the lives of 
the emperors : 1. Commodus ; 2. Antoninus Di- 
adumenus ; 3. Elagabalus ; and, 4. Alexander 
Severus. It is not improbable that Lampridius 
is the same as Spartianus, and that the name 
of the author in full was JElius Lampridius 
Spartianus. For the editions of Lampridius, 
vid. Capitolinus. 

[Lamprocles {AapL-KpoKliig). 1. The eldest 
son of Socrates. — 2. An Athenian dithyrambic 
poet and musician, who probably flourished at 
the end of the sixth or beginning of the fifth 
century B.C.] 

Lampsacus (Adfiipanoc: : AafiipanTivoc; : ruins at 
Lapsaki) an important city of Mysia, in Asia 
Minor, on the coast of the Hellespont, possess- 
ed a good harbor. It was celebrated for its 
wine ; and hence it was one of the cities as- 
signed by Xerxes to Themistocles for his main- 
tenance. It was the chief seat of the wor- 
ship of Priapus, and the birth-place of the his- 
torian Charon, the philosophers Adimantus and 
Metrodorus, and the rhetorician Anaximenes. 
Lampsacus was a colony of the Phocaeans : 
the name of the surrounding district, Bebrycia, 
connects its old inhabitants with the Thracian 
Bebryces. 

[Lampus (A<zu7rof). 1. A eon of Laomedon, 
and father of Dolops, was one of the Trojac 
419 



LAMUS. 



LAODAMIA. 



elders. — 2. The name of two horses, one be- 
longing to Aurora (Eos), the other to Hector.] 

Lamus (Au/zof ). 1. Son of Neptune (Poseidon), 
and king of the Liestrygones, was said to have 
founded Forniise in Italy. Vid. Forhle. — 
[2. A Rutulian leader, slain by Nisus.] 

Lamus (Au/xog : now Lamas), a river of Cili- 
cia, the boundary between Cilieia Aspera and 
Cilicia Oampestris ; with a town of the same 
name. 

[Lanassa [Auvaaaa). 1. Grand-daughter of 
Hercules, carried away from the temple of 
Jupiter (Zeus) at Dodona by Pyrrhus, son of 
Achilles, bore him eight children. — 2. Daughter 
of Agathocles, wife of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus ; 
left him to marry Demetrius Poliorcetes.] 

Lancia (Lancienses). 1. (Now Sollanco or 
Sollancia, near Leon), a town of the Astures 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, nine miles east of 
Legio, was destroyed by the Romans. — 2. Sur- 
named Oppidana, a town of the Vettones in 
Lusitania, not far from the sources of the 
River Munda. — [3. L. Transcudana (now Ci- 
udad Rodrigo), a town of Hispania, east of No. 
2, so called from lying on the other side of the 
river Cuda (now C'oa).] 

Langobardi or Longobardi, corrupted into 
Lombards, a German tribe of the Suevic race. 
They dwelt originally on the left bank of the 
Elbe, near the River Saale ; but they afterward 
crossed the Elbe, and dwelt on the eastern 
bank of the river, where they were for a time 
subject to Maroboduus in the reign of Tiberius. 
After this they disappear from history for four 
centuries. Like most of the other German 
tribes, they migrated southward ; and in the 
second half of the fifth century we find them 
again on the northern bauk of the Danube, in 
Upper Hungary. Here they defeated and al- 
most annihilated the Heruli. In the middle of 
the sixth century they crossed the Danube, at 
the invitation of Justinian, and settled in Pan- 
nonia. Here they were engaged for thirty 
years in a desperate conflict with the Gepidae, 
which only ended with the extermination of 
the latter people. In A.D. 568, Alboin, the 
king of the Lombards, under whose command 
they had defeated the Gepidae, led his nation 
across the Julian Alps, and conquered the 
plains of Northern Italy, which received and 
have ever since retained the name of Lom- 
bardy. Here he founded the celebrated king- 
dom of the Lombards, which existed for up- 
ward of two centuries, till its overthrow by 
Charlemagne. Paulus Diaconus, who was a 
Lombard by birth, derives their name of Lan- 
gobardi from their long beards ; but modern 
critics reject this etymology, and suppose the 
name to have reference to their dwelling on the 
banks of the Elbe, inasmuch as Bbrde signi- 
fies in low German a fertile plain on the bank 
of a river, and there is still a district in Magde- 
burg called the lange Biirde, Paulus Diaconus 
also states that the Lombards came original- 
ly from Scandinavia, where they were called 
Venili, and that they did not receive the name 
of Langobardi or Long-Beards till they settled 
in Germany ; but this statement ought probably 
to be rejected. 

Lanice {Aaviurf), nurse of Alexander the 
Great, and sister of Olitus. 
420 



Lanuvium (Lanuvinus : now Lavignd), an 
ancient city in Latium, situated on a hill of the 
Alban Mount, not far from the Appia Via, and 
subsequently a Roman municipium. It pos- 
sessed an ancient and celebrated temple of 
Juno Sospita. Under the empire it obtained 
some importance as the birth-place of Antoni- 
nus Pius. Part of the walls of Lanuvium and 
the substructions of the temple of Juno are still 
remaining. 

Laocoon (Aaoaouv), a Trojan, who plays a 
prominent part in the post-Homeric legends, 
was a son of Antenor or Accetes, and a priest 
of the Thymbra>ari Apollo. He tried to dis- 
suade his countrymen from drawing into the 
city the wooden horse, which the Greeks had 
left behind them when they pretended to sail 
away from Troy ; and, to show the danger 
from the horse, he hurled a spear into its side. 
The Trojans, however, would not listen to his 
advice ; and as he was preparing to sacrifice a 
bull to Neptune (Poseidon), suddenly two fear- 
ful serpents were seen swimming toward the 
Trojan coast from Tenedos. They rushed 
toward Laocoon, who, while all the people 
took to flight, remained with his two sons 
standing by the altar of the god. The serpents 
first coiled around the two boys, and then 
ai-ound the father, and thus all three perished. 
The serpents then hastened to the acropolis of 
Troy, and disappeared behind the shield of 
Tritonis. The reason why Laocoon suffered 
this fearful death is differently stated. Ac- 
cording to some, it was because he had run 
his lance into the side of the horse ; accord- 
ing to others, because, contrary to the will of 
Apollo, he had married and begotten children ; 
or, according to others again, because Neptune 
(Poseidon), being hostile to the Trojans, want- 
ed to show to the Trojans in the person of La- 
ocoon what fate all of them deserved. The 
story of Laocoon's death was a fine subject for 
epic and lyric as well as tragic poetry, and was 
therefore frequently related by ancient poets, 
such as by Bacchylides, Sophocles, Euphorion, 
Virgil, and others. His death also formed the 
subject of many ancient works of art ; and a 
magnificent group, representing the father and 
his two sons entwined by the two serpeuts, is 
still extant, and preserved in the Vatican. Vid. 
Agesander. 

[Laocoosa (Aaoiiouoa), wife of Aphareus, 
and mother of Idas and Lynceus in Theocritus.] 

Laodamas (Aaodu/zaf). 1. Son of Alcinous, 
king of the Pha?aeiaus, and Arete. — 2. Son of 
Eteocles, and king of Thebes, in whose reign 
the Epigoni marched against Thebes. In the 
battle against the Epigoni, he slew their leader 
iEgialeus, but was himself slain by Alemseon. 
Others related, that after the battle was lost, 
Laodamas fled to the Eucheleans in Illyricum. 
— [3. A son of Antenor, slaiu before Troy by 
Ajax, son of Telamqn.] 

LaodamIa (Aaodrifieia). 1. Daughter of iicas- 
tus, and wife of Protesilaus. When her hus- 
band was slaiu before Troy, she begged the 
gods to be allowed to converse with him for 
only three hours. The request was granted. 
Mercury (Hermes) led Protesilaus back to the 
upper world, and when Protesilaus died a sec- 
ond time, Laodauaia died with him. A later 



LAODICE. 

tradition states that, after the second death of 
Protesilaus, Laodamia made an image of her 
husband, to -which she paid divine honors ; but 
a9 her father Acastus interfered, and commanded 
her to burn the image, she herself leaped into 
the fire. — 2. Daughter of Bellerophontes, became 
by Jupiter (Zeus) the mother of Sarpedon, and 
was killed by Diana (Artemis) while she was en- 
gaged in weaving. — 3. Nurse of Orestes, usually 
called Arsinoe. 

Laodice (Aaod'iKrf). 1. Daughter of Priam 
and Hecuba, and wife of Helicaon. Some re- 
late that she fell in love with Acamas, the son 
of Theseus, when he came with Diomedes as 
ambassador to Troy, and that she became by 
Acamas the mother of Munitus. Ou the death 
of this son she leaped down a precipice, or 
was swallowed up by the earth. — 2. Daughter 
of Agamemnon and Clytaemnestra (Horn., II., 
ix., 146), called Electra by the tragic poets. 
Vid. Electra. — 3. Mother of Seleucus Nicator, 
the founder of the Syrian monarchy. — 4. Wife 
of Antiochus II. Theos, king of Syria, and 
mother of Seleucus Callinieus. For details, vid. 
p. 66, b. — 5. Wife of Seleucus Callinieus, and 
mother of Seleucus Ceraunus and Antiochus 
the Great. — 6. Wife of Antiochus the Great, 
was a daughter of Mithradates IV., king of 
Pontus, and grand-daughter of No. 4. — *7. Wife 
of Achseus, the cousin and adversary of An- 
tiochus the Great, was a sister of No. 6. — 8. 
Daughter of Antiochus the Great by his wife 
Laodice (No. 6). She was married to her eldest 
brother Antiochus, who died in his father's life- 
time. 195. — 9. Daughter of Seleucus IV. Philo- 
pator, was married to Perseus, king of Macedo- 
nia. — 10. Daughter of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, 
was married to the impostor Alexander Balas. 
— 11. Wife and also sister of Mithradates Eu- 
pator (commonly called the Great), king of 
Pontus. During the absence of her husband, 
and deceived by a report of his death, she 
gave free scope to her amours ; and, alarmed 
for the consequences, on his return attempted 
his life by poison. Her designs were, however, 
betrayed to Mithradates, who immediately put 
her to death. — 12. Another sister of Mithra- 
dates Eupator, married to Ariarathes VI., 
king of Cappadocia. After the death of her 
husband she married Nicomedes, king of Bi- 
thyuia. 

Laodicea (AaodiKeia: Aa.odiK.svc, Laodicensis, 
Laodicenus), the name of six Greek cities in 
Asia, four of which (besides another now un- 
known) were founded by Seleucus I. Nicator, 
and named in honor of his mother Laodice, 
the other two by Antiochus II. and Antiochus 
I. or III. Vid. Nos. 1. and 5. 1. L. An Ly- 
cum (A. npdc to) Avkg), ruins at Eski-Hissar), a 
city of Asia Minor, stood on a ridge of hills 
near the southern bank of the River Lycus 
(now Ghoruh-Su), a tributary of the Maeander, 
a little to the west of Colossse and to the south 
of Hierapolis, on the borders of Lydia, Caria, 
and Phrygia, to each of which it is assigned by 
different writers; but, after the definitive divi- 
sion of the provinces, it is reckoned as belong- 
ing to Great Phrygia, and under the later Ro- 
man emperors it was the capital of Phrygia 
Pacatiana. It was founded by Antiochus II. 
Theos, ou the site of a previously existing 



LAODICEA. 

town, and named in honor of his wife Laodice, 
It passed from the kings of Syria to those of 
Pergamus, and from them to the Romans, ti? 
whom Attalus III. bequeathed his kingdom. 
Under the Romans it belonged to the province 
of Asia. At first it was comparatively an in- 
significant place, and it suffered much from 
the frequent earthquakes to which its site 
seems to be more exposed than that of any 
other city of Asia Minor, and also from the 
Milhradatic War. Under the later Roman re- 
public and the early emperors, it rose to im- 
portance; and, though more than once almost 
destroyed by earthquakes, it was restored by 
the aid of the emperors and the munificence of 
its own citizens, and became, next to Apamea, 
the greatest city in Phrygia, and one of the 
most flourishing in Asia Minor. In an inscrip- 
tion it is called " the most splendid city of 
Asia," a statement confirmed by the magnif- 
icent ruins of the city, which comprise an aque- 
duct, a gymnasium, several theatres, a stadium 
almost perfect, besides remains of roads, por- 
ticoes, pillars, gates, foundations of houses, 
and sarcophagi. This great prosperity was 
owing partly to its situation, on the high road 
for the traffic between the east and west of 
Asia, and partly to the fertility and beauty of 
the country round it. Already in the apostolic 
age it was the seat of a flourishing Christian 
Church, which, however, became very soon 
infected with the pride and luxury produced by 
the prosperity of the city, as we learn from St. 
John's severe Epistle to it {Revel, iii., 14-22). 
St. Paul also addresses it in common with the 
neighboring church of Colossae (Ooloss. ii., 1 ; 
iv., 13, 16). — 2. L. Combusta (A. 77 KaraKsicav/usvn 
or KEKavfievrj, i. e., the burned ; the reason of the 
epithet is doubtful: ruins at Ladik), a city of 
Lycaonia, north of Iconium, on the high road 
from the western coast of Asia Minor to the 
Euphrates. — 3. L. An Mare (A. kitl ry -d-aXdrry : 
now Ladikiyeh), a city on the coast of Syria, 
about fifty miles south of Antioch, was built 
by Seleucus I. on the site of an earlier city, 
called Ramitha, or Aevicl) 'Aktjj. It had the 
best harbor in Syria, and the surrounding 
country was celebrated for its wine and fruits, 
which formed a large part of the traffic of the 
city. In the civil contests during the later pe- 
riod of the Syrian kingdom, Laodicea obtained 
virtual independence, in which it was confirm- 
ed probably by Pompey, and certainly by Julius 
Caisar, who greatly favored the city. In the 
civil wars, after Caesar's death, the Laodiceans 
were severely punished by Cassius for their 
adherence to Dolabella, and the city again suf- 
fered in the Parthian invasion of Syria, but 
was recompensed by Antony with exemption 
from taxation. Herod the Great built the La- 
odiceans an aqueduct, the ruins of which still 
exist. It is mentioned occasionally as an im- 
portant city under the later Roman empire ; 
and, after the conquest of Syria by the Arabs, 
it was one of those places on the coast which 
still remained in the hands of the Greek em- 
perors, and with a Christian population. It 
was taken and destroyed by the Arabs in 1188. 
It is now a poor Turkish village, with very 
considerable ruins of the ancient city, the chief 
of which are a triumphal arch, the remains of 
421 



LAODOCUS. 



LARES. 



the mole of the harbor, of a portico near it, of 
catacombs on the sea-coast, of the aqueducts 
and cisterns, and of pillars where the Necrop- 
olis is supposed to have stood. — L. ad Li- 
banum (A. At6avov, irpdc Ai6avC>), a city of Ccele- 
Syria, at the northern entrance to the narrow 
valley (avluv), between Libanus and Antilib- 
anus, appears to have been, through its favor- 
able situation, a place of commercial import- 
ance. During the possession of Ccele-Syria 
by the Greek kings of Egypt, it was the south- 
western border fortress of Syria. It was the 
chief city of a district called Laodicene. — 5. A 
city in the southeast of Media, near the bound- 
ary of Persis, founded either by Antiochus I. 
Soter, or Antiochus II. the Great: site un- 
known. — 6. In Mesopotamia : site unknown. 

Laodocus (AaodoKoc). 1. Son of Bias and 
Pero, and brother of Talaus, took part in the ex- 
peditions of the Argonauts, and of the Seven 
against Thebes. — 2. Son of Antenor. — [3. A 
Grecian, companion and charioteer of Antilo- 
chus in the Trojan war.] 

Laomedon (AaojueSuv). 1. King of Troy, son 
of Ilus and Eurydice, and father of Priam, He- 
sione, and other children. His wife is called 
Strymo, Rhceo, Placia, Thoosa, Zeuxippe, or 
Leucippe. Neptune (Poseidon) and Apollo, 
who had displeased Jupiter (Zeus), were doom- 
ed to serve Laomedon for wages. Accordingly, 
Neptune (Poseidon) built the walls of Troy, 
while Apollo tended the king's flocks on Mount 
Ida. When the two gods had done their "work, 
Laomedon refused them the reward he had 
promised them, and expelled them from his do- 
minions. Thereupon Neptune (Poseidon) in 
wrath let loose the sea over the lands, and also 
sent a marine monster to ravage the country. 
By the command of an oracle, the Trojans were 
obliged, from time to time, to sacrifice a maiden 
to the monster ; and on one occasion it was de- 
cided by lot that Hesione, the daughter of La- 
omedon himself, should be the victim. But it 
happened that Hercules was just returning from 
his expedition against the Amazons, and he 
promised to save the maiden if Laomedon 
would give him the horses which Tros had once 
received from Jupiter (Zeus) as a compensation 
for Ganymedes. Laomedon promised them to 
Hercules, but again broke his word, when Her- 
cules had killed the monster and saved Hesione. 
Hereupon Hercules sailed with a squadron of 
six ships against Troy, killed Laomedon, with 
all his sons, except Podarces (Priam), and gave 
Hesione to Telamou. Hesione ransomed her 
brother Priam with her veil. Priam, as the son 
of Laomedon, is called Laojiedontiades ; and 
the Trojans, as the subjects of Laomedon, are 
called Laomedontiad^e. — 2. Of Mytilene, was 
one of Alexander's generals, and after the king's 
death (B.C. 323) obtained the government of 
Syria. He was afterward defeated by Nicanor, 
the general of Ptolemy, and deprived of Syria. 

[Laothoe (AaodoTj), daughter of Altes, the 
king of the Leleges, and mother of Lycaon by 
Priam.] 

[Lapathus, a village in Pieria in Macedonia, 
at the pass of Tempe, with a fortress adjacent 
named Charax (the modern Carisso) on the 
south side and at the narrowest part of the pass.] 

[Lapers^e. Vid. Las.] 
422 



Lapethtis or Lapathus (Adirqdoc, Aajraflof : 
AaTrf/dcoc, Aairridevc : now Lapitho or Lapta), an 
important town on the northern coast of Cyprus, 
on a river of the same name, east of the Prom- 
ontorium Crommyon. 

Laphria (Aa<j>pia), a surname of Diana (Arte- 
mis) among the Calydonians, from whom the 
worship of the goddess was introduced into 
Naupactus and Patrae, in Achaia. The name 
was traced back to a hero, Laphrius, son of 
Castalius, who was said to have instituted her 
worship at Calydon. 

Laphi-stids (Aa<pvorwc), a mountain in Bceo- 
tia, between Coronea, Lebadea, and Orchome- 
nus, on which was a temple of Jupiter (Zeus), 
who hence bore the surname Laphystius. 

Lapidei Campi. Vid. Campi Lapidei. 

Lapithes (Aanid^g), son of Apollo and Stilbe, i 
brother of Centaurus, and husband of Orsinome, : 
the daughter of Eurynomus, by whom he be- 
came the father of Phorbas, Triopas, and Peri- 
phas. He was regarded as the ancestor of the 
Lapitho in the mountains of Thessaly. The 
Lapithae were governed by Pirithous, who, being 
a son of Ixion, was a half-brother of the Cen- 
taurs. The latter, therefore, demanded their 
share in their father's kingdom, and, as their 
claims were not satisfied, a war arose between 
the LapithiB and Centaurs, which, however, was 
terminated by a peace. But when Piritbous 
married Hippodamia, and invited the Centaurs 
to the marriage feast, the latter, fired by wine, 
and urged on by Mars (Ares), attempted to carry 
oft" the bride and the other women. Thereupon 
a bloody conflict ensued, in which the Centaurs' i 
were defeated by the Lapithae. The Lapithae 
are said to have been the inventors of bits and 
bridles for horses. It is probable that they were j 
a Pelasgian people, who defeated the less civ- j 
ilized Centaurs, and compelled them to abandon 
Mount Pelion. 

[Lapdrdum (now Bayonne), a city of the Tar- 
belli in Gallia Aquitanica, on the River Atur- 
rus.] 

Lar or Lars, was an Etruscan praenomen, 
borne, for instance, by Porsena and Tolumnius. 
From the Etruscans it passed over to the Ro- 
mans, whence we read of Lar Herminius, who 
was consul B.C. 448. This word signified lord, ; 
king, or hero in the Etruscan. 

Lara. Vid. Larunda. 

Laranda (tu Adpavda : now Larenda or Cara- 
man), a considerable town in the south of Ly- 
caonia, at the northern foot of Mount Taurus, I 
in a fertile district : taken by storm by Perdic- 
cas, but afterward restored. It was used by 
the Isaurian robbers as one of their strongholds, 

Larentia. Vid. Aooa Larentia. 

Lares, inferior gods at Rome. Their wor- 
ship was closely connected with that of the ' 
Manes, and was analogous to the hero worship 
of the Greeks. The Lares may be divided into 
two classes, the Lares domestici and Lares pub- 
lici. The former were the Manes of a house 
raised to the dignity of heroes. The Manes 
were more closely connected with the place of 
burial, while the Lares were more particularly 
the divinities presiding over the hearth and the 
whole house. It was only the spirits of good 
men that were honored as Lares. All the do 
mestic Lares were headed by the Lar familia 



LARES. 



LARIUS LAC US. 



ris, who was regarded as the founder of the 
family. He was inseparable from the family; 
and when the latter changed their abode, he 
went with them. Among the Lares publici we 
have mention made of Lares prcesiites and Lares 
compitales, who are in reality the same, and 
differ only in regard to the place or occasion of 
their worship. Servius Tullius is said to have 
instituted their worship ; and when Augustus 
improved the regulations of the city, he also re- 
newed the worship of the public Lares. Their 
name, Lares prcestites, characterizes them as the 
protecting spirits of the city, in which they had 
a temple in the uppermost part of the Via Sacra, 
that is, near a compitum, whence they might 
be called Compitales. This temple (Sacellum 
Larum, or cedes Larum) contained two images, 
which were probably those of Romulus and Re- 
mus. Now, while these Lares were the gen- 
eral protectors of the whole city, the Lares com 
pitales must be regarded as those who presided 
over the several divisions of the city, which 
were marked by the compita or the points where 
two or more streets crossed each other, and 
where small chapels (cediculcc) were erected to 
them. In addition to the Lares prsestites and 
compitales, there are other Lares which must 
be reckoned among the public ones, viz., the 
Lares rurales, who were worshipped in the coun- 
try ; the Lares males, who were worshipped on 
the high roads by travellers ; and the Lares ma- 
rini or permarini, to whom P. iEmilius dedicated 
a sanctuary in remembrance of his naval vic- 
tory over Antiochus. The worship of the do- 
mestic Lares, together with that of the Penates 
and Manes, constituted what are called the 
sacra privata. The images of the Lares, in 
great houses, were usually in a separate com- 
partment, called cediculce or lararia. They were 
generally represented in the cinctus Gabinus. 
Their worship was very simple, especially in 
early times and in the country. The offerings 
were set before them in patellae, whence they 
themselves were called patellarii. Pious people 
made offerings to them every day ; but they 
were more especially worshipped on the calends, 
nones, and ides of every month. When the in- 
habitants of the house took their meals, some 
portion was offered to the Lares, and on joy- 
ful family occasions they were adorned with 
wreaths, and the lararia were thrown open. 
When the young bride entered the house of her 
husband, her first duty was to offer a sacrifice 
to the Lares. Respecting the public worship 
of the Lares, and the festival of the Larentalia, 
vid. Diet, of Ant., art. Larentalia, Compitalia. 

Lares (Adprjc : now Alarbous), a city of North- 
ern Africa, in the Carthaginian territory (Byza- 
cena), southwest of Zama ; a place of some im- 
portance at the time of the war with Jugurtha. 

Largus, Scribonius. Vid. Scribonius. 

Larinum (Laiinas, atis : now Larino), a town 
of the Frentani (whence the inhabitants are 
sometimes called Eretani Larinates), on the 
River Tifernus, and near the borders of Apulia, 
subsequently a Roman municipium, possessed 
a considerable territory extending down to the 
Adriatic Sea. The town of Clitoria, on the 
coast, was subject to Larinum. 

Larissa (AdpcGca), the name of several Pelas- 
gian places, whence Larissa is called in my- 



thology the daughter of Pelasgus. L In Ewopt. 
1, (Now Larissa or Larza), an important town 
of Thessaly, in Pelasgiotis, situated on the Pe- 
neus, in an extensive plain. It was once the 
capital of the Pelasgi, and had a democratical 
constitution, but subsequently became subject 
to the Macedonians. It retained its importance 
under the Romans, and after the time of Con- 
stantine the Great became the capital of the 
province of Thessaly. — 2. Surnamed Cremaste 
(jj KpefiaaTrj), another important town of Thes- 
saly, in Phthiotis, situated on a height, whence 
probably its name, and distant twenty stadia 
from the Maliau Gulf. — II. In Asia. 1. An an- 
cient city on the coast of the Troad, near Ha- 
maxitus ; ruined at the time of the Persian war. 
— 2. L. Phriconis (A. t) fypoiuvlc, also ai Arjpic- 
aai), a city on the coast of Mysia, near Cyme 
(hence called rj irepl tt)v YLvfirjv), of Pelasgian 
origin, but colonized by the Cohans, and made 
a member of the ^Eolic confederacy. It was 
also called the Egyptian Larissa (?) kiyvnTia), 
because Cyrus the Great settled in it a body of 
his Egyptian mercenary soldiers. — 3. L. Ephe- 
sia (A. rj 'Electa), a city of Lydia, in the plain 
of the Cayster, on the northern side of Mount 
Messogis, northeast of Ephesus ; with a temple 
of Apollo Larissaeus. — 4. In Assyria, an ancient 
city on the eastern bank of the Tigris, some 
distance north of the mouth of the River Zaba- 
tas or Lycus, described by Xenophon (Anab^ 
iii., 4). It was deserted when Xenophon saw 
it ; but its brick walls still stood, twenty-five 
feet thick, one hundred feet high, and two para 
sangs (=sixty stadia=six geographical miles) 
in circuit, and there was a stone pyramid near 
it. Xenophon relates the tradition that, when 
the empire passed from the Medes to the Per- 
sians, the city resisted all the efforts of the 
Persian king (i. e., Cyrus) to take it, until the 
inhabitants, terrified at an obscuration of the 
sun, deserted the city. Mr. Layard identifies 
the site of Larissa with that of the ruins near 
Nimroud, the very same site as that of Nineveh. 
The name Larissa is no doubt a corruption of 
some Assyrian name (perhaps Al-Assur), which 
Xenophon naturally fell into through his famil- 
iarity with the word as the name of cities in 
Greece. — 5. In Syria, called by the Syrians Si- 
zara (2,%apa : now Kulat Seijar), a city in the 
district of Apamene, on the western bank of the 
Orontes, about half way between Apamea and 
Epiphania. 

Larissus or Larisds (Aupwaoc. Adpiaoc : now 
Risso), a small river forming the boundary be- 
tween Achaia and Elis, rises in Mount Scollis, 
and flows into the Ionian Sea. 

Larius Laous (now Lake of Como), a beauti- 
ful Lake in Gallia Transpadana, running from 
north to south, through which the River Adda 
flows. After extending about fifteen miles, it 
is divided into two branches, of which the one 
to the southwest is about eighteen miles in 
length, and the one to the southeast about 
twelve miles. At the extremity of the south- 
western branch is the town of Comum ; and at 
the extremity of the southeastern branch the 
River Adda issues out of the lake. The beauty 
of the scenery of this lake is praised by Pliny. 
He had several villas on the banks of the lake, 
of which he mentions two particularly ; ono 
423 



LARS TOLUMNIUS. 



LATITJM. 



nailed Comoidia, and the other Tragosdia. (Plin., 
Ep., is., Some believe Comcedia to have 
been situated at the modern Bellagio, on the 
promontory which divides the two branches of 
the lake ; and Tragcedia at Lenno, on the west- 
ern bank, where the ucenery is more wild. The 
intermitting fountain, of which Pliny gives an 
account in another letter {Ep., iv., 30), is still 
called Pliniana. 

Lars Tolumnius. Vid. Tolumnius. 

Lartia Gens, patrician, distinguished at the 
beginning of the republic through two of its 
members, T. Lartius, the first dictator, and Sp. 
Lartius, the companion of Horatius on the 
wooden bridge. The name soon after disap- 
pears entirely from the annals. The Lartii 
were of Etruscan origin, as is clearly shown by 
their name, which comes from the Etruscan 
word Lar or Lars. Vid. Lar. 

[Lartol^eet-iE (AaproTiair/Tcu), a people in the 
northeast of Hispania Tarraeonensis.] 

Larunda or Lara, daughter of Almon, was a 
nymph who informed Juno of the connection 
between Jupiter and Juturna; hence her Dame 
is connected with Aakelv. Jupiter deprived her 
of her tongue, and ordered Mercury to conduct 
her into the lower world. On the way thither, 
Mercury fell in love with her, and she afterward 
gave birth to two Lares. 

Larvae. Vid. Lemures. 

Larymna (Adpvfiva), the name of two towns 
on the River Cephisus, on the borders of Bceo- 
tia and Locris, and distinguished as Upper and 
Lower Larymna. The latter was at the mouth 
of the river, and the former a little way inland. 

[Larysius Mons (Aapictov opoc, to), a mount- 
ain of Laconia sacred to Bacchus (Dionysus).] 

Las (Aug : Ep. Adas : now Passava), an an- 
cient town of LacoDia, on the eastern side of 
the Laconian Gulf, ten stadia from the sea, and 
south of Gytheum. It is said to have been once 
destroyed by the Dioscuri, who hence received 
the Surname of Lapersm, or the Destroyers of 
Las. In the time of the Romans it had ceased 
to be a place of importance. 

Las^ea (Aaaaia), a town in the east of Crete, 
not far from the Promontorium Samonium, men- 
tioned in the Acts of the Apostles (xxvii., 8). 

Lasion (Aaoiav : Aaciuvwc : now Lata), a 
fortified town in Elis, on the frontiers of Arca- 
dia, and not far from the confluence of the Ery- 
manthus and the Alpheus. The possession of 
this town was a constant source of dispute be- 
tween the Eleans and Arcadians. 

Lasthenes (AaoBevrjc). 1. An OlynthiaD, 
who, together with Euthycrates, betrayed his 
country to Philip of Macedon, by whom he had 
been bribed, B.C. 347. — 2. A Cretan, one of the 
principal leaders of his countrymen in their war 
with the Romans. He was defeated and taken 
prisoner by Q. Metellus, 67. 

Lasus (Adooc), one of the principal Greek lyr- 
ic poets, was a native of Hermione in Argolis. 
He is celebrated as the founder of the Athenian 
school of dithyrambic poetry, and as the teacher 
of Pindar. He was contemporary with Simon- 
ides, like whom he lived at Athens, under the 
patronage of Hipparchus. It would appear that 
Lasus introduced a greater freedom, both of 
rhythm and of music, into the dithyrambic Ode ; 
that he gave it a more artificial and more mi- 
424 



metic character; and that the subjects ol his 
poetry embraced a far wider range than had 
been customary. ■ 

[Latagds, a Trojan warrior, slain by Mezen- 
tius in the wars of ^Eneas in Italy.] 

Latera Stagnum (now Etang do Maguelone 
et de Perots), a lake in the territory of Nemau- 
sus in Gallia Narbonensis, connected with the 
sea by a canal. On this lake was a fortress of 
the same name (Chateau de la Latte). 

[Lateranus, L. Sextius. 1. The friend and 
supporter of C. Licinius Stolo in his attempt to 
throw open the consulship to the plebeians : he 
was tribune of the plebs with Licinius B.C. 3*76 
to 367, and was elected consul B.C. 366, being 
the first plebeian who had obtained that dignity. 
— 2. Plautitjs, one of the lovers of Messalina, 
wife of the Emperor Claudius, aDd was, in con- 
sequence, condemned to death by the emperor 
A.D. 48, but afterward pardoned ; he subse- 
quently took part in the conspiracy of Piso 
against Nero, but was seized and put to death.] 
Laterensis, Juventius, was one of the ac- 
cusers of Planeius, whom Cicero defended, B.C. 
54. Vid. Plancils. He was praetor in 51. He 
served as legate in the army of M. Lepidus, and 
when the soldiers of Lepidus passed over to 
Antony, Laterensis put an end to his life. 

Lathon, Lethon, Lethes, Leth^eus (Adduv 
Doric, Ar/duv, Arjdaloc), a river of Cyrenaiea in 
Northern Africa, falling into a Lacus Hesperi- 
dum, near the city of Hesperis or Berenice, in 
the region which the early Greek navigators 
identified with the gardens of the Hesperides. 

L ati aus or Latiaris, a surname of Jupiter 
as the protecting divinity of Latium. The Latin 
towns and Rome celebrated to him every year 
the ferias Latinae, on the Alban Mount, which 
were conducted by one of the Roman consuls. 
Vid. Latinus. 

[Latini. Vid. Latiuit. 

Latinus. 1. KiDg of Latium, son of Eaunus 
and the nymph Marica, brother of Lavinius, hus- 
band of Amata, and father of Lavinia, whom he 
gave in marriage to ./Eneas. Vid. Lavinia. 
This is the common tradition ; but, according 
to Hesiod, he was a son of Ulysses and Circe, 
and brother of Agrius, king of the Tyrrhenians ; 
according to Hyginus, he was a son of Telem- 
achus and Circe ; while others describe him 
as a son of Hercules by a Hyperborean wom- 
an, who was afterward married to Faunus, or 
as a son of Hercules by a daughter of Faunus. 
According to one account, Latinus, after his 
death, became Jupiter Latiaris, just as Romulus 
became Quiriuus. — 2. A celebrated player in 
the farces called mimes (vid. Diet of Ant, s. v.) 
in the reign of Domitian, with whom he was a 
great favorite, and whom he served as a delator. 
He frequently acted as mimus with Thymele as 
miina. 

Latium (?) AarivTi), a country in Italy, inhab- 
ited by the Latini. The origin of the name is 
uncertain. Most of the ancients derived it from 
a king Latinus, who was supposed to have been 
a contemporary of ^Eueas (vid. Latinus) ; but 
there can be no doubt that the name of the people 
was transferred to this fictitious king. Other 
ancient critics connected the name with the 
verb latere, either because Saturn had been 
hidden iu the country, or because Italy is hidden 



I 



LATIUM. 



LATIUM. 



between the Alps and the Apennines I But 
neither of these explanations deserves a serious 
refutation. A modern \jriter derives Latium 
' from latus (like Campania from campus), and 
supposes it to mean the " flat land ;" but the 
quantity of the a in latus is opposed to this ety- 
mology. The boundaries of Latium varied at 
different periods. 1. In the most ancient times 
it reached only from the River Tiber on the 
north, to the River Numieus and the town of 
Ardea on the south, and from the sea-coast on 
the west to the Albau Mount on the east. 2. 
The territory of Latium was subsequently ex- 
tended southward ; and long before the con- 
quest of the Latins by the Romans, it stretched 
from the Tiber on the north, to the Promonto- 
rium Circeium and Anxur or Tarracina on the 
south. Even in the treaty of peace made be- 
tween Rome and Carthage in B.C. 509, we find 
Antium, Circeii, and Tarracina mentioned as 
belonging to Latium. The name of Latium an- 
tiquum or vetus was subsequently given to the 
country from the Tiber to the Promontorium Cir- 
ceium. 3. The Romans still further extended 
the territories of Latium by the conquest of the 
Hernici, jEqui, Volsci, and Aurunci, as far as the 
Liris on the south, and even beyond this river 
to the town Sinuessa and to Mount Massieus. 
This new accession of territory was called La- 
tium novum or adjectum. Latium, therefore, in 
its widest signification, was bounded by Etruria 
on the north, from which it was separated by the 
Tiber ; by Campania on the south, from which it 
was separated by the Liris ; by the Tyrrhene Sea 
on the west, and by the Sabine and Samnite 
tribes on the east. The greater part of this 
country is an extensive plain of volcanic origin, 
out of which rises an isolated range of mountains 
known by the name of Mons Albanus, of which 
the Algidus and the Tusculan hills are branches. 
Part of this plain, on the coast between Antium 
and Tarracina, which was at one time well culti- 
vated, became a marsh in consequence of the 
rivers JSTymphaeus, Ufens, and Amasenus find- 
ing no outlet for their waters (vid. Pomptin^e 
Paludes) ; but the remainder of the country 
was celebrated for its fertility in antiquity. The 
Latini were some of the most ancient inhabit- 
ants of Italy. They appear to have been a Pe- 
lasgian tribe, and are frequently called Aborigi- 
nes. At a period long anterior to the founda- 
tion of Rome, these Pelasgians or Aborigines 
descended into the narrow plain between the 
Tiber and the Numicus, expelled or subdued 
the Siculi, the original inhabitants of that dis- 
trict, and there became known under the name 
of Latini. These ancient Latins, who were 
called Prisci Latini, to distinguish them from 
the later Latins, the subjects of Rome, formed 
a league or confederation, consisting of thirty 
states. The town of Alba Longa subsequently 
became the head of the league. This town, 
which founded several colonies, and among 
others Rome, boasted of a Trojan origin ; but 
the whole story of a Trojan settlement in Italy 
Is probably an invention of later times. Al- 
though Rome was a colony from Alba, she be- 
came powerful enough in the reign of her third 
king, Tullus Hostilius, to take Alba and raze it 
to the ground. In this war Alba seems to have 
received no assistance from the other Latin 



towns. Ancus Marchus and Tarquinius Priscus 
carried on war successfully with several other 
Latin towns. Under Servius Tullius Rome was 
admitted into the Latin league; and his suc- 
cessor Tarquinius Superbus compelled the othef 
Latin towns to acknowledge Rome as the head 
of the league, and to become dependent upon 
the latter city. But upon the expulsion of the 
kings the Latins asserted their independence, 
and commenced a struggle with Rome, which, 
though frequently suspended and apparently 
terminated by treaties, was as often renewed, 
and was not brought to a final close till B.C. 
340, when the Latins were defeated by the Ro- 
mans at the battle of Mount Vesuvius. The 
Latin league was now dissolved, and the Latins 
became the subjects of Rome. The following 
were the most important institutions of the 
Latins during the time of their independence : 
The towns of Latium were independent of one 
another, but formed a league for purposes of 
mutual protection. This league consisted, as 
we have already seen, of thirty cities, a number 
which could not be exceeded. Each state sent 
deputies to the meetings of the league, which 
were held in a sacred grove at the foot of the 
Alban Mount, by the fountain of Ferentina. On 
the top of the mountain was a temple of Jupiter 
Latiaris, and a festival was celebrated there in 
honor of this god from the earliest times. This 
festival, which was called the Ferim Latince, is 
erroneously said to have been instituted by Tar- 
quinius Superbus, in commemoration of the al- 
liance between the Romans and Latins. It is 
true, however, that the festival was raised into 
one of much greater importance when Rome 
became the head of the league ; for it was now 
a festival common both to Rome and Latium, 
and served to unite the two nations by a reli- 
gious bond. Having thus become a Roman as 
well as a Latin festival, it continued to be cele- 
brated by the Romans after the dissolution of 
the Latin league. Vid. Diet, of Ant., art. Feria 
The chief magistrate in each Latin town appears 
to have borne the title of dictator. He was 
elected annually, but might be re-elected at the 
close of his year of office. Even in the time 
of Cicero we find dictators in the Latin towns, 
as, for instance, in Lanuvium. (Cic, pro Mil., 
10). In every Latin town there was also a sen- 
ate and a popular assembly, but the exact na- 
ture of their powers is unknown. The old Latin 
towns were built for the most part on isolated 
hills, the sides of which were made by art very 
steep and almost inaccessible. They were 
surrounded by walls built of great polygonal 
stones, the remains of which still excite our 
astonishment. On the conquest of the Latins 
in 340, several of the Latin towns, such as La- 
nuvium, Aricia, Nomeutum, Pedum, and Tus- 
culum, received the Roman franchise. All the 
other towns became Roman Socii, and are men- 
tioned in history under the general name of No- 
men Latinum or Latini. The Romans, however, 
granted to them from time to time certain rights 
and privileges, which the other Socii did not 
enjoy; and, in particular, they founded many 
colonies, consisting of Latins, in various parts 
of Italy. These Latin colonies formed a part 
of the Nomen Latinum, although they were not 
situated in Latium. Thus the Latini came 
425 



LATMICUS. 



laviniu m. 



eventually to hold a certain status intermediate : 
between that of Roman citizens and peregrini. 
(For detaib, vid. Diet, of Ant, art. Latini.) 

Latmicus Sintjs (6 Aot/iikoc koIkos), a gulf 
on the coast of Ionia, in Asia Minor, into which 
the River Maeander fell, named from Mount 
Latmus, whiah overhangs it. Its width from 
Miletus, which stood on its southern side, to 
Pyrrha, was about thirty stadia. Through the 
changes effected on this coast by the Maeander, 
the gulf is now an inland lake, called Akees- 
Chai or Ufa-Bassi. 

Latmus (Adr/uoc : now Monte di Palatia), a 
mountain in Caria, extending in a southeastern 
direction from its commencement on the south- 
ern side of the Maeander, northeast of Miletus 
and the Sinus Latmicus. It was the mytholog- 
ical scene of the story of Luna and Endymion, 
who is hence called by the Roman poets " Lat- 
mius' heros" and " Latmius venator :" he had 
a temple on the mountain, and a cavern in its 
side was shown as his grave. 

Latobrigi, a people in Gallia Belgica, who 
are mentioned, along with the Tulingi and Rau- 
raci, as neighbors of the Helvetii. They prob- 
ably dwelt near the sources of the Rhine, in 
Switzerland. 

Latona. Vid. Leto. 

Latopolis (Aaro/ro/Uf : ruins at Esneh), a city 
of Upper Egypt, on the west bank of the Nile, 
between Thebes and Apollonopolis ; the seat of 
the worship of the Nile-fish called latus, which 
was the symbol of the goddess Neith, whom the 
Greeks identified with Athena. 

Latovioi, a people in the southwest of Pan- 
nonfa, on the River Savus, in the modern LTyria 
and Croatia. 

Latro, M. Porcius, a celebrated Roman rhet- 
orician in the reign of Augustus, was a Spaniard 
by birth, and a friend and contemporary of the 
elder Seneca^ by whom he is frequently men- 
tioned. His school was one of the most fre- 
quented at Rome, and he numbered among his 
pupils the Poet Ovid. He died B.C. 4. Many 
modern writers suppose that he was the author 
of the Declamations of Sallust against Cicero, 
and of Cicero against Sallust. 

[Latymnus Mons (Adrvfivog), a mountain of 
Bruttium, near Croton.] 

Laureacuh or Lauriacum (now Lorch, near 
Ens), a strongly fortified town on the Danube, 
in Noricum Ripense, the head-quarters of the 
6econd legion, and the station of a Roman fleet. 

Laurentia, Acoa. Vid. Acca Laurentia. 

Laurentius Lydus. Vid. Lydus. 

Laurentum (Laurens, -ntis : now Casale di 
Copoeotta, not Paterno), one of the most ancient 
towns of Latium, was situated on a height be- 
tween Ostia and Ardea, not far from the sea, 
and was surrounded by a grove of laurels, from 
which the place was supposed to have derived 
its name. According to Virgil, it was the resi- 
dence of King Latinus and the capital of Lati- 
um ; and it is certain that it was a place of im- 
portance in the time of the Roman kings, as it 
is mentioned in the treaty concluded between 
Rome and Carthage in B.C. 509. The younger 
Pliny and the Emperor Commodus had villas 
at Laurentum, which appears to have been a 
healthy place, notwithstanding the marshes in 
the neighborhood. These marshes supplied the 
426 



tables of the Romans with excellent boars. In 
ihe time of the Antonines Laurentum was united 
with Lavinium, from which it was only six miles 
distant, so that the two formed only one town, 
which was called Laurolavtnium, and its in- 
habitants were named Laurentes Lavinates. 

Lauretanus Portus, a harbor of Etruria, on 
the road from Populonia to Cosa. 

Lauriacum. Vid. Laubeacum. 

Laurium (Aavpiov, Aavpetov), a mountain In 
the south of Attica, a little north of the Promon- 
torium Sunium, celebrated for its silver mines, 
which in early times were so productive that 
every Athenian citizen received annually ten 
drachmae. On the advice of Themistocles, the 
Athenians applied this money to equip two 
hundred triremes shortly before the invasion 
of Xerxes. In the time of Xenophon the pro- 
duce of the mines was one hundred talents. 
They gradually became less and less productive, 
and in the time of Strabo they yielded nothing. 

[Laurolavinium. Vid. Lavinium.] 

Lauron (now Laury, west of Xucar in Valen- 
cia), a town in the east of Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, near the sea and the River Sucro, celebrat- 
ed on account of its siege by Sertorius, and as 
the place where Cn. Pompey, the younger, was 
put to death after the battle of Munda. 

Laus (Auoc : Aaivog), a Greek city in Lueania, 
situated near the mouth of the River Laus, 
which formed the boundary between Lueania 
and Bruttium. It was founded by the Sybarites, 
after their own city had been taken by the in- 
habitants of Croton, B.C. 510, but it had disap- 
peared in the time of Pliny. The gulf into 
which the River Laus flowed was also called 
the Gulf of Laus. 

Laus Pompeii (now Lodi Vecchio), a town in 
Gallia Cisalpina, northwest of Placentia, and 
southeast of Mediolanum. It was founded by 
the Boii, and was afterward made a muuicipium 
by Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompeius 
Magnus, whence it was called by his name. 

Lausus. 1. Son of Mezentius, king of the 
Etruscans, slain by ^Eneas. — 2. Son of Numitor 
and brother of Ilia, killed by Amulius. 

LautuXjE, a village of the Volsci in Latium, 
in a narrow pass between Tarracina and Fundi. 

Laverna, the Roman goddess of thieves and 
impostors. A grove was sacred to her on the 
Via Salaria, and she had an altar near the Porta 
Lavernalis, which derived its name from her. 

Lavicum. Vid. Labicum. 

LavInia, daughter of Latinus and Amata, was 
betrothed to Tumus (vid. Turnus), but was aft- 
erward given in marriage to jEneas, by whom 
she became the mother of iEneas Silvius. 

Lavinium (Laviniensis : now Pratica), an an- 
cient town of Latium, three miles from the sea 
and six miles east of Laurentum, on the Via 
Appia, and near the River Numicus, which di- 
vided its territory from that of Ardea. It is said 
to have been founded by iEncas, and to have 
been called Lavinium in honor of his wife La- 
vinia, the daughter of Latinus. It possessed a 
temple of Venus, common to all the Latins, of 
which the inhabitants of Ardea had the over- 
sight It was at Lavinium that the king Titus 
Tatius was said to have been murdered. La- 
vinium was at a later time united with Lauren- 
turA; respecting which, vid. Laurentum. 



LAZ^E. 



LELEGES. 



Laz^e or Lazi (Adfoi, Adfri), a people of Col- 
chis, south of the Phasis. 

[Lea (now probably Piana or Pianosa), a 
small island in the southern part of the JSgean 
Sea.] 

[Leades (Acad^f), son of Astaeus, according 
to Apollodorus slew Eteocles at the attack on 
Thebes, while ^Eschylus makes Eteocles to 
have fallen by the hand of Megareus.] 

Lejena (K&aLva), an Athenian hetaera, beloved 
by Aristogiton or Harmodius. On the murder 
of Hipparchus she was put to the torture ; but 
she died under her sufferings without making 
any disclosure, and, if we may believe one ac- 
count, she bit off her tongue that no secret 
might be wrung from her. The Athenians hon- 
ored her memory greatly, and, in particular, by 
a bronze statue of a lioness (Xmiva) without a 
tongue, in the vestibule of the Acropolis. 

[Leagrds (Aiaypog), son of Glaucon, one of 
the commanders of the Athenians in the at- 
tempt to colonize Amphipolis, B.C. 465, perish- 
ed in a battle with the Thracians at Drabescus 
or Datus.] 

Leander (Adavdpoc; or Aeavdpoc) r the famous 
youth of Abydos, who was in love with Hero, 
the priestess of Venus (Aphrodite) in Sestus, 
and swam every night across the Hellespont to 
visit her, and returned before daybreak. Once 
during a stormy night he perished in the waves. 
Next morning his corpse was washed on the 
coast of Sestus, whereupon Hero threw herself 
into the sea. This story is the subject of the 
poem of Musaeus, entitled De Amore Herus et 
Leandri (yid. Musaeus), and is also mentioned 
by Ovid {Her., xviii., 19) and Virgil (Georg., iii, 
258). . 

Learchus (Aeapxoc). 1. Vid. Athamas. — 2. 
Of Rhegium, one of those Daedalean artists who 
stand on the confines of the mythical and his- 
torical periods, and about whom we have ex- 
tremely uncertain information. One account 
made him a pupil of Dasdalus, another of Dipoe- 
nus and Scyllis. 

Lebadea (Ae6ddeia : now Livadhia), a town 
in Bceotia, west of the Lake Copais, between 
Chaeronea and Mount Helicon, at the foot of a 
rock from which the River Hercyna flows. In 
a cave of this rock, close to the town, was the 
celebrated oracle of Trophonius, to which the 
place owed its importance. 

[LeB/EA (Ae6ai7j), an ancient city in Upper 
Macedonia, mentioned only by Herodotus (viii., 
1 37) ; not a trace of it now exists.] 

Lebedos {Aetedoc : Aed'edLog), one of the twelve 
cities of the Ionian confederacy, in Asia Minor, 
stood on the coast of Lydia, between Colophon 
and Teos, ninety stadia east of the promontory 
of Myonnesus. It was said to have been built 
at the time of the Ionian migration, on the site 
of an earlier Carian city ; and it flourished, 
chiefly by commerce, until Lysimachus trans- 
planted most of its inhabitants to Ephesus. 
Wear it were some mineral springs, which still 
exist near Ekklesia, but no traces remain of the 
city itself. 

Leben or Lebena (Ae&qv, Ae6qva), a townon 
the southern coast of Crete, ninety stadia south 
east of Gortyna, of which it was regarded as 
the harbor It possessed a celebrated temple 
of ^Esculapius. 



Lebinthtts (AeSiv 8oc : now Lebitha), an island 
in the ^Ega?an Sea, one of the Sporades, west 
of Calymna, east of Amorgos, and north of As- 
typalaea. 

Lecb^eum (to Aexalou : Aexaloc), one of the 
two harbors of Corinth, with which it was con- 
nected by two long walls. It was twelve stadia 
from Corinth, was situated on the Corinthian 
Gulf, and received all the ships which came 
from Italy and Sicily. It possessed a temple 
of Neptune (Poseidon), who was hence sur- 
named Lechaeus. 

Lectum (to Acktov : now Cape Baba or S. Ma- 
ria), the southwestern promontory of the Troad, 
is formed where the western extremity of Mount 
Ida juts out into the sea, opposite to the north- 
ern side of the island of Lesbos. It was the 
southern limit of the Troad ; and, under the 
Byzantine emperors, the northern limit of the 
province of Asia. An altar was shown here in 
Strabo's time, which was said to have been 
erected by Agamemnon to the twelve chief gods 
of Greece. 

Leda (Ar/da), daughter of Thestius, whence 
she is called Thestias, and wife of Tyndareus, 
king of Sparta. One night she was embraced 
both by her husband and by Jupiter (Zeus) ; by 
the former she became the mother of Castor 
and Clytaemnestra, by the latter of Pollux and 
Helena. According to Homer (Od., xi., 298), 
both Castor and Pollux were sons of Tyndareus 
and Leda, while Helena is described as a daugh- 
ter of Jupiter (Zeus). Other traditions reverse 
the story, making Castor and Pollux the sons 
of Jupiter (Zeus), and Helena the daughter of 
Tyndareus. According to the common legend, 
Jupiter (Zeus) visited Leda in the form of a 
swan ; and she brought forth two eggs, from 
the one of which issued Helena, and from the 
other Castor and Pollux. The visit of Jupiter 
(Zeus) to Leda in the form of a swan was fre- 
quently represented by ancient artists. The 
Roman poets sometimes call Helena Ledcea, and 
Castor and Pollux Ledcei Dii. 

Ledon (Aedov), a town in Phoeis, northwest 
of Tithorea ; the birth-place of Philomelus, the 
commander of the Phocians in the Sacred war ; 
it was destroyed in this war. 

Ledus or Ledum (now Les or Lez, near Mont- 
pellier), a small river in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Leg^; (Af/yat or Arjyec), a people on the south- 
ern shore of the Caspian Sea, belonging to the 
same race as the Cadusii. A branch of them 
was found by the Romans in the northern 
mountains of Albania, at the time of Pompey's 
expedition into those regions. 

Legio Septima Gemina (now Leon), a town in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, in the country of the 
Astures, which was originally the head-quarters 
of the legion so called. 

Leitus (A^'jtoc), son of Alector or Akctryon 
by Cleobule, and father of Peneleus, was one 
of the Argonauts, and commanded the Boeo- 
tians in the war against Troy. 

Lelantos Campus (to ArfkavTov tteSlov), a 
plain in Eubcea, between Eretria and Chalcis, 
for the possession of which these two cities 
often contended. It contained warm springs 
and mines of iron and copper, but was subject 
to frequent earthquakes. 

Leleges (AeXeyec), an ancient race which in- 
427 



LELEX. 



LENTIENSES. 



habited Greece before the Hellenes. They are 
frequently mentioned along with the Pelasgians 
as the most ancient inhabitants of Greece. 
Some 'writers erroneously identify them with 
the Pelasgians, but their character and habits 
were essentially different: the Pelasgians were 
a peaceful and agricultural people, whereas the 
Leleges were a warlike and migratory race. 
They appear to have first taken possession of 
the coasts and the islands of Greece, and after- 
ward to have penetrated into the interior. Pi- 
racy was probably their chief occupation ; and 
they are represented as the ancestors of the 
Teleboans and the Taphians. who sailed as far 
as Phoenicia, and were .notorious for their pira- 
cies. The coasts of Arcarnania and jEtolia ap- 
pear to have been inhabited by Leleges at the 
earliest times, and from thence they spread 
over other parts of Greece. Thus we find them 
in Phocis and Locris, in Bceotia, in Megaris, in 
Laconia, which is said to have been more an- 
ciently called Lelegia, in Elis, iu Euboea, in sev- 
eral of the islands of the iEgasan Sea, and also 
on the coasts of Asia Minor, in Caria, Ionia, 
and the south of Troas. The origin of the Lel- 
eges is uncertain. Many of the ancients con- 
nected them with the Oarians, and according 
to Herodotus (i., 171), the Leleges were the 
6ame as the Oarians ; but whether there was 
any real connection between these people can 
not be determined. The name of the Leleges 
was derived, according to the custom of the an- 
cients, from an ancestor Lelex, who is called 
king either of Megaris or of Lacedremon. Ac- 
cording to some traditions, this Lelex came 
from Egypt, and was the son of Neptune (Posei- 
don) and Libya : but the Egyptian origin of the 
people was evidently an invention of later ti nes. 
The Leleges must be regarded as a branch of 
the great Indo-Germanic race, who became 
gradually incorporated with the Hellenes, and 
thus ceased to exist as an independent people. 

Lelex. Vid. Leleges. 

Lemannus or Lemanus Lacus (now Lake of 
Geneva), a large lake formed by the River Rhod- 
anus, was the boundary between the old Roman 
province in Gaul and the land of the Helvetii. 
Its greatest length is fifty-five miles, and its 
greatest breadth six miles. 

[Lemanus Portus, a harbor on the southern 
coast of Britain, directly south of Durovernum, 
and supposed to correspond to the modem 
Lymne.J 

Lemnos {A.fjfivog : Aijfivioc, fern, ^rjfiviac : now 
Stalimene, i. e., etc rhv Arj/ivov), one of the larg- 
est islands in the .JSgsean Sea, was situated 
nearly midway between Mount Athos and the 
Hellespont, and about twenty-two miles south- 
west of Imbros. Its area is about one hundred 
and forty-seven square miles. In the earliest 
times it appears to have contained only one 
town, which bore the same name as the island 
(Horn., II., xiv., 299) ; but at a later period we 
read of two towns, Myriua (now JPalceo Castro) 
on the west of the island, and Hephasstia or 
Hephasstias (near Rapanidi) on the northwest, 
with a harbor. Lemnos was sacred to Hephaes- 
tus (Vulcan), who is said to have fallen here 
when Zeus (Jupiter) hurled him down from 
Olympus. Hence the workshop of the god is 
sometimes placed in this islanf, The legend 
428 



appears to have arisen from the volcanic nature 
of Lemnos, which possessed in antiquity a vol- 
cano called Mosychlus (Moovx^og). The island 
still bears traces of having been subject to the 
action of volcanic fire, though the volcano has 
long since disappeared. The most ancient in- 
habitants of Lemnos, according to Homer, were 
the Thraeian Sinties; a name, however, which 
probably only signifies robbers (liivnec, from 
olvojiai). When the Argonauts landed at Lem- 
nos, they are said to have found it inhabited 
only by women, who had murdered all their 
husbands, and had chosen as their queen Hyp- 
sipyle, the daughter of Thoas, the king of the 
island. Vid. Hysipyle. Some of the Argo- 
nauts settled here, and became by the Lemnian 
women the fathers of the Minyoe, the later in- 
habitants of the island. The Minyas are said 
to have been driven out of the island by the 
Pelasgians, who had been expelled from Attica. 
These Pelasgians are further said to have car- 
ried away from Attica some Athenian women ; 
but, as the children of these women despised 
their half-brothers, born of Pelasgian women, 
the Pelasgians murdered both them and their 
children. In consequence of this atrocity, and 
of the former murder of the Lemnian husbands 
by the wives, Lemnian Leeds became a proverb 
in Greece for all atrocious acts. Lemnos was 
afterward conquered by one of the generals of 
Darius ; but Miltiades delivered it from the Per- 
sians, and made it subject to Athens, in whose 
power it remained for a long time. Pliny speaks 
of a remarkable labyrinth at Lemnos, but no 
traces of it have been discovered by modern 
travellers. The principal production of the isl- 
and was a red earth called terra Lemnia or sigil- 
lata, which was employed by the ancient physi- 
cians as a remedy for wounds and the bites of 
serpents, and which is still much valued by the 
Turks and Greeks for its supposed medicinal 
virtues. 

Lemonia, one of the country tribes of Rome, 
named after a village Lemonium, situated on 
the Via Latina, before the Porta Capena. 

Lemo vices, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, be- 
tween the Bituriges and Arverni, whose chief 
town was Augustoritum, subsequently called 
Lemovices, the modern Limoges. 

Lemovii, a people of Germany, mentioned 
along with the Rugii, who inhabited the shores 
of the Baltic in the modern Pomerania. 

Lemukes, the spectres or spirits of the dead. 
Some writers describe Lemures as the common 
name for all the spirits of the dead, and divide 
them into two classes ; the Lares, or the souls 
of good men, and the Larvce, or the souls of 
wicked men. But the common idea was that 
the Lemures and Larvce were the same. They 
were said to wander about at night as spectres, 
and to torment and frighten the living. In 
order to propitiate them, the Romans celebra- 
ted the festival of the Lemuralia or Lemuria, 
Vid. Diet, of Antiq., s. v. 

Lekjeus {Kjjvaloc), a surname of Bacchu* 
(Dionysus), derived from Invuc, the wine-preai 
or the vintage. 

Lentia (now Linz), a town in Noricum, on 
the Danube. 

Lentienses, a tribe of the Alemauni, who 
lived on the northern shore of the Lacus Brig- 



LENTO, CESENNIUS. 



LENTTJLUS, CORNELIUS. 



antinus (now Lake of Constance), in the modern 
Linzgau. 

Lento, Cesennius, a follower of M. Antony. 
He was one of Antony's seven agrarian commis- 
sioners (septemviratus) in B.C. 44, for apportion- 
ing the Campanian and Leontine lands, whence 
Cicero terms him divisor Italice. 

Lentulus, Cornelius, one of the haughtiest 
patrician families at Rome ; so that Cicero coins 
the words Appietas and Lentulitas to express the 
qualities of the high aristocratic party (adFam., 
in., 7). The name was derived from lens, like 
Cicero from cicer. 1. L., consul B.C. 327, le- 
gate in the Caudine campaign 321, and dictator 
320, when he avenged the disgrace of the Fur- 
cute Caudinae. This was indeed disputed (Liv., 
ix., 15) ; but his descendants at least claimed 
the honor for him, by assuming the agnomen of 
Caudinus. — 2. L., surnamed CaudInus, pontifex 
maximus, and consul 237, when he triumphed 
over the Ligurians. He died 213.— 3. P., sur- 
named Caudinus, served with P. Scipio in Spain 
210, praetor 204, one of the ten ambassadors 
sent to Philip of Macedon 196. — 4. P., prsetor 
in Sieily 214, and continued .in his province for 
the two following years. In 189 he was one 
of ten ambassadors sent into Asia after the 
submission of Antioehus. — 5. Cn., quaestor 212, 
curule aedile 204, consul 201, and proconsul in 
Hither Spain 199. — 6. L., praetor in Sardinia 211, 
succeeded Scipio as proconsul in Spain, where 
he remained for eleven years, and on his return 
was only allowed an ovation, because he only 
held proconsular rank. He was consul 199, and 
the next year proconsul in Gaul. — 7. L., curule 
aedile 103, consul 156, censor 147. — 8. P., curule 
aedile with Scipio Nasiea 169, consul suffectus 
with C. Domitius 162, the election of the former 
consuls being declared informal. He became 
princeps senatus, and must have lived to a good 
old age, since he was wounded in the contest 
with O. Gracchus in 121. — 9. P., surnamed 
SuitA, the man of chief note in Catiline's crew. 
He was quaestor to Sulla in 81 : before him and 
L. Triarius, Verres had to give an account of 
the moneys he had received as quaestor in Cisal- 
pine Gaul. He was soon after himself called 
to account for the same matter, but was ac- 
quitted. It is said that he got his cognomen of 
Sura from his conduct on this occasion ; for 
when Sulla called him to account, he answer- 
ed by scornfully putting out'his leg, " like boys," 
says Plutarch, " when they make a blunder in 
playing at ball." Other persons, however, had 
borne the name before, one perhaps of the Len- 
tulus family. In 7 5 he was praetor ; and Hor- 
tensius, pleading before such a judge, had no 
difficulty in procuring the acquittal of Terentius 
Varro when accused of extortion. In 7 1 he 
was consul. But in the next year he was eject- 
ed from the senate, with sixty-three others, for 
infamous life and manners. It was this, prob- 
ably, that led him to join Catiline and his crew. 
From his distinguished birth and high rank lie 
calculated on becoming chief of the conspiracy ; 
and a prophecy of the Sibylline books was ap- 
plied by flattering haruspices to him. Three 
Cornelii were to rule Rome, and he was the 
third after Sulla and Cinna ; the twentieth year 
after the burning of the Capitol, &,c, was to be 
fatal to the city. To gain power, and recover 



place in the senate, he became praetor again 
in 63. When Catiline quitted the city for Etru- 
ria, Lentulus was left as chief of the home con 
spirators, and his irresolution probably saved 
the city from being fired, for it was by his 
over-caution that the negotiation with the am- 
bassadors of the Allobroges was entered into : 
these unstable allies revealed the secret to the 
consul Cicero, who directed them to feign com- 
pliance with the conspirators' wishes, and thus 
to obtain written documents which might be 
brought in evidence against them. The well- 
known sequel will be found under the life of 
Catiline. Lentulus was deposed from the prse- 
torship, and was strangled in the Capitoline 
prison on the 5th of December His step-son 
Antony pretended that Cicero refused to deliver 
up his corpse for burial. — 10. P., surnamed Spin- 
ther. He received this nickname from his re- 
semblance to the actor Spinther. .Caesar com- 
monly calls him by this name : not so Cicero ; 
but there could be no harm in it, for he used it 
on his coins when propraetor in Spain, simply to 
distinguish himself from the many of the same 
family ; and his son bore it after him. He was 
curule aedile in 63, the year of Cicero's consul- 
ship, and was intrusted with the care of the 
apprehended conspirator, P. Sura (vid. No. 9). 
His games were long remembered for their 
splendor; but his toga, edged with Tyrian pur- 
ple, gave offence. He was praetor in 60, and by 
Caesar's interests he obtained Hither Spain for 
his next year's province, where he remained 
into part of 58. In 57 he was consul, which 
dignity he also obtained by Caesar's support. In 
his consulship he moved for the immediate re- 
call of Cicero, brought over his colleague Me- 
tellus' ^Tepos to the same views, and bis serv- 
ices were gratefully acknowledged by Cicero 
Now, therefore, notwithstanding his obligations 
to Oassar, he had openly taken part with the 
aristocracy. He received Cilicia as his prov- 
ince, but he attempted in vain to obtain a de- 
cree of the senate charging him with the office 
of restoring Ptolemy Auletes, the exiled king 
of Egypt. He remained as proconsul in Cilieia 
from 56 till July, 53, and obtained a triumph, 
though not till 51. On the breaking out of the 
civil war in 49 he joined the Pompeian party. 
He fell into Caesar's hands at Corfinium, but 
was dismissed by the latter uninjured. He then 
joined Pompey in Greece : and after the battle 
of Pharsalia, he followed Pompey to Egypt, and 
got safe to Rhodes. — 11. P., surnamed Spin- 
ther, son of No. 10, followed Pompey 's for- 
tunes with his father. He was pardoned by 
Caesar, and returned to Italy. In 45 he was 
divorced from his abandoned wife, Metella. 
(Comp. Hor., Serm., ii., 3, 239.) After the mur- 
der of Caasar (44) he joined the conspirators. 
He served with Cassius against Rhodes ; with 
Brutus in Lycia. — 12. Cn., surnamed Clodi- 
anus, a Claudius adopted into the Lentulus fam- 
ily. He was consul in 72 with L. Gellius Publi- 
cola. In the war with Spartacus both he and 
his colleague were defeated, but after their con- 
sulship. With the same colleague he held the 
censorship in 70, and ejected sixty-three mem- 
bers from the senate for infamous life, among" 
whom were Lentulus Sura (vid. No. 9) and C. 
Antonius, afterward Cicero's colleague in the 
429 



LEO. 



LEOCHARES. 



consulship. Tet the majority of those expelled 
were acquitted by the courts, and restored ; and 
Lentulus supported the Manilian law, appoint- 
ing Pompey to the command against Mthra- 
dates. As an orator he concealed his want of 
talent by great skill and art, and by a good voice. 
— 13. L., surnamed Crus, appeared in 61 as the 
chief accuser of P. Clodius for violating the 
mysteries of the Bona Dea. In 58 he was prae- 
tor, and in 49 consul with C. Marcellus. He 
was raised to the consulship in consequence of 
his being a known enemy of Caesar. He did all 
he could to excite his wavering party to take 
arms and meet Caesar: he called Cicero cow- 
ardly ; blamed him for seeking a triumph at 
such a time ; urged war at any price, in the 
hope, says Caesar {B.C., i., 4), of retrieving his 
ruined fortunes, and becoming another Sulla. 
It was mainly at Lentulus's instigation that 
the violent measures passed the senate early 
in the year, which gave the tribunes a pretence 
for flying to Caesar at Ravenna. He himself 
fled from the city at the approach of Caesar, 
and afterward crossed over to Greece. After 
the battle of Pharsalia he fled to Egypt, and 
arrived there the day after Pompey's murder. 
On landing he was apprehended by young Ptole- 
my's ministers, and put to death in prison. — 14. 
L., surnamed Niger, flamen of Mars. In 57 he 
was one of the priests to whom was referred 
the question whether the site of Cicero's house 
was consecrated ground. In 56 he was one of 
the judges in the case of P. Sextius, and he died 
in the same year, much praised by Cicero. — 15. 
L., son of the last, and also flamen of Mars. 
He defended M. Scaurus in 54, when accused 
of extortion he accused Gabinius of high trea- 
son about the same time, but was suspected of 
collusion. In the Philippics he is mentioned as 
a frieud of Antony's. — 16. Cossus, surnamed 
G^etulicus, consul B.C. 1, was sent into Africa 
in A.D. 6, where he defeated the Gaetuli ; hence 
his surname. On the accession of Tiberius, A. 
D. 14,- he accompanied Drusus, who was sent 
to quell the mutiny of the legions in Pannonia. 
He died 25, at a very great age, leaving behind 
him an honorable reputation. — 17. Cn., sur- 
named GjEtulicus, son of the last, consul A. 
D. 26. He afterward had the command of the 
legions of Upper Germany for ten years, and 
was very popular among the troops. In 39 he 
was put to death by order of Caligula, who fear- 
ed his influence with the soldiers. He was an 
historian and a poet ; but we have only three 
lines of his poems extant, unless he is the author 
of nine epigrams in the Greek Anthology, in- 
scribed with the name of Gastulicus. 

Leo or Leon (Aeuv). 1. Also called Leoxides 
(AtwvicS^c), of Heraclea on the Pontus, disciple 
of Plato, was one of the conspirators who, with 
their leader Chio»>, assassinated Clearehus, ty- 
rant of Heraclea. B.C. 353. — 2. Of Byzantium, 
a rhetorician and historical writer of the age of 
Philip and Alexander the Great. — 3. Diaconus 
or the Deacon, Byzantine historian of the tenth 
century. His history, in ten books, includes 
the period from the Cretan expedition of Ni- 
cephorus Phocas, in the reign of the Emperor 
Romanus II., A.D. 959, to the death of Joannes 
I. Zimisces, 975. The style of Leo is vicious : 
he employs unusual and inappropriate words 
430 



I (many of them borrowed from Homer, Agathias 
the historian, and the Septuagint), in the place 
of simple and common ones ; and he abounds in 
tautological phrases. His history, however, is 
a valuable contemporary record of a stirring 
time, '.honestly and fearlessly written. Edited 
for the first time byHase, Paris, 1818. — 4. Grani- 
matieus, one of the continuators of Byzantine 
history from the period when Theophanes leaves 
off. His work, entitled Chronographia, extends 
from the accession of Leo V. the Armeniar, 
813, to the death of Romanus Lecapenus, 944. 
Edited with Theophanes by Coinbefis, Paris, 
1655 ; [reprinted in the collection of the Byzan- 
tine Historians with an emended text by Bek- 
ker, Bonn., 1842.] — 5. Archbishop of Thessa- 
lonica, an eminent Byzantine philosopher and 
ecclesiastic of the ninth century. His works 
are lost, but he is frequently mentioned in terms 
of the highest praise by the Byzantine writers, 
especially for his knowledge of geometry and 
astronomy. — 6. Magentenus, a commentator on 
Aristotle, flourished during the first half of the 
fourteenth century. He was a monk, and after- 
ward archbishop of Mytilene. Several of his 
commentaries on Aristotle are extant, and have 
been published. — 7. Leo was also the name of 
six Byzautine emperors. Of these, Leo VI, sur- 
named the philosopher, who reigned 886-911, 
is celebrated in the history of the later Greek 
literature. He wrote a treatise on Greek tac- 
tics, seventeen oracles, thirty-three orations, 
and several other works, which are still extant 
He is also celebrated in the history of legisla- 
tion. As the Latin language had long ceased 
to be the official language of the Eastern em- 
pire, Basil, the father of Leo, had formed and 
partly executed the plan of issuing an authorized 
Greek version of Justinian's legislation. This 
plan was carried out by Leo. The Greek ver- 
sion is known under the title of Baailinai Aca- 
rd^Eig, or, shortly, Baai7.iK.at; in Latin Basili- 
ca, which means " Imperial Constitutions" or 
"Laws." It is divided into sixty books, sub- 
divided into titles, and contains the Institutes, 
the Digest, the Codex, and the Novella? ; and 
likewise such constitutions as were issued by 
the successors of Justinian down to Leo VL 
There are, however, many laws of the Digest 
omitted in the Basilica, which contain, on the 
other hand, a considerable number of laws or 
extracts from ancient jurists which are not in 
the Digest. The publication of this authorized 
body of law in the Greek language led to the 
gradual disuse of the original compilations of 
Justinian in the East. But the Roman law was 
thus more firmly established in Eastern Europe 
and Western Asia, where it has maintained it- 
self among the Greek population to the present 
day. The best edition of the Basilica is the 
one now publishing by Heimbaeh, Lips., 1833, 
seq. 

Leobotes. Vid. Labotas. 
[Leocedes (Aeo/ajdrjc) son of Phidon. Vid. 
Phidon.] 

[Leochares (Aeoxdpve), f»n Athenian statuary 
and sculptor, was one of the great artists of the 
later Athenian school, at the head of which 
were Scopas and Praxiteles. He flourished B, 
C. 352-338. The master-piece of Leochares 
seems to have been his statue of the rape of 



LEOCOFJUM. 



LEONTINI. 



Ganymede. The original work was in bronze. 
Of the extant copies in marble, the best is one, 
half the size of life, in the Museo Pio-Clemen- 
tino. 

Leocoridm (AeuKopwv), a shrine in Athens, in 
the Ceramieus, erected in honor of the daugh- 
jers of Leos. Hipparchus was murdered here. 

Leouamas {Keuddfiag), a distinguished Attic 
orator, was educated in the school of Isocrates, 
and is greatly praised by jEschines. 

[Leodamas (Aeuddfiac), one of the Theban 
chieftains who defended Thebes against the 
attack of the Argives; he slew iEgialeus, and 
was himself slain by Alcmaeon.] 

[Leon (A'euv), a village on the eastern coast 
of Sicily, near Syracuse, occupied by both the 
Athenians and the Romans in their respective 
operations against that city.] 

[Leodes (A«(jc57?f), son of CEnops, one of the 
suitors of Penelope, hated by the rest as an un- 
welcome warner ; he was slain by Ulysses.] 

Leonica, a town of the Edetani in the west 
of Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Leonidas (Aeavcdac). 1. I. King of Sparta 
B.C. 491-480, was one of the sons of Anaxan- 
drides by his first wife, and, according to some 
accounts, was twin-brother to Cleombrotus. 
He succeeded his half-brother Cleomenes I., 
B.C. 491, his elder brother Dorieus also having 
previously died. When Greece was invaded 
by Xerxes, 480, Leonidas was sent with a small 
army to make a stand against the enemy at the 
pass of Thermopylae. The number of his army 
is variously stated: according to Herodotus, it 
amounted to somewhat more than five thousand 
men, of whom three hundred were Spartans ; 
in all probability, the regular band of (so called) 
knights {l-Kirdg). The Persians in vain attempt- 
ed to force their way through the pass of Ther- 
mopylae. They were driven back by Leonidas 
and his gallant band with immense slaughter. 
At length the Malian Ephialtes betrayed the 
mouutain path of the Anopasa to the Persians, 
who were thus able to fall upon the rear of the 
Greeks. When it became known to Leonidas 
that the Persians were crossing the mountain, 
he dismissed all the other Greeks except the 
Thespian and Theban forces, declaring that he 
and the Spartans under his command must 
needs remain in the post they had been sent to 
guard. Then, before the body of Persians, who 
were crossing the mountain under Hydarnes, 
could arrive to attack him in the rear, he ad- 
vanced from the narrow pass and charged the 
myriads of the enemy with his handful of troops, 
hopeless now of preserving their lives, and anx- 
ious only to sell them dearly. In the desperate 
battle which ensued, Leonidas himself fell soon. 
His body was rescued by the Greeks, after a 
violent struggle. On the hillock in the pass, 
where the remnant of the Greeks made their 
last stand, a lion of stone was set up in his 
honor. — 2. II. King of Sparta, was son of the 
traitor Cleonymus. He acted as guardian to 
his infant relative, Areus II., on whose death 
he ascended the throne, about 256. Being op- 
posed to the projected reforms of his contem- 
porary, Agis IV., he was deposed, and the throne 
was transferred to his son-in-law Cleombrotus ; 
but he was soon afterward recalled, and caused 
Agis to be put to death, 240. He died about 



236, and was succeeded by his son, Cleomenes 
III. — 3. A kinsman of Olympias, the mother of 
Alexander the Great, was intrusted with the 
main superintendence of Alexander's education 
in his earlier years, before he became the pupil 
of Aristotle. Leonidas was a man of austere 
character, and trained the young prince in hardy 
and self-denying habits. They were two ex- 
cellent cooks (said Alexander afterward) with 
which Leonidas had furnished him — a night's 
march to season his breakfast, and a scanty 
breakfast to season his dinner. — 4. Of Taren- 
tum, the author of upward of one hundred epi- 
grams in the Doric dialect. His epigrams form- 
ed a part of the Garland of Meleager. They 
are chiefly inscriptions for dedicatory offerings 
and works of art, and, though not of a very high 
order of poetry, are usually pleasing, ingenious, 
and in good taste. Leonidas probably lived in 
the time of Pyrrhus.— -5. Of Alexandrea, also an 
epigrammatic poet, flourished under Nero and 
Vespasian. In the Greek Anthology, forty-three 
epigrams are ascribed to him : they are of a 
very low order of merit. 

Leonnatus (AeovvuToe). 1. A Macedonian of 
Pella, one of Alexander's most distinguished 
officers. His father's name is variously given, 
as Anteas, Anthes, Onasus, and Eunus. He 
saved Alexander's life in India in the assault on 
the city of the Mali. After the death of Alexan- 
der (B.C. 323), he obtained the satrapy of the 
Lesser or Hellespontine Phrygia, and in the fol- 
lowing year he crossed over into Europe, to as- 
sist Antipater against the Greeks; but he was 
defeated by the Athenians and their allies, and 
fell in battle. — [2. Another officer in the service 
of Alexander, a native of iEgae, and son of An 
tipater. — 3. A Macedonian officer in the service 
of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who saved the life 
of that monarch at the battle of Heraclea, B.C. 
280.] 

[Leonorius (Aeovopioe), one of the leaders of 
the Gauls in their invasion of Macedonia and 
the adjacent countries.] 

[Leonteus (Aeovrevc), son of Coronus, led the 
Lapithse to Troy in forty ships ; one of the com 
batants at the funeral games in honor of Pa- 
troclus.] 

Leontiades (AeovTiudrjg). 1. A Theban, com- 
manded at Thermopylae the forces supplied by 
Thebes to the Grecian army, B.C. 480. — 2. A 
Theban, assisted the Spartans in seizing the 
Cadmea, or citadel of Thebes, in 382. He was 
slain by Pelopidas in 379, when the Theban ex 
iles recovered possession of the Cadmea. 

LeontIni (oi Aeovrlvoi : Asovrlvoc; : now Lin- 
tini), a town in the east of Sicily, about five 
miles from the sea, northwest of Syracuse, was 
situated upon the small river Lissus. It was 
built upon two hills, which were separated from 
one another by a valley, in which were the fo- 
rum, the senate house, and the other public 
buildings, while the temples and the private 
houses occupied the hills. The rich plains 
north of the city, called Leontini Campi, were 
some of the most fertile in Sicily, and produced 
abundant crops of most excellent wheat. Le- 
ontini was founded by Chalcidians from Naxos, 
B.C. 730, only six years after the foundation of 
Naxos itself. It never attained much political 
importance in consequence of its proximity to 
431 



LEONTIS. 



LEPIDUS .EMILIUS. 



Syracuse, to -which it soon became subject, and 
whose fortunes it shared. At a later time it 
joined the Carthaginians, and was, in conse- 
quence, taken and plundered by the Romans. 
Under the Romans it sunk into insignificance. 
Gorgias was a native of LeontinL 

Leontes (Aeovrig), one of the ten Attic tribes 
formed by Clisthenes, and deriving its name 
from the hero Leos. Vid. Leos.] 

Leontium (Aeovtiov), an Athenian hetsera, the 
disciple and mistress of Epicurus, wrote a trea- 
tise against Theophrastus. She had a daughter, 
Danae, who was also an hetoera of some noto- 
riety. 

Leontium (Aeovtiov), a town in Achaia, be- 
tween Pharae and iEgium. 

Leontopolis (Aeovtotto/\,l(, Aeovrov iroAjf). 
1. A city in the Delta of Egypt south of 
Thmu'is, and northwest of Athribis, was the 
capital of the Nomos Leontopolites, and proba- 
bly of late foundation, as no writer before Strabo 
mentions it. Its site is uncertain. — 2. Vid. Ni- 

CEPHORIUM. 

Leoprepides, i. c, Simonides, the son of Leo- 
prepes. 

Leos (Aecjc), one of the heroes eponymi of 
the Athenians, said to have been a son of Or- 
pheus. The phyle or tribe of Leontis derived 
its name from him. Once, when Athens was 
suffering from famine or plague, the Delphic 
oracle demanded that the daughters of Leos 
should be sacrificed, and the father complied 
with the command of the oracle. The maidens 
were afterward honored by the Athenians, who 
erected the Leocorium (from Aewc and Kopai) to 
them. Their names were Praxithea, Theope, 
and Eubule. 

Leosthenes (AEuodsvrjg), an Athenian com- 
mander of the combined Greek army in the 
Lamian war. In the year after the death of 
Alexander (B.C. 323), he defeated Antipater 
near Thermopylae; Antipater thereupon threw 
himself into the small town of Lamia. Leos- 
thenes pressed the siege with the utmost vigor, 
but was killed by a blow from a stone. His 
loss was mourned by the Athenians as a public 
calamity. He was honored with a public burial 
in the Ceramicus, and his funeral oration was 
pronounced by Hyperides. 

Leotychides {Aeurvx'iSrjg, AevTvxiSriQ, He- 
rod). 1. King of Sparta, B.C. 491-469. He 
commanded the Greek fleet in 479, and defeated 
the Persians at the battle of Mycale. He was 
afterward sent with an army into Thessaly to 
punish those who had sided with the Persians ; 
but, in consequence of his accepting the bribes 
of the Aleuadae, he was brought to trial on his 
return home, and went iuto exile to Tegea, 469, 
where he died. He was succeeded by his graud- 
son, Arehidamus II. — 2. Grandson of Arehida- 
mus II., and son of Agis II. There was, how- 
ever, some suspicion that he was, in reality, the 
fruit of an intrigue of Alcibiades with Timsea, 
the queen of Agis ; in consequence of which he 
was excluded from the throne, mainly through 
the influence of Lysander, and his uncle, Agesi- 
laus II., was substituted in his room. 

Lepidus jEmilius, a distinguished patrician 
family. 1. M., aedile B.C. 192; praetor 191, 
with Sicily as his province; consul 187, when 
he defeated the Ligurians; pontifex maximus 
432 



180; censor 179 with M. Fulvius Nobilior; and 
consul a second time 175. He was six times 
chosen by the censors princeps senatus, and he 
died 152, full of years and honors. Lepidus the 
triumvir is called by Cicero (Phil, xiii., 7) the 
pronepos of this Lepidus ; but he would seem 
more probably to have been his abnepos, or 
great-great-grandson. — 2. M., consul 137, car- 
ried on war in Spain against the Vaccaei, but 
unsuccessfully. Since he had attacked the Vac 
caei in opposition to the express orders of the 
senate, he was deprived of his command, and 
condemned to pay a fine. He was a man of 
education and refined taste. Cicero, who had 
read his speeches, speaks of him as the greatest 
orator of his age. He helped to form the style 
of Tiberius Gracchus and C. Carbo, who were 
accustomed to listen to him with great care. — 

3. M., the father of the triumvir, was praetor in 
Sicily in 81, where he earned a character by 
his oppressions only second to that of Verres. 
In the civil wars between Marius and Sulla he 
belonged at first to the party of the latter, but 
he afterward came forward as a leader of the 
popular party. In his consulship, 78, he at- 
tempted to rescind the laws of Sulla, who had 
lately died, but he was opposed by his colleague 
Catulus, who received the powerful support of 
Pompey. In the following year (77) Lepidus 
took up arms and marched against Rome. He 
was defeated by Pompey and Catulus, under 
the walls of the city, in the Campus Martius, 
and was obliged to take to flight. Finding it 
impossible to hold his ground in Italy. Lepidus 
sailed with the remainder of his forces to Sar- 
dinia ; but repulsed even in this island by the 
propraetor, he died shortly afterward of chagrin 
and sorrow, which is said to have been increas- 
ed by the discovery of his wife's infidelity. — 

4. Mam., surnamed Livianus, because he be- 
longed originally to the Li via gens, consul 77, 
belonged to the aristocratical party, and was 
one of the influential persons who prevailed 
upon Sulla to spare the life of the youug Julius 
Caesar. — 5. M., consul 66, with L. Volcatus Tul- 
lus, the same year in which Cicero was praetor. 
He belonged to the aristocratical party, but on 
the breaking out of the civil war in 49, he re- 
tired to his Formian villa to watch the progress 
of events. — 6. L ^Imilius Paulus, sou of No. 
3, and brother of M. Lepidus, the triumvir. His 
surname of Paulus was probably given him by 
his father, in honor of the celebrated jEmilius 
Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia : but, since 
he belonged to the family of the Lepidi, and not 
to that of the Pauli, he is inserted in this place, 
and not under Paulus. JEmilius Paulus did 
not follow the example of his father, but com- 
menced his public career by supportiug the aris- 
tocratical party. His first public act was the 
accusation of Catiline in 63. He was quaestor 
in Macedonia 59 ; aedile 55 ; praetor 53 ; and 
consul 50, along with M. Claudius Marcellus. 
Paulus was raised to the consulship on account 
of his being one of the most determined ene- 
mies of Caesar, but Caesar gained him over to 
his side by a bribe of fifteen hundred talents, 
which he is said to have expended on the com- 
pletion of a magnificent basilica which he had 
commenced iu his sedileship. After the murdei 
of Caesar (44), Paulus joined the senatorial par 



LEPIDUS jEMILIUS. 

ty. He was one of the senators -who declared 
M. Lepidus a public enemy on account of his 
having joined Antony ; and, accordingly, when 
the triumvirate was formed, his name was set 
down first in the proscription list by his own 
brother. The soldiers, however, who were ap- 
pointed to kill him, allowed him to escape. He 
passed o^er to Brutus in Asia, and after the 
death of the latter repaired to Miletus. Here 
he remained, and refused to go to Rome, al- 
though he was pardoned by the triumvirs. — 1. 
M. ^Emilius Lepidus, the Triumvir, brother of 
the last. On the breaking out of the civil war 
(49), Lepidus, who was then praetor, joined 
Caesar's party ; and as the consuls had fled 
with Pompey from Italy, Lepidm, as praetor, 
waa the highest magistrate remaining in Italy. 
During Caesar's absence in Spain, Lepidus pre- 
sided at the comitia in which the former was 
appointed dictator. In the following year (48) 
he received the province of Nearer Spain. On 
his return to Rome in 47, Caesar granted him 
a triumph, and made him his magister equitum ; 
and in the next year (46), his colleague in the 
consulship. In 44 he received from Caesar the 
government of Narbonese Gaul and Nearer 
Spain, but had not quitted the neighborhood of 
Rome at the time of the dictator's death. Hav- 
ing the command of an army near the city, he 
was able to render M. Antony efficient assist- 
ance ; and the latter, in consequence, allowed 
Lepidus to be chosen pontifex maximus, which 
dignity had become vacant by Caesar's death. 
Lepidus soon afterward repaired to his provin- 
ces of Gaul and Spain. He remained neutral 
in the struggle between Antony and the senate ; 
but he subsequently joined Antony, when the 
latter fled to him in Gaul after his defeat at 
Mutina. This was in the end of May, 43 ; and 
when the news reached Rome, the senate pro- 
claimed Lepidus a public enemy. In the au- 
tumn Lepidus and Antony crossed the Alps at 
the head of a powerful army. Octavianus (aft- 
erward Augustus) joined them ; and in the 
month of October the celebrated triumvirate was 
formed, by which the Roman world was divid- 
ed between Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus. 
Vid. p. 129, b. In 42 Lepidus remained in Italy 
as coQsul, while the two other triumvirs pros- 
ecuted the war against Brutus aud Cassius. 
In the fresh division of the provinces after the 
battle ot Philippi, Lepidus received Africa, 
where he remained till 36. In this year Oc- 
tavianus summoned him to Sicily to assist him 
in the war against Sextus Pompey. Lepidus 
obeyed, but, tired of being treated as a subor- 
dinate, he resolved to make an effort to acquire 
Sicily for himself and to regain his lost power. 
He was easily subdued by Octavianus, who 
spared his life, but deprived him of his trium- 
virate, his army, and his provinces, and com- 
manded that he should live at Circeii, under 
strict surveillauce. He allowed him, however, 
to retain his dignity of pontifex maximus. He 
died B.C. 13. Augustus succeeded him as 
pontifex maximus. Lepidus was fond of ease 
aud repose, and it is not improbable that he 
possessed abilities capable of effecting much 
more than he ever did. — 8. Paulus JEmilius 
Lepidus, son of No. 6, with whom he is fre- 
quently confounded. His name is variously 
28 



r 

LEPREUH. 

given by the ancient writers, jEmilius Pauius, 
or Paulus ^Emilius, or uEmilius Lepidus Paulus, 
but Paulus JEmilius Lepidus seems to be the 
most correct form. He probably fled with his 
father to Brutus, but he afterward made his 
peace with the triumvirs. He accompanied 
Oclavianus in his campaign against Sex. Pom- 
pey in Sicily in 36. In 34 he was consul suf- 
fectus. In 22 he was censor with L. Munatius 
Plaucus, and died while holding this dignity. — 
9. M. jEmilius Lepidus, son of the triumvir 
(No. 1) and Junia, formed a conspiracy in 30 
for the purpose of assassinating Octavianus on 
his return to Rome after the battle of Actium. 
Mascenas, who had charge of the city, became 
acquainted with the plot, seized Lepidus, and 
sent him to Octavianus in the East, who put 
him to death. His father was ignorant of the 
conspiracy, but his mother was privy to it. 
Lepidus was married twice : his first wife was 
Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir, and his 
second Servilia, who put an end to her life by 
swallowing burning coals when the conspir- 
acy of her husband was discovered. — 10. Q. 
.^Emilius Lepidus, consul in 21 with M. Lollius. 
(Hor., Ep., i., 20, 28.)— 11. L. JEmilius Paulus, 
son of No. 8 and Cornelia, married Julia, the 
grand-daughter of Augustus. Vid. Julia, No. 6. 
Paulus is therefore called the progener of Au- 
gustus. He was consul A.D. 1, with C. Caesar, 
his wife's brother. He entered into a conspir- 
acy against Augustus, of the particulars of 
which we are not informed. — 12. M. jEmilius 
Lepidus, brother of the last, consul A.D. 6 
with L. Arruntius. He lived on the most inti- 
mate terms with Augustus, who employed him 
in the war against the Dalmatians in A.D. P. 
After the death of Augustus, he was also held 
in high esteem by Tiberius. — 13. M. JEmilius 
Lepidus, consul with T. Statilius Taurus in 
A.D. 11, must be carefully distinguished from 
the last. In A.D. 21 he obtained the province 
of Asia. — 14. ^Emiltos Lepidus, the son of No. 
11 and Julia, the grand-daughter of Augustus, 
and consequently the great-grandson of Augus- 
tus. He was one of the minions of the Emper- 
or Caligula, with whom he had the most shame- 
ful connection. He married Drusilla, the fa- 
vorite sister of the emperor; but he was, not- 
withstanding, put to death by Caligula, A.D. 39. 

Lepontii, a people inhabiting the Alps, in 
whose country Caesar places the sources of the 
Rhine, and Pliny the sources of the Rhone. 
They dwelt on the southern slope of the St. 
Gothard and the Simplon, toward the Lago 
Maggiore, and their name is still retained in 
the Vol Leventina. Their chief town was Os- 
cela (now Domo d'Ossola). 

Leprea (Aeirpia) daughter of Pyrgeus, from 
whom the town of Lepreum in Elis was said to 
have derived its name. Vid. Lepreum. An- 
other tradition derived the name from Lepreus, 
a son of Caucon, Glaucon, or Pyrgeus, by As- 
tydamia. He was a grandson of Neptune (Po- 
seidon), and a rival of Hercules both in his 
strength and his powers of eating, but he was 
conquered and slain by the latter. His tomb 
was believed to exist in Phigalia. 

Lepreum (Aeirpeov, Aiizpeoc : Aenpedrrjc : now 
Strovitzi), a town of Elis in Triphylia, situated 
forty stadia from the sea, was said to have been 
433 



LEPREUS. 

fouuded in the time of Theseus by Minyans 
from Lemnos. After the Messenian wars it 
was subdued by the Eleans -with the aid of 
Sparta: but it recovered its independence in 
the Peloponnesian wai - , and was assisted by 
the Spartans against Elis. At the time of the 
Achaean league it was subject to Elis. 
[Lepreus (Aeirpevc). Vid. Leprea.] 
Lepta, Q., a native of Cales in Campania, 
and prsefectus fabrum to Cicero in Cilicia, B.C. 
51. He joined the Pompeian party in the civil 
war, and is frequently mentioned in Cicero's 
letters. 

Leptines (AeirTtv7i(). 1. A Syracusan, son 
of Hermocrates, and brother of Dionysius the 
Elder, tyrant of Syracuse. He commanded his 
brother's fleet in the war against the Cartha- 
ginians, B.C. 397, but was defeated by Mago 
with great loss. In 390 he was sent by Dionys- 
ius with a fleet to the assistance of the Luca- 
nians against the Italian Greeks. Some time 
afterward he gave offence to the jealous tem- 
per of the tyrant by giving one of his daugh- 
ters in marriage to Philistus, without any pre- 
vious intimation to Dionysius, and on this ac- 
count he was banished from Syracuse, together 
with Philistus. He thereupon retired to Thurii, 
but was subsequently recalled by Dionysius to 
Syracuse. Here he was completely reinstated 
in his former favor, and obtained one of the 
daughters of Dionysius in marriage. In 383 
he again took an active part'in the war against 
the Carthaginians, and commanded the right 
wing of the Syracusan army in the battle near 
Cronium, in which he was killed. — 2., A Syra- 
cusan, who joined with Dalippus in expelling 
the garrison of the younger Dionysius from 
Rhegium, 351. Soon afterward he assassin- 
ated Calippus, and then crossed over to Sicily, 
where he made himself tyrant of Apollonia and 
Engyum. He was expelled in common with 
the other tyrants by Timoleon ; but his life 
was spared, and he was sent into exile at 
Corinth, 342. — 3. An Athenian, known only as 
the proposer of a law taking away all special 
exemptions from the burden of public charges 
(urtTieiai tQv 7.£iTovpyt6v), against which the 
celebrated oration of Demosthenes is directed, 
usually known as the oration against Leptines. 
This speech was delivered 355; and the law 
must have been passed above a year before, 
as we are told that the lapse of more than that 
period had already exempted Leptines from all 
personal responsibility. Hence the efforts of 
Demosthenes were directed solely to the re- 
peal of the law, not to the punishment of its 
proposer. His arguments were successful, and 
the law was repealed. — 4. A Syrian Greek, who 
assassinated with his own hand, at Laodicea, 
Cn. Octavius, the chief of the Roman deputies, 
who had been sent into Syria, 162. Demetrius 
caused Leptines to be seized, and sent as a 
prisoner to Rome ; but the senate refused to 
receive him, being desirous to reserve this 
cause of complaint as a public grievance. 

Leptis (Aeirric). 1. Leptis Magna or Neapo- 
lis (fj AeiTTtc y.syaX,Ti, NeuiroXic), a city on the 
coast of Northern Africa, between the Syrtes, 
east of Abrotonum, and west of the mouth of 
the little river Cinyps, was a Phoenician col- 
ony, with a flourishing; ocaiaicrce, though it 
434 



LESBOS. 

| possessed do harbor. "With Abrotonum and 
CEa it formed the African Tripolis. The Ro^ 
mans made it a colony : it was the birth-place 
of the Emperor Septimius Severus ; and it con- 
tinued to flourish till A.D. 366, when it was al- 
most ruined by an attack from a Libyan tribe 
Justinian did something toward its restoration - 
but the Arabian invasion completed its destruc- [ 
tion. Its ruins are still considerable. — 2. Lep- 
tis Minor or Parva (Asnrlg ij fiiKpil : ruins at j 
Lamta), usually called simply Leptis, a Phoeni- 
cian colony on the coast of Byzacium, in North- 
ern Africa, between Hadrumetum and Thap- 
sus: an important place under both the Car- 
thaginians and the Romans. 

Lerina (now St. Honorat), an island off the 
coast of Gallia Narbouensis, opposite Autipolis 
(now Antibes). 

Lerna or Lerne (Aepvr)), a district in Argo- 
lis, not far from Argos, in which was a marsh L 
and a small river of the same name. It was 
celebrated as the place where Hercules killed 
the Lernean Hydra. Vid. p. 357, a. 

Lero (now St. Marguerite), a small island i 
off the coast of Gallia Narbonensis. 

Leros (Aepoc : AepLoc), a small island, one of 
the Sporades, opposite to the mouth of the Si- 
nus Iassius, on the coast of Caria. Its inhab- 
itants, who came originally from Miletus, bore 
a bad character. Besides a city of the same 
name, it had in it a temple of Diana (Artemis), 
where the transformation of the sisters of Mel- 
eager into Guinea-fowls was said to have taken 
place, in memory of which Guinea-fowls were 
kept in the court of that temple. 

Lesbonax (Aetj6ava£). 1. Son of Potamou 
of Mytilene, a philosopher and sophist in the 
time of Augustus. He was the father of role- 
mob, the teacher and friend of the Emperor Ti | 
berius. Lesbonax wrote several political ora- 
tions, of which two have come down to us, 
one entitled Trepl tov TroXifiov Kopivdiov, and 
the other 7rp0TpenTtK.bc 26yoc, both of which are 
not uusuccessful imitations of the Attic orators 
of the best times. They are printed in the col- 
lections of the Greek orators (vid. Demosthe- 
nes), and separately by Orelli, Lips., 1820. — 
2. A Greek grammarian, of uncertain age, but [ 
later than No. l,the author of an extant work on 
grammatical figures (nept cxvfiuTuv), published 
by Valckenaer in his edition of Ammouius. 

Lesbos (AeoSoc : AeoSioc, Lesbius : now Myt- 
ilene, Metelin), the largest, and by far the most 
important, of the islands of the ^Egean along 
the coast of Asia Minor, lay opposite to the 
Gulf of Adramyttium, off the coast of Mysia, 
the direction of its length being northwest and 
southeast. It is intersected by lofty mount- 
ains, and indented with large bays, the chief 
of which, on the western side, runs more than 
half way across the island. It had three chief 
headlauds, Argenum, on the northeast, Sigri- 
um on the west, and Malea on the south. Its 1 
valleys were very fertile, especially iu the 
northern part, near Methymua ; and it pro- 
duced corn, oil, and wine renowned for its ex- 
cellence. In early times it was called by va- 
rious names, the chief of which were Issa, 
Pelasgia, Mytauis, and Macaria : the late Greek 
writers called it Mytilene, from its chief city, 
and this name has been preserved to modern 



LESBOTHEMIS. 



LEUC^E. 



times. The earliest reputed inhabitants were 
Pelasgians ; the next, an Ionian colony, who 
were said to have settled it in two generations 
before the Trojan war ; lastly, at the time of 
the great iEolic migration (oue hundred and 
thirty years after the Trojan Avar, according 
to the mythical chronology), the island was 
colonized by JEolians, who founded in it an 
Hexapolis, consisting of the six cities, Myti- 
lene, Methymna, Eresus, Pyrrha, Antissa, and 
Arisbe, afterward reduced to five through the 
destruction of Arisbe by the Methymnasans. 
The Julians of Lesbos afterward founded 
numerous settlements along the coast of the 
Troad and in the region of Mount Ida, and at 
one time a great part of the Troad seems to 
have been subject to Lesbos. The chief facts 
in the history of the island are connected with 
its principal city, Mytilene, which was the 
scene of the struggles between the nobles and 
the commons, in which Alc^eus and Pittacus 
took part. At the time of the Peloponnesian 
war, Lesbos was subject to Athens. After 
various changes, it fell under the power of 
Mithradates, and passed from him to the Ro- 
mans. The island is most important in the 
early history of Greece, as the native region 
of the JSolian school of lyric poetry. It was 
the birth-place of the musician and poet Ter- 
pander, of the lyric poets Alc^eus, Sappho, 
and others, and of the" dithyrarhbic poet Arion. 
Other forms of literature and philosophy early 
and long flourished in it : the sage and states- 
man Pittacos, the historians Hellanicus and 
Theophanes, and the philosophers Theophras- 
tui> and Phanias, were all Lesbians. 

Lesbothemis (Aeo666e/iic), a statuary of an- 
cient date, and a native of Lesbos. 

Lesches or Lescheus (Aeaxvc, Aeo^euf), one 
of the so-called cyclic poets, son of iEschylinus, 
a native of Pyrrha, in the neighborhood of Myt- 
ilene, and hence called a Mytilenean or a Les- 
bian. He flourished about B.C. 108, and was 
usually regarded as the author of the Little Il- 
iad ('I/Uic t] eXuoauv or 'I/Uao jiucpd), though 
this poem was also ascribed to various other 
poets. It consisted of four books, and was in- 
tended as a supplement to the Homeric Iliad. 
It related the events after the death of Hector, 
the* fate of Ajax, the exploits of Philoctetes, 
Neoptolemus, and Ulysses, and the final cap- 
ture and destruction of Troy, which part of the 
poem was called The destruction of Troy ('IA- 
tow mpaic). There was no unity in the poem, 
except that of historical and chronological suc- 
cession. Hence Aristole remarks that the little 
Iliad furnished materials for eight tragedies, 
while only one could be based upon the Iliad or 
Odyssey of Homer. 

[Lessa (Ayaaa : ruins at Lycurio), a village 
of Argolis, eastward from Argos, ou the west- 
ern confines of the territory of Epidaurus, aud 
at the base of Mount Arachnasus : it contained 
u temple of Minerva (Athena).] 

[Letanbros, a small island of the JSgean Sea, 
classed among the Cyclades, lying near Gyaros.] 

Letiijeus (Arjdaiog). 1. A river of Ionia, in 
Asia Minor, flowing south past Magnesia into 
the Masander.— 2. A river in the south of Crete, 
flowing past Gortyua. — 3. Vid. Lathon. 

Lethe ( rfirj), the personification of oblivion, 



called by Hesiod a daughter of Eris. A river 
in the lower world was likewise called Lethe. 
The souls of the departed drank of this river, 
and thus forgot all they had said or done in 
the upper world ; [and, according to Virgil (^Sn., 
vi., 713), the souls destined by the Fates to in 
habit new bodies on earth also drank of its 
waters, to remove the remembrance of the joj's 
of Elysium.] 

Lethe, a river in Spain. Vid. Lim^ea. 

Leto (ArjTu), called Latona by the Romans, 
is described by Hesiod as a daughter of the 
Titan Coeus and Phoebe, a sister of Asteria, and 
the mother of Apollo aud Diana (Artemis) by 
Jupiter (Zeus), to whom she was married be- 
fore Juno (Hera). Homer likewise calls her 
the mother of Apollo and Diana (Artemis) by 
Jupiter (Zeus); he mentions her in the story 
of Niobe, who paid so dearly for her conduct 
toward Latona (Leto) (vid. Niobe), and he also 
describes her as the friend of the Trojans in the 
war with the Greeks. In later writers these 
elements of her story are variously embellish- 
ed, for they do not describe her as the lawful 
wife of Jupiter (Zeus), but merely as his mis- 
tress, who was persecuted by Juno (Hera) during 
her pregnancy. All the world being afraid of 
receiving Latona (Leto) on ' account of Juno 
(Hera), she wandered about till she came to 
Delos, which was then a floating island, and 
bore the name of Asteria or Ortygia. When 
Latona (Leto) arrived there, Jupiter (Zeus) fas- 
tened it by adamantine chains to the bottom of 
the sea, that it might be a secure resting-place 
for his beloved, and here she gave birth to Apollo 
aud Diana (Artemis). The tradition is also re- 
lated with various other modifications. Some 
said that Jupiter (Zeus) changed Latona (Leto) 
into a quail (oprv!;), and that in this state she 
arrived in the floating island, which was hence 
called Ortygia. Others related that Jupiter 
(Zeus) was enamored with Asteria, but that she, 
being metamorphosed into a bird, flew across 
the sea ; that she was then changed into a rock, 
which for a long time lay under the surface 
of the sea ; aud that this rock arose from the 
waters and received Latona (Leto) when she 
was pursued by Python. Latona (Leto) was 
generally worshipped only in conjunction with 
her children. Delos was the chief seat of her 
worship. Vid. Apollo. It is probable that the 
name of Leto belongs to the same class of words 
as the Greek TijjOij and the Latin lateo. Leto 
would therefore signify " the obscure" or " con- 
cealed," not as a physical power, but as a di- 
vinity yet quiescent and invisible, from whom 
issued the visible divinity with all his splendor 
and brilliancy. This view is supported by the 
account of her genealogy given by Hesiod, 
From their mother Apollo is frequently called 
Lcto'ius or Latoius, and Artemis (Diana) Leto'ia, 
Leto'is, Latois, or Lato'i. 

Leuca (tu Aevnu), town at the extremity of 
the lapygian promontory in Calabria, witli a 
fetid fountain, under which the giants who were 
vanquished by Hercules are said to have been 
buried. The promontory is still called Capo di 
Leuca. 

Leuoadia. Vid. Leucas.] 
Leucje, Leuca (Aevicai, Aevuri : now Lefkc), a 
small town on the coast of Ionia, in Asia Minor 
435 



LEUCAS. 



LETJCOPHRYNE. 



^lear Phocasa, built by the Persian general Ta- [ 
chos in B.C. 352, and remarkable as the scene 
of the battle between the consul Licinius Cras- 
sus and Aristonicus in 181. 

Leucas or Leucadia [Aeu/raf, KevKaSia : Aev- 
nddio<; : now Santa Maura), an island in the 
Ionian Sea, off the western coast of Acarnania, 
about twenty miles in length, and from five to 
eight miles in breadth. It has derived its name 
from the numerous calcareous hills which cover 
its surface. It was originally united to the 
main land at its northeastern extremity by a 
narrow isthmus. Homer speaks of it as a pen- 
insula and mentions its well-fortified town Ne- 
ricus (JSripucog). It was at that time inhabited 
by the Teleboans and Leleges. Subsequently 
the Corinthians under Cypselus, between B.C. 
665 and 625, founded a new town, called Leu- 
cas, in the northeast of the country, near the 
isthmus, in which they settled one thousand of 
their citizens, and to which they removed the 
inhabitants of Nericus, which lay a little to the 
west of the new town. The Corinthians also 
cut a canal through the isthmus, and thus con- 
verted the peninsula into an island. This canal 
was afterward filled up by deposits of sand ; and 
in the Peloponnesian war it was no longer avail- 
able for ships, which during that period "were 
conveyed across the isthmus on more than one 
occasion (Thuc., iii., 81 ; iv., 8). The canal was 
opened again by the Romans. At present the 
channel is dry in some parts, and has from three 
to four feet of water in others. The town of 
Leucas was a place of importance, and during 
the war between Philip and the Romans was at 
the head of the Acarnanian league, and the 

Elace where the meetings of the league were 
eld. It was, in consequence, taken and plun- 
dered by the Romans, B.C. 197. The remains 
of this town are still to be seen. The other 
towns in the island were Hellomenum ('ETiXofie- 
vov) on the southeastern coast, and Phara ($apu) 
on the southwestern coast. At the southern ex- 
tremity of the island, opposite Cephallenia, was 
the celebrated promontory, variously called Leu- 
cas, Leucatas, Leucates, or Leucate (now Cape 
Ducato), on which was a temple of Apollo, who 
hence had the surname of Leueadius. At the 
annual festival of the god it was the custom to 
cast down a criminal from this promontory into 
the sea : to break his fall, birds of all kinds were 
attached to him, and if he reached the sea un- 
injured, boats were ready to pick him up. This 
appears to have been an expiatory rite ; and it 
gave rise to the well known story that lovers 
leaped from this rock in order to seek relief 
from the pangs of love. Thus Sappho is said 
to have leaped down from this rock when in 
love with Phaon ; but this well-known story 
vanishes at the first approach of criticism. 
[Leucasia (Aevnaaia). Vid. Leucosia.] 
[Leucatas (now Akrita), also called Aciutas, 
a promontory of Bithynia, west of Nicomedia.] 

Leuce (Aevurj). 1. An island in the Euxiue 
Sea, near the mouth of the Borysthenes, sacred 
to Achilles. Vid. Achilleus Dromos. — [2. A 
small island on the eastern coast of Crete, south 
of the Promontory Itanum.] 

[Leuce Acte (AevK.i) 'A/m/ : now St. Georgio), 
a town and roadstead of Thrace, on the Pro- 
pontis.] 

436 



[Leuce Come (Aevurj Ka/xtj), a fortified plac6 
in the north of Arabia Felix, on the Arabicus 
Sinus, which served as a depflt for goods sent 
to Petra and Northern Arabia.] 

Leuci, a people in the southeast of Gallia Bel- 
gica, south of the Mediomatrici, between the 
Matrona and Mosella. Their chief town was 
Tullum (now Toul\ 

Leuci Montes, called by the Romans Albi 
Montes, a range of mountains in the west of 
Crete. Vid. Albi Montes. 

Leucippe. Vid. Alcathoe. 

Leucippides (AevuLirmdric), i. e., Phoebe and 
Hilalra, the daughters of Leucippus. They 
were priestesses of Minerva (Athena) and Di- 
ana (Artemis), and betrothed to Idas and Lyn- 
ceus, the sons of Aphareus ; but Castor and 
Pollux, being charmed with their beauty, car- 
ried them off and married them. 

Leucippus (Aevunrirog). 1. Son of CEnomaus. 
For details, vid. Daphne. — 2. Son of Perieres 
and Gorgophone, brother of Aphareus, and prince 
of the Messenians, was one of the Calydonian 
hunters. By his wife Philodice he had two 
daughters, Phcebe and Hilaira, usually called 
Leucippides. — 3. A Grecian philosopher, the 
founder of the atomic theory of the ancient 
philosophy, which was more fully developed by 
Democritus. Where and when he was boru 
we have no data for deciding. Miletus, Abdera, 
and Elea have been assigned as his birth-place ; 
the first, apparently, for no other reason thaD 
that it was the birth-place of several natural 
philosophers ; the second, because Democritus 
came from that town ; the third, because he 
was looked upon as a disciple of the Eleatic 
school. The period when he lived is equally 
uncertain. He is called the teacher of Democ- 
ritus, the disciple of Parmenides, or according 
to other accounts, of Zeno, of Melissus, nay, 
even of Pythagoras. With regard to his philo- 
sophical system it is impossible to speak with 
certainty, since the writers who mention hirn 
either mention him in conjunction with Democ- 
ritus, or attribute to him doctrines which are in 
like manner attributed to Democritus. Vid. De- 
mocritus. 

Leucon (Aevauv). 1. Son of Neptune (Posei- 
don) or Athamas and Themisto, and father of 
Erythrus and Evippe. — 2. A powerful king of 
Bosporus, who reigned B.C. 393-353. He was 
in close alliance with the Athenians, whom he 
supplied with corn in great abundance, and 
who, in return for his services, admitted him 
and his sons to the citizenship of Athens. — 3. 
An Athenian poet, of the old comedy, a con- 
temporary and rival of Aristophanes. [A frag- 
ment preserved in Hesychius is given in Mei- 
neke's Comic. Grate. Fragm., vol. i., p. 423]. 

Leuconium (AevKavwv), a place in the island 
of Chios. (Thuc, viii., 24.) 

Leuconoe (AevKovoij), daughter of Min3 r as, 
usually called Leucippe. Vid. Aleathoe. 

Leucopetra (Ac vno-erpa : now Cape dell' 
Arrrii), a promontory in the southwest of Brut- 
tium, on the Sicilian Straits, and a few miles 
south of Rhegium, to whose territory it belong- 
ed. It was regarded by the ancient writers as 
the termination of the Apenuiues, and it derived 
its name from the white color of its rocks. 

Leucophryne. Vid, Leucofhrys. 



LEUCOPHRYS. 



LIB ANUS. 



Leccophrys (AevKo<ppv(). 1. A city of Oaria, 
in the plain of the Maeander, close to a curious 
lake of warm water, and having a renowned 
temple of Diana (Artemis) Leucophryne. — 2. A 
name given to the island of Tenedos, from its 
white cliffs. 

Letcosia 01 Leucasia (now Piano), a small 
island in the south of the Gulf of Psestum, off 
the coast of Lucania, and opposite the Promon- 
tory Posidium, said to have been called after 
one of the Sirens. 

Leucosyri (AevKoavpoi, i. e., Wliite Syrians), 
was a name early applied by the Greeks to the 
inhabitants of Cappadocia, -who were of the 
Syrian race, in contradistinction to the Syrian 
tribes of a darker color beyond the Taurus. 
Afterward, when Cappadoees came to be the 
common name for the people of Southern Cap- 
padocia, the word Leucosyri was applied spe- 
cifically to the people in the north of the coun- 
try (afterward Poutus) on the coast of the Eux- 
ine, between the rivers Halys and Iris : these 
are the White Syrians of Xenophon (Anab., v., 
6). After the Macedonian conquest the name 
appears to have fallen into disuse. 

Leucothea (AevKodea), a marine goddess, was 
previously Ino, the wife of Athamas. For de- 
tails, vid. Athamas. 

Leucothoe, daughter of the Babylonian king 
Orchamus and Eurynome, was beloved by Apol- 
lo. Her amour was betrayed by the jealous 
Clytia to her father, who buried her alive ; 
whereupon Apollo metamorphosed her into an 
xncense shrub. Leucothoe is in some writers 
only another form for Leucothea. 

Leuctra (to. evKrpa : now Lefka or Lefkra). 
I. A small town in Boeotia, on the road from 
Platsese to Thespian, memorable for the victory 
which Epaminondas and the Thebans here gain- 
ed over Cleombrotus and the Spartans, B.C. 
371. — [2. Vid. Lecctrum.] 

Leuctrum (Aevurpov). 1. Or Leuctra (now 
Zeftro), a town in Messenia, on the eastern side 
of the Messenian Gulf, between Cardamyle and 
Thalama, on- the small river Pamisus. The 
Spartans and Messenians disputed for the pos- 
session of it. — 2. A small town in Achaia, de- 
pendent on Rhypaa. 

[Leucus (AevKos) a companion of Ulysses in 
the Trojan war, slain by Antiphus.] 

[Leucyanias (AevKvaviag), a small river of 
Elis, that flows from Mount Pholoe, and emp- 
ties into the Alpheus. On its banks was a tem- 
ple of Bacchus (Dionysus) Leucyanites.] 

Lexovii or Lexobii, a people in Gallia Lug- 
dunensis, on the Ocean, west of the mouth of 
the Sequana. Their capital was Noviomagus 
(now Lisieux). 

Liba A'da), a city of Mesopotamia, between 
Nisibis and the Tigris. 

Libanius (AiCdvioe), a distinguished Greek 
sophist and rhetorician, was born at Antioch, 
on the Orontes, about A.D. 314. He studied at 
Athens, where he imbibed an ardent love for 
the great classical writers of Greece ; and he 
afterward set up a private school of rhetoric at 
Constantinople, which was attended by so large 
a number of pupils that the classes of the pub- 
lic professors were completely deserted. The 
latter, in revenge, charged Libanius with being 
a magioian, and obtained his expulsion from 



Constantinople about 346. He then went to 
Nicomedia, where he taught with equal success, 
but also drew upon himself an equal degree of 
malice from his opponents. After a stay of five 
years at Nicomedia, he was recalled to Con- 
stantinople. Eventually he took up his abode 
at Antioch, where he spent the remainder -of 
his life. Here he received the greatest marks 
of favor from the Emperor Julian, 362. In the 
reign of Valens- he was at first persecuted, but 
he afterward succeeded in winning the favor of 
that monarch also. The Emperor Theodosius 
likewise showed him marks of respect, but his 
enjoyment of life was disturbed by ill health, by 
misfortunes in his family, and more especially 
by the disputes in which he was incessantly in- 
volved, partly with rival sophists, and partly 
with the prefects. It can not, however, be de- 
nied, that he himself was as much to blame as 
his opponents, for he appears to have provoked 
them by his querulous disposition, and by the 
pride and vanity which every where appear in 
his orations, and which led him to interfere in 
political questions which it would have been 
wiser to have left alone. He was the teacher 
of St. Basil and Chrysostorn, with whom he al- 
ways kept up a friendly connection. The year 
of his death is uncertain, but from one of his 
epistles it is evident that he was alive in 391, 
and it is probable that he died a few years after, 
in the reign of Arcadius. The extant works of 
Libanius are, 1. Models for rhetorical exercises 
(TlpoyvfivaofidTuv Trapadety/nara). 2. Orations 
(Aoyoi), sixty- seven in number. 3. Declama- 
tions (MfAerat), i. e., orations on fictitious sub- 
jects, and descriptions of various kinds, fifty in 
number. 4. A life of Demosthenes, and argu- 
ments to the speeches of the same orator. 6. 
Letters ('EmoroAai), of which a very large num- 
ber is still extant. Many of these letters are 
extremely interesting, being addressed to the 
most eminent men of his time, such as the Em- 
peror Julian, Athanasius, Basil, Gregory of Nys- 
sa, Chrysostorn, and others. The style of Li- 
banius is superior to that of the other rhetori- 
cians of the fourth century. He took the best 
orators of the classic age as his models, and we 
can often see in him the disciple and happy imi- 
tator of Demosthenes; but he is not always 
able to rise above the spirit of his age, and we 
rarely find in him that natural simplicity which 
constitutes the great charm of the best Attie 
orators. His diction is a curious mixture of 
the pure old Attie with what may be termed 
modern. Moreover, it is evident that, like all 
other rhetoricians, lie is more concerned about 
the form than the substance. As far as the 
history of his age is concerned, some of his ora- 
tions, and still more his epistles, are of great 
value, such as the oration in which he relates 
the events of his own life, the eulogies on Con- 
stantius and Constans, the orations on Julian, 
several orations describing the condition of An- 
tioch, and those which he wrote against his pro- 
fessional and political opponents. There is no 
complete edition of all the works of Libanius. 
The best edition of the orations and declama- 
tions is by Reiske, Altenburg, 1791-97, 4 vols. 
8vo, and the best edition of the epistles is by 
Wolf, Amsterdam, 1738, fol. 

LIbanus (6 Albavog, to Aidavov : Heb. Leb- 
437 



LIBARNA. 



LIBO. 



anon, i. e., the White Mountain : now Jehel Lib- 
nan), a lofty and steep mountain range on the 
confines of Syria and Palestine, dividing Phce 
nice from Coele-Syria. It extends from above 
Sidon, about latitude 33i}° north, in a direction 
north-northeast as far as about latitude 34-J°. 
Its highest summits are covered with perpetual 
snow ; its sides were in ancient times clothed 
with forests of cedars, of which only scattered 
trees now remain, and on its lower slopes grow 
vines, figs, mulberries, and other fruits : its 
wines were highly celebrated in ancient times. 
It is considerably lower than the opposite range 
of Antilibanus. In the Scriptures the word 
Lebanon is used for both ranges, and for either 
of them; but in classical authors the names 
Libanus and Antilibanus are distinctive terms, 
being applied to the western and eastern ranges 
respectively. 

Libarna or Libarnum, a town of Liguria, on 
the Via Amelia, northwest of Genua. 

Libentina, Lubentina, Lubentia, a surname 
of Venus among the Romans, by which she is 
described as the goddess of sexual pleasure (dea 
libidinis). 

Liber, or Liber Pater, a name frequently 
given by the Roman poets to the Greek Bacchus 
or Dionysus, who was accordingly regarded as 
identical with the Italian Liber. But the god 
Liber and the goddess Libera were ancient 
Italian divinities, presiding over the cultivation 
of the vine and the fertility of the fields. Hence 
they were worshipped even in early times in 
conjunction with Ceres. A temple to these 
three divinities was vowed by the dictator A. 
Postumius in B.C. 496, and was built near the 
Circus Flaminius; it was afterward restored 
by Augustus, and dedicated by Tiberius. The 
name Liber is probably connected with liberare. 
Hence Seneca says, Liber dictus est quia liberat 
servitio curarum animi ; while others, who were 
evidently thinking of the Greek Bacchus, found 
in the name an allusion to licentious drinking 
and speaking. Poets usually called him Liber 
Pater, the latter word being very commonly 
added by the Italians to the names of gods. 
The female Libera was identified by the Ro- 
mans with Cora or Proserpina, the daughter of 
Demeter (Ceres) ; whence Cicero calls Liber 
and Libera children of Ceres; whereas Ovid 
calls Ariadne Libera. The festival of the Libe- 
ralia was celebrated by the Romans every year 
on the 17 th of March. 

Libera. Vid. Liber. 

[Liberalis. Vid. Antoninus Liberalis.] 

Libertas, the personification of Liberty, was 
worshipped at Rome as a divinity. A temple 
was erected to her on the Aventine by Tib. 
Sempronius Gracchus. Another was built by 
Clodius on the spot where Cicero's house had 
stood. A third was erected after Cajsar's vic- 
tories in Spain. From these temples we must 
distinguish the Atrium Libertatis, which was in 
the north of the forum, toward the Quirinal. 
This building, under the republic, served as an 
office of the censors, and also contained tables 
with laws inscribed upon them. It was rebuilt 
by Asinius Pollio, and then became the reposi- 
tory of the first public library at Rome. Liber- 
tas is usually represented in works of art as a 
matron, with the pileus, the symbol of liberty, ' 
438 



or a wreath of laurel. Sometimes she appears 
holding the Phrygian, cap in her hand. 
Libethrides. Vid. Libethrum. 
Libethrius Mons (to Ki&iflpiov bpog), amount 
ain in Bceotia, a branch of Mount Helicon, forty 
stadia from Corouea, possessing a grotto of the 
Libethrian nymphs, adorned with their statues, 
and two fouutaius Libethrias and Petra. 

Libethrum (Ae'dvdpov, ra Aeitindpa, ra M6r/- 
8pa), an ancient Thracian town in Pieria in Mac- 
edonia, on the slope of Olympus, and southwest 
of Dium, where Orpheus is said to have lived. 
This town and the surrounding country were 
sacred to the Muses, who were hence called 
Libethrides ; and it is probable that the worship 
of the Muses under this name was transferred 
from this place to Bceotia. 

[Libissonis Turris (AiC'ioouvog irvpyog), a city 
on the northern coast of Sardinia, and, according 
to Pliny, the only Roman colony in the island ; 
probably the usual lauding place for ships com- 
ing from Corsica. Its ruins are now seen on a 
height near a harbor which still bears the name 
Porto Torre'.\ 

. Libitina, an ancient Italian divinity, who was 
identified by the later Romans sometimes with 
Persephone (Proserpina), on account of her con- 
nection with the dead and their burial, and some- 
times with Aphrodite (Venus). The latter was 
probably the consequence of etymological specu- 
lations on the name of Libitina, which people 
connected with libido. Her temple at Rome 
was a repository of every thing necessary for 
burials, and persons might there either buy or 
hire those things. Hence a person undertaking 
the burial of a person (an undertaker) was call- 
ed libitinarius, and his business libitina ; hence 
the expressions libilinam exercere or facere, and 
libitina funcribus non siifficiebat, i. e., they could 
not all be buried. It is related that King Ser- 
vius Tullius, in order to ascertain the number 
of deaths, ordained that for every person who 
died, a piece of money should be deposited iu 
the temple of Libitina. Owing to this connec- 
tion of Libitina with the dead, Roman poets 
frequently employ her name in the sense of 
death itself. 

Libo, Scribonius, a plebeian family. 1. L., 
tribune of the plebs, B.C. 149, accused Ser. 
Sulpicius Galba on account of the outrages 
which he had committed against the Lusita- 
nians. Vid. Galba, No. 6. It was perhaps this 
Libo who consecrated the Puteal Scribonianum 
or Puteal Libonis, of which we so frequently 
read in ancient writers. The Puteal was an 
inclosed place iu the forum, near the Arcus 
Fabianus, and was so called from its being open 
at the top, like a puteal or well. It appears that 
there was only one such puteal at Rome, and 
not two, as is generally believed. It was dedi- 
cated in very ancient times either on account 
of the whetstone of the augur Navius (eomp. 
Liv., i., 36), or because the spot had been struck 
by lightning; it was subsequently repaired and 
re-dedicated by Libo, who erected iu its neigh- 
borhood a tribunal for the praitor, iu conse- 
quence of which the place was frequented by 
persons who had lawsuits, such as money-lend- 
ers and the like. (Comp. Hor., Sat., ii., 6, 36 ; 
Epist, i., 19, 8.)— 2. L., the father-in-law of Sex. 
Pompey, the son of Pompey the Great. On the 



LIBON. 



LICINIUS. 



breaking out of the civil -war in 49 he naturally [ 
sided with Fompey, and was intrusted with the 
command of Etruria. Shortly afterward he ac- 
companied Pompey to Greece, and was actively 
engaged in the war that ensued. On the death 
of Bibulus (48) he had the chief command of 
the Pompeian fleet. In the civil wars which 
followed Ca?sar's death, he followed the fortunes 
of his son-in-law Sex. Pompey. In 40 Oetavi- 
anus married his sister Seribonia, and this mar- 
riage was followed by a peace between the tri- 
umvirs and Pompey (39). When the war was 
renewed in 36, Libo for a time continued with 
Pompey, but, seeing his cause hopeless, he de- 
serted him in the following year. In 34 he was 
consul with M. Antony. 

Libon (A'duv), an Eleau, the architect of the 
great temple of Jupiter (Zeus) in the Altis at 
Olympia, flourished about B.C. 450. 

[Libora (Atfopa), a town of the Carpetani, 
same as the JSbura (q. v.) of Livy.] 

Libui, a Gallic tribe in Gallia Cispadana, to 
whom the towns of Brixia and Verona formerly 
belonged, from which they were expelled by the 
Cenomani. They are probably the same people 
whom we afterward find in the neighborhood 
of VercellcB under the name of Lebecii or Libici. 

Liburnia, a district of Illyricum, along the 
coast of the Adriatic Sea, was separated from 
Istria on the northwest by the River Arsia, and 
from Dalmatia on the south by the River Titius, 
thus corresponding to the western part of Croa- 
tia and the northern part of the modern Dal- 
matia. The country is mountainous and unpro- 
ductive, and its inhabitants, the Liburni, sup- 
ported themselves chiefly by commerce and nav- 
igation. They were celebrated at a very early 
period as bold and skillful sailors, and they ap- 
pear to have been the first people who had the 
sway of the waters of the Adriatic. They took 
possession of most of the islands of this sea as 
far as Corcyra, and had settlements even on the 
opposite coast of Italy. Their ships were re- 
markable for their swift sailing, and hence ves- 
sels built after the same model were called 
Liburnicce or Liburnce naves. It was to light 
vessels of this description that Augustus was 
mainly indebted for his victory over Antony's 
fleet at the battle of Aetium. The Liburnians 
were the first Illyrian people who submitted to 
the Romans. Being hard pressed by the Iapydes 
on the north and by the Dalmatians on the 
south, they sought the protection of Rome at a 
comparatively early period. Hence we find that 
many of their towns were immunes, or exempt 
from taxes. The islands off the coast were 
reckoned a part of Liburnia, and are known by 
the general name of IAburnides or Liburnicce In- 
sure. Vid. Illyricum. 

Libya (Aidvri), daughter of Epaphus and Mem- 
phis, from whom Libya (Africa) is said to have 
derived its name. By Neptune (Poseidon) she 
became the mother of Agenor, Belus, and Lelex. 

Libya (AiButj : AiCvec, Libyes). 1. The Greek 
name for the continent of Africa in general. 
Vid. Africa. — 2. L. Interior )A. rj ii>Toc), the 
whole interior of Africa, as distinguished from 
the well-known regions on the northern and 
northeastern coasts. — 3. Libya, specifically, or 
Liby.e Nomos (AiSvnc vo/ibc), a district of North- 
ern Africa, between Egypt and Marmarica, so 



! called because it once formed an Egyptian No* 
mos. It is sometimes called Libya Extei'ior. 

Libyci Montes (to Al6vhov bpoc : now Jebel 
Seheleh), the range of mountains which form 
the western margin of the valley of the Nile, 
Vid. ^Egyptus. 

Libyccm Mare {to AlGvkov -xiAayoc), the part 
of the Mediterranean between the island of 
Crete and the northern coast of Africa. 

LibythcsnIces (At6v(j)oiviKec, Ai6o<j>olviKec), a 
term applied to the people of those parts of 
Northern Africa in which the Phoenicians had 
founded colonies, and especially to the inhabit- 
ants of the Phoenician cities on the coast of the 
Carthaginian territory : it is derived from the 
fact that these people were a mixed race of the 
Libyan natives with the Phoenician settlers. 

Libyssa (AiOvoaa : now Herelceh ? according 
to Leake, Malsum), a town .of Bithynia, in Asia 
Minor, on the northern coast of the Sinus Asta- 
cenus, west of Nicomedia, celebrated as the 
place where the tomb of Hannibal was to be 
seen. 

Licates or Lioatii, a people of Vindelicia, on 
the eastern bank of the River Lieus or Licia 
(now Lech), one of the fiercest of the Vindeli- 
cian tribes. 

Lichades (Aixddec : now Pontieonesi), three 
small islands between Eubcea and the coast of 
Locris, called Scarphia, Caresa, and Phoearia. 
Vid. Lichas, No. 1. 

Lichas (Aixac). 1. An attendant on Hercules, 
brought his master the poisoned garment which 
destroyed the hero. (Vid. p. 359, a.) Her- 
cules, in anguish and wrath, threw Lichas into 
the sea, and the Lichadian islands were' believ- 
ed to have derived their name from him. — 2. A 
Spartan, son of Arcesilaus, was proxenus of 
Argos, and is frequently mentioned in the Pel- 
oponnesian war. He was famous throughout 
Greece for his hospitality, especially in his en- 
tertainment of strangers at the Gymnopsedia. 
Licia or Licus. Vid. Licates. 
Licinia. 1. A Vestal virgin, accused of in- 
cest, together with two other Vestals, iEinilia 
and Marcia, B.C. 114. L. Metellus, the pontifex 
maximus, condemned ^Emilia, but acquitted Li- 
cinia and Marcia. The acquittal of the two 
last caused such dissatisfaction that the people 
appointed L. Cassius Longinus to investigate 
the matter, and he condemned both Licinia and 
Marcia. — 2. Wife of C. Sempronius Gracchus, 
the celebrated tribune. — 3. Daughter of Crassus 
the orator, and wife of the younger Marius. 

Licinia Gens, a celebrated plebeian house, 
to which belonged C. Licinius Calvus Stolo, 
whose exertions threw open the consulship to 
the plebeians. Its most distinguished families 
at a later time were those of Crassus, Lucul- 
lus, and Murena. There were likewise numer- 
ous other surnames in the gens, which are also 
given in their proper places. 

Licinius. 1. C. Licinius Calvus, surnamed 
Stolo, which he derived, it is said, from the 
care with which he dug up the shoots that sprang 
up from the roots of his vines. He brought the 
contest between the patricians and plebeians to 
a happy termination, and thus became the found- 
er of Rome's greatness. He was tribune of 
the people from B.C. 376 to 361, and was faith- 
fully supported in his exertions by his colleague 
439 



LICINIUS. 

L. Sextir.s. The laws which he proposed were : 
1. That in future no more consular tribunes 
should be appointed, but that consuls should be 
elected, one of whom should always be a ple- 
beian. 2. That no one should possess more 
than five hundred jugera of the public land, or 
keep upon it more than one hundred head of 
large and five hundred of small cattle. 3. A 
law regulating the affairs between debtor and 
creditor. 4. That the Sibylline books should be 
intrusted to a college of ten men (decemviri), 
half of whom should be plebeians. These ro- 
gations were passed after a most vehement op- 
position on the part of the patricians, and L. 
Sextius was the first plebeian who obtained the 
consulship, 366. Licinius himself was' elected 
twice to the consulship, 364 and 361. Some 
years later he was accused by M. Popilius 
Lamas of having transgressed his own law re- 
specting the amount of public land which a per- 
son might possess. He was condemned and 
sentenced to pay a heavy fine. — 2. C. Licinius 
Macer, an annalist and an orator, was a man 
of praetorian dignity, who, when impeached (66) 
of extortion by Cicero, finding that the verdict 
was against him, forthwith committed suicide 
before the formalities of the trial were com- 
pleted, and thus averted the dishonor and loss 
which would have been entailed upon his family 
by a public condemnation and by the confisca- 
tion of property which it involved. His Annates 
commenced with the very origin of the city, 
and extended to twenty-one-books at least ; but 
how far he brought down his history is un- 
known.Tf-3. 0. Licinius Macer Calvus, son of 
the last, a distinguished orator and poet, was 
born in 82, and died about 47 or 46, in his thirty- 
fifth or thirty-sixth year. His most celebrated 
oration was delivered against Vatinius, who was 
defended by Cicero, when he was • only twenty- 
seven years of age. So powerful was the ef- 
fect produced by this speech, that the accused 
started up in the midst of the pleading, and pas- 
sionately exclaimed, " Rogo vos, judices, num, 
si iste disertus est, ideo me damnari oporteat ?" 
His poems were full of wit and grace, and pos- 
sessed sufficient merit to be classed by the an- 
cients with those of Catullus. His elegies, espe- 
cially that on the untimely death of his mis- 
tress Quintilia, have been warmly extolled by 
Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid. Calvus was 
remarkable for the shoi'tness of his stature, and 
hence the vehement action in which he in- 
dulged while pleading was in such ludicrous 
contrast with his insignificant person, that even 
his friend Catullus has not been able to resist 
a joke, and has presented him to us as the 
" Salaputium disertum," " the eloquent Tom 
Thumb." 

Licinius, Roman emperor A.D. 307-324, 
whose full name was Publius Flavius Gale- 
kius Valerius Licinianus Licinius. He was 
a Dacian peasant by birth, and the early friend 
and companion in arms of the Emperor Gale- 
rius, by whom he was raised to the rank of Au- 
gustus, and invested with the command of the 
Illyrian provinces at Carmentum, on the 11th 
of November, A.D. 307. Upon the death of 
Galerius in 311, he concluded a peaceful ar» 
rangement with Maximinus II., in virtue of 
which the Hellespont and the Bosporus were 
440 



LICYMTOS. 

to form the boundary of the two empires, in 
313 he married at Milan, Constantia, the sister 
of Constantine, and in the same year set out to 
encounter Maximinus, who had invaded his do- 
minions. Maximinus was defeated by Licinius 
near Heraclea, and died a few months after- 
ward at Tarsus. Licinius and Constantine 
were now the only emperors, and each was 
anxious to obtain the undivided sovereignty. 
Accordingly, war broke out between them in 
315. Lieiuius was defeated at Cibalis in Pan- 
nonia, and afterward at Adrianople, and was 
compelled to purchase peace by ceding to Con- 
stantine Greece, Macedonia, and Illyrieum. 
This peace lasted about nine years, at the end of 
which time hostilities were renewed. The great 
battle of Adrianople (July, 323), followed by the 
reduction of Byzantium, and a second great 
victory achieved near Chalcedon (September), 
placed Licinius at the mercy of Constantine, 
who, although he spared his life for the moment, 
and merely sentenced him to an honorable im- 
prisonment at Thessalonica, soon found a con- 
venient pretext for putting him to death, 324. 

Licinus. 1. A Gaul by birth, was taken pris- 
oner in war, and became a slave of Julius Cse- 
sar, whose confidence he gained so much as to 
be made his dispensator or steward. Caesar 
gave him his freedom. He also gained the 
favor of Augustus, who appointed him, in B.C. 
15, governor of his native country, Gaul. By 
the plunder of Gaul and by other means, he ac- 
quired enormous wealth, and hence his name ia 
frequently coupled with that of Crassus. He 
lived to see the reign of Tiberius. — 2. The bar- 
ber (tonsor) Licinus spoken of by Horace (Art 
Poet, 301) must have been a different person 
from the preceding, although identified by the 
Scholiast. — 3. Clodius Licinus, a Roman an- 
nalist, who lived about the beginning of the 
first century B.C., wrote the history of Rome 
from its capture by the Gaula to his own time. 
This Clodius is frequently confounded with Q. 
Claudius Quadrigarius. Vid. Quadrigarius. — 
4. L. Porcius Licinus, plebeian tedile 210, and 
praetor 207, when he obtained Cisalpine Gaul 
as his province. — 5. L. Porcius Licinus, praetor 
193, with Sardinia as his province, and consul 
1S4, when he carried on war against the Ligu- 
rians. — 6. Porcius ' Licinus, an ancient Roman 
poet, who probably lived in the latter part of 
the second century B.C. 

[Licus, a river of Vindelicia. Yid. Licates.] 

Licymnia, spoken of by Horace (Cann., ii., 
12, 13, seq.), is probably tne same as Terentia, 
the wife of Maecenas. 

Licymnius (AiKvfivwc;). 1. Son of Electryon 
and the Phrygian slave Midea, and consequent- 
ly half-brother of Alcmeise. He was married 
to Perimede, by whom he became the father, of 
GSonus, Argeus, and Melas. He was a friend 
of Hercules, whose son Tlepolemus slew him, 
according to some unintentionally, and accord- 
ing to others in a fit of anger. — 2. Of Chios, a 
distinguished dithyrambic poet, of uncertain 
date. Some writers place him before Simon- 
ides ; but it is perhaps more likely that he be- 
longed to the later Athenian dithyrambic school 
about the end of the fourth century B.C. — 3. Of 
Sicily, a rhetorician, the pupil of Gorgias, and 
the teacher of Polus. 



LIDE. 



LILYBiEUM. 



Lide (hlSri), a mountain of Caria, above Pe- 
dasus. 

Ligarius, Q., was legate, in Africa, of C. Con- 
sidius Longus, who left him in command of the 
province, B.C. 50. Next year (49) Ligarius re- 
signed the government of the province into the 
hands of L. Attius Varus. Ligarius fought un- 
der Varus against Curio in 49, and against 
Cassar himself in 46. After the battle of Thap- 
sus, Ligarius "was taken prisoner at Adrume- 
tum ; his life was spared, but he was banished 
by Cassar. Meantime, a public accusation was 
brought against Ligarius by Q. JSlius Tubero. 
The case was pleaded before Cassar himself in 
the forum. ^Cicero defended Ligarius in a 
speech, still extant, in which he maintains that 
Ligarius had as much claims to the mercy of 
Cassar, as Tubero and Cicero himself. Liga- 
rius was pardoned by Cassar, who was on the 
point of setting out for the Spanish war. The 
speech which Cicero delivered in his defence 
was subsequently published, and was much ad- 
mired. Ligarius joined the conspirators who 
assassinated Cassar in 44. Ligarius and his 
two brothers perished in the proscription of the 
triumvirs in 43. 

[Ligea, a daughter of Nereus and Doris, one 
of the nymphs in the train of Cyrene.] 

Liger or Ligeris (now Loire), one of the 
largest rivers in Gaul, rises in Mount Cevenna, 
flows through the territories of the Arverni, 
iEdui, and Carnutes, and falls into the ocean 
between the territories of the Namnetes and 
Pictones. 

Liguria (tj Aiyvoruc?}, 57 A-iyvarlvrj), a district 
of Italy, was, in the time of Augustus, bounded 
on the west by the river Varus and the Mari- 
time Alps, which separated it from Transalpine 
Gaul, on the southeast by the Biver Macra, 
which separated it from Etruria, on the north 
by the River Bo, and on the south by the Mare 
Ligusticum. The country is very mountainous 
and unproductive, as the Maritime Alps and the 
Apennines run through the greater part of it. 
The mountains run almost down to the coast, 
leaving only space sufficient for a road, which 
formed the highway from Italy to the south of 
Gaul. The chief occupation of the inhabitants 
was the rearing and feeding of cattle. The 
numerous forests on the mountains produced 
excellent timber, which, with the other pro- 
ducts of the country, was exported from Genua, 
the principal town of the country. The inhab- 
itants were called by the Greeks Ligyes (Al- 
yvet;) and Ligysmni (AiyvoTivoi), and by the Bo- 
mans Ligures (sing. Ligus, more rarely Ligur). 
They were in early times a powerful and widely- 
extended people ; but their origin is uncertain, 
some writers supposing them to be Celts, others 
Iberians, and others, again, of the same race as 
the Siculians, or most ancient inhabitants of 
Italy. It is certain that the Ligurians at one 
time inhabited the southern coast of Gaul, as 
well as the country afterward called Liguria, 
and that they had possession of the whole coast 
from the mouth of the Rhone to Bisas in Etru- 
ria. The Greeks probably became acquainted 
with them first from the Samians and Bhoeas- 
ans, who visited their coasts for the purposes of 
commerce ; aud so powerful were they consid- 
ered at this time, that Hesiod names them, along 



with the Scythians and Ethiopians, as one of 
the chief people of the earth. Tradition also 
related that Hercules fought with the Ligurians 
on the plain of stones near Massilia ; and even 
a writer so late as Eratosthenes gave the name 
of Ligystice to the whole of the western pen- 
insula of Europe. So widely were they believ- 
ed to be spread, that the Ligyes in Germany and 
Asia were supposed to be a branch of the same 
people. The Ligurian tribes were divided by 
the Romans into Ligures Transalpini and Cisal- 
pini. The tribes which inhabited the Maritime 
Alps were called in general Alpini, and also Ca- 
pillati or Comati, from their custom of allowing 
their hair to grow long. The tribes which in- 
habited the Apennines were called Mordant. 
The names of the principal tribes were : on the 
western side of the Alps, the Saltes or Sallu- 
vii, Oxtbii, and Deciates ; on the eastern side 
of the Alps, the Intemelii, Ingauni, and Apuaki 
near the coast, the Vagienni, Salassi, and Tau- 
rini on the upper course of the Bo, and the 
LvEVi and Marisci north of the Bo. The Liguri- 
ans were small of stature, but strong, active, 
and brave. In early times they served as mer 
cenaries in the armies of the Carthaginians, 
and subsequently they carried on a long and 
fierce struggle with the Bomans. Their coun- 
try was invaded for the first time by the Bo- 
mans in B.C. 238 ; but it was not till after the 
termination of the second Bunic war, and the 
defeat of Bhilip and Antiochus, that the Bomans 
were able to devote their energies to the sub- 
jugation of Liguria. It was many years, how- 
ever, before the whole country was finally sub- 
dued. Whole tribes, such as the Apuani, were 
transplanted to Samnium, and their place sup- 
plied by Boman colonists. The country was 
divided between the provinces of Gallia Sfarbo- 
nensis and Gallia Cisalpina ; and in the time 
of Augustus and of the succeeding emperors, 
the tribes in the mountains were placed under 
the government of an imperial procurator, called 
Procurator or Prcefectus Alpium Maritimarum. 

Ligusticum: Mare, the name originally of the 
whole sea south of Gaul and of the northwest 
of Italy, but subsequently only the eastern part 
of this sea, or the Gulf of Genoa, whence later 
writers speak only of a Sinus Ligusticus. 

[Ligyes (Aiyvec), the inhabitants of Liguria, 
Vid. Liguria.] 

Tjilmk (AiTiaia : AiXaitvg), an ancient town in 
Bhocis, near the sources of the Cephisus. 

Lilyb^eum (Ai?iv6aiov : now Marsala), a town 
in the west of Sicily, with an excellent harbor, 
situated on a promontory of the same name 
(now Cape Bceo or di Marsala), opposite to the 
Bromontorium Hermasum or Mercurii (now Cape 
Bon) in Africa, the space between the two be- 
ing the shortest distance between Sicily and 
Africa. The town of Lilybasum was founded 
by the Carthaginians about B.C. 397, and was 
made the principal Carthaginian fortress in Sici- 
ly. It was surrounded by massive walls and by 
a trench sixty feet wide and forty feet deep. 
On the destruction of Selinus in 249, the inhab- 
itants of the latter city were transplanted to 
Lilybasum, which thus became still more pow- 
erful. Lilybasum was besieged by the Romans 
in the first Bunic war, but they were unable to 
take it ; and they only obtained possession of 



LIMJ3A. 



LIPARI3, 



it by the treaty of peace. Under the Romans 
Lilybaeum continued to be a place of importance. 
At Marsala, which occupies only the southern 
half of the ancient town, there are the ruins of 
a Roman aqueduct, and a few other ancient 
remains. 

Lim^ea, Limia, Limius, Belion (now Lima), a 
river in Gallaecia in Spain, between the Durius 
and the Minius, which flowed into the Atlantic 
Ocean. It was also called the river of Forget- 
fulness (d 7% Arjdrjc, Flvmen Oblivionis) ; and it 
is said to have been so called because the Tur- 
duli and the Celts on one occasion lost here 
their commander, and forgot the object of their 
expedition. This legend was so generally be- 
lieved that it was with difficulty that Brutus 
Callaicus could iuduce his soldiers to cross the 
river when he invaded GallaBcia, B.C. 136. On 
the banks of this river dwelt a small tribe called 
Limici. 

Limites Romani, the name of a continuous 
series of fortifications, consisting of castles, 
walls, earthen ramparts, and the like, which the 
Romans erected along the Rhine and the Dan- 
ube, to protect their possessions from the at- 
tacks of the Germans. 

LiirNjE (Atfivai, Ai/ivaioc). 1. A town in Mes- 
senia, on the frontiers of Laconia, with a temple 
of Diana (Artemis), who was hence surnamed 
Ximnatis. This temple was common to the 
people of both countries ; and the outrage which 
the Messenian youth committed against some 
Lacedasmonian maidens, who were sacrificing 
at this temple, was the occasion of the first 
Messenian war. Limnse was situated in the 
Ager Dentbeliatis, which district was a subject 
of constant dispute between the Lacedemoni- 
ans and Messeuians after the re-establishment 
of the Messenian independence by Epaminon- 
das. — 2. A town in the Thraeian Chersonesus 
on the Hellespont, not far from Sestus, founded 
by the Milesians. — 3. Vid. Sparta. 

LiitN^EA (Aijivaia : Ai/waloc), a town in the 
north of Acarnania, on the road from Argos 
Amphilochicum to Stratos, and near the Am- 
bracian Gulf, on which it had a harbor. 

Liir>L£A, Limnetes, Leunegenes (Aipva'ia 
(oc), Aiftvi/rrjc (;r), Atfivr/yevijc), L e., inhabiting 
or born in a lake or marsh, a surname of sev- 
eral divinities who were believed either to have 
sprung from a lake, or who had their temples 
near a lake. Hence we find this surname given 
to Bacchus (Dionysus) at Athens, and to Diana 
(Artemis) at various places. 

LlMONTJM. Vid, PlCTONES. 

Limyra (tu. Aifivpa : ruins north of Pineka ?), 
a city in the southeast of Lycia, on the River 
Limyrtjs, twenty stadia from its mouth. 

LiaiYRtrs (Al/ivpoc : now Phineka ?), a river of 
Lycia, flowing into the bay west of the Sacrum 
Promontorium (now Phineka Bay) : navigable 
as far up as Limtra. The recent travellers 
differ as to whether the present River Phineka 
is the Limyrus or its tributary the Arycandus. 

Lindum (now Lincoln), a town of the Coritaui 
in Britain, on the road from Londinium to Ebor- 
acum, and a Roman colony. The modern name 
Lincoln has been formed out of Lindum Colonia. 

Lindus (Alvdoc : Aiv&ioc : ruins at Lindo), on 
the eastern side of the island of Rhodes, was 
one of the most ancient Dorian colonies on the 
442 



Asiatic coast. It is mentioned by Homer (Jl 
ii., 656), with its kindred cities Ialysus and Ca- 
mirus. These three cities, with Cos, Cnidus, and 
Halicarnassus, formed the original hexapolis, in 
the southwestern corner of Asia Minor. Lin- 
dus stood upon a mountain in a district abound- 
ing in vines and figs, and had two celebrated 
temples, one of Minerva (Athena), surnamed 
Aivdia, and one of Hercules. It was the birth- 
place of Cleobulus, one of the seven wise men. 
It retained much of its consequence even after 
the foundation of Rhodes. Inscriptions of some 
importance have lately been found in its Acrop- 
olis. 

Ltngones. 1. A powerful people in Trans- 
alpine Gaul, whose territory extended from the 
foot of Mount Vogesus and the sources of the 
Matrona and Mosa, north as far as the Treviri, 
and south as far as the Sequani, from whom 
they were separated by the River Arar. The 
Emperor Otho gave them the Roman franchise. 
Their chief town was Andematunnum, after- 
ward Lingones (now Langres). — 2. A branch 
of the above-mentioned people, who migrated 
into Cisalpine Gaul along with the Boii, and 
shared ' the fortunes of the latter. Vid. Bon. 
They dwelt east of the Boii, as far as the Adri- 
atic Sea, in the neighborhood of Ravenna. 

LlNTERMJM. Vid. LlTERNUM. 

Linus (Aivoc), the personification cf a dirge 
or lamentation, and therefore described as a son 
of Apollo by a Muse (Calliope or Psamathe 
or Chalciope), or of Amphimarus by Urania. 
Both Argos and Thebes claimed the honor of 
his birth. An Argive tradition related that 
Linus was exposed by his mother after his birth, 
and was brought up by shepherds, but was aft- 
terward torn to pieces by dogs. Psamathe's 
grief at the occurrence betrayed her misfortune 
to her father, who condemned her to death. 
Apollo, indignant at the father's cruelty, visited 
Argos with a plague ; and, in obedience to an 
oracle, the Argives endeavored to propitiate 
Psamathe and Linus by means of sacrifices. 
Matrons and virgins sang dirges which were 
called ?uvoi. According to a Boeotian tradition, 
Linus was killed by Apollo because he had ven- 
tured upon a musical contest with the god ; and 
every year before sacrifices were offered to the 
Muses, a funeral sacrifice was offered to him, 
and dirges (?uvoi) were sung in his honor. His 
tomb was claimed by Argos and by Thebes, and 
likewise by Chaleis iu Euboea. It is probably 
owing to the difficulty of reconciling the differ- 
ent mythuses about Linus that the Thebans 
thought it necessary to distinguish between an 
earlier and later Linus ; the latter is said to 
have instructed Hercules iu music, but to have 
been killed by the hero. In the time of the 
Alexandrine grammarians, Linus was consider- 
ed as the author of apocryphal works, in which 
the exploits of Bacchus (Dionysus) were de- 
scribed. 

[Lioceitus (ActoKpiroc). 1. Son of Arisbas, 
a Greek, slain by ^Eneas. — 2. Son of Eneuor, 
one of the suitors of Penelope] 

Lipara and Liparenses InsuljE. Vid, Ma- 

JAM.. 

Liparis (AiTzapic), a small river of Cilicia, 
flowing past Soloe, [deriving its name from the 
unctuous character of its waters.] 



LIPAXUS. 



LIVIUS. 



[Lipaxus (Aiirafof), a city on the coast of 
Crosssea, in Macedonia.] 

Liquentia (now Livenza), a river in Venetia, 
in the north of Italy, between Altinuni and Con- 
cordia, which flowed into the Sinus Terges- 
tinus. 

[Liriopk, an ocean nymph, who became by 
Cephisus the mother of the beautiful Narcis- 
sus.] 

LIris (now Garigliano), more anciently called 
Clams or Glanis, one of the principal rivers 
in central Italy, rises in the Apennines west of 
Lake Fucinus, flows first through the territory 
of the Marsi in a southeasterly direction, then 
turns southwest near Sora, and at last flows 
southeast into the Sinus Caietanus near Min- 
turnae, forming the boundary between Latium 
and Campania. Its stream was sluggish, whence 
the " Liris quieta aqua" of Horace (Carm., i., 31). 

Lissus (Atccof : A-iaococ, Ataosvc). 1. (Now 
Alessio), a town in the south of Dalmatia, at the 
mouth of the River Drilon, founded by Dionys- 
ius of Syracuse, B.C. 385. It was situated on 
a hill near the coast, and possessed a strongly 
fortified acropolis, called Acrolissus, which 
was considered impregnable. The town after- 
ward fell into the hands of the lllyrians, and 
was eventually colonized by the Romans. — 2. 
A small river in Thrace, west of the Hebrus. 

Lista (now S. Anatuglia), a town of the Sa- 
bines, south of Reate, is said to have been the 
capital of the Aborigines, from which they were 
driven out by the Sabines, who attacked them 
in the night 

Liiana Silva (now Silva di Luge), a large 
forest on the Apennines, in Cisalpine Gaul, 
southeast of Mutina, in which the Romans were 
defeated by the Gauls, B.C. 216. 

Liternum or Linternum (now Patria), a town 
ou the coast of Campania, at the mouth of the 
River Clanius or Glanis, which in the lower 
part of its course takes the name of Liternus 
(now Patria or Clanio), and which flows through 
a marsh to the north of the town called Literna 
Palus. The town was made a Roman colony 
B.C. 194, and was re-colonized by Augustus. It 
was to this place that the elder Scipio Africanus 
retired when the tribunes attempted to bring 
him to trial, and here he is said to have died. 
His tomb was shown at Liternum ; but some 
maintained that he was buried in the family 
sepulchre near the Porta Capena at Rome. 

[Liternus. Vid. Liternum.] 

Livia. 1. Sister of M. Livius Drusus, the 
celebrated tribune, B.C. 91, was married first 
to M. Porcius Cato, by whom she had Cato Uti- 
censis, and subsequently to Q. Servilius Caepio, 
by whom she had a daughter, Servilia, the 
mother of M. Brutus, who killed Caesar. — 2. 
Livia Drusilla, the daughter of Livius Drusus 
Claudianus (vid. Drusus, No. 3), was married 
first to Tib. Claudius Nero, and afterward to 
Augustus, who compelled her husband to di- 
vorce her, B.C. 38. She had already borne her 
husband one son, the future emperor Tiberius, 
and at the time of her marriage with Augustus 
was six months pregnant with another, who 
subsequently received the name of Drusus. She 
never had any children by Augustus, but she 
retained his affections till his death. It was 
generally believed that she caused C. Caesar 



and L. Caesar, the two grandsons of Auguptus, 
to be poisoned, in order to secure the succes- 
sion for her own children ; and she was even 
suspected of having hastened the death of Au- 
gustus. On the accession of her son Tiberius 
to the throne, she at first attempted to gain an 
equal share in the government; but this the 
jealous temper of Tiberius would not brook. 
He commanded her to retire altogether from 
public affairs, and soon displayed even hatred to- 
ward her. When she was on her death-bed he 
refused to visit her. She died in A.D. 29; at the 
age of eighty-two or eighty-six. Tiberius took no 
part in the funeral rites, and forbade her conse- 
cration, which had been proposed by the senate. 
— 3. Or Livilla, the daughter of Drusus senior 
and Antonia, and the wife of Drusus junior, the 
son of the Emperor Tiberius. She was seduc- 
ed by Sejanus, who persuaded her to poison her 
husband, A.D. 23. Her guilt was not discover- 
ed till the fall of Sejanus eight years afterward, 
31. — 3. Julia Livilla, daughter of Germanicus 
and Agrippina. Vid. Julia, No. 7. 

Livia Gens, plebeian, but one of the most 
illustrious houses among the Roman nobility. 
The Livii obtained eight consulships, two cen- 
sorships, three triumphs, a dictatorship, aud a 
mastership of the horse. The most distinguish- 
ed families are those of Drusus and Salinator. 

Lrvius, T., the Roman historian, was born at 
Patavium (now Padua), in the north of Italy, 
B.C. 59. The greater part of his life appears 
to have been spent at Rome, but ht returned to 
his native town before his death, which hap- 
pened at the age of seventy-six, in the fourth 
year of Tiberius, A.D. 17. We know that he 
was married, and that he had at least two chil- 
dren, a son and a daughter, married to L. Ma- 
gin's, a rhetorician. His literary talents secured 
the patronage and friendship of Augustus ; he 
became a person of consideration at court, and 
by his advice Claudius, afterward emperor, was 
induced in early life to attempt historical com- 
position ; but there is no ground for the asser- 
tion that Livy acted as preceptor to the young 
prince. Eventually his reputation rose so high 
and became so widely diffused, that a Spaniard 
travelled from Cadiz to Rome solely for the 
purpose of beholding him, and, having gratified 
his curiosity in this one particular, immediately 
returned home. The great and only extant 
work of Livy is a History of Rome, termed by 
himself Annates (xliii., 13), extending from the 
foundation of the city to the death of Drusus, 
B.C. 9, comprised in one hundred and forty-two 
books. Of these thirty-five have descended to 
us ; but of the whole, with the exception of two, 
we possess Epitomes, which must have been 
drawn up by one who was well acquainted with 
his subject. By some they have been ascribed 
to Livy himself, by others to Florus ; but there 
is nothing in the language or context to war 
rant either of these conclusions, and external 
evidence is altogether wanting. From the cir- 
cumstance that a short introduction or preface 
is found at the beginning of books one, twenty- 
one, and thirty-one, and that each of these marks 
the commencement of an important epoch, the 
whole work has been divided into decades, con- 
taining ten books each ; but the grammarians 
Priscian and Diomedes, who quote repeatedly 
443 



LIVIUS 

from particular books, never allt.de to any such 
distribution. The commencement of book forty- 
one is lost, but there is certainly no remarkable 
crisis at this place 'which invalidates one part 
of the argument in favor of the antiquity of the 
arrangement. The first decade (books one to 
ten) is entire. It embraces the period from the 
foundation of the city to the year B.C. 294, 
when the subjugation of the Samnites may be 
said to have been completed. The second de- 
cade (books eleven to twenty) is altogether lost. 
It embraced the period from 294 to 219, com- 
prising an account, among other matters, of the 
invasion of Pyrrhus and of the first Punic war. 
The third decade (books twenty-one to thirty) 
is entire. It embraces the period from 219 to 
201, comprehending the whole of the second 
Punic war. The fourth decade (books thirty- 
one to forty) is entire, and also one half of the 
fifth (books forty-one to forty-five.) These fif- 
teen books embrace the period from 201 to 16V, 
and develop the progress of the Roman arms 
iu Cisalpine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece, and 
Asia, ending with the triumph of jEmilius Pau- 
lus. Of the remaining books nothing remains 
except inconsiderable fragments, the most not- 
able being a few chapters of the ninety-first 
book, concerning the fortunes of Sertorius. 
The composition of such a vast work neces- 
sarily occupied many years; and we find indi- 
cations which throw some light upon the epochs 
when different sections were composed. Thus, 
in book first (%. 19), it is stated that the temple 
of Janus had been closed twice only since the 
leign of JSTuma, for the first time in the consul- 
ship of T. Manlius (B.C. 285), a few years after 
the termination of the first Punic war ; for the 
second time by Augustus Ctesar, after the bat- 
tle of Actium, in 29. But we know that it was 
shut again by Augustus, after the conquest of 
the Cantabrians, in 25 ; and hence it is evident 
that the first book must have been written be- 
tween the years 29 and 25. Moreover, since 
the last book contained an account of the death 
of Drusus, it is evident that the task must have 
been spread over seventeen years, and probably 
occupied a much longer time. The style of 
Livy may be pronounced almost faultless. The 
narrative flows on in a calm, but strong cur- 
rent ; the diction displays richness without 
heaviness, and simplicity without tameness. 
There is, morever, a distinctness of outline 
and a warmth of coloring in all his delineations, 
whether of living men in action, or of things 
inanimate, which never fail to call up the whole 
scene before our eyes. In judging of the merits 
of Livy as an historian, we are bound to ascer- 
tain, if possible, the end which he proposed to 
himself. No one who reads Livy with attention 
can suppose that he ever conceived the project 
of drawing up a critical history of Rome. His 
aim was to offer to his countrymen a clear and 
pleasing narrative, which, while it gratified their 
vanity, should contain no startling improbabili- 
ties nor gross amplifications. To effect this pur- 
pose, he studied with care the writings of some 
of bis more celebrated predecessors on Roman 
history. Where his authorities were in accord- 
ance with each other, he generally rested satis- 
fied with this agreement ; where their testimony 
was irreconcilable, he was content to point out 
444 



LIVIUS 

their want of harmony, and occasionally to offer 
an opinion of their comparative credibility. 
But in no case did he ever dream of ascending 
to the fouutain head. He never attempted to 
test the accuracy of his authorities by examin- 
ing monuments of remote antiquity, of which 
not a few were accessible to every inhabitant 
of the metropolis. Thus it is perfectly clear 
that he had never read the Leges Regise, nor 
the Commentaries of Servius Tullius, nor even 
the Licinian Rogations; and that he had nev- 
er consulted the vast collection of decrees of 
the senate, ordinances of the plebs, treaties 
and other state papers, which were preserved 
in the city. Nay, more, he did not consult even 
all the authors to whom he might have resorted 
with advantage, such as the Annals and Anti- 
quities of Varro, and the Origines of Cato. And 
even those writers whose authority he followed 
he did not use in the most judicious manner. 
He seems to have performed his task piecemeal. 
A small section was taken in hand, different ac- 
counts were compared, and the most plausible 
was adopted : the same system was adhered to 
in the succeeding portions, so that eaeh, con- 
sidered by itself, without reference to the rest, 
was executed with care ; but the witnesses 
who were rejected in one place were admitted 
in another, without sufficient attention being 
paid to the dependence and the connection of 
the events. Hence the numerous contradic- 
tions and inconsistencies which have been de- 
tected by sharp-eyed critics. Other mistakes 
also are found in abundance, arising from his 
want of any thing like practical knowledge of 
the world, from his never haviDg acquired even 
the elements of the military art, of jurispru- 
dence, or of political economy, and, above all, 
from his singular ignorance of geography. But 
while we fully acknowledge these defects in 
Livy, we cannot admit that his general good 
faith has ever been impugned with any show 
of justice. We are assured (Tacit., Ann., iv., 
84) that he was fair and liberal upon matters of 
contemporary history ; we know that he prais- 
ed Cassius and Brutus, that his character of 
Cicero was a high eulogium, and that he spoke 
so warmly of the unsuccessful leader in the 
great civil war, that he was sportively styled a 
Pompeian by Augustus. It is true that, in re- 
counting the domestic strife which agitated the 
republic for nearly two centuries, he represents 
the plebeians and their leaders in the most un- 
favorable light. But this arose, not from any 
wish to pervert the truth, but from ignorance 
of the exact relation of the contending parties. 
It is manifest that he never can separate iu his 
own mind the spirited plebeians of the iufant 
commonwealth from the base and venal rabble 
which thronged the forum iu the days of Marius 
and Cicero ; while, in like manner, he confounds 
those bold and honest tribunes, who were the 
champions of liberty, with such men as Satur- 
niuus or Sulpioius, Clodius or Vatinius. There 
remains one topic to which we must advert. 
We are told by Quiutilian (i., 5, § 56; viii., 1, § 
3) that Asinius Pollio had remarked a certain 
Patavinity iu Livy. Scholars have given them- 
selves a vast deal of trouble to discover what 
this term may indicate, and various hypotheses 
have been propounded ; but if there is any truth 



I1V1US ANDRONICUS. 



LOLLIA N US. 



m the story, it is evident that Pollio must have 
intended to censure some provincial peculiari- 
ties of expression, which we, at all events, are 
in no position to detect. The best edition of 
Livy is by Drakenborch, Lugd. Bat., 1738-46, 
7 vols. 4to. There is also a valuable edition, 
now in course of publication, by Alchefski, 
Berol., 8vo, 1841, seq. 

Lrvins Andronicus. Vid. Andronicus. 

Lix, Lixa, Lixus (Atf, Atfc, Ai^og : now Al- 
Araish), a city on the western coast of Maure- 
tania Tingitaua, in Africa, at the mouth of a 
river of the same name : it was a place of some 
commercial importance. 

Loori (AoKpot), sometimes called Locrenses 
by the Romans, the inhabitants of Looris (?? 
Aoicpic), were an ancient people in Greece, de- 
scended from the Leleges, with which some 
Hellenic tribes were intermingle* at a very 
early period. They were, however, in Homer's 
time regarded as Hellenes ; and, according to 
tradition, even Deucalion, the founder of the 
Hellenic race, was said to have lived in Locris, 
in the time of Opus or Cynos. In historical 
times the Locrians were divided into two dis- 
tinct tribes, differing from one another in cus- 
toms, habits, and civilization. Of these, the 
Eastern Locrians, called Epichemidii and Opun- 
tii, who dwelt on the eastern coast of Greece, 
opjiosite the island of Eubcea, were the more 
ancient and more civilized, while the Western 
Locrians, called Ozolas, who dwelt on the Co- 
rinthian Gulf, were a colony of the former, and 
were more barbarous. Homer mentions only 
the Eastern Locrians. At a later time there 
was no connection between the Eastern and 
Western Locrians ; " and in the Peloponnesian 
war we find the former siding with the Spar- 
tans, and the latter with the Athenians. 1. 
Eastern Locris, extended from Thessaly and 
the pass of Thermopylae along the coast to the 
frontiers of Bceotia, and was bounded by Doris 
aud Phocis on the west. It was a fertile and 
well-cultivated country. The northern part 
was inhabited by the Locri Epicnemidii ('Etu- 
Kvrjjudiot), who derived their name from Mount 
Cnemis. The southern part was inhabited by 
the Loori Opuntii ('Ottovvtioi), who derived 
their name from their principal town, Opus. 
The two tribes were separated by Daphnus, a 
small slip of land, which at one time belonged 
to Phocis. These two tribes are frequently con- 
founded with one another; and ancient writers 
sometimes use the name either of Epicnemidii 
or of Opuntii alone, when both tribes are in- 
tended. The Epicnemidii were for a long time 
subject to the Phocians, and were included un- 
der the name of the latter people, whence the 
name of the Opuntii occurs more frequently in 
Greek history. — 2. Western Locris, or the 
country of the Locri Ozolae ('OfoAat), was 
bounded on the north by Doris, on the west by 
JGtolia, on the east by Phocis, and on the south 
by the Corinthian Gulf. The origin of the name 
of Ozola? is uncertain. The ancients derived 
it cither from the undressed skins worn by the 
inhabitants, or from o&iv, " to smell," on account 
of the great quantity of asphodel that grew in 
their country, or from the stench arising from 
mineral springs, beneath which the centaur 
Nessus is said to have been buried. The coun- 



try is mountainous, and for the most part unpro- 
ductive. Mount Corax from ^Etolia, and Mount 
Parnassus from Phocis, occupy the greater part 
of it. The Locri Ozolae, resembled their neigh- 
bors, the iEtolians, both in their predatory habits 
and in their mode of warfare. They were di- 
vided into several tribes, and are described by 
Thucydides as a rude and barbarous people, 
even in the time of the Peloponnesian war. 
From B.C. 315 they belonged to the iEtolian 
league. Their chief town was Amphtssa. 

Loori Epizephyhii (Aonpol 'Em^e^vpioc : now 
Motto, di Burzano), one of the most ancient 
Greek cities in Lower Italy, was situated in the 
southeast of Bruttium, north of the promontory 
of Zephyrium, from which it was said to have 
derived its surname Epizephyrii, though others 
suppose this name given to the place simply 
because it lay to the west of Greece. It was 
founded by the Locrians from Greece, B.C. 683. 
Strabo expressly says that it was founded by 
the Ozolae, and not by the Opuntii, a3 most' wri- 
ters related ; but his statement is not so prob- 
able as the common one. The inhabitants re- 
garded themselves as descendants of Ajax 
Oileus ; and as he resided at the town of Naryx 
among the Opuntii, the poets gave the name of 
Naryeia to Locris (Ov., Met, xv., 705), and 
called the founders of the town the Narycii Lo- 
cri (Virg., vEn., iii., 399). For the same reason, 
the pitch of Bruttium is frequently called Nary- 
eia (Virg., Georg., ii., 438). Locri was cele- 
brated for the excellence of its laws, which 
were drawn up by Zaleucus soon after the foun- 
dation of the city. Vid. Zaleucus. The town 
enjoyed great prosperity down to the time of 
the younger Dionysius, who resided here for 
some years after his expulsion from Syracuse, 
and committed the greatest atrocities against 
the inhabitants. It suffered much in the wars 
against Pyrrhus, and in the second Punic war. 
The Romans allowed it to retain its freedom 
and its own constitution, which was democrat- 
ical ; but it gradually sunk in importance, and 
is rarely mentioned in later times. Near the 
town was an ancient aud wealthy temple of 
Proserpina. 

[Loorus (AoKpoc), son of Physcius and grand- 
son of Amphictyon, became by Cabya the father 
of Locrus, the mythical ancestor of the Locri 
Ozolae.] 

Locusta, or, more correctly, Luousta, a wom- 
an celebrated for her skill in concocting poisons. 
She was employed by Agrippina in poisoning 
the Emperor Claudius, and by Nero for dispatch- 
ing Britannieus. She was rewarded by Nero 
with ample estates, but under the Emperor 
Galba she was executed with other malefactors 
of Nero's reign. 

Lollia Paulina, grand-daughter of M. Lollius, 
mentioned below, and heiress of his immense 
wealth. She was married to C. Memmius Reg- 
ulus ; but, on the report of her grandmother's 
beauty, the Emperor Caligula sent for her, di- 
vorced her from her husband, and married her, 
but soon divorced her again. After Claudius 
had put to death his wife Messalina, Lollia was 
one of the candidates for the vacancy, but she 
was put to death by means of Agrippina. 

Lollianus (Ao/Umwc), a celebrated Greek 
sophist in the time of Hadrian and Antoninus 
445 



LOLLIUS. 



LORIUM 



Pius, was a native of Ephesus, and taught at 
Athens. 

Lollius. I. M. Lollius Palicanus, tribune 
of the plebs B.C. 71, and an active opponent of 
the aristocracy. — 2. M. Lollius, consul 21, and 
governor of Gaul in 16. He was defeated by 
some Gerro.au tribes who had crossed the Rhine. 
Lollius was subsequently appointed by Augus- 
tus as tutor to his grandson, 0. Caesar, whom 
he accompanied to the East, B.C. 2. Here he 
incurred the displeasure of C. Caesar, and is said, 
in consequence, to have put an end to his life 
by poison. Horace addressed an Ode (iv., 9) 
to Lollius, and two Epistles (i., 2, 18) to the 
eldest son of Lollius. 

Londinium, also called Oppidum Londiniense, 
Lundinium, or Londinum (now London), the cap- 
ital of the Cantii in Britain, was situated on the 
iouthern bank of the Thames, in the modern 
Southwark, though it afterward spread over the 
other side of the river. It is not mentioned by 
Caesar, probably because his line of march led 
bim in a different direction ; and its name first 
occurs in the reign of Nero, when it is spoken 
of as a flourishing and populous town, much 
frequented by merchants, although neither a 
Roman colony nor a municipium. On the re- 
volt of the Britons under Boadieea, A.D. 62, the 
Roman governor Suetonius Paulinus abandoned 
Londinium to the enemy, who massacred the 
inhabitants and plundered the town. From the 
effects of this devastation it gradually recover- 
ed, and it appears again as an important place 
in the reign of Antoninus Pius. It was sur- 
rounded with a wall and ditch by Constantine 
the Great or Theodosius, the Roman governor 
of Britain ; and about this time it was distin- 
guished by the surname of Augusta, whence 
some writers have conjectured that it was then 
made a colony. Londinium had now extended 
so much on the northern bank of the Thames, 
that it was called at this period a town of the 
Trinobantes, from which we may infer that the 
new quarter was both larger and more populous 
than the old part on the southern side of the 
river. The wall built by Constantine or The- 
odosius was on the northern side of the river, 
and is conjectured to have commenced at a fort 
near the present site of the tower, and to have 
been continued along the Minories, to Cripple- 
gate, Newgate, and Ludgate. London was the 
central point, from which all the Roman roads 
in Britian diverged. It possessed a Milliarium 
Aureum, from which the miles on the roads 
were numbered ; and a fragment of this Millia- 
rium, the celebrated Loudon Stone, may be seen 
affixed to the wall of Saint Swithin's Church iu 
Cannon Street This is almost the only monu- 
ment of the Roman Londinium still extant, with 
the exception of coins, tesselated pavemeuts, 
and the like, which have been found buried un- 
der the ground. 

Longanus (now Saint Lucia), a river in tho 
northeast of Sicily, between Mylaa and Tyndaris, 
on the bauks of which Hieron gained a victory 
over the Mamerlines. 

Longinus, a distinguished Greek philosopher 
and grammarian of the third century of our era. 
His original name seems to have been Dionys- 
ius ; but he also bore the name of Dionysius 
Longinus, Cassius Longinus, or Dionysius Cas- 
446 



sius Longimis, probably because he or one 
of his ancestors had received the Roman fran- 
chise through the influence of some Cassius 
Longinus. The place of his birth is uncertain ; 
he was brought up with care by his uncle 
Fronto, who taught rhetoric at Athens, whence 
it has been conjectured that he was a native of 
that city. He afterward visited many countries, 
and became acquainted with all the illustrious 
philosophers of his age, such as Ammonius Sac- 
cas, Origen, the disciple of Ammonius, not to be 
confounded with the Christian writer, Plotinus, 
and Amelius. He was a pupil of the two former, 
and was an adherent of the Platonic philosophy ; 
but instead of following blindly the system of 
Ammonius, he went to the fountain head, and 
made himself thoroughly familiar with the works 
of Plato. On his return to Athens he opened 
a school, winch was attended by numerous 
pupils, among whom the most celebrated was 
Porphyry. He seems to have taught philosophy 
and criticism, as well as rhetoric and grammar ; 
and the extent of his information was so great, 
that he was called " a living library" and " a 
walking museum." After spending a consid- 
erable part of his life at Athens he went to the 
East, where he became acquainted with Zeuo- 
bia of Palmyra, who made him her teacher of 
Greek literature. On the death of her husband 
Odenathus, Longinus became her principal ad- 
viser. It was mainly through his advice that 
she threw off her allegiance to the Roman em- 
pire. On her capture by Aurelian in 273, Lon- 
ginus was put to death by the emperor. Lon- 
ginus was unquestionably the greatest philoso- 
pher of his age. He was a man of excellent 
sense, sound judgment, au'd extensive knowl- 
edge. His work on the. Sublime (Hepl vijjovc), 
a great part of which is still extant, surpasses 
in oratorical power every thing written after 
the time of the Greek orators. There is scarce- 
ly any work in the range of ancient literature 
which, independent of its excellence of style, 
contains so many exquisite remarks upon ora- 
tory, poetry, and good taste in general. The 
best edition of this work is by Weiske, Lips., 
1809, 8vo, reprinted in London, 1820. Longi- 
nus wrote many other works, both rhetorical 
and philosophical, all of which have perished. 
Longinus, Cassius. Vid. Cassius. 

LoNGOBARDI. Vid- LanGOBARDI. 

Longula (Longulauus : now Buon Hiposo), a 
town of the Volsci iu Latium, not far from Co- 
rioli, and belonging to the territory of Autium, 
but destroyed by the Romans at an early period. 

Longus (Aoyyoc), a Greek sophist, of uncer- 
tain date, but not earlier thau the fourth or fifth 
century of our era, is the author of an erotic 
work, entitled Uoi/ieviKuv rdv Karu Aufviv koI 
X?i6?iv,oy Pastoralia dc Daphnide ct Cldoe, writ- 
ten in pleasing and elegant prose. The best 
editions are by Villoison, Paris, 1778 ; Schsefer, 
Lips., 1803 ; aud Passow, Lips., 1811. 

[Longus ^Estuarium (Aoyyoc eicxvaic), a bay 
of Britannia Barbara, on the western coast, now 
Linnhe Loch in Scotland.] 

Lopadusa (Aoiradovoa : now Lampedusa), au 
island in the Mediterranean, between Melita 
(now Malta) and the coast of Byzacium iu Africa. 

Lokii'm or Lorii, a small place in Etruria, 
with an imperial villa, twelve miles northwest 



LORYMA. 



LUCANUS. 



of Rome, on the Via Aurelia, where Antoninus 
Pius was brought up, and where he died. 

Loryma (ra Kupvfia : ruins at Aplotheki), a 
city on the southern coast of Caria, close to the 
promontory of Cyuossema (now Cape Aloupo), 
opposite to Ialysus in Rhodes, the space be- 
tween the two being about the shortest distauce 
between Rhodes and the coast of Caria. 

Lotis, a nymph, who, to escape the embraces 
of Priapus, was metamorphosed into a tree, 
called alter her Lotus. (Ov., Met, ix., 34*7.) 

Lotophagi (AoiTofdyoi, i. e., lotus-eaters). Ho- 
mer, in the Odyssey, represents Ulysses as com- 
ing in his wanderings to a coast inhabited by a 
people who fed upon a fruit called lotus, the 
taste of which was so delicious that every one 
who ate it lost all wish to return to his native 
country, but desired to remain there with the 
Lotophagi, and to eat the lotus (Od., ix., 94). 
Afterward, in historical times, the Greeks found 
that the people on the northern coast of Africa, 
between the Syrtes, and especially about the 
Lesser Syrtis, used to a great extent, as an ar- 
ticle of i'ood, the fruit of a plant, which tbey 
identified with the lotus of Homer, and they 
called these people Lotophagi. To this day, 
the inhabitants of the same part of the coast of 
Tunis and Tripoli eat the fruit of the plant 
which is supposed to be the lotus of the an- 
cients, and drink a wine made from its juice, 
as the ancient Lotophagi are also said to have 
done. This plant, the Zizyphus lotus of the 
botanists (or jujube-tree'), is a prickly branching 
shrub, with fruit of the size of a wild plurn, of 
a saffron color and a sweetish taste. The an- 
cient geographers also place the Lotophagi in 
the large island of Meniux or Lotophagitis (now 
Jerbah), adjacent to this coast. They carried 
on a commercial intercourse with Egypt and 
with the interior of Africa by the very same 
caravan routes which are used to the present 
'lay. 

Loxias (Ao£iaf), a surname of Apollo, deriv- 
ed by some from his .intricate and ambiguous 
oracles (Aofa), but better from teyetv, as the 
prophet or interpreter of Jupiter (Zeus). 

Loxo (Aofw), daughter of Boreas, one of the 
Hyperborean maidens, who brought the wor- 
ship of Diana (Artemis) to Delos, whence the 
name is also used as a surname of Diana (Ar- 
temis) herself. 

Lua, also called Lua mater or Lua Saturni, 
one of the early Italian divinities, whose wor- 
ship was forgotten in later times. It may be 
that she was the same as Ops, the wife of Sat- 
urn ; but all we know of her is, that sometimes 
the arms taken from a defeated eDemy were 
dedicated to her, and burned as a sacrifice, with 
a view of averting calamity. 

Luca (Lucensis : now Lucca), a Ligurian city 
in Upper Italy, at the foot of the Apennines and 
on the River Ausus, northeast of Pisae. It was 
included in Etruria by Augustus, but in the 
time of Julius Ca?sar it was the most southerly 
city in Liguria, and belonged to Cisalpine Gaul. 
It was made a Roman colony B.C. I'll. The 
amphitheatre of Lucca may still be seen at the 
modern town in a state of tolerable preserva- 
tion, and its great size proves the importance 
and populousness of the ancient city. 

Lucania (Lueaous); a district in Lower Italy, 



was bounded on the north by Campania and 
Samnium, on the east by Apulia and the Gulf 
of Tarentum, on the south by Bruttium, and on 
the west by the Tyrrhene Sea, thus correspond- 
ing, for the most part, to the modern provinces 
of Principato, Citeriore, and Basilicata, in the 
kingdom of Naples. It was separated from 
Campania by the River Silarus, and from Brut- 
tium by the River Laus, and it extended along 
the Gulf of Tarentum from Thurii to Metapon- 
tum. The country is mountainous, as the Ap- 
ennines run through the greater part of it ; but 
toward the Gulf of Tarentum there is an exten- 
sive and fertile plain. Lucania was celebrated 
for its excellent pastures (Hor., Ep., i., 28), and 
its oxen were the finest and largest in Italy. 
Hence the elephant was at first called by the 
Romans a Lucanian ox (Lucas bos). The swine, 
also, were very good ; and a peculiar kind of 
sausages was celebrated at Rome under the 
name of Lucanica. The coast of Lucania was 
inhabited chiefly by Greeks, whose cities were 
numerous and flourishing. The most import- 
ant were Metapontum, Heracxea. Thurii, Bux- 
entum, Elba or Velia, Posidonia or P^esium. 
The interior of the country was originally in- 
habited by the Chones and CEnotrians. The 
Lucaniaus proper were Samnites, a brave and 
warlike race, who left their mother-country and 
settled both in Lucania and Bruttium. They 
not only expelled or subdued the CEnotrians, 
but they gradually acquired possession of most 
of the Greek cities on the coast. They are first 
mentioned in B.C. 396 as the allies of the elder 
Dionysius in his war against Thurii. They 
were subdued by the Romans after Pyrrhus had 
left Italy. Before the second Punic war their 
forces consisted of thirty thousand foot and three 
thousand horse ; but in the course of this war 
their country was repeatedly laid waste, and 
never recovered its former prosperity. 

Lucanus, M. Aniosus, usually called Luoan, 
a Roman poet, was born at Corduba in Spain, 
A.D. 39. His father was L. Annseus Mella, a 
brother of M. Seneca, the philosopher. Lucau 
was carried to Rome at an early age, where his 
education was superintended by the most emi- 
nent preceptors of the day. His talents devel- 
oped themselves at a very early age, and ex- 
cited such general admiration as to awaken the 
jealousy of Nero, who, unable to brook compe- 
tition, forbade him to recite in public. Stung 
to the quick by this prohibition, Lucan embarked 
in the famous conspiracy of Piso, was betrayed, 
and by a promise of pardon, was induced to 
turn informer. He began by denouncing his 
own mother Acilia (or Atilia), aud then reveal- 
ed the rest of his accomplices without reserve 
But he received a traitor's reward. After the 
more important victims had been dispatched, 
the emperor issued the mandate for the death 
of Lucan, who, finding escape hopeless, caused 
his veins to be opened. When, from the rapid 
effusion of blood, he felt his extremities becom- 
ing chill, he began to repeat aloud some verses 
which he had once composed, descriptive of a 
wouuded soldier perishing by a like death, and, 
with these lines upon his lips, expired, A.D. 65, 
in the twenty-sixth year of his age. Lucan 
wrote various poems, the titles of which are 
preserved, but the only extant production is aD 
447 



LTTCANUS. 



LUCIANUS. 



heroic poem, in ten books, entitled Pkarsalia,' 
in which the progress of the struggle between 
Cassar and Pompey is fully detailed, the events, 
commencing with the passage of the Rubicon, 
being arranged in regular chronological order. 
The tenth book is imperfect, and the narrative 
breaks off abruptly in the middle of the Alex- 
andrean war, but we know not whether the con- 
clusion has been lost, or whether the author 
ever completed his task. The whole of what 
we now possess was certainly not composed at 
the same time, for the different parts do not bv 
any means breathe the same spirit. In the ear- 
lier portions we find liberal sentiments expressed 
in very moderate terms, accompanied by open 
and almost fulsome flattery of Nero ; but, as 
we proceed, the blessings of freedom are loudly 
proclaimed, and the invectives against tyranny 
are couched in language the most offensive, 
evidently aimed directly at the emperor. The 
work contains great beauties and great defects. 
It is characterized by copious diction, lively 
imagination, and a bold and masculiue tone of 
thought; but ft is, at the same time, disfigured 
by extravagance, far-fetched conceits, and un- 
natural similes. The best editions are by Ou- 
dendorp, Lugd. Bat., 1728; by Burmann, 1740; 
and by Weber, Lips., 1821-1831. 

Lucanus, Ocellus. Vid. Ocellus. 

Lucceius. 1. L., an old Mend and neighbor 
of Cicero. His name frequently occurs at the 
commencement of Cicero's correspondence with 
Atticus, with whom Lucceius had quarrelled. 
Cicero attempted to reconcile his two friends. 
In B.C. 63 Lucceius accused Catiline ; and in 
60 he became a candidate for the consulship, 
along with Julius Cossar, who agreed to support 
him ; but he lost his election in consequence 
of the aristocracy bringing in Bibulus as a 
counterpoise to Caesar's influence. Lucceius 
seems now to have withdrawn from public life 
and to have devoted himself to literature. He 
was chiefly engaged in the composition of a 
contemporaneous history of Rome, commenc- 
ing with the Social or Marsic war. In 55 he 
had nearly finished the history of the Social and 
of the first Civil war, when Cicero wrote a most 
urgent letter to his friend, pressing him to sus- 
pend the thread of his history, and to devote a 
separate work to the period from Catiline's con- 
spiracy to Cicero's recall from banishment (ad 
Fam., v., 12). Lucceius promised compliance 
with his request, but he appears never to have 
written the work. On the breaking out of the 
civil war in 49, he espoused the side of Pom- 
pey. He was subsequently pardoned by Caesar 
and returned to Rome, where he continued to 
live on friendly terms with Cicero. — 2. O, sur- 
named Hikrus, of the Pupinian tribe, tribune 
of the plebs 53, proposed that Pompey should 
be created dictator. In 52 he was a candidate 
with Cicero for the augurship, and in the fol- 
lowing year a candidate with M. Caelius for the 
aedileship, but he failed in both. On the break- 
ing out of the civil war in 49, he joined Pom- 
pey. He was sent by Pompey as ambassador 
to Orodes, king of Parthia, but he was thrown 
into prison by the Parthian king. He was par- 
doned by Caesar after the battle of Pbarsalia, 
and returned to Rome. 

Lccenses Callaici, one of the two chief 
448 



; tribes of the Callaici or Gallaeei, on the north- 
ern coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, derived 
their name from their town Lucus Augusti. 

Lucextum (now Alicante), a town of the Con- 
testant on the coast of Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Luceria (Lueerinus : now Imcctcl), sometimes 
called Nuceria, a town in Apulia, on the bordera 
of Samnium, southwest of Arpi, was situated on 
a steep hill, and possessed an ancient temple 
of Minerva. In the war betweeu Rome and 
Samnium, it was first taken by the Samnites 
(B.C. 321), and next by the Romans (319); but 
having revolted to the Samnites in 314. all the 
inhabitants were massacred by the Romans, 
and their place supplied by two thousand five 
hundred Roman colonists. Having thus become 
a Roman colony, it continued faithful to Rome 
in the second Punic war. In the time of Au- 
gustus it had declined greatly in prospeiity; 
but it was still of sufficient importance in the 
third century to be the residence of the praetor 
of Apulia. 

Luciaxus (Aovniavoc), usually called Lucia:*, 
a Greek writer, born at Samosata, the capital 
of Commagene, in Syria. The date of his birth 
and death is uncertain ; but it has been conject- 
ured, with much probability, that he was born 
about A.D. 120, and he probably lived till to- 
ward the end of this century. We know that 
some of his more celebrated works were writ- 
ten in the reign of M. Aurelius. Lueian's par- 
ents were poor, and he was at first apprenticed 
to his maternal uncle, who was a statuary. He 
afterward became an advocate, and practiced at 
Antioch. Being unsuccessful in this calling, 
he employed himself in writing speeches for 
others iustead of delivering them himself. But 
he did not remain long at Antioch ; and, at an 
early period of his life, he set out upon his trav- 
els, and visited the greater part of Greece, Italy, 
and Gaul. At that period it was customary for 
professors of the rhetorical art to proceed to dif- 
ferent cities, where they attracted audiences by 
their displays, much in the same manner as mu- 
sicians or itinerant lecturers in modern times. 
He appears to have acquired a good deal of mon- 
ey as well as fame. On his return to his native 
country, probably about his fortieth year, he 
abandoned the rhetorical profession, the artifices 
of which, he tells, us, were foreign to his tem- 
per, the natural enemy of deceit and pretension. 
He now devoted most of his time to the com- 
position of his works. He still, however, occa- 
sionally travelled ; for it appears that he was in 
Achaia and Ionia about the close of the Par- 
thian war, 160-165; on which occasion, too, 
he seems to have visited Olympia, and beheld 
the self-immolation of Peregrinus. About the 
year 170, or a little previously, he visited the 
false oracle of the impostor Alexander, in Pnph- 
lagonia. Late in life he obtained the office of 
procurator of part of Egypt, which office was 
probably bestowed upon him by the Emperor 
Commodus. The nature of Lueian's writings 
inevitably procured him mauy enemies, by whom 
he has bceu paiuted in very black colors. Ac- 
cording to Suidas he was suruamcd Hie Blas- 
phemer, and was torn to pieces by dogs as a 
punishment for his impiety ; but on this account 
no reliance can be placed. Other writers state 
that Lucian apostatized from Christianity ; but 



LUCIANUS. 

there is no proof in support of this charge ; and 
the dialogue entitled Philopatris, which would 
appear to prove that the author had once been 
a Christian, was certainly not written by Luci- 
an, and was probably composed in the reign of 
Julian the Apostat*. As many as eighty-two 
works have come down to us under the name 
of Lucian ; but some of these are spurious. 
The most important of them are his Dialogues. 
They are of very various degrees of merit, and 
are treated in the greatest possible variety of 
style, from seriousness down to the broadest 
humor and buffoonery. Their subjects and 
tendency, too, vary considerably ; for, while 
some are employed in attacking the heathen 
philosophy and religion, others are mere pictures 
of manners without any polemic drift. Our 
limits ODly allow us to mention a few of the 
more important of these dialogues. The Dia- 
logues of the Gods, twenty-six in number, con- 
sist of short dramatic narratives of some of the 
most popular incidents in the heathen mytholo- 
gy. The reader, however, is generally left to 
draw his own conclusions from the story, the 
author only taking care to put it in the most 
absurd point of view. In the Jupiter Convicted 
a bolder style of attack is adopted ; and the 
cynic proves to Jupiter's face, that, every thing 
being under the dominion of fate, he has no 
power whatever. As this dialogue shows Ju- 
piter's want of power, so the Jupiter the Trage- 
dian strikes at his very existence, and that of 
the other deities. The Vitarum Audio, or Sale 
of the Philosophers, is an attack upon the ancient 
philosophers. In this humorous piece the heads 
of the different sects are put up to sale, Hermes 
being the auctioneer. The Fisherman is a sort 
of apology for the preceding piece, and may be 
reckoned among Lucian's best dialogues. The 
philosophers are represented as having obtained 
a day's life for the purpose of taking vengeance 
upon Lucian, who confesses that he has bor- 
rowed the chief beauties of his writings from 
them. Hie Banquet, or the Lapiilm, is one of 
Lucian's most humorous attacks on the philos- 
ophers. The scene is a wedding feast, at which 
a representative of each of the principal philo- 
sophic sects is present. A discussion ensues, 
which sets all the philosophers by the ears, and 
ends in a pitched battle. The Nigrinus is also 
an attack on philosophic pride ; but its main 
scope is to satirize the Romans, whose pomp, 
vain-glory, and luxury are unfavorably contrast- 
ed with the simple habits of the Athenians. 
The more miscellaneous class of Lucian's dia- 
logues, in which the attacks upon mythology 
and philosophy are not direct, but incidental, or 
which are mere pictures of manners, contains 
some of his best. At the head must be placed 
Timon, which may, perhaps, be regarded as Lu- 
cian's master-piece. The Dialogues of the Dead 
are perhaps the best known of all Lucian's 
works. The subject affords great scope for 
moral reflection, and for satire on the vanity 
of human pursuits. Wealth, power, beauty, 
strength, not forgetting the vain disputations of 
philosophy, afford the materials. Among the 
moderns these dialogues have been imitated by 
Fontenelle and Lord Lyttleton. The Icaro-Me- 
nippus is in Lucian's best vein, and a master- 
piece of Aristophanic humor. Menippus, dis- 
29 



LUCILIUS. 

gusted with the disputes and pretensions of the 
philosophers, resolves on a visit to the sws, for 
the purpose of seeing Ikjw far their theories are 
correct. By the mechanical aid of a pair of 
wings he reaches the moon, aud surveys thence 
the miserable passions aud quarrels of men. 
Hence he proceeds to Olympus, and is intro- 
duced to the Thunderer himself. Here he is 
witness of the manner in which human prayers 
are received in heaven. They ascend by enor- 
mous vent-holes, and become audible when Ju- 
piter removes the covers. Jupiter himself is 
represented as a partial judge, and as influenced 
by the largeness of the rewards promised to 
him. At the end he pronounces judgment 
against the philosophers, and threatens in four 
days to destroy them all. Charon is a very ele- 
gant dialogue, but of a graver turn than the pre- 
ceding. Charon visits the earth to see the 
course of life there, and what it is that always 
makes men weep when they enter his boat. 
Mercury acts as his cicerone. Lucian's merits 
as a writer consist in his knowledge of human 
nature ; his strong common sense ; the fertility 
of his invention ; the raciness of his humor ; 
and the simplicity and Attic grace of his diction. 
There was abundance to justify his attacks in 
the systems against which they were directed. 
Yet he establishes nothing in their stead. His 
aim is only to pull down — to spread a universal 
skepticism. Nov were his assaults confined to 
religion and philosophy, but extended to every 
thing old and venerated, the. poems of Homer 
and Hesiod, and the history of Herodotus. The 
best editions of Lucian are by Hemsterhuis and 
Reitz, Amst., 1*743,4 vols. 4to ; by Lehmann, 
Lips., 1821-1831, 9 vols. 8vo; and by Dindorf, 
with a Latin version, but without notes, Paris, 
1840, 8vo. 

Lucifer or Phosphorus .(^oc^opof, also by the 
poets 'Eucfopoc or <kaecfbpoc), that is, the bring- 
er of light, is the name of the planet Venus, 
when seen in the morning before sunrise. The 
same planet was calkd Hesperus, Vesperugo, 
Vesper, Noctifer, or Nocturnus, when it appeared 
in the heavens after sunset. Lucifer, as a per- 
sonification, is called a son of Astraus and Au- 
rora or Eos, of Cephalus and Aurora, or of At- 
las. By Philonis he is said to have been the 
father of Ceyx. He is also called the father of 
Daedalion aud of the Hesperides. Lucifera is 
also a surname of several goddesses of light, as 
Diana (Artemis), Aurora, and Hecate. 

Lucilius. 1. O, was born at Suessa of the 
Auruuci, B.C. 148. He served in the cavalry 
under Scipio in the Numantine war ; lived upon 
terms of the closest familiarity with Scipio arri 
Laelius ; and was either the maternal grand- 
uncle, or, which is less probable, the maternal 
grandfather of Pompey the Great. He died at 
Naples, 103, in the forty-sixth year of his age. 
Ancient critics agree that, if not absolutely the 
inventor of Roman satire, he was the first to 
mould it into that form which afterward receiv- 
ed full development in the hands of Horace, 
Persius, and Juvenal. The first of these three, 
great masters, while he censures the harsh ver- 
sification aud the slovenly haste with which Lu- 
cilius threw off his compositions, acknowledges 
with admiration the fierceaess aud boldness of 
his attacks upon the vices and follies of his con 
44-9 



LUCILLA, ANNIA. 



LUCRINUS LACTJS. 



temporaries. The Satires of Lucilius were di- 
vided into thirty books. Upward of eight hund- 
red fragments from these have been preserved, 
but the greatest number consist of isolated coup- 
lets or single lines. It is clear from these frag- 
ments that his reputation for caustic pleasantry 
was by no means unmerited, and that in coarse- 
ness and broad personalities he in no respect 
fell short of the license of the old comedy, 
which would seem to have been, to a certain 
extent, his model. The fragments were pub- 
lished separately, by Franciscus Dousa, Lugd. 
Bat., 4to, 1597, reprinted by the brothers Volpi, 
8vo, Patav., 1735 ; and, along with Censoriuus, 
by the two sons of Havercarnp, Lugd. Bat., 8vo, 
1743. — 2. Lucilius Junior, probably the author 
of an extant poem in six hundred and forty hex- 
ameters, entitled JEtna, which exhibits through- 
out great command of language, and contains 
not a few brilliant passages. Its object is to 
explain upon philosophical principles, after the 
fashion of Lucretius, the causes of the various 
physical phenomena presented by the volcano. 
Lucilius Junior was the procurator of Sicily, 
and the friend to whom Seneca addresses his 
Epistles, his Natural Questions, and his tract on 
Providence, and whom he strongly urges to 
select this very subject of ./Etna as a theme for 
his muse. 

Luuilla, Annia, daughter of M. Aurelius and 
the younger Faustina, was born about A.D. 147. 
She was married to the Emperor L. Verus, and 
after his death (169) to Claudius Pompeianus. 
In 183 she engaged in a plot against the life of 
her brother Commodus, which having been de- 
tected, she was banished to the island of Ca- 
prese, and there put to death. 

[Lucillius (Aoi>KtA/Uoc), a Greek poet, who 
published two books of epigrams ; in the Greek 
Anthology there are 'one hundred and twenty- 
four epigrams ascribed to him, but some of these 
in certain MSS. are credited to other poets : he 
probably lived under Nero.] 

Luoina, the goddess of light, or, rather, the 
goddess that brings to light, and hence the god- 
dess that presides over the birth of children. 
It was therefore used as a surname of Juno and 
Diana. Lucina corresponded to the Greek god- 
dess Ilithyia. 

[Lucin^e Oppidum (Elleidviac •koT.lc, now El- 
Kab), a city of the Thebaid, on the eastern bank 
of the Nile, with a temple of Bubastis.] 

[Lucius (Aovkloc), of Patra?, a Greek writer 
of uncertaiu date, author of Metamorpkoseon 
Libri Diversi, which are uow lost: Lucian bor- 
rowed from him, and, at the same time, ridiculed 
him in a piece called from him Lucius.] 

Lucretia, the wife of L. Tarquinius Collati- 
nus, whose rape by Sextus Tarquinius led to the 
dethronement of Tarquinius Superbus and the 
establishment of the republic. For details, vid. 
Tarquinius. 

Lucretia Gens, originally patrician, but sub- 
sequently plebeian also. The surname of the 
patrician Lucretii was Tricipithius, one of whom, 
Sp. Lucretius Trieipitiuus, the father of Lucre- 
tia, was elected consul, with L. Junius Brutus, on 
the establishment of the republic, B.C. 509. The 
plebeian families are known by the surnames of 
Oallus, Ofella, and Vespillo, but none of them is 
of sufficient importance to require notice. 
450 



Lucretius, a pleasant mountain in the coun- 
try of the Sabines, overhanging Horace's villa, 
a part of the modern Monte Oennaro. 

Lucretius Carus, T., the Roman poet, re- 
specting whose personal history our informa- 
tion is both scanty and suspicious. . The Euse- 
bian Chronicle fixes B.C. 95 as the date of his 
birth, adding that he was driven mad by a love 
potion, that during his lucid intervals he com- 
posed several works which were revised by 
Cicero, and that he perished by his own hand 
in his forty-fourth year, B.C. 52 or 51. Another 
ancient authority places his death in 55. From 
what source the tale about the philtre may have 
been derived, we know not, but it is not im 
probable that the whole story was an invention 
of some enemy of the Epicureans. Not a hint 
is to be found any where which corroborates the 
assertion with regard to the editorial labors of 
Cicero. The work, which has immortalized the 
name of Lucretius, is a philosophical didactio 
poem, composed in heroic hexameters, dividec? 
into six books, containing upward of seven thou- 
sand four hundred lines, addressed to C. Mem 
mius Gemellus, who was praetor in 58, and is 
entitled Be Rerum Natura. It was probably 
published about 57 or 56 ; for, from the way in 
which Cicero speaks of it in a letter to his 
brother, written in 55, we may conclude that it 
had only recently appeared. The poem has 
been sometimes represented as a complete ex 
position of the religious, moral, and physical 
doctrines of Epicurus, but this is far from beiug 
a correct description. Epicurus maintained 
that the unhappiness and degradation of man- 
kind arose in a great degree from the slavish 
dread which they entertained of the power of 
the gods, and from terror of their wrath ; and 
the fundamental doctrine of his system was, 
that the gods, whose existence he did not deny, 
lived in the enjoyment of absolute peace, and 
totally iudiffereut to the world and its inhabit- 
ants. To prove this position, Epicurus adopted 
the atomic theory of Leucippus, according to 
which the material universe was not created 
by the Supreme Being, but was formed by the 
union of elemental particles which had existed 
from all eternity, governed by certain simple 
laws. He further sought to show that all those 
striking phoenomena which had been regarded 
by the vulgar as direct manifestations of divine 
power were the natural results of ordinary pro- 
cesses. To state clearly and develop fully the 
leading principle of this philosophy, in such a 
form as might render the study attractive to 
his countrymen, was the object of Lucretius, 
his work being simply an attempt to show that 
there is nothing in the history or actual condi 
tion of the world which does not admit of ex- 
planation without having recourse to the active 
interposition of divine beings. The poem of 
Lucretius has been admitted by all modern 
critics to be the greatest of didactic poems. 
The most abstruse speculations are clearly ex- 
plained in majestic verse, while the subject, 
which in itself was dry and dull, is enlivened by 
digressions of matchless power and beauty. 
The best editions arc by Wakefield, London, 
1796, 3 vols. 4to, reprinted at Glasgow, 1S13, 
4 vols. 8vo ; and by Forbiger, Lips., 1828, 12mo. 

Lucrinus Lacus, was properly the iuuer part 



1 



LUCTERIUS. 

of the Siuus Cumanus or Puteolanus, a bay on 
the coast of Campauia, between the promontory 
Misenum and Puteoli, running a considerable 
way inland. But at a very early period the 
Lucrine Lake was separated from the remain- 
der of the bay by a dike eight stadia in length, 
which was probably formed originally by some 
volcanic change, and was subsequently render- 
ed more complete by the work of man. Being 
thus separated from the rest of the sea, it as- 
sumed the character of an inland lake, and is 
therefore called Lacus by the Romans. Its 
waters still remained salt, and were celebrated 
for their oyster beds; Behind the Lucrine Lake 
was another lake called Lacus Avernus. In 
the time of Augustus, Agrippa made a commu- 
nication between the Lake Avernus and the 
Lucrine Lake, and also between the Lucrine 
Lake and the Sinus Cumanus, thus forming out 
of the three the celebrated Julian Harbor. The 
Lucrine Lake was filled up by a volcanic erup- 
tion in 1538, when a conical mountain rose in 
its place, called Monte Nuovo. The Avernus 
has thus become again a separate lake, and no 
trace of the dike is to be seen in the Gulf of 
Pozzuoli. 

[Luoterius, the Cadurcan, described by Cae- 
sar as a man of the greatest daring, was sent 
into the country of the Ruteni by Vercingetorix 
on the breaking out of the great Gallic insur- 
rection in B.C. 52. He at first met with great 
success, but was compelled by Caesar's advance 
to retire ; he was afterward defeated by C. 
Caninius Rebilus.] 

Lucullus, Licinius, a celebrated plebeian 
family. 1. L., the grandfather of the conqueror 
of Mithradates, was consul B.C. 151, together 
with A. Postumius Albinus, and carried on war 
in Spain against the Vaeeaei. — 2. L., son of the 
preceding, was praetor 103, and carried on war 
unsuccessfully against the slaves in Sicily. On 
his return to Rome he was accused, condemned, 
and driven into exile. — 3. L., son of the preced- 
ing, and celebrated as the conqueror of Mithra- 
dates. He was probably born about 110. He 
served with distinction in the Marsic or Social 
war, and accompanied Sulla as his quaestor into 
Greece and Asia, 88. When Sulla returned to 
Italy after the conclusion of peace with Mithra- 
dates in 84, Lucullus was left behind in Asia, 
where he remained till 80. In 79 he was curule 
aedile with his younger brother Marcus. So 
great was the favor at this time enjoyed by 
Lucullus with Sulla, that the dictator, on his 
death-bed, not only confided to him the charge 
of revising and correcting his Commentaries, 
but appointed him guardian of his son Faustus, 
to the exclusion of Pompey ; a circumstance 
which is said to have first given rise to the en- 
mity and jealousy that ever after subsisted be- 
tween the two. In 77 Lucullus was praetor, 
and at the expiration of this magistracy obtain- 
ed the government of Africa, where he distin- 
guished himself by the justice of his adminis- 
tration. In 74 he was consul with M. Aurelius 
Cotta. In this year the war with Mithradates 
was renewed, and Lucullus received the con- 
duct of it. He carried on this war for eight 
years with great success. The details are given 
under Mithradates, and ,it is only necessary to 
mention here the leading outlines. Lucullus 



LUCULLUS. 

defeated Mithradates witli great slaughter, and 
drove him out of his hereditary dominions, and 
compelled him to take refuge in Ai - menia with 
his son-in-law Tigraues (71). He afterward 
invaded Armenia, defeated Tigranes, aud took 
his capital Tigranocerta (69). In the next cam- 
paign (68) he again defeated the combined forces 
of Mithradates, and laid siege to Nisibis ; but 
in the spring of the following year (67) a mutiny 
among his troops compelled him to raise the 
siege of Nisibis and return to Pontus. Mith- 
radates had already taken advantage of his ab- 
sence to invade Pontus, and had defeated his 
lieutenants Fabius and Triarius in several suc- 
cessive actions. But Lucullus, on his arrival, 
was unable to effect any thing against Mithra- 
dates, in consequence of the mutinous disposi- 
tion of his troops. The adversaries of Lucul- 
lus availed themselves of so favorable an occa- 
sion, and a decree was passed to transfer tu 
Acilius Glabrio, one of the consuls for the year, 
the province of Bithynia and the command 
against Mithradates. But Glabrio was wholly 
incompetent for the task assigned him ; ou ar- 
riving in Bithynia, he made no attempt to as- 
sume the command, but remained quiet within 
the confines of the Roman province. Mithra- 
dates meanwhile ably availed himself of this 
position of affairs, and Lucullus had the morti- 
fication of seeing Pontus and Cappadocia occu- 
pied by the enemy before his eyes, without be- 
ing able to stir a step iu their defence. But it 
was still more galling to his feelings when, in 
66, he was called upon to resign the command 
to his old rival Pompey, who had been appoint- 
ed by the Manilian law to supersede both him 
and Glabrio. Lucullus did not obtain his tri- 
umph till 63, in consequence of the opposition 
of his enemies. He was much courted by the 
aristocratical party, who sought in Lucullus a 
rival and antagonist to Pompey ; but, instead 
of putting himself prominently forward as the 
leader of a party, he soon began to withdraw 
gradually from public affairs, and devote him- 
self more aud more to a life of indolence and 
luxury. He died in 57 or 56. Previous to his 
death he had fallen into a state of complete 
dotage, so that the management of his affairs 
was confined to his brother Marcus. The name 
of Lucullus is almost as celebrated for the lux- 
ury of his later years as for his victories over 
Mithradates. He amassed vast treasures iu 
Asia; and these supplied him the means, after 
his return to Rome, of gratifying his natural 
taste for luxury, together with an ostentatious 
display of magnificence. His gardens in the 
immediate suburbs of the city Were laid out iu 
a style of extraoi'diDary splendor ; but still more 
remarkable were his villas at Tusculum and iu 
the neighborhood of Neapolis. In the construc- 
tion of the latter, with its parks, fish-ponds, &c, 
he had laid out vast sums in cutting through 
hills aud rocks, and throwing out advanced 
works into the sea. So gigantic, indeed, was 
the scale of these labors for objects apparently 
so insignificant, that Pompey called him, in de- 
rision, the Roman Xerxes. His feasts at Rome . 
itself were celebrated ou a scale of inordinate 
magnificence : a single supper in the hall, call- 
ed that of Apollo, was said to have cost the sum 
of fifty thousand denarii. Even during his cain 
451 



LUCUMO. 



LUNiE PROMONTORIUM. 



I 



paigns the pleasures of the table had not been 
forgotten ; and it is well known that he was the 
first to introduce cherries into Italy, which he 
had brought with him from Cerasus in Pontus. 
Lucullus was an enlightened patron of litera- 
ture, and had from his earliest years devoted 
much attention to literary pursuits. He col- 
lected a valuable library, which was opened to 
the free use of the literary public ; and here he 
himself used to associate with the Greek phi- 
losophers and literati, and would enter warmly 
into their metaphysical and philosophical dis- 
cussions. Hence the picture drawn by Cicero 
at the commencement of the Academics was 
probably, to a certain extent, taken from the 
reality. His constant companion from the time 
of his qu£estorship had been Antiochus of Asca- 
lon, from whom he imbibed the precepts of the 
Academic school of philosophy, to which he 
continued through life to be attached. His pat' 
ronage of the poet Archias is we)i known. ■ He 
composed a history of the Marsic war in Greek. 
— 4. L. or M., son of the preceding and of Ser- 
vilia, half-sister of M. Cato, was a mere child 
at his father's death. His education was super- 
intended by Cato and Cicero. After Caesar's 
death he joined the republican party, and fell 
at the battle of Philippi, 42. — 5. M., brother of 
No. 3, was adopted by M. Terentius Varro 
L.UOUXLU.S. He fought under Sulla in Italy, 82 ; 
was curule .jsdile with his brother, 7 9 ; praetor, 
*11 .; and consul, *73. After his consulship he 
obtained the province of Macedonia. He car- 
ried on war against the Dardanians and Bessi, 
and penetrated as far as the Danube. On his 
return to Rome he^obtained a triumph, VI. He 
was .a strong supporter of the aristocratical 
party. He pronounced the funeral oration of 
his brother, but died before the commencement 
of the civil war, 43. 

Lucumo. Vid Tarquinius. 

[Lucus occurs frequently in appellations of 
places, from connection with some grove in the 
vicinity. 1. L. Angiecs, a grove in the terri- 
tory of the Marsi, near the Lacus Fucinus. Vid. 
Angitia. — 2. L. Augusti, the second capital of 
the Vocontii, in the interior of Gallia Narbonen- 
6is, on the military road leading from Mediola- 
num over the Cottian Alps to Vienna and Lug- 
dunum.] 

Ludias. Vid. Lydias, 

Lugdunensis Gallia. - Vid. Gallia. 

Lugdunum (Lugdunensis). 1. (Now Lyon), 
the chief town of Gallia Lugdunensis, situated 
at the foot of a hill at the confluence of the Arar 
(now Saone) and the Rhodanus (now Rhone), is 
said to have been founded by some fugitives 
from the town of Vienna, further down the 
Rhone. In the year after Caesar's death (B.C. 
43) Lugdunum was made a Roman colony by 
L. Munatius Plancus, and became under Au- 
gustus the capital of the province and the resi- 
dence of the Roman governor. Being situated 
on two navigable rivers, and being connected 
■with the other' parts of Gaul by roads, which 
met at this town as their central point, it soon 
became a wealthy and populous place, and is 
described by Strabo as the largest city in Gaul 
next to Narbo. It received many privileges 
from the Emperor Claudius ; but it was burned 
down in the reign of Nero. It was, however, i 
452 



soon rebuilt, and continued to be a place of 
great importance till A.D. 197, when it was 
plundered and the greater part of it destroyed 
by the soldiers of Septimius Severus, after his 
victory over his rival Albinus in the neighbor- 
hood of the town. From this blow it never re- 
covered, and was more and more thrown into 
the shade by Vienna, Lugdunum possessed a 
vast aqueduct, of which the remains may still 
be traced for miles, a mint, and an imperial 
palace, in which Claudius was born, and ii 
which many of the other Roman emperors re- 
sided. At the tongue of land between the Rhone 
and the Arar stood an altar dedicated to Au- 
gustus by the different states of Gaul ; and here, 
Caligula instituted contests in rhetoric, prizei. 
being given to the victors, but the most ridicu 
lous punishments inflicted on the vanquished 
(Comp. Juv., i., 44.) Lugdunum is memorable 
in the history of the Christian Church as thi 
seat of the bishopric of Irenaaus, and on ac 
count of the persecutions which the Christiana 
endured here in the second and third centuries. 
— 2. L. Batavorum (now Leyden), the chief town 
of the Batavi. Vid. Batavi. — 3. Convenarum 
(now Saint Bertrand de Comminges), the chief 
town of the Convenae in Aquitania. Vid. Con- 
vene. 

[Luguvallum (now Carlisle), a place in the 
north of Britain, near the wall of Hadrian.] 
Luna. Vid. Selene. 

Luna (Lunensis : now Luni), an Etruscan 
town, situated on the left bank of the Macra 
about four miles from the coast, originally form- 
ed part of Liguria, but became the most north- 
erly city of Etruria when Augustus extended 
the boundaries of the latter country as far a? 
the Macra. The town itself was never a place 
of importance, but it possessed a large and 
commodious harbor at the mouth of the river, 
called LuN^E Portus (now Gulf of Spezzia). It> 
B.C. 1*77 Luna was made a Roman colony 
and two thousand Roman citizens were settled 
there. In the civil war between Caesar and 
Pompey it had sunk into utter decay, but waa 
colonized a few years afterward. Luna was 
celebrated for its white marble, which now takes 
its name from the neighboring town of Carrara. 
The quarries from which this marble was ob- 
tained appear not to have been worked before 
the time of Julius Caesar, but it was extensively 
employed in the public buildings erected in the 
reign of Augustus. The wine and the cheeses 
of Luna also enjoyed a high reputation : some 
of these cheeses are said to have weighed one 
thousand pounds. The ruins of Luna are few 
and unimportant, consisting of the vestiges of 
an amphitheatre, fragment,') of columns, <fec. 

Lun^e Monies (to ri,g "S-eXrjvTis opoc), a range 
of mountains which some of the ancient geog- 
raphers believed to exist in the interior of Africa, 
covered with perpetual snow, and containing 
the sources of the Nile. Their actual exist- 
ence is neither proved nor disproved. 

[Lun^e Portus. Vid. Luna.] 

[Lun^e Promontorium (2f/i);i7/c unpov). 1. A 
promontory on the coast of Etruria, somewhat 
to the southeast of Luna. — 2. A promontory on 
the west coast of Lusitauia ; according to Uk- 
ert, in the neighborhood of Cintra, but accord- 
ing tc ethers, Cap Jiocto or Cabbueyro] 



LUPERCA. 



LYCAOK 



Lupeeca or Lcpa, an ancient Italian divinity, 
the wife of Lupereus, who, in the shape of a 
she-wolf, performed the office of nurse to Roin- 
ulus and Remus. In some accounts she is iden- 
tified with Acoa Laurentia, the wife of Faus- 
tulus, 

Lupercus, an ancient Italian diviuity, who 
was worshipped by the shepherds as the pro- 
tector of their flocks against wolves. On the 
northern side of the Palatine Hill there had 
been in ancient times a cave, the sanctuary of 
Lupereus, surrounded by a grove, containing an 
altar of the god and his figure clad in a goat- 
skin, just as his priests, the Luperci. The Ro- 
mans sometimes identified Lupereus witfc the 
Arcadian Pan. Respecting the festival cele- 
brated in honor of Lupereus and his priests, the 
Luperci, vid. Bict. of Ant, art. Lupercalia and 
Luperci. 

[Lupercus, a friend of the younger Pliny, to 
whom the latter occasionally sent his orations for 
revisioa] 

Lupia. Vid. Luppia. 

Lupls or Lupfle, a town in Calabria, between 
Bruudisium and Hydrunturu. 

Lupodunum (now Ladcnburg ?), a town in 
Germany, on the River Nicer (now Neckar). 

Luppia or Lupia (now Lippe), a navigable riv- 
er in the northwest of Germany, which falls into 
the Rhine at Wesel in Westphalia, and on which 
the Romans built a fortress of the same name. 
The River Eliso (now Ahne) was a tributary of 
the Luppia, and at the confluence of these two 
<'ivers was the fortress of A1*bo. 

Lupus, Rutilius. 1. P., consul with L. Ju- 
v ius Caesar in B.C. 90, was defeated by the 
Marsi, and slain in battle. — 2. P., tribune of the 
olebs 56, and a warm partisan of the aristocra- 
cy. He was praetor in 49, and was stationed at 
Terracina with three cohorts. He afterward 
crossed over to Greece. — 3. Probably a son of 
the preceding, the author of a rhetorical treat- 
ise in two books, entitled Be Figuris Sententia- 
rum et Elocutionis, which appears to have been 
originally an abridgment of a work by Gorgias 
of Athens, one of the preceptors of young M. 
Cicero, but which has evidently undergone many 
changes. Its chief value is derived from the nu- 
merous translations which it contains of striking 
passages from the works of Greek orators now 
lost. Edited by Ruhnken along with Aquila and 
Julius Ruffinianus, Lugd. Bat., 17 68, reprinted by 
Frotsoher, Lips., 1831. 

Lurco, M. Aufidius, tribune of the plebs B.C. 
61, the author of a law on bribery (Be Ambitu). 
He was the maternal grandfather of the Em- 
press Livia, wife of Augustus. He was the 
first person in Rome who fattened peacocks for 
sale, and he derived a large income from this 
source. 

LuscLvus, Fabrictus. Vid. Fabricius. 

[Luscius Lavinius, a Latin comic poet, the 
sontemporary and rival of Terence, who men- 
tions him several times in the prologues to his 
plays.] 

[Luscus, Aufidius, chief magistrate at Fundi, 
ridiculed by Horace on account of the ridiculous 
and pompous airs he gave himself when Maecenas 
and his friends passed through Fundi in their cel- 
ebrated journey to Brundisium.] 

LUSITANIA, LUSITANI. Vid. HlSPANIA. 



[Lusrus Quietus. Vid. Quietus.] 

Lusones, a tribe of the Celtiberi in Hispania 
Tarraconeusis, near the sources of the Tagus. 

Lutatius Catulus. Vid. Catulus. 

Lutatius Cerco. Vid. Cerco. 

Lutetia, or more commonly, Lutetia Pari- 
siorum (now Paris), the capital of the Parish 
in Gallia Lugduuensis, was situated on an island 
in the Sequana (now Seine), and was connected 
with the banks of the river by two wooden 
bridges. Under the emperors it became a place 
of importance, and the chief naval station on the 
Sequana. Here Julian was proclaimed emperor, 
A.D. 360. 

[Luteva (now Lodevc), a city of the Volcas 
Arecomici in Gallia Earbonensis ; also called 
Forum JVeronis.~] 

[Lutia (Aovria), a considerable town of the 
Arevaci in Hispania Tarraconensis, the site of 
which is not determined.] 

[Ly^eus (Avaioc), an epithet of Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus), who frees men from cares and anxiety.] 

Lycabettus (AvKa6rjTr6c : now St. George); a 
mountain in Attica, belonging to the range of 
Pentelicus, close to the walls of Athens on the 
northeast of the city, and on the left of the road 
leading to Marathon. It is commonly, but er- 
roneously, supposed that the small hill north of 
the Pnyx is Lycabettus, and that St. George is 
the ancient Anchesmus. 

Lyo^us (AvKaloc) or Lyceus, a lofty mount- 
ain in Arcadia, northwest of Megalopolis, from 
the summit of which a great part of the coun- 
try could be seen. It was one of the chief 
seats of the worship of Jupiter (Zeus), who was 
henee surnamed I/yccexts. Here was a temple 
of this god ; and here, also, was celebrated the 
festival of the Lyocea (vid. Bict. of Ant., s. v.), 
Pan was likewise called Lyearus, because he was 
born and had a sanctuary on this mountain. 

Lycambes. Vid. Arohilochus. 

Lycaon (Avuduv). 1. King of Arcadia, son of 
Pelasgus by Meliboea or Cylleue. The traditions 
about Lycaon represent him in very different 
lights. Some describe him as the first civilizer 
of Arcadia, who built the town of Lycosura, 
and introduced the worship of Jupiter (Zeus) 
Lycaeus. But he is more usually represented 
as an impious king, with a large number of 
sons as impious as himself. Jupiter (Zeus) 
visited the earth in order to punish them. The 
god was recognized and worshipped by the 
Arcadian people. Lycaon resolved to murder 
him ; and, in order to try if he were really 
a god, served before him a dish of human flesh. 
Jupiter (Zeus) pushed away the table which 
bore the horrible food, and the place where this 
happened was afterward called Trapezus. Ly- 
caon and all his sons, with the exception of the 
youngest (or eldest), Kyctimus, were killed by 
Jupiter (Zeus) with a flash of lightning, or, ac- 
cording to others, were changed into wolves. 
Calhsto, the daughter of Lycaon, is said to have 
been changed into the constellation of the Bear, 
whence she is called by the poets Lycaonis Arc 
tos, Lycaonia Aretos, or Lycaonia Virgo, or by 
her patronymic Lycaonis. — [2. Ruler in Ly 
cia, father of the celebrated Pandarus. — 3. Son 
of Priam and Laothoe, was taken captive by 
Achilles, who sold him in Lemnos ; he escaped 
thence, returned to Troy, and was finally slain 
453 



LYCAONIA. 



LTCIA. 



by Achilles. — 4. An artisan of Cnosus men- 
tioned in the jEneid (ix., 304) as having made 
a beautiful sword for lulus, which he gave to 
Euryalus.] 

Lycaonia (AvKaov'ia : Avuuovec : part of Ka- 
raman), a district of Asia Minor, assigned, un- 
der the Persian Empire, to the satrapy of 
Cappadocia, but considered by the Greek and 
Roman geographers the southeastern part of 
Phrygia ; bounded on the north by Galatia, on 
the east by Cappadocia, on the south by Cilieia 
Aspera, on the southwest by Isauria (which 
was sometimes reckoned as a part of it) aud 
by Pbrygia Paroreios, aud on the northwest by 
Great Phrygia. Its boundaries, however, va- 
ried much at different times. It was a long, 
narrow strip of country, its length extending in 
the direction of northwest and southeast. Xen- 
ophon, who first mentions it, describes its width 
as extending east of Icouium (its chief city) to 
the borders of Cappadocia, a distance of thirty 
parasangs, about one hundred and ten miles. 
It forms a table-land between the Taurus and 
the mountains of Phrygia, deficient in good wa- 
ter, but abounding in flocks of sheep. The peo- 
ple were, so far as can be traced, an aboriginal 
race, speaking a language which is mentioned 
in the Acts of the Apostles as a distinct dialect. 
They were warlike, and especially skilled in 
archery. After the overthrow of Antiochus the 
Great by the Romans, Lycaonia, which had be- 
longed successively to Persia and to Syria, was 
partly assigned to Eumenes and partly govern- 
ed by native chieftains, the last of whom, An- 
tipater, a contemporary of Cicero, was conquer- 
ed by Amyntas, king of Galatia, at whose death, 
in B.C. 25, it passed, with Galatia, to the Ro- 
mans, and was finally united to the province of 
Cappadocia. Lycaonia was the chief scene of 
the labors of the Apostle Paul on his first mis- 
sion to the Gentiles (Acts, xiv). 

[Lycaretus (AviidprjToc), brother of Maean- 
drius, tyrant of Samos, the successor of Poly- 
crates, was governor of Lemnos under the Per- 
sians, and died in this office.] 

Lyceum (to Avksiov), the name of one of the 
three ancient gymnasia at Athens, called after 
the temple of Apollo Lyceus in its neighbor- 
hood. It was situated southeast of the city, out- 
side the walls, and just above the River Ilissus. 
Here the polemarch administered justice. It is 
celebrated as the place where Aristotle and the 
Peripatetics taught. 

Lyceus (Avkcloc), a surname of Apollo, the 
meaning of which is not quite certain. Some 
derive it from Xvkoc, a wolf, so that it would 
mean " the wolf-slayer ;" others from ?.vK7j, 
light, according to which it would mean " the 
giver of light;'' and others, again, from the 
country of Lycia. 

Lychnites. Vid. Lychnidus. 

Lychnidus, more rarely LychnidIum or Lych- 
nis (AvxvlSoc, Avxvidiov, Avxvig '■ Avxvidioc : 
now Achrita, Ochrida), a town of Illyricum, was 
the ancient capital of the Dessaretii, but was in 
the possession of the Romans as early as their 
war with King Gentius. It was situated in the 
interior of the country, on a height on the north 
bank of the Lake Lychnitis (Avxvitic or 7] Avx- 
vi&'ia XijivT]) from which the River Drilo rises. 
The town was strongly fortified, and contained 
454 



many springs within its walls. In the Middle 
Ages it was the residence of the Bulgarian kings, 
and was called Achris or Achrita, whence ita 
modern name. 

Lycia (AvKia : Av/cior, Lycius : now Meis), a 
small but most interesting district on the south 
side of Asia Minor, jutting out into the Medi- 
terranean in a form approaching to a rough 
semicircle, adjaceut to parts of Cari:>. and Pam- 
phylia on the west and east, and on the north 
to the district of Cibyratis in Phrygia, to which, 
under the Byzantine emperors, it was consid- 
ered to belong. It was bounded on the north- 
west by the little river Glaucus and the gulf 
of the same name, on the northeast by the 
mountain called Climax (the northern part of 
the same range as that called Solyma), and on 
the north its natural boundary was the Taurus, 
but its limits in this direction were not strictly 
defined. The northern parts of Lycia and the 
district of Cibyratis form together a high table- 
land, which is supported on the north by the 
Taurus, on the east by the mountains called 
Solyma (now Taktalu-Dagh), which run from 
north to south along the eastern coast of Lycia, 
far out into the sea, forming the southeastern 
promontory of Lycia, called Sacrum Promonto- 
rium (now Cape Khelidonia) ; the summit of this 
range is seven thousand eight hundred feet high, 
and is covered with snow;* the southwestern 
and southern sides of this table-land are formed 
by the range called Massieytus (now Aktar 
Dagh,) which runs southeast from the eastern 
side of the upper course of the River Xanthns : 
its summits are about four thousand feet high, 
and its southern side descends toward the sea 
in a succession of terraces, terminated by bold 
cliffs. The mountain system of Lycia is com- 
pleted by the Cragus, which fills up the space 
between the western side of the Xanthus and 
the Gulf of Glaucus, and forms the southwest- 
ern promontory of Lycia: its summits aro near- 
ly six thousand feet high. The chief rivers are 
the Xanthus (now Echen-Chai), which has its 
sources in the table-land south of the Taurus, 
and flows from north to south between the 
Cragus and Massieytus, and the Limyrus, which 
flows from north to south between the Massi- 
eytus and the Solyma Mountains. The valleys 
of these and the smaller rivers, and the terraces 
above the sea in the south of the country, were 
fertile in corn, wine, oil, and fruits, and the 
mountain slopes were clothed with splendid 
cedars, firs, and plane-trees : saffron also was 
one chief product of the land. The total length 
of the coast, from Telmissus on the west to 
Phaselis on the east, including all windings, is 
estimated by Strabo at one thousand seven hun- 
dred and twenty stadia (one hundred and sev- 
enty-two geographical miles), while a straight 
line drawn across the country, as the chord of 
this arc, is about eighty geographical miles in 
length. The general geographical structure of 
the peninsula of Lycia, as connected with the 
rest of Asia Minor, bears no little resemblance 
to that of the peninsula of Asia Minor itself, as 
connected with the rest of Asia. According to 
the tradition preserved by Herodotus, the most 

* According to many of the ancients the Taurus b« 
gan at this range. 



LYCIDAS. 



LYCOPHRON. 



ancient name of the country was Milyas (jj Mi- 
fa)ds), and the earliest inhabitants (probably of 
the Syro- Arabian race) were called Milyae, and 
afterward Solymi: subsequently the Termite, 
from Crete,' settled in the country ; and lastly, 
the Athenian Lycus, the son of Pandion, fled 
from his brother JSgeus to Lycia, and gave his 
name to the country. Homer, who gives Lycia 
a prominent place in the Iliad, represents its 
chieftains, Glaucus and Sarpedon, as descended 
from the royal family of Argos (iEolids)- he 
does not mention the name of Milyas ; and he 
speaks of the Solymi as a warlike race, inhab- 
iting the mountains, against whom the Greek 
hero Bellerophontes is sent to fight, by his rela- 
tive the king of Lycia. Besides the legend of 
Bellerophon and the chimasra, Lycia is the 
scene of another popular Greek story, that of 
the Harpies and the daughters of Pandarus ; 
and memorials of both are preserved on the 
Lycian monuments now in the British Museum. 
On the whole, it is clear that Lycia was colo- 
nized by the Hellenic race (probably from Crete) 
at a very early period, and that its historical 
inhabitants were Greeks, though with a mixture 
of native blood. The earlier names were pre- 
served in the district in the north of the country 
called Milyas, and in the mountains called So- 
iyma. The Lycians always kept the reputation 
they have in Homer as brave warriors. They 
and the Cilicians were the only people west of 
the Halys whom Crcesus did no't conquer, and 
they were the last who resisted the Persians. 
Vid. Xanthus. Under the Persian empire they 
must have been a powerful maritime people, as 
they furnished fifty ships to the fleet of Xerxes. 
After the Macedonian conquest, Lycia formed 
part of the Syrian kingdom, from which it was 
taken by the Romans after their victory over 
Antiochus III. the Great, and given to the Rho- 
dians. It was soon restored to independence, 
and formed a flourishing federation of cities, 
each having its own republican form of govern- 
ment, and the whole presided over by a chief 
magistrate, called Av/aapxvC- There was a fed- 
eral council, composed of deputies from the 
twenty-three cities of the federation, in which 
the six chief cities, Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, 
Olympus, Myra, and Tlos, had three votes each, 
certain lesser cities two each, and the rest one 
each ; this assembly determined matters relat- 
ing to the general government of the country, 
and elected the Lyciarches, as well as the judges 
and the inferior magistrates. Internal dissen- 
sions at length broke up this constitution, and 
the country was united by the emperor Clau- 
dius to the province of Pamphylia, from which 
it was again separated by Theodosius, who 
made it a separate province, with Myra for its 
capital. Its cities were numerous and flourish- 
ing (v^d. the articles), and its people celebrated 
for their probity. Their customs are said to 
have resembled those both of the Carians and of 
the Cretans. Respecting the works of art found 
by Mr. Fellows in Lycia, and now in the British 
Museum, vid. Xanthus. 

[Lycidas (AvKtdrjs), an Athenian, one of the 
council of the five hundred, stoned to death by 
his fellow-citizens because he advised them to 
listen to the proposals of peace offered by Mar- 
donius, B.C. 479.] 



Lycius (Avkioc). 1. The Lycian, a surname 
of Apollo, who was worshipped in several places 
of Lycia, especially at Patara, where he had an 
oracle. Hence the Lycioe sortes are the re- 
sponses of the oracle at Patara (Virg., jEn., iv., 
346). — 2. Of Eleutheree in Bceotia, a distinguished 
statuary, the disciple or son of Myron, flourished 
about B.C. 428. 

Lycomedes (AvKO/uijdTjc). 1. A king of the 
Dolopians, in the island 'of Scyros, near Euboea. 
It was to his court that Achilles was sent dis- 
guised as a maiden by his mother Thetis, who 
was anxious to prevent his going to the Trojan 
war. Here Achilles became by Deidamla, the 
daughter of Lycomedes, the father of Pyrrhus 
or Neoptolemus. Lycomedes treacherously kill- 
ed Theseus by thrusting him down a rook. — 2. 
A celebrated Arcadian general, was a native of 
Mantinea, and one of the chief founders of Mega- 
lopolis, B.C. 370. He afterward showed great 
jealousy of Thebes, and formed a separate alli- 
ance between Athens and Arcadia in 366. He 
was murdered in the same year, on his return 
from Athens, by some Arcadian exiles. 

[Lycon (Avkojv). 1. Son of Hippocoon, slain 
by Hercules. — 2. A Trojan, slain before Troy 
by Peneleus.] 

Lycon (Avicuv). 1. An orator and demagogue 
at Athens, was one of the three accusers of 
Socrates, and prepared the case against him. 
Wheu the Athenians repented of their condem- 
nation of Socrates, they put Meletus to death, 
and banished Anytus and Lycon. — 2. Of Troas, 
a distinguished Peripatetic philosopher, and the 
disciple of Straton, whom he succeeded as the 
head of the Peripatetic school, B.C. 272. He 
held that post for more than forty-four years, 
and died at the age of seventy-four. He enjoy- 
ed the patronage of Attalus and Eumenes. He 
was celebrated for his eloquence and for his 
skill in educating boys. He wrote on the 
boundaries of good and evil (De Finibus). — [3. 
A celebrated comic actor of Scarphea, who per- 
formed before Alexander the Great, and receiv- 
ed from him on one occasion a present of ten 
talents.] 

[Lycophontes (AvKofovrrjc). 1. Son of Au- 
tophonus, a Theban, who, in conjunction with 
Maeon, lay in ambush with fifty men against 
Tydeus, but was slain by him. — 2. A Trojan 
warrior, slain by Teueer.] 

Lycophron (AvKofpuv). 1. Younger son of 
Periander, tyrant of Corinth, by his wife Me- 
lissa. For details, vid. Periander. — 2. A citizen 
of Pherae, where he put down the government 
of the nobles and established a tyranny about 
B.C.- 405. He afterward endeavored to make 
himself master of the whole of Thessaly, and 
in 404 he defeated the Larissaeans and others of 
the Thessalians who opposed him. He was 
probably the father of Jason of Pheras. — 3. A 
son, apparently, of Jason, and one of the brothers 
of Thebe, wife of Alexander, the tyrant of Phe- 
rse, in whose murder he took part, together with 
his sister and his two brothers, Tisiphonus and 
Pitholaus, 367. On Alexander's death the pow- 
er appears to have been wielded mainly by Ti- 
siphonus, though Lyeophron had an important 
share in the government. Lyeophron succeeded 
to the supreme power on the death of Tisipho- 
nus, but in 352 he was obliged to surrender 
455 



LYCOPOLIS. 



LYCURGUS. 



Pherae to Philip, and withdraw from Thessaly. 
— i. A grammarian and poet, was a native of 
dialeis in Eubcea, and lived at Alexandrea, un- 
der Ptolemy Philadelphus (B.C. 285-247), who 
intrusted to him the arrangement of the works 
of the comic poets in the Alexandrean library. 
In the execution of this commission Lycophron 
drew up an extensive work on comedy. Noth- 
ing more is known of his life. Ovid (Ibis, 533) 
states that he was killed by an arrow. As a 
poet, Lycophron obtained a place in the Tragic 
Pleiad. He also wrote a satyric drama. But 
the only one of his poems which has come down 
to us is the Cassandra or Alexandra. This is 
neither a tragedy nor an epic poem, but a long 
iambic monologue of one thousand four hundred 
and seventy-four verses, in which Cassandra is 
made to prophesy the fall of Troy, the advent- 
ures of the Grecian and Trojan heroes, with 
numerous other mythological and historical 
events, going back as early as the fables of Io 
and Europa, and ending with Alexander the 
Great. The work has no pretensions to poet- 
ical merit. It is simply a cumbrous store of 
traditional learning. Its obscurity is proverbial. 
Its author obtained the epithet' of the Obscure 
(ckotelvoc). Its stores of learning and its ob- 
scurity alike excited the efforts of the ancient 
grammarians, several of whom wrote comment- 
aries on the poem. The only one of these 
works which survives is the Scholia of Isaac 
and John Tzetzes, which are far more valuable 
than the poem itself. The best editions are 
by Potter, Oxon., 169*7, folio ; Reichard, Lips.. 
1788, 2 vols. 8vo; and Bachmann, Lips., 1828, 
2 vols. 8vo. 

Lycopolis (r/ Avkuv ttoTiig : ruins at Siout), a 
city of Upper Egypt, on the western bank of the 
Nile, between Hermopolis and Ptolemais, said to 
have derived its name from the circumstance 
that an ^Ethiopian army was put to flight near 
it by a pack of wolves. 

Lycorea (AvKupeia : Avicupzvc, AvKupioc, Av- 
noipeirrjc); an ancient town at the foot of Mount 
Lycorea (now Liakura), which was the south- 
ern of the two peaks of Mount Parnassus. Vid. 
Parnassus. Hence Apollo derived the surname 
of Lycoreus. The town Lycorea is said to have 
been the residence of Deucalion, and Delphi is 
also reported to have been colonized by it. 

Lycoris. Vid. Cytheris. 

Lycortas (Avicoprac), of Megalopolis, was the 
father of Polybius the historian, and the close 
friend of Philopcemen, whose policy he always 
supported. He is first mentioned, in B.C. 189, 
as one of the ambassadors sent to Rome ; and 
his name occurs for the last time in 168. 

LycosCra (AvKoaovpa : AvKocovpevc : now Pa- 
leokrambavos or Sidhirokastro,uea.v Stala), a town 
in the south of Arcadia, and on the northwest- 
ern slope of Mount Lyca?us, and near the small 
river Plataniston, said by Pausanias to have 
beeu the most ancient town in Greece, and to 
have been founded by Lycaon, the son of Pelas- 
gus. 

Lyctus (Avktoc: Avktioc), sometimes called 
Lyttus (Avttoc), an important town in the east 
of Orete, southeast of Cnosus, was situated on 
a height of Mount Argreus, eighty stadia from 
the coast. Its harbor was called Chersonesus. 
It whs one of the most ancient cities in the 
456 



island, and is mentioned in the Eiad. It was 
generally conside. ed to be a Spartan colony, 
and its inhabitants were celebrated for their 
bravery. At a later time it was conquered and 
destroyed by the Cnosians, but it was afterward 
rebuilt, and was extant in the seventh century of 
our era. 

Lycurgus (AvKovpyoc). 1. Son of Dryas, and 
king of che Edones in Thrace. He is famous 
for his persecution of Dionysus (Bacchus) and 
his worship in Thrace. Homer relates that, in 
order to escape from Lycurgus, Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus) leaped into the sea, where he was kindly 
received by Thetis; and that Jupiter (Zeus) 
thereupon blinded the impious king, who died 
soon afterward, hated by the immortal gods. 
This story has received many additions from 
later poets and mythographers. Some relate 
that Bacchus (Dionysus), on his expeditions, 
came to the kingdom of Lycurgus, but was 
expelled by the impious king. Thereupon the 
god drove Lycurgus mad, in which condition he 
killed his son Dryas, and also hewed off one of 
his legs, supposing that he was cutting down 
vines. The country now produced no fruit ; 
and the oracle declaring that fertility should 
not be restored unless Lycurgus were killed, 
the Edonians carried him to Mount Pangseus, 
where he was torn to pieces by horses. Ac- 
cording to Sophocles (Antic/., 955), Lycurgus 
was entombed in a rock. — 2. King in Arcadia, 
son of Aleus and Neasra, brother of Cepheus 
and Auge, husband of Cleophile, Eurynome, or 
Antinoe, and father of Ancseus, Epochus, Am- 
phidamas, and Iasus. Lycurgus killed Are- 
thous, who used to fight with a club. Lycurgus 
bequeathed this club to his slave Ereuthalion, 
his sons having died before him. — 3. Son of 
Pronax and brother of Amphithea, the wife ot 
Adrastus. He took part in the war of the Seven 
against Thebes, and fought with Amphiaraus. 
He is mentioned among those whom jEsculapius 
called to life again after their death. — i. King of 
Nemea, son of Pheres and Periclymene, brother 
of Admetus, husband of Eurydice or Amphithea, 
and father of Opheltes. 

Lycurgus. 1. The Spartan legislator. Of 
his personal history we have no certain infor- 
mation ; and there are such discrepancies re- 
specting him in the ancient writers, that many 
modern critics have denied his real existence 
altogether. The more generally received ac- 
count about him was as follows : Lycurgus was 
the son of Eunomus, king of Sparta, and brother 
of Polydectes. The latter succeeded his father 
as king of Sparta, and afterward died, leaving 
his queen with child. The ambitious woman 
proposed to Lycurgus to destroy her offspring 
if he would share the throne with her. He 
seemingly consented ; but when she had given 
birth to a son (Charilaus), he openly proclaimed 
him king, and as next of kin acted as his guard- 
ian. But, to avoid all suspicion of ambitious 
designs, with which the opposite party charged 
him, Lycurgus left Sparta, and set out on his 
celebrated travels, which have beeu magnified 
to a fabulous extent. He is said to have visit- 
ed Crete, and there to have studied the wise 
laws of Minps. Next he went to Ionia and 
Egypt, and is reported to have penetrated into 
Libya, Iberia, aud even India. In Ionia he is 



LYCURGUS. 

said to have met either with Homer himself, 
or at least with the Homeric poems, which he 
introduced into the mother country. The re- 
turn of Lycurgus to Sparta was hailed by- all 
parties. Sparta was in a state of anarchy and 
licentiousness, and he was considered as -the 
man who alone could cure the growing diseases 
of the state. He undertook the task ; yet, be- 
fore he set to work, he strengthened himself 
with the authority of the Delphic oracle, and 
with a strong party of influential men at Sparta. 
The reform seems not to have been carried al- 
together peaceably. The new division of the 
laud among the citizens must have violated 
many existing interests. But all opposition 
was overborne, and the whole constitution, mil- 
itary^and civil, was remodelled. After Lycur- 
gus had obtained for his institutions an approv- 
ing oracle of the national god of Delphi, he ex- 
acted a promise from the people not to make 
any alteration in his laws before his return. 
And now he left Sparta to finish his life in vol- 
untary exile, in order that his countrymen might 
be bound by their oath to preserve his consti- 
tution inviolate forever. Where and how he 
died nobody could tell. He vanished from the 
earth like a god, leaving no traces behind but 
his spirit ; and he was honored as a god at 
Sparta with a temple and yearly sacrifices down 
to the latest times. The date of Lycurgus is 
variously given, but it is impossible to place it 
later than B.C. 825. Lycurgus was regarded 
through all, subsequent ages as the legislator 
of Sparta, and therefore almost all the Spartan 
institutions were ascribed to him as their author. 
We therefore proposs to give here a sketch of 
the Spartan constitution, referring for details to 
the Diet of Antiq. ; though we must not imag- 
ine that this constitution was entirely the work 
of Lycurgus. The Spartan constitution was 
of a mixed nature : the monarchical principle 
was represented by the kings, the aristocracy 
by the senate, and the democratical element by 
the assembly of the people, and subsequently by 
their representatives, the ephors. The kings 
had originally to perform the common functions 
of the kings of the heroic age. They were 
high priests, judges, and leaders in war ; but in 
all of these departments they were in course 
of time superseded more or less. As judges 
they retained only a particular branch of juris- 
diction, that referring to the succession of prop- 
erty. As military commanders, they were re- 
stricted and watched by commissioners sent by 
the senate ; the functions of high priest were 
curtailed least, perhaps because least obnoxious. 
In compensation for the loss of power, the kings 
enjoyed great honors, both during their life and 
after their death. Still the principle of mon- 
archy was very weak among the Spartans. The 
powers of the senate were very important : they 
had the right of originating and discussing all 
measures before they could be submitted to the 
decision of the popular assembly ; they had, in 
conjunction with the ephors, to watch over the 
due • observance of the laws and institutions ; 
and they were judges in all criminal cases, 
without being bound by any written code. For 
all this they were not responsible, holding their 
office for life. 1 But with all these powers, the 
elders formed no real aristocracy. They were 



LYCURGUS 

not chosen either for property qualification or 
for noble birth. The senate was open to the 
poorest citizen, who, during sixty years, had 
been obedient to the laws and zealous in the 
performance of his duties. The mass of the 
people, that is, the Spartans of pure Doric de- 
scent, formed the sovereign power of the state. 
The popular assembly consisted of every Spar- 
tan of thirty years of age and of unblemished 
character ; only those were excluded who had 
not the means of contributing their portion to 
the syssitia. They met at stated times, to de- 
cide on all important questions brought before 
them, after a previous discussion in the senate. 
They had no right of amendment, but only that 
of simple approval or rejection, which was-given 
in the rudest form possible, by shouting. The 
popular assembly, however, had neither fre- 
quent nor very important occasions for directly 
exerting their sovereign power. Their chief 
activity consisted in delegating it; hence arose 
the importance of the ephors, who were the 
representatives of the popular element of the 
constitution. The ephors answer in every char- 
acteristic feature to the Roman tribunes of the 
people. Their origin was lost in obscurity and 
insignificance ; but at the end they engrossed 
the whole power of the state. With reference 
to their subjects, the few Spartans formed a 
most decided aristocracy. On the conquest of 
Peloponnesus by the Dorians, part of the an- 
cient inhabitants of the country, under name 
of the Periaci, were allowed, indeed, to retain 
their personal liberty, but lost all civil rights, 
and were obliged to pay to the state a rent for 
the land that was left them. But a great part 
of the old inhabitants were reduced to a state 
of perfect slavery, different from that of the 
slaves of Athens and Rome, and more similar 
to the villanage of the feudal ages. These were 
called Helots. They were allotted with patches 
of land to individual members of the ruling 
class. They tilled the land, and paid a fixed 
rent to their masters, not, as the periceci, to the 
state. The number of these miserable creat- 
ures was large. They were treated with the 
utmost cruelty by the Spartans, and were fre- 
quently put to death by their oppressors. The 
Spartans formed, as it were, an army of invad- 
ers in an enemy's country, their city was a 
camp, and every man a soldier. At Sparta, the 
citizen only existed for the state ; he had no 
interest but the state's, and no property but 
what belonged to the state. It was a funda- 
mental principle of the constitution, that all citi- 
zens were entitled to the enjoyment of an equal 
portion of the common property. This was 
done in order to secure to the commonwealth 
a large number of citizens and soldiers, free 
from labor for their sustenance, and able to de- 
vote their whole time to warlike exercises, in 
order thus to keep up the ascendency of Sparta 
over her perioeci and helots. The Spartans were 
to be warriors, and nothing but warriors. There- 
fore, not only all mechanical labor was thought 
to degrade them ; not only was husbandry de- 
spised and neglected, and commerce prevented, 
or at least impeded, by prohibitive laws and by 
the use of iron money, but also the nobler arts 
and sciences were so effectually stifled, that 
Sparta is a blank in the history of the arts and 
457 



LYCTTS. 



LYDIA. 



literature of Greece. The state took care of a 
Spartan from bis cradle to his grave, and super- 
intended his education in the minutest points. 
This was not confined to his youth, but extend- 
ed throughout his whole life. The syssitia, or, 
as they were called at Sparta, phiditia, the com- 
mon meals, may be regarded as an educational 
institution ; for at these meals subjects of gen- 
eral interest were discussed and political ques- 
tions debated. The youths and boys used to 
eat separately from the men, in their own divi- 
sions. — 2. A Lacedemonian, who, though not 
of the royal blood, was chosen king in B.C. 
220, together with Agesipolis IIL, after the' 
death of Cleomenes. It was not long before he 
deposed his colleague and made himself sole 
sovereign, though under the control of the 
ephori. He carried on war against Philip V. 
of Macedon and the Achjeans. He died about 
210, and Machanidas then made himself tyrant. 
— 3. An Attic orator, son of Lycophron, who 
belonged to the noble family of the Eteobutadffi, 
was born at Athens about B.C. 396. He was 
a disciple of Plato and Isocrates. In public life 
he was a warm supporter of the policy of De- 
mosthenes, and was universally admitted to be 
one of the most virtuous citizens and upright 
statesmen of his age. He was thrice appointed 
Tamias or manager of the public revenue, and 
held this office each time for five years, begin- 
ning with 337. He discharged the duties of 
this office with such ability and integrity, that 
he raised the public revenue to the sum of twelve 
hundred talents. One of his laws enacted that 
bronze statues should be erected to ./Eschylus, 
Sophocles, and Euripides, and that copies of 
their tragedies should be preserved in the pub- 
lic archives. He often appeared as a success- 
ful accuser in the Athenian courts, but he him- 
self was as often accused by others, though he 
always succeeded in silencing his enemies. He 
died while holding the office of president of the 
theatre of Dionysus in 323. A fragment of an 
• inscription, containing an account of his admin- 
istration of the finances, is still extant. There 
were fifteen orations of Lycurgus extant in an- 
tiquity ; but only one has come down to us en- 
tire, the oration against Leocrates, which was 
delivered in 330. The style is noble and grand, 
but neither elegant nor pleasing. The oration 
is printed in the various collections of the Attic 
orators. [Separately by A. G. Becker, Magde- 
burg, 1821 ; and by Maetzner, Berlin, 1836. The 
fragments of his other orations are collected 
by Kiessling, Lycurgi Deperd. Oratt. Fragmenta, 
Halle, 1847.] Vid. Demosthenes. 

Lvcus (Ajkoc). 1. Son of Neptune (Posei- 
don) and Celffino, who was transferred by his 
father to the islands of the blessed. By Alcy- 
one, the sister of Celseno, Neptune (Poseidon) 
begot Hyrieus, the father of the following. — 2. 
Son of Hyrieus and Clonia, and brother of Nyc- 
teus. Polydorus, king of Thebes, married the 
daughter of Nycteus, by whom he had a son, 
Labdacus ; and on his death he left the gov- 
ernment of Thebes and the guardianship of 
Labdacus to his father-in-law. Nycteus after- 
ward fell in battle against Epopeus, king of Si- 
cyon, who had carried away his beautiful daugh- 
ter Antiope. Lycus succeeded his brother in 
the government of Thebes and in the guardian- 
458 



ship of Labdacus. He surrendered the king, 
dom to Labdacus when the latter had grown up. 
On the death of Labdacus, soon afterward, Ly- 
cus again succeeded to the government of 
Thebes, and undertook the guardianship of 
Laius, the son of Labdacus. Lycus marched 
against Epopeus, whom he put to death (ac- 
cording to other accounts, Epopeus fell in the | 
war with Nycteus), and he carried away Antio- j 
pe to Thebes. She was treated with the great- 
est cruelty by Dirce, the wife of Lycus ; in re- 
venge for which, her sous by Jupiter (Zeus), 
Amphion and Zethus, afterward put to death 
bothfLycus and Dirce. Vid. Amphion. — 3. Son 
of No. 2. or, according to others, son of Nep- 
tune (Poseidon), was also king of Thebes. In 
the absence of Hercules, Lycus attempted to 
kill his wife Megara and her children, but was [ 
afterward put to death by Hercules. — 4. Son of 
Pandion, and brother of ^Egeus, Nisus, and 
Pallas. He was expelled by JEgeus, and took 
refuge in the country of the Termili, which was 
called Lyeia after him. He was honored at 
Athens as £ hero, and the Lyceum derived its j 
name from him. He is said to have introduced 
the Eleusinian mysteries into Andania in Mes- 
senia. He is sometimes, also, described as an 
ancient prophet, and the family of the Lycoine- 
dse, at Athens, traced their name and origin 
from him. — 5. Son of Daseylus, and king of the 
Mariandynians, who received Hercules and the 
Argonauts with hospitality. — [6. A companion 
of ^Eneas in his voyage from Troy to Italy : he 
was slain by Turnus in Italy.] — 7. Of Rhegi- 
um, the father, real or adoptive, of the poet Ly i 
cophron, was an historical writer in the time of I 
Demetrius Phalereus. 

Lycus (Avkoc), the name of several rivers, 
which are said to be so called from the impetu- 
osity of their current. 1. (Now Kilij), a little 
river, of Bithynia, falling into the sea south of 
Heraclea Pontiea. — 2. (Now Germeneh-Chai\ 
a considerable river of Pontus, rising in the 
mountains on the north of Armenia Minor, and 
flowing west into the Iris at Eupatoria. — 3. 
(Now Choruk-Su), a considerable river of Phryg- 
ia, flowing from east to west past Colossa? and 
Laodicea into the Mseander. — 4. (Now Nahr-el- j 
Kelb), a river of Phoenicia, falliug into the sea 
north of Berytus— 5. (Now Great Zab or Ulu- ! 
Su), a river of Assyria, rising in the mountains i 
on the south of Armenia, and flowing south- 
west into the Tigris, just below Larissa (now 
Nimroud). It is undoubtedly the same as the i 
Zabatus of Xenophon. 

Lydda (tH Av6da, ?/ Avdd?j : now Lud), a town 
of Palestine, southeast of Joppa and northwest 
of Jerusalem, at the junction of several roads . 
which lead from the sea-coast, was destroyed 
by the Romans in the Jewish war, but soon aft- j 
er rebuilt, and called Diospolis. 

[Lyde (Avdrj), the wife or mistress of the poet 
Antimachus, dearly beloved by him : he follow- 
ed her to Lydia, but she appears to have died 
early, and the poet sought to allay his grief by 
the composition of an elegy, which he named, 
from her, Lyde.] . i 

Lydia (Avdia : Av66c, Lydus), a district of 
Asia Minor, in the middle of the western side of 
the peninsula, between Mysia on the north and 
Caria on the south, and between Phrygia on | 



LYDIA. 



LYDUS. 



3ic east and the .JSgean Sea on the west. Its 
Doundaries varied so much at different times 
that they can not be described with any ap- 
proach to exactness till we come to the time 
of the Roman rule over Western Asia. At that 
time the northern boundary, toward Mysia, was 
the range of mountains which form the northern 
margin of the valley of the Hermus, called Sar- 
dene, a southwestern branch of the Phrygian 
Olympus ; the eastern boundary, toward Phryg- 
ia, was an imaginary line ; and the southern 
boundary, toward Caria, was the River Msean- 
der, or, according to some authorities, the range 
of mountains which, under the name of Messo- 
gis (now Kastane Dagli), forms the northern 
margin of the valley of the Maeander, and is a 
northwestern prolongation of the Taurus. From 
the eastern part of this range, in the southeast- 
ern corner of Lydia, another branches off to the 
northwest, and runs to the west far out into the 
-iEgean Sea, where it forms the peninsula oppo- 
site to the island of Chios. This chain, which 
is called Tmolus (now Kis'dja Musa Dagh), di- 
vides Lydia into two unequal valleys, of which 
the southern and smaller is watered by the Riv- 
er Cayster, and the northern forms the great 
plain of the Hermus : these valleys are very 
beautiful and fertile, and that of the Hermus, 
especially, is one of the most delicious regions 
of the earth. The eastern part of Lydia, and 
the adjacent portion of Phrygia, about the up- 
per course of the Hermus and its tributaries, is 
an elevated plain, showing traces of volcanic 
action, and hence called Catacecaumene (/cara- 
KeK.avfj.evij). In the boundaries of Lydia, as just 
described, the strip of coast belonging to Ionia 
is included, but the name is sometimes used in 
a narrower signification, so as to exclude Ionia. 
In early times the country had another name, 
M;e6ma (Mriovtr/, M.aiov'ia), by which alone it is 
known to Homer ; and this name was after- 
ward applied specifically to the eastern and 
southern part of Lydia, and then, in contradis- 
tinction to it, the name Lydia was used for the 
northwestern part. In the mythical legends, 
the common name of the people and country, 
Lydi and Lydia, is derived from Lydus, the son 
of Atys, the first king. The Lydians appear to 
have been a race closely connected with the 
Cariaus and the Mysians, with whom they ob- 
served a common worship in the temple of Ju- 
piter (Zeus) Carius at Mylasa : they also prac- 
ticed the worship of Cybele and other Phrygian 
customs. Amid the uncertainties of the early 
legends, it is clear that Lydia was a very early 
seat of Asiatic civilization, and that it exerted a 
very important influence on the Greeks. The 
Lydian monarchy, which was founded at Sar- 
dis before the time of authentic history, grew 
up into an empire, under which the many dif- 
ferent tribes of Asia Minor west of the River 
Halys were for the first time united. Tradition 
mentioned three dynasties of kings : the Atya- 
dse, which ended (according to the backward 
computations of chronologers) about B.C. 1221 ; 
the Heraclldae, which reigned five hundred and 
five years, down to 716; and the Mermnadse, 
one hundred and sixty years, down to 556. 
Only the last dynasty can be safely regarded 
as historical, and the fabulous element has a 
large place in the details of their history : their 



names and computed dates were : (1.) Gyges, 
B.C. 716-678 ; (2.) Ardts, 678-629 ; (3.) Sady- 
attes, 629-617 ; (4.) Alyattes, 617-560 ; (5.) 
Crcssus, 560 (or earlier)-546 ; under whose 
names an account is given of the rise of the 
Lydian empire in Asia Minor, and of its over- 
throw by the Persians under Cyrus. Under 
these kings, the Lydians appear to have been a 
highly civilized, industrious, and wealthy peo- 
ple, practicing agriculture, commerce, and man- 
ufactures, aud acquainted with various arts ; 
and exercising, through their intercourse with 
the Greeks of Ionia, an important influence on 
the progress of Greek civilization. Among the 
inventions or improvements which the Greeks 
are said to have derived from them were the 
weaving and dyeing of fine fabrics ; various 
processes of metallurgy; the use of gold and 
silver money, which the Lydians are said first 
to have coined, the former from the gold found 
on Tmolus aud from the golden sands of the 
Pactolus ; and various metrical and musical 
improvements, especially the scale or mode of 
music called the Lydian, and the form of the 
lyre called the magadis. ( Vid. Diet, of Antiq., 
art. Musioa.) The Lydians had, also, public 
games similar to those of the Greeks. Their 
high civilization, however, was combined with 
a lax morality, and, after the Persian conquest, 
when they were forbidden by Cyrus to carry 
arms, they sank gradually into a by-word for ef- 
feminate luxuriousness, and their very name 
and lauguage had almost entirely disappeared 
by the commencement of our era. Under the 
Persians, Lydia and Mysia formed the second 
satrapy. After the Macedonian conquest, Lydia 
belonged first to the kings of Syria, and next 
(after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the 
Romans) to those of Pergamus,' and so passed, 
by the bequest of Attalus III., to the Romans, 
under whom it formed part of the province of 
Asia. 

Lydiades (Av&Ladric), a citizen of Megalopo- 
lis, who, though of an obscure family, raised 
himself to the sovereignty of his native city 
about B.C. 244. In 234 he voluntarily abdica- 
ted the sovereignty, and permitted Megalopolis 
to join the Achasan league as a free state. 
He was elected several times general of the 
Achaaan league, and became a formidable rival 
to Aratus. He fell in battle against Cleome- 
nes, 226. 

Lydias or Ludias (Avdiac, Ion. AvStnc, Aov 
Siac : now Karasmak or Mavronero), a river in 
Macedonia, rises in Eordsea, passes Edessa, 
and, after flowing through the lake on which 
Pella is situated, falls into the Axius a short 
distance from the Thermaic Gulf. In the up- 
per part of its course it is called the Eorda?an 
River ('EopdaiKdc nora/ioc) by Arrian. Herodo- 
tus (vii., 127), by mistake, makes the Lydias 
unite with the Haliacmon, the latter of which 
is west of the former. 

Lydus (Avdoc), son of Atys and Callithea, and 
brother of Tyrrhenus, said to have been the 
mythical ancestor of the Lydians. 

Lydus, Joannes Laurentius, was born at 
Philadelphia, in Lydia (whence he is called Ly- 
dus or the Lydian), in A.D. 490. He held va- 
rious publio offices, aud lived to an advanced 
age, He wrote, 1, Hepl iirivQv owyypafrj, De 
459 



LYGDAMIS. 



LYSANDER. 



Measibus Liber, of which there are two epito- 
oi£B, or summaries, and a fragment extant. 2. 
Jlepl &px<*>v, k. r. X., De Magistratibus Reipublicce 
.Romance. 3. Tlepl dioa^fieioiv, De Ostentis. The 
work De Mensibus is an historical commentary 
on the Roman calendar, with an account of the 
various festivals, derived from a great number 
of authorities, most of which have perished. 
Of the two summaries of this curious work, the 
larger one is by an unknown hand, the shorter 
one by Maximus Planudes. The work De Ma- 
gistratibus was thought to have perished, but 
was discovered by Villoison in the suburbs of 
Constautinople, in 1785. The best edition of 
these works is by Bekker, Bonn, 1837. 

Lygdamis (Avydafiic). 1. Of Naxos, a distin- 
guished leader of the popular party of the island 
in the struggle with the oligarchy. He con- 
quered the latter, and obtained thereby the 
chief power in the state. He assisted Pisistra- 
tus in his third return to Athens ; but, during 
his absence, his enemies seem to have got the 
upper hand again ; for Pisistratus afterward 
subdued the island, and made Lygdamis tyrant 
of it, about B.C. 540. In 532 he assisted Poly- 
crates in obtaining the tyranny of Saraos. — 2. 
Father of Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus, 
the contemporary of Xerxes. — 3. Tyrant of Hal- 
icarnassus, the son of Pisindelis, and the grand- 
son of Artemisia. The historian Herodotus is 
said to have taken an active part in delivering 
his native city from the tyranny of this Lygda- 
mis. 

Lygii or Ligii, an important people in Ger- 
many, between the Viadus (now Oder) and the 
Vistula, in the modern Silesia and Posen, were 
bounded by the Burgundiones on the north, the 
Goths on the east, the Bastarnse and Osi on the 
west, and the Marsingi, Silinga?, and Semnones 
on the south. They were divided into several 
tribes, the chief of which were the Manimi, 
Duni, tElysii, Burn, Arii, Naharvali, and Helve- 
COD33. They first appear in history as mem- 
bers of the great Marcomannic league formed 
by Maroboduus in the reigns of Augustus and 
Tiberius. In the third century some of the 
Lygii migrated with the Burgundians westward, 
and settled in the country bordering on the 
Rhine. 

[Lyginus (Avyivoc), a river of Thrace in the 
territory of the Triballi, emptying into the Pon- 
tus Euxiuus.] 

[Lymax (Avfia%), a small river in the south- 
west of Arcadia, which empties into the Neda 
near Phigalea.] 

Lyncestis {kvynrjOTtc), a district in the south- 
west of Macedonia, north of the River Erigon, 
and upon the frontiers of Illyria. Its inhabit- 
ants, the Lynoest^e, were Illyrians, and were 
originally an independent people, who were 
governed by their own princes, said to be de- 
scended from the family of the Bacchiada?. 
The Lyncestse appear to have become subject 
to Macedonia by a marriage between the roy- 
al families of the two countries. The ancient 
capital of the country was Lynous (rj Avynoc), 
though Heraclea, at a later time, became the 
chief town in the district. Near Lyncus was a 
river, the waters of which are said to have been 
as intoxicating as wine. (Ov., Met, xv., 329.) 

Lynceus ( Avyicevc). 1. One of the fifty sons 
460 



) of ^gyptus, whose life was saved by his wife 
Hypermnestra, when all his other brothers were 
murdered by the daughters of Danaus on their 
wedding- night. Vid. jEgyptus. Danaus there- 
upon kept Hypermnestra in strict confinement, 
but was afterward prevailed upon to give her 
to Lynceus, who succeeded him on the throne 
of Argos. According to a different legend, Lyn- 
ceus slew Danaus and all the sisters of Hyperm- 
nestra in revenge for his brothers. Lynceus 
was succeeded as king of Argos by his sou 
Abas. — 2. Son of Aphareus and Arene, and 
brother of Idas, was one of the Argonauts, and 
famous for his keen sight. He is also men- 
tioned among the Calydonian hunters, and was 
slain by Pollux. For details respecting his 
death, Did p. 266, b. — [3. A Trojan, companion 
of jEneas, slain by Turnus in Italy] — 4. Of Sa- 
mos, the disciple of Theophrastus, and the broth- 
er of the historian Duris, was a contemporary 
of Menander, and his rival in comic poetry. He 
survived Menander, upon whom he wrote a 
book. He seems to have been more distin- 
guished as a grammarian and historian than as 
a comic poet. 

Lyncus, king of Scythia, or, according to oth- 
ers, of Sicily, endeavored to murder Triptole- 
mus, who came to him with the gifts of Ceres 
(Demeter), but he was metamorphosed by the 
goddess into a lynx. 

[Lyncus (Avynos), capital of Lyncestis. Vid, 
Lyncestis.] 

Lyrcea or Lyrceuii {Avpaeia, Avpiceiov), a 
small town in Argolis, situated on a mountain 
of the same name. 

Lyrnessus (Avpvqoaoc), a town in the inte- 
rior of Mysia, in Asia Minor, frequently men- 
tioned by Homer : destroyed before the time of 
Strabo. 

Lysander (Avaavdpoc), a Spartan, was of 
servile origin, or, at least, the offspring of a 
marriage between a freeman and a woman of 
inferior condition. He obtained the citizenship, 
and became -one of the most distinguished of 
the Spartan generals and diplomatists. In B.C. 
407, he was sent out to succeed Cratesippidas 
in the command of the fleet off the coasts of 
Asia Minor. He fixed his head-quarters at 
Ephesus, and soon obtained great influence, not 
only with the Greek cities, but also with Cyrus, 
who supplied him with large sums of money to 
pay his sailors. Next year, 406, he was suc- 
ceeded by Callicratidas. In one year the rep- 
utation and influence of Lysander had become 
so great, that Cyrus and the Spartan allies in 
Asia requested the Lacedaemonians to appoint 
Lysander again to the command of the fleet 
The Lacedaemonian law, however, did not al 
low the office of admiral to be held twice by the 
same person ; and, accordingly, Aracus was sent 
out in 405 as the nominal commander-in-chief, 
while Lysander, virtually invested with the su 
preme direction of affairs, had the title of vice- 
admiral (EircoToXevc). In this year he brought 
the Peloponnesian war to a conclusion by the 
defeat and capture of the Athenian fleet off 
^Egospotami. Oniy eight Athenian ships made 
their escape under the command of Conon. He 
afterward sailed to Athens, and in the spring of 
404 the city capitulated ; the long walls and 
the fortifications of the Piraaus were destroyed, 



LYSANDKA. 



LYSICLES. 



and an oligarchical form of government estab- 
lished, known by the name of the Thirty Ty- 
rants. Lysander was now by far the most pow- 
erful man in Greece, and he displayed more 
than the usual pride and haughtiness which dis- 
tinguished the Spartan commanders in foreign 
countries. He was passionately fond of praise, 
and took care that his exploits should be cele- 
brated by the most illustrious poets of his time. 
He always kept the poet Chcerilus in his ret- 
inue, and his praises were also sung by Antilo- 
chus, Antimachus of Colophon, and Nieeratus 
of Heraelea. He was the first of the Greeks to 
whom Greek cities erected altars as to a god, 
offered sacrifices, and. celebrated festivals. His 
power and ambition caused the Spartan gov- 
ernment uneasiness, and, accordingly, the ej'h- 
ors recalled him from Asia Minor, to which he 
had agaiu repaired, and for some years kept him 
without any public employment. On the death 
of Agis II. in 397, he secured the succession 
for Agesilaus, the brother of Agis, in opposition 
to Leotychides, the reputed son of the latter. 
He did not receive from Agesilaus the gratitude 
he had expected. He was one of the members 
of the council, thirty in number, which was ap- 
pointed to accompany the new king in his ex- 
pedition into Asia in 396. Agesilaus purposely 
thwarted all his designs, and refused all the 
favors which he asked. On his return to Spar- 
ta, Lysander resolved to bring about the change 
he had long meditated in the Spartan constitu- 
tion, by abolishing hereditary royalty, and mak- 
ing the throne elective. He is said to have at- 
tempted to obtain the sanction of the gods in 
favor of his scheme, and to have tried in suc- 
cession the oracles of Delphi, Dodona, and Ju- 
piter (Zeus) Ammon, but without success. He 
does not seem to have ventured upon any overt 
act, and his enterprise was cut short by his 
death in the following year. On the breaking 
out of the Boeotian war in 395, Lysander was 
placed at the head of one army and the king 
Pausanias at the head of another. Lysander 
marched against Haliartus, and perished in battle 
under the walls, 395. 

Lysandra (Avauvdpa), daughter of Ptolemy 
Soter and Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater. 
She was married first to Alexander, the son of 
Cassander, king of Macedonia, and after his 
death to Agathocles, the son of Lysimachus. 
After the murder of her second husband, B.C. 
284 (vid. Agathocles, No. 3), she fled to Asia, 
and besought assistance from Seleucus. The 
latter, in consequence, marched against Lysim- 
achus, who was defeated and slain in battle, 281. 

Lysanias (Avoaviag). 1. Tetrarch of Abi- 
lene, was put to death by Antony to gratify 
Cleopatra, B.C. 36. — 2. A descendant of the last, 
who was tetrarch of Abilene at the time when 
our Saviour entered upon his ministry (Luke, 
iiL, 1). 

[Lysanias (Avoaviac;), a Greek grammarian, 
of Cyrene, author of a work wept 'la/uSoirotciv. 
Suidas speaks of him as the instructor of Era- 
tosthenes.] 

[Lysiades, an Epicurean philosopher of Ath- 
ens, son of the celebrated philosopher Pha?drus, 
contemporary with Cicero, who attacks his ap- 
pointment by Antony as a judge.] 

Lysias (Avaiag). 1. An Attic orator, was born 



at Athens B.C. 458. He was (he son of Cepha- 
lus, who was a native of Syracuse, and had tak- 
en up his abode at Athens on the invitation of 
Pericles. At the age of fifteen, Lysias and his 
brothers joined the Athenians who went as col- 
onists to Thurii in Italy, 443. He there com- 
pleted his education under the instruction of two 
Syracusans, Tisias and Nicias. He afterward 
enjoyed great esteem among the Thurians, and 
seems to have taken part in the administration 
of the city. After the defeat of the Athenians 
in Sicily, he was expelled by the Spartan par- 
ty from Thurii as a partisan of the Athenians. 
He now' returned to Athens, 411. During the 
rule of the Thirty Tyrants (404), he was looked 
upon as an enemy of the government, his large 
property was confiscated, and he was thrown 
into prison ; but he escaped, and took refuge at 
Megara. He joined Thrasybulus and the ex- 
iles, and, in order to render them effectual as- 
sistance, he sacrificed all that remained of his 
fortune. He gave the patriots two .thousand 
drachmas and two hundred shields, and engaged 
a band of three hundred mercenaries. Thrasyb- 
ulus procured him the Athenian franchise, which 
he had not possessed hitherto, since he was the 
son of a foreigner; but he was afterward de- 
prived of this right because it had been confer- 
red without a probuleuma. Henceforth he lived 
at Athens as an isoteles, occupying himself, as 
it appeal's, solely with writing judicial speeches 
for others, and died in 378, at the age of eighty. 
Lysias wrote a great number of orations, and 
among those which were current under his 
name, the ancient critics reckoned two hund- 
red and thirty as genuine. Of these, thirty-five 
only are extant, and even some of these are in- 
complete, and others are probably spurious, 
Most of these orations were composed after his> 
return from Thurii to Athens. The only on* 
which he delivered himself is that against Era- 
tosthenes, 403. The language of Lysias is per- 
fectly pure, and may be regarded as one of the 
best specimens of the Attic idiom. All the an- 
cient writers agreed that his orations were dis- 
tinguished by grace and elegance. His style is 
always clear and lucid, and his delineations of 
character striking and true to life. The ora- 
tions of Lysias are contained in the collections 
of the Attic orators. Vid. Demosthenes. The 
best separate editions are by Foertsch, Lips., 
1829 ; and by Franz, Monac., 1831— [2. One of 
the Athenian generals at the battle of the Ar- 
ginusa? islands : on his return to Athens he was 
accused of having neglected to carry off the 
bodies of the dead, was condemned and exe- 
cuted. — 3. A general and minister of Antiochus 
Epiphanes, who was charged with the prosecu- 
tion of the war against the Jews, but his armies 
were totally defeated by Judas Maccabajus ; he 
subsequently compelled Maccabasus to retire to 
Jerusalem, and there shut him up, till the ap- 
proach of his rival, Philip, made him grant the 
Jews favorable terms. Lysias subsequently fell 
into the hands of the young prince Demetrius, 
whom he had opposed, and was by him put to 
death.] 

f [Lysioles {AvcikXtis). 1. Sent out by the 
Athenians with four colleagues, in command of • 
twelve ships, fcr raising money among the al- 
lies, B.C 428. He was attacked, in an expedl- 
461 



LYSIMACHIA. 



LYSIPPUS. 



tion up the plain of the Moeander, by some Ca- 
rians and Samians of Anasa, and fell, with many 
of his men. — 2. One of the commanders of the 
Athenian army at the battle of Chceronea, B.C. 
838, was subsequently condemned to death on 
the accusation of the orator Lycurguc] 

Lysimachta or -ea ( Avatfiaxia, AvaLfiuxeta : 
Avoifiaxevs). 1. (Now Eksemil,) an important 
town on the northeast of the Gulf of Melas, and 
on the isthmus connecting the Thracian Cher- 
sonesus with the main land, was founded B.C. 
309 by Lysimachus, who removed to his new 
city the greater part of the inhabitants of the 
neighboring town of Cardia. It was subse- 
quently destroyed by the Thracians, but was 
restored by Antiochus the Great. Under the 
Romans it greatly declined ; but Justinian built 
a strong fortress on the spot, which he called 
Hexamilium ('E%a/j.'iXiov), doubtless from the 
width of the isthmus, under which name it is men- 
tioned in the Middle Ages. — 2. A town in the 
southwest of iEtolia, near Pleuron, situated on a 
lake of the same name, which waS more ancient- 
ly called Hydra. 

Lysimachus (Avo'ifiaxog), king of Thrace, was 
a Macedonian by birth, and one of Alexander's 
generals, but of mean origin, his father Agath- 
ocles having been originally a Penest or serf in 
Sicily. He was early distinguished for his un- 
daunted courage, as well as for his great activ- 
ity and strength of body. We are told by Q. 
Curtius that Lysimachus, when hunting in Syr- 
ia, had killed a lion of immense size single- 
handed ; and this circumstance that writer re- 
gards as the origin of a fable gravely related by 
many authors, that, on account of some offence, 
Lysimachus had been shut up by order of Alex- 
ander in the same den with a lion ; but, though 
unarmed, had succeeded in destroying the ani- 
mal, and was pardoned by the king in consid- 
eration of his courage. In the division of the 
provinces after the death of Alexander (B.C. 
323), Thrace, and the neighboring countries as 
far as the Danube, were assigned to Lysima- 
chus. For some years he was actively engaged 
in war with the warlike barbarians that border- 
ed his province on the north. At length, in 315, 
he joined the league which Ptolemy, Seleucus, 
and Cassander had formed against Antigonus, 
but he did not take any active part in the war 
for some time. In 306 he took the title of king, 
when it was assumed by Antigonus, Ptolemy, 
Seleucus, and Cassander. In 302 Lysimachus 
crossed over into Asia Minor to oppose Antigo- 
nus, while Seleucus also advanced against the 
latter from the East. In 301 "Lysimachus and 
Seleucus effected a junction, and gained a de- 
cisive victory at Ipsus over Antigonus and his 
son Demetrius. Antigonus fell on the field, 
and Demetrius became a fugitive. The con- 
querors divided between them the dominions 
of the vanquished, and Lysimachus obtained for 
his share all that part of Asia Minor extending 
from the Hellespont and the jEgean to the heart 
of Phrygia. In 291 Lysimachus crossed the 
Danube and penetrated into the heart of the 
country of the Getre ; but he was reduced to 
the greatest distress by want of provisions, and 
was ultimately compelled to surrender with his 
whole army. Dromichaates, king of the Getae, 
treated him with the utmost generosity, and re- 
462 



stored him to liberty. In 288 Lysimachus united 
with Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Pyrrhus in a com 
mon league against Demetrius, who had for 
some years been in possession of Macedonia, 
and was now preparing to march into Asia. 
Next year, 2SY, Lys.machus and Pyrrhus in- 
vaded Macedonia. Demetrius was abandoned 
by his own troops, and was compelled to seek 
safety in flight. Pyrrhus for a time obtained 
possession of the Macedonian throne, but he 
was expelled by Lysimachus in 2S6. Lysim- 
achus was now in possession of all tlie domin- 
ions in Europe that had formed part of the Mace- 
donian monarchy, as well as of the greater part 
of Asia Minor. He remained in undisturbed 
possession of these vast dominions till shortly 
before his death. His downfall was occasioned 
by a dark domestic tragedy. His wife Arsinoe, 
daughter of Ptolemy Soter, had long hated her 
step-son Agathocles, and at length, by false ac- 
cusations, induced Lysimachus to put his son to 
death. This bloody deed alienated the minds 
of his subjects, and many cities of Asia broke 
out into open revolt. Lysandra, the widow of 
Agathocles, fled with her children to the court of 
Seleucus, who forthwith invaded the dominions 
of Lysimachus. The two monarchs met in the 
plain of Corus (Corupedion), and Lysimachus 
fell in the battle that ensued, B.C. 281. He was 
in his eightieth year at the time of his death. 
Lysimachus founded Lysimachia, on the Hel- 
lespont, and also enlarged and rebuilt many other 
cities. 

LysimelIa {{] Kvaifj.i7ieia Xljivij), a marsh near 
Syracuse in Sicily, probably the same as the 
marsh more anciently called Syraco, from which 
the town of Syracuse is said to have derived its 
name. 

Lysinoe (Avucvot) : now Agelan ?), a town in 
Pisidia, south of the Lake Aseania. 

Lysippds (Avchtttos). 1. Of Sicyon, one of the 
most distinguished Greek statuaries, was a eon- 
temporary of Alexander the Great. Originally 
a simple workman in bronze [faber cerarius), he 
rose to the eminence which he afterward ob- 
tained by the direct study of nature. He re- 
jected the last remains of the old conventional 
rules which the early artists followed. In his 
imitation of nature the ideal appears almost to 
have vanished, or. perhaps it should rather be 
said that he aimed to idealize merely human 
beauty. He made statues of gods, it is true ; 
but even in this field of art his favorite subject 
was the human hero Hercules; while his por- 
traits seem to have been the chief foundation 
of his fame. The works of Lysippus are said to 
have amounted to the enormous number of one 
thousand five hundred. They were almost all, 
if not all, in bronze ; in consequence of which, none 
of them are extant. He made statues of Alex- 
ander at all periods of life, and in many differ- 
ent positions. Alexander's edict is well known, 
that no one should paint him but Apelles, and 
no one make his statue but Lysippus. The most 
celebrated of these statues was that in which 
Alexander was represented with a lance, which 
was considered as a sort of companion to the 
picture of Alexander wielding a thunderbolt, by 
Apelles. — [2. A Lacedaemonian, harmost for a 
time at Epitalium in Elis : he devastated the 
Elean territory, and compelled them to sue for 



LYSIS. 

peace, B.C. 399. — 3. An Arcadian, a comic poet 
of the old comedy, gained the first prize B.C. 
434 : a few fragments of his comedies are pre- 
served in Meineke, Fragm. Comic. Grouse., vol. L, 
p. 421-3, edit, minor.] 

Lysis (Avchc), an eminent Pythagorean philos- 
opher, who, driven out of Italy in the persecu- 
tion of his sect, betook himself to Thebes, and 
became the teacher of Epaminondas, by whom 
he was held in the highest esteem. 

Lysis, a river of Caria, only mentioned by Livy 
(xxxviii., 15). 

Lysistratus, of Sicyon, the brother of Lysip- 
pus, was a statuary, and devoted himself to the 
making of portraits. He was the first who took 
a cast of the human face in gypsum ; and from 
this mould he produced copies by pouring into it 
melted wax. 

[Lyso. 1. A Sicilian of rank at Lilybaeum, 
plundered by Verres while prastor of Sicily in 
B.C. 73-71. — 2. A native of Patrae, an intimate 
friend of Cicero's, who intrusted to his care 
Tullius Tiro during his illness at that place: 
when Lyso subsequently visited Rome, he re- 
ceived great attention from both Tiro and Ci- 
cero.] 

Ltstra(j? Avarpa, t(l Avarpa : ruins probably 
at Karadagh, called Bin Bir Kilisseh), a city of 
Lycaonia, on the confines of Isauria, celebrated 
as one chief scene of the preaching of Paul and 
Barnabas {Acts, xiv.). 

M, 

Maoe (Ma/cat). 1. A people on the eastern 
coast of Arabia Felix, probably about Muscat. — 

2. An inland people of Libya, in the Regio Syr- 
tica, that is, the part of Northern Africa between 
the Syrtes. 

Macalla, a town on the eastern coast of Brut- 
tium, which was said to possess the tomb and a 
sanctuary of Philoetetes. 

Macar or Maoareus (Mdicap or Ma/capevg). 
1. Son of Helios (or Crinacus) and Rhodos, fled 
from Rhodes to Lesbos after the murder of 
Tenages. — 2. Son of ^Eolus. Vid. Canaoe. — 

3. Son of Jason and Medea, also called Merme- 
Tua or Mormorus. — [4. One of the Lapithae, slew 
the centaur Erigdupus at the nuptials of Pirith- 
ous. — 5. Of Hericus, one of the companions of 

• Ulysses.] 

Macaria (MaKapla), daughter of Hercules and 
De'ianira. 

Macaria (Maicapca). A poetical name of sev- 
eral islands, such as Lesbos, Rhodes, and Cyprus. 
— 2. An island in the southern part of the Sinus 
Arabicus (now Bed Sea), off the coast of the 
Troglodytae. 

Macarius (Ma/ctlpwc), a Spartan, was one of 
the three commanders of the Peloponnesian 
force sent to aid the iEtolians in the reduction 
of Naupactus, B.C. 426, which, however, was 
saved by Demosthenes ; he was afterward slain 
at the battle of Olpae. 

Maccab^i {MaKnafiaioL), the descendants of 
the family of the heroic Judas Maccabi or Mac- 
cabaeus, a surname which he obtained from his 
glorious victories. (From the Hebrew makkab, 
" a hammer.") They were also called Asamo- 
ncei ('A-aanuvaZoi), from Asamonaeus, or Chas- 
mon, the great-grandfather of Mattathias, the 



MACCABJ3I. 

father of Judas Maccabseus, or, in a shorter 
form, Asmoncei or Hasmonioe. This family first 
obtained distinction from the attempts which 
were made by Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, king of 
Syria, to root out the worship of Jehovah, and 
introduce the Greek religion among the inhab- 
itants of Judtea. Antiochus published an edict, 
which enjoined uniformity of worship through- 
out his dominions. At Modin, a town not far 
from Lydda, lived Mattathias, a man of the 
priestly line and of deep religious feeling, who 
had five sons in the vigor of their days, John, 
Simon, Judas, Eleazar, and Jonathan. When 
the officer' of the Syrian king visited Modin to 
enforce obedience to the royal edict, Mattathias 
not only refused to desert the religion of his 
forefathers, but with his own hand struck dead 
the first renegade who attempted to offer sacri- 
fice on the heathen altar. He then put to death 
the king's officer, and retired to the mountains 
with his five sons (B.C. 167). Their numbeiv 
daily increased ; and as opportunities occurred 
they issued from their mountain fastnesses, cul 
off detachments of the Syrian army, destroyed 
heathen altars, and restored in many places the 
synagogues and the open worship of the Jewisb 
religion. Within a few months the insurreo- 
tion at Modin had grown into a war for national 
independence. But the toils of such a war- 
were too much for the aged frame of Mattathias, 
who died in the first year of the revolt, leaving 
the conduct of it to Judas, his third son. 1. Ju- 
das, who assumed the surname of Maecabaeus, 
as has been mentioned above, carried on tho 
war with the same prudence and energy with 
which it had been commenced. After meeting 
with great success, he at length fell in battlo 
against the forces of Demetrius I. Soter, 160. 
He was succeeded in the command by his broth- 
er, — 2. Jonathan, who maintained the cause, of 
Jewish independence with equal vigor and suc- 
cess, and became recognized as high-priest of 
the Jews. He was put to death by Ti'yphon, 
the minister of Antiochus VI, who treacher- 
ously got him into his power, 144. Jonathan 
was succeeded in the high-priesthood by his 
brother, — 3. Simon, who was the most fortunate 
of the sons of Mattathias, and under whoBe gov- 
ernment the country became virtually independ- 
ent of Syria. He was murdered by his son-in- 
law Ptolemy, the governor of Jericho, together 
with two of his sons, Judas and Mattathias, 135. 
His other son, Joannes Hyrcanus, escaped, and 
succeeded his father. — 4. Joannes Hyrcanus L 
was high-priest 135-106. He did not assume 
the title of king, but was to all intents and pur- 
poses an independent monarch. Vid. Hyrca- 
nus. He was succeeded by his son Aristobu- 
lus I. — 5. Aristobulus I, was the first of the 
Maccabees who assumed the kingly title, which 
was henceforth borne by his successors. His 
reign lasted only a year, 106-105. Vid. Aris- 
tobulus. He was succeeded by his brother, — > 
6. Alexander Jannjeus, who reigned 105-78. 
Vid. Alexander, p. 42, b. He was succeeded 
by his widow, — 7. Alexandra, who appointed 
her son Hyrcanus II. to the priesthood, and held 
the supreme power 78-69. On her death in the 
latter year, her son, — 8. Hyrcanus II, obtained 
the kingdom, 69, but was supplanted almost im- 
mediately afterward by his brother, — 9. Aris- 
463 



MACEDONIA. 



MACESTUS. 



tobulus IT., •who obtained the throne 68. Vid. 
Aristobulus. Por the remainder of the history 
of the house of the Maccabees, vid. Hyrcanus II. 
and Herodes I. 

Macedonia (Maicedovta : M.aKe66vsc), a coun- 
try in Europe, north of Greece, which is said to 
have derived its name from an ancient King 
Macedon, a son of Jupiter (Zeus) and Thyia, a 
daughter of Deucalion. The name first occurs 
in Herodotus, but its more ancient form appears 
to have been Macetia (Ma/certa) ; and, accord- 
ingly, the Macedonians are sometimes called 
Macetoe. The country is said to have been 
originally named Emathia. The boundaries of 
Macedonia differed at different periods. In the 
time of Herodotus the name Macedonia desig- 
nated only the country to the south and west 
of the River Lydias. The boundaries of the 
ancient Macedonian monarchy, before the time 
of Philip, the father of Alexander, were on the 
south Olympus and the Cambunian Mountains, 
which separated it from Thessaly and Epirus, 
on the east the Itiver Strymon, which separated 
it from Thrace, and on the north and west II- 
lyria and Pseonia, from which it was divided by 
no well-defined limits. Macedonia was greatly 
enlarged by the conquests of Philip. He added 
to his kingdom Paeonia on the north, so that the 
mountains Seordus and Orbelus now separated 
it from Mcesia ; a part of Thrace on the east as 
far as the River Nestus, which Thracian district 
was usually called Macedonia adjecta ; the pen- 
insula Chalcidice on the south ; and on the 
west a part of Ulyria, as far as the Lake Lych- 
citis. On the conquest of the country by the 
Romans, B.C. 168, Macedonia was divided into 
four districts, which were quite independent of 
one another : 1. The country between the Stry- 
mon and the Nestus, with a part of Thrace east 
of the Nestus, as far as the Hebrus, and also 
including the territory of Heraclea Sintica and 
Bisaltice, west of the Strymon ; the capital of 
this district was Amphipolis. 2. The country 
between the Strymon and the Axius, exclusive 
of those parts already named, but including 
Chalcidice; the capital Thessaloniea. 3. The 
country between the Axius and Peneus ; the 
capital Pella. 4. The mountainous country in 
the west ; the capital Pelagonia. After the 
conquest of the Achaeans in 146, Macedonia 
was formed into a Roman province, and Thes- 
saly and Illyria were incorporated with it ; but, 
at the same time, the district east of the Nestus 
was again assigned to Thrace. The Roman 
province of Macedonia accordingly extended 
from the ^Egaean to the Adriatic Seas, and was 
bounded on the south by the province of Achaia. 
It was originally governed by a proconsul ; it 
was made by Tiberius one of the provinces of 
the Ccesar ; but it was restored to the senate 
by Claudius. Macedonia may be described as 
a large plain, surrounded on three sides by lofty 
mountains. Through thin plain, however, run 
many smaller ranges of mountains, between 
which are wide and fertile valleys, extending 
from the coast far into the interior. The chief 
mountains were Scoedus or Soardus, on the 
northwestern frontier, toward Illyria and Dar- 
dania ; further east, Orbelus and Scomius, 
which separated it from Mcesia ; and Rhodope, 
which extended fnm Scomius in a southeast- 
464 

1 



erly direction, forming the boundary between 
Macedonia and Thrace. On the southern fron- 
tier were the Cambunii Montes and Olympus. 
The chief rivers were in the direction of east 
to west, the Nestus, the Strymon, the Axius, 
the largest of all, the Ludias or Lydias, and the : i 
Haiiacmon. The great bulk of the inhabit- 
ants of Macedonia consisted of Thracian and 
IUyrian tribes. At an early period some Greek 
tribes settled in the southern part of the coun- 
try. They are said to have come from Argos, 
and to have been led by Gauanes, Aeropus, and 
Perdiccas, the three sous of Temenus the Hera- 
clid. Perdiccas, the youngest of the brothers, 
was looked upon as the founder of the Macedo- 
nian monarchy. A later tradition, however, re- 
garded Caranus, who was also a Heraclid from 
Argos, as the founder of the monarchy. These i 
Greek settlers intermarried with the original 
inhabitants of the country. The dialect which 
they spoke was akin to the Doric, but it con- 
tained many barbarous words and forms ; and b 
the Macedonians were accordingly never re- !; 
garded by the other Greeks as genuine Hellenes. ,1 
Moreover, it was only in the south of Macedonia I 
that the Greek language was spoken ; in the r 
north and northwest of the country the Illyrian [ 
tiibes continued to speak their own language, t 
and to preserve their ancient habits and cus- 
toms. Very little is known of the history of 
Macedonia till the reign of Amyntas I., who 
was a contemporary of Darius Hystaspis ; but 
from that time their history is more or less in- i 
timately connected with that of Greece, till at [: 
length Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, i. 
became the virtual master of the whole of | 
Greece. The conquests of Alexander, extend- 
ed the Macedonian supremacy over a great part 
of Asia ; and the Macedonian kings continued to i 
exercise their sovereignty over Greece till the s 
conquest of Perseus by the Romans, 168, brought 
the Macedonian monarchy to a close. The details 
of the Macedonian history are given in the lives 
of the separate kings. 

Maoella (now. Macellaro), a small fortified 
town in the west of Sicily, southeast of Segesta. j i 

Macer, ^Emilius. 1. A Roman poet, a native 
of Verona, died in Asia B.C. 16. He wrote a 
poem or poems upon birds, snakes, and medicinal | 
plants, in imitation, it would appear, of the ] 
Theriaca of Nicander. (Ov., Trist., iv., 10, 44.) # i 
The work now extant, entitled " ^Emilius Macer 
de Herbarum Virtutibus," belongs to the Middle 
Ages. — 2. "VVe must carefully distinguish from i 
./Emilius Macer of Verona, a poet Macer, who I 
wrote on the Trojan war, and who must have 
been alive in A.D. 12, since he is addressed by 1 
Ovid in that year (ex-Pont, ii., 10, 2).— 3. A 
Roman jurist, who lived in the reign of Alex- 
ander Severus. He wrote several works, extracts j 
from which are given in the Digest. 

Macer, Clodius, was governor of Africa at 1 II 
Nero's death, AD. 68, when he laid claim to the 1 
throne. He was murdered at the instigation I 
of Galba by the procurator Trebouius Garuci- II 
anus. I 

Macer, LicinIus. Vid. Licinius. I 

Macestus (MaKjjGTOc : now ISimaul-Su, and I 
lower SusugJicrli), a considerable river of Mysia, 
rises in the northwest of Phrygia, and flows \ 
north through Mysia into the Rhyndacus. It 1 



MACfLEREUS. 



MAGROBIUS. 



j is probably the same river which Polybius (v., 
77| calls Megistus (Meyjorof)- 

[Machtereus (Maxaipevs), son of Dsetas of 
Delphi, is said to have slain Neoptolemus, the 
son of Achilles, in a quarrel about the sacrifi- 
cial meat at Delphi.] 

Macu^eiiCs (Maxaipovc : Maxatptrijc), a strong 
border fortress in the south of Pereea, in Pales- 
tine, on the confines of the Nabathae.i : a strong- 
hold of the Sicarii in the Jewish war. A tradi- 
tion made it the place where John the Baptist 
was beheaded. 

Machanidas, tyrant of Lacedaemon, succeed- 
ed Lycurgus about B.C. 210. Like his prede- 
cessor, he had no hereditary title to the crown, 
but ruled by the swords of his mercenaries 
alone. He was defeated and slain in battle by 
Philopoemen, the general of the Achaean league, 
in 207. 

Machaon (Maxaav), son of iEsculapius, was 
married to Anticlea, the daughter of Diocles, by 
whom he became the father of Gorgasus, Nico- 
machus, Alexanor, Sphyrus, and Polemocrates. 
Together with his brother Podalirius, he went 
to Troy with thirty ships, commanding the men 
who came from Tricca, Ithome, and (Echalia. 
In this war he acted as the surgeon of the 
Greeks, and also distinguished himself in battle. 
He was himself wounded by Paris, but was car- 
ried from the field by Nestor. Later writers 
mention him as one of the Greek heroes who 
were concealed in the wooden horse, and he is 
said to have cured Philoctetes. He was killed 
by Eurypylus, the son of Telephus, and he re- 
ceived divine honors at Gerenia, in Messenia. 

[Machares (Maxuprx), son of Mithradates the 
Great, was appointed by his father king of Bos- 
porus. After the repeated defeats of Mithradates 
by the Romans, Machares proved a traitor, and 
sent supplies to Lucullus : his father, though 
hard pressed by the Roman troops, marched 
against Machares, and the latter put himself to 
death to avoid falling into his enraged father's 
hands.] 

Machlyes (Mdx^vei), a people of Libya, near 
the Lotophagi, on the western side of the Lake 
Triton, in what was afterward called Africa 
Propria. 

Machon (Mb^ov), of Corinth or Sicyon, a 
comic poet, flourished at Alexandrea, where he 
gave instructions respecting comedy to the 
grammarian Aristophanes of Byzantium. [Two 
or three fragments remain, which are given by 
Meineke, Fragm. Comic. Grac, vol. ii., p. 1133- 
4, edit, minor.] 

Macistus or Macistum (Maiccaroc, Maiaarov : 
Ma/ciVriof), an ancient town of Elis in Triphylia, 
northeast of Lepreum, originally called Plata- 
nistus (JWaravcvTovc), and founded by the Cau- 
cones. 

Macoraba {MaK0pu6a : now Mecca), a city in 
the west of Arabia Felix ; probably the sacred 
city of the Arabs, even before the time of Mo- 
hammed, and the seat of the worship of Alitat 
or Alitta under the emblem of a meteoric stone. 

Macra (now Magra), a small river rising in 
the Apennines and flowing into the Ligurian 
Sea near Luna, which, from the time of Au- 
gustus, formed the boundary between Liguria 
and Etruria. 

Macrianus, one of the thirty tyrants, a dis- 
30 



tinguished general, who accompanied Valeria! 
in his expedition against the Persians, A.D. 
260. On the capture of that monarch, Macri- 
anus was proclaimed emperor, together with 
his two sons Macrianus and Quietus. He as- 
signed the management of affairs in the East 
to Quietus, and set out with the younger Mac- 
rianus for Italy. They were encountered by 
Aureolus on the confines of Thrace and Illyria, 
defeated and slain, 262. Quietus was shortly 
afterward slain in the East by Odenathus. 

Maori Campi. Vid. Campi Macri. 

Macrinus, M. Opilius Severus, Roman em- 
peror, April, A.D. 217-June, 218. He was born 
at Csesarea in Mauretania, of humble parents, 
A.D. 164, and rose at length to be prsefectof the 
praetorians under Caracalla. He accompanied 
Caracalla in his expedition against the Parthi- 
ans, and was proclaimed emperor after the death 
of Caracalla, whom he had caused to be assas- 
sinated. He conferred the title of Ceesar upon 
his son Diadumenianus, and at the same time 
gained great popularity by repealing some ob- 
noxious taxes. But in the course of the same 
year he was defeated with great loss by the 
Parthians, and was obliged to retire into Syria. 
While here, his soldiers, with whom he had be- 
come unpopular by enforcing among them order 
and discipline, were easily seduced from their 
allegiance, and proclaimed Elagabalus as em- 
peror. With the troops which remained faith- 
ful to him, Macrinus marched against the usurp- 
er, but was defeated, and fled in disguise. He 
was shortly afterward seized in Chalcedon, and 
put to daath, after a reign of fourteen months. 

[Maoris (Manp'ic), another name for the isl- 
and Helena. Vid. Helena.] 

Macko, Ntevius SertoeIue. e favorite of the 
Emperor Tiberius, was employed to arrest the 
powerful Sejanus in A.D. 31. On the death of 
the latter he was made praefect of the praetori- 
ans, an office which he continued to hold for 
the remainder of Tiberius's reign and during 
the earlier part of Caligula's. Macro was as 
cruel as Sejanus. He laid informations ; he 
presided at the rack ; and he lent himself to the 
most savage caprices of Tiberius during the 
last and worst period of his government. Dur- 
ing the lifetime of Tiberius he paid court to the 
young Caligula ; and he promoted an intrigue 
between his wife Ennia and the young prince. 
It was rumored that Macro shortened the last 
moments of Tiberius by stifling him with the 
bedding as he recovered unexpectedly from a 
swoon. But Caligula soon became jealous of 
Macro, and compelled him to kill himself with 
his wife and children, 38. 

Macrobii (MaKpoSioi, i. e., Long-lived), an 
^Ethiopian people in Africa, placed by Herodotus 
(iii., 17) on the shores of the Southern Ocean. 
It is in vain to attempt their accurate identifi- 
cation with any known people. 

Macrobius, the grammarian, whose full name 
was Ambrosius Aurclms Thcodosius Macrobius. 
All we know about him is that he lived in the 
age of Honorius and Theodosius, that he was 
probably a Greek, and that he had a son named 
Eustathius. He states in the preface to his 
Saturnalia that Latin was to him a foreigu 
tongue, and hence we may fairly conclude tha 
he was a Greek by birth, more especially as wt 

465 



MACRONES. 

find numerous Greek idioms in his style. He 
was probably a pagan. His extant works are, 
1. Saturnaliorura Conviviorum Libri VII., con- 
sisting of a series of dissertations on history, 
mythology, criticism, and various points of an- 
tiquarian research, supposed to have been de- 
livered during the holidays of the Saturnalia at 
the house of Vettius Prastextatus, who was in- ' 
vested with the highest offices of state under 
Valentinian and Valens. The form of the work 
is avowedly copied from the dialogues of Plato, 
especially the Banquet : in substance it bears a 
strong resemblance to the Noctes Atticae of A. 
Gellius. The first book treats of the festivals 
of Saturnus and Janus, of the Roman calendar, 
&e. The second book commences with a col- 
lection of bon mots, ascribed to the most cele- 
brated wits of antiquity ; to these are appended 
a series of essays on matters connected with 
the pleasures of the table. The four following 
books are devoted to criticisms on Virgil. The 
seventh book is of a more miscellaneous char- 
acter than the preceding. 2. Commentarius ex 
Cicerone in Somnium Scipionis, a tract much 
studied during the Middle Ages. The Dream 
of Scipio, contained in the sixth book of Cic- 
ero's De Republica, is taken as a text, which 
suggests a succession of discourses on the 
physical constitution of the universe, according 
to the views of the New Platonists, together 
with notices of some of their peculiar tenets 
on mind as well as matter. 3. De Differentiis 
et Societatibus Graci Latinique Verbi, a treatise 
purely grammatical, of which only an abridg- 
ment is extant, compiled by a cf *ain Joannes. 
The best editions of the works A Macrobius 
are by Gronovius, Lugd. Bat., 1670, and by 
Zeunius, Lips., 1774 : [the first volume of a 
new and more copious critical edition was pub- 
lished at Quedlinburg and Leipzig, 1848, edited 
by Lud. Janus.] 

Macrones (Mai<povec), a powerful and war- 
like Caucasian people on the northeastern shore 
of the Pontus Euxinus. 

Mactoridm (M.aK-6piov : ManTupZvoe), a town 
in the south of Sicily, near Gela. 

Macynia (MaKvv'ca : Maavvevc), a town in the 
south of ^Etolia, near the mountain Taphiassus, 
east of Calydon and the Evenus. 

[Madaura or Madurus (Mddovpoc), a town 
in northern Numidia, near Tagaste, not to be 
confounded with Medaura.] 

Madia nit^e (TAadtaviTai, MadivvaZoifMadivvoi : 
in the Old Testament, Midianim), a powerful 
nomad people in the south of Arabia Petraea, 
about the head of the Red Sea. They carried 
on a caravan trade between Arabia and Egypt, . 
and were troublesome enemies of the Israelites 
until they were conquered by Gideon. They 
do not appear in history after the Babylonish 
captivity. 

[Madyas (Maduac, Ion. Madvijc), a king of the j 
Scythians, under whom they overran Asia and 
advanced as far as Egypt: he is called by 
Strabo Idanthyrsus.] 

Madytus (Mddvroc : Madvrioc : now Maito), 
a sea-port town on the Thracian Chersonesus. 

MjEander (Maiavdpoc : now Mendcrch or Mein- 
der, or Bnyuk-Mendereh, i. e., the Great Men- 
derch, in contradistinction to the Little Mender eh, j 
the ancient Cayster), has its source in the | 
466 



MAECENAS. 

mountain called Aulocrenas, above Celainse, in 
the south of Phrygia, close to the source of tfte 
Marsyas, which immediately joins it. Vid. Ce- 
LffiNjE. It flows in a general western direction, 
with various changes of direction, but on the 
whole with a slight inclination to the south. 
After leaving Phrygia, it flows parallel to Mount 
Messogis, on Its southern side, forming the 
boundary between Lydia and Caria, and at last 
falls into the Icarian Sea between Myus and 
Priene. Its whole length is above one hundred 
and seventy geographical miles. The Maean- 
der is deep, but narrow, and very turbid, and 
therefore not navigable far up. Its upper course 
lies chiefly through elevated plains, and partlj 
in a deep rocky valley : its lower course, fo? 
the last one hundred and ten miles, is through 
a beautiful wide plain, through which it flows 
in those numerous windings that have made its 
name a descriptive verb (to meander), and which 
it often inundates. The alteration made in the 
coast about its mouth by its alluvial deposit was 
observed by the ancients, and it has been con- 
tinually going on. Yid. Latmicus Sinus and 
Miletus. The tributaries of the Maeander were, 
on the right or northern side, the Marsyas, 
Cludrus, Lethseus, and Gaeson, and on the left 
or southern side, the Obrimas, Lycus, Harpa- 
sus, and another Marsyas. As a god,Msander 
is described as the father of the nymph Cyane, 
who was the mother of Caunus. Hence the 
latter is called by Ovid (Met., ix., 573) Maan- 
drius juvenis. 

[M^andrius (Maidvdpioc), secretary to Poly- 
crates, tyrant of Samos, through whose treach- 
ery or incompetency Polycrates was induced to | 
place himself in the power of Oroetes, and was 
by him put to death. Maeandrius, upon this, re- 
tained in his own hands the tyranny, until the 
advance of the Persians under Otanes to place , 
Syloson, brother of Polycrates, on the throne, 
when he capitulated : having brought about the j 
assassination of the chief Persians, he made his 
escape to Sparta ; the ephori, however, banish- 
ed him from the Peloponnesus.] 

Maecenas, C. Cilnius, was born some time 
between B.C. 73 and 63 ; and we learn from 
Horace (Carm., iv., 11) that his birth-day was 
the thirteenth of April. His family, though be- 
longing wholly to. the equestrian order, was of 
high antiquity and honor, and traced its descent t 
from the Lucumones of Etruria. His paternal 
ancestors, the Cilnii, are mentioned by Livy (x., 
3, 5) as having attained great power and wealth I 
at Arretium about B.C. 301. The maternal 
branch of the family was likewise of Etruscan 
origin, and it was from them that the name 
of Maecenas was derived, it being customary 
among the Etruscans to assume the mother's 
as well as the father's name. It is in allusion 
to this circumstance that Horace (Sat., i., 6, 3) 
mentions both his.aras maternus atque paternus 
as having been distinguished by commanding 
numerous legions ; a passage, by the way, from 
which we are not to infer that the ancestors of 
Maecenas had ever led the Roman legions. Al- 
though it is unknown where Maecenas received 
his education, it must doubtless have been a 
careful one. We learn from Horace that he 
was versed both in Greek and Roman literature ; 
and his taste for literary pursuits was show T n. 



MAECENAS. 



MJELIUS, SP. 



not only by his patronage cf the most eminent 
poets of his time, but also by several perform- 
ances of his own, both in verse a«d prose. It 
I has been conjectured that he became acquaint- 
ed with Augustus at Apollonia before the death 
of Julius Caesar ; but he is mentioned for the 
first time in B.C. 40, and from this year his 
name constantly occurs as one of the chief 
friends and ministers of Augustus. Thus we 
find him employed in B.C. 37 in negotiating 
with Antony ; and it was probably on this oc- 
casion that Horace accompanied him to Brim- 
disium, a journey which he has described in 
the fifth satire of the first book. During the 
war with Antony, which was brought to a close 
by the battle of Actium, Maecenas remained at 
Rome, being intrusted with the administration 
of the civil affairs of Italy. During this time 
he suppressed the conspiracy of the younger 
Lepidus. Maecenas was not present at the bat- 
tle of Actium, as some critics have supposed ; 
and the first epode of Horace probably does not 
relate at all to Actium, but to the Sicilian ex- 
pedition against Sextus Pompeius. On the re- 
turn of Augustus from Actium, Maecenas en- 
joyed a greater share of his favor than ever, 
and, in conjunction with Agrippa, had the man- 
agement of all public affairs. It is related that 
-Augustus at this time took counsel with Agrip- 
pa and Maecenas respecting the expediency of 
restoring the republic ; that Agrippa advised 
him to pursue that course, hut that Maecenas 
strongly urged him to establish the empire. 
For many years Maecenas continued to preserve 
the uninterrupted favor of Augustus; but, be- 
tween B.C. 21 and 16, a coolness, to say the 
least, had sprung up between the emperor and 
his faithful minister, and after the latter year 
he retired entirely from public life. The cause 
of this estrangement is enveloped in doubt. 
Dion Cassius positively attributes it to an in- 
trigue carried on by Augustus with Terentia, 
Maecenas's wife. Maecenas died B.C. 8, and 
was buried on the Esquiline. He left no chil- 
dren, and he bequeathed his property to Augus- 
tus. Maecenas had amassed an enormous for- 
tune. He had purchased a tract of ground on 
the Esquiline Hill, which had formerly served 
as a burial-place for the lower orders. (Hor., 
Sat., L, 8, 7.) Here he had planted a garden, 
and built a house, remarkable for its loftiness, 
on account of a tower by which it was sur- 
mounted, and from the top of which Nero is 
said to have afterward contemplated the burn- 
ing of Rome. In this residence he seems to 
have passed the greater part of his time, and 
to have visited the country but seldom. His 
house was the rendezvous of all the wits of 
Rome ; and whoever could contribute to the 
amusement of the company was always wel- 
come to a seat at his table. But his really in- 
timate friends consisted of the greatest gen- 
iuses and most learned men of Rome ; and if 
it was from his universal inclination toward 
men of talent that he obtained the reputation 
of a literary patron, it was by his friendship for 
such poets as Virgil and Horace that he de- 
served it. Virgil was indebted to him for the 
recovery of his farm, which had been appro- 
prialed by the soldiery in the division of lands 
in B C. 41 ; and it was at the request of Mae- 



cenas that he undertook the Georgics, the most 
finished of all his poems. To Horace he was a 
still greater benefactor. He presented him with, 
the means of a comfortable subsistence, a farm 
| in the Sabine country. If the estate was but 
| a moderate one, we learn from Horace himsel» 
that the bounty of Maecenas was regulated by 
his own contented views, and not by his pa- 
tron's want of generosity. (Cann., Hi., 16,38.) 
I Of Maecenas's own literary productions only a 
I few fragments exist. From these, however, 
; and from the notices which we find of his writ- 
• ings in ancient authors, we are led to think that 
! we have not satFered any great loss by their 
j destruction ; for, although a good judge of lit- 
erary merit in others, he does not appear to 
have been an author of much taste himself. In 
his way of life Maectnas was addicted to every 
species of luxury. We find several allusions 
in the ancient authors to the effeminacy of his 
dress. He was , fond of theatrical entertain- 
ments, especially pantomimes, as may be in- 
ferred from his patronage of Bathyllus, the cel- 
ebrated dancer, who was a freedman of his. 
That moderation of character which led him to 
be content with his equestrian rank, probably 
arose from his love of ease and luxury, or it 
might have been the result of more prudent and 
politic views. As a politician, the principal 
trait in his character was fidelity to his master, 
and the main end of all his cares was the con- 
solidation of the empire ; but, at the same 
time, he recommended Augustus to put no cjieck 
on the free expression of public opinion, and, 
above all, to avoid that cruelty which for so 
many years had stained the Roman annals with 
: blood. 

M^eoius Tarpa. Vid. Takpa. 
_ M^edica (MatdiKri), the country of the Makli, 
a powerful people in the west of Thrace, on tne 
western bank of the Strymon, and the southern 
slope of Mount Scomius. They frequently made 
inroads into the country of the Macedonians, till 
at length they were conquered by the latter peo- 
ple, and their land incorporated with Macedonia, 

i of which it formed the northeastern district. 
Melius, Sp., the richest of the plebeian 
knights, employed his fortune in buying up corn 
in Etruria in the great famine at Rome in B.C. 
440. This corn he sold to the poor at a small 

' price, or distributed it gratuitously. Such lib- 
erality gained him the favor of the plebeians, 
but, at the same time, exposed him to the hatred 
of the ruling class. Accordingly, in the follow- 
ing year he was accused of having formed a 
conspiracy for the purpose of seizing the king- 
ly power. Thereupon Cincinnatus was appoint- 
ed dictator, and C. Servilius Ahala the master 
of the horse. Maelius was summoned to appear 
before the tribunal of the dictator ; but as he 
refused to go, Ahala, with an armed band of 
patrician youths, rushed into the crowd and 
slew him. His property was confiscated, and 
his house pulled down ; its vacant site, which 
was called the Mquimalium, continued to sub- 
sequent ages a memorial of his fate. Later 
ages fully believed the story of Maelius's con- 
spiracy, and Cicero repeatedly praises the glori- 
ous deed of Ahala. But his guilt is very doubt- 
ful None of the alleged accomplices of Mae- 
lius were punished ; and Ahala was brought to 

467 



M.ENACA. 



MAGAS. 



trial, and only escaped condemnation by a vol- I 
untary exile. 

M^enaoa (Maiv&KTi), a town in the south of t 
Hispania Baetica, on the coast, the most west- 
erly colony of the Phocaeans. 

M^enades (Maivddcc), a name of the "Bac- 
chantes, from /la'tvo/nat, " to be mad,'* because 
they were phrensied in the worship of Dionysus 
or Bacchus. 

M^enalus (to Maivalmv or Maivd2.iov opoc : 
now Roinori), a mountain in Arcadia, which ex- 
tended from Megalopolis to Tegea, was cele- 
brated as the favorite haunt of the god Pan. 
From this mountain the surrounding country 
was called Mcendlia (Ma(va?.j'a) ; and on the 
mountain was a town Mcznalus. The mountain 
was so celebrated that the Roman poets fre- 
quently use the adjectives Mcenalius and Mcena- 
lis as equivalent to Arcadian. 

MjenIus. 1. C, consul B.C. 338, with L. Fu- 
rius Camillus. The two consuls completed the 
subjugation of Latium ; they were both reward- 
ed with a triumph ; and equestrian statues were 
erected to their honor in the forum. The statue 
of Maenius was placed upon a column, which is 
spoken of by later writers under the name of 
Columna Mama, and which appears to have 
stood near the end of the forum, on the Capi- 
toline. Maenius was dictator in 320, and cen- 
sor in 318. In his censorship he allowed bal- 
conies to be added to the various buildings sur- 
rounding the forum, in order that the spectators 
might obtain more room for beholding the games 
which were exhibited in the forum ; and these 
balconies were called after him Mceniana (sc. 
cedificia). — 2. The proposer -of the law, about 
286, which required the patres to give their 
sanction to the election of the magistrates be- 
fore they had been elected, or, in other words, 
to confer, or agree to confer, the imperium oh 
the person whom the comitia should elect. — 3. 
A contemporary of Lucilius, was a great spend- 
thrift, who squandered all his property, and aft- 
erward supported himself by playing the buffoon. 
He possessed a house in the forum, which Cato 
in his censorship (184) purchased of him, for 
the purpose of building the basilica Porcia. 
Some of the scholiasts on Horace ridiculously 
relate, that when Maenius sold his house, he re- 
served for himself one column, the Columna 
Maenia, from which he built a balcony, that he 
might thence witness the games. The true 
origin of the Columna Maenia, and of the balco- 
nies called Maeniana, has been explained above. 
(Hor., Sat., i., 1, 101 ; i., 3, 21 ; Epist., I, 15, 
26.) 

Minora, a town in the southeast of Hispania 
Baetica, near the coast, situated on a river of 
the same name, and twelve miles eastofMalaca. 

[M^enus. Vid. Mcenus.] 

Mteon (Mat'uv). 1. Son of Haemon of Thebes. 
He and Lycophontes were the leaders of the 
band that lay m ambush against Tydeus, in the 
war of the Sevan against Thebes. Mason was 
the only one whose life was spared by Tydeus. 
Maeon, in return, buried Tydeus when the latter 
was slain. — 2. Husfeand of Dindyme, the moth- 
er of Cybele. — [3. A Latin warrior, who was 
wounded by ./Eneas in the wars between iEneas 
and Turnus in Italy.] 

M^eonia. Vid. Lydia. 
468 



M^ohides (MaiovlSnc), i. e., Horner, eithei 
because he was a son of Maeon, or because he 
was a native of Maeonia, the ancient name of 
Lydia. Hence he is also called Mmonius scnex, 
and his poptns the Maonia. charla, or Meconium 
carmen. Mjeonis also occurs as a surname of 
Omphale, and of Arachne, because both were 
Lydians. 

M^otve. Vid. M/eotis Palus. 

MiEoTis Palus (r/ Mcziwric Xijivin : now Sea of 
Azov), an inland sea on the borders of Europe 
and Asia, north of the Pontus Euxinus (now 
Black Sea), with which it communicates by the 
Bosporus Cimmerius. Its form may be de- 
scribed roughly as a triangle, with its vertex at 
its northeastern extremity, where it receives 
the waters of the great river Tanai's (now Don) : 
it discharges its superfluous water by a constant 
current into the Euxine. The ancients had very 
vague notions of its true form and size : the ear- 
lier geographers thought that both it and the 
Caspian Sea were gulfs 'of the great Northern 
Ocean. The Scythian tribes on its banks were 
called by the collective name of Maeotae or Maeo- 
tici (Uaiurai, MaiortKoi). The sea had also the 
names of Cimmerium or Bosporicurn Mare. 
^Eschylus (Prom., 731) applies the name of 
Maeotic Strait to the Cimmerian Bosporus (ai- 
""u"n>' MaiuTiKov). 

M^era (Matpa). 1. The dog of Icarius, the 
father of Erigone. Vid. Icarius, No. 1.— 2. 
Daughter of Prcetus and Antea, a companion of 
Diana (Artemis), by whom she was killed, aftei 
she had become by Jupiter (Zeus) the mother 
of Locrus. Others state that she died a virgin. 
—3. Daughter of Atlas, was married to Tege- 
ates, the son of Lycaon. Her tomb was shown 
both at Tegea and Mantinea in Arcadia. 

M^sa, Julia, sister-in-law of Septimins Se- 
verus, aunt of Caracalla, and grandmother of 
Elagabalus and Alexander Severus. She was 
a native of Emesa in Syria, and seems, after 
the elevation of Septimius Severus, the husband 
of her sister Julia Domna, to have lived at the 
imperial court until the death of Caracalla, and 
to have accumulated great wealth. Sbe con- 
trived and executed the plot which transferred 
the supreme power from Macrinus to her grand- 
son Elagabalus. When she foresaw the down- 
fall of the latter, she prevailed on him to adopt 
his cousin Alexander Severus. By Severus 
she was always treated with the greatest re- 
spect ; she enjoyed the title of Augusta during 
her life, and received divine honors after her 
death. 

MiEvTus. Vid. Bavius. 

Ma gab a, a mountain in Galatia, ten Roman 
miles east of Ancyra. 

Magas (Maynf), king of Cyrene, was a step- 
son of Ptolemy Soter, being the offspring of 
Berenice by a former marriage. He was a 
Macedonian by birth ; and he seems to have 
accompanied his mother to Egypt, where he 
soon rose to a high place in the favor of Ptole- 
my. In B.C. 308 he was appointed by that 
monarch to the command of the expedit ion des- 
tined for the recovery of Cyrene after the death 
of Ophelias. The enterprise was completely 
successful, and Magas obtained from his step- 
father the government of the province. At first 
he ruled over the province only as a dependency 



MA GDALA. 



MAGNENTIUS. 



*f Egypt, but after the death of Ptolemy Soter I 
he not only assumed the character of an inde- ! 
pendent monarch, but even made war on the 
King of Egypt. He married Apama, daughter 
of Antiochus Soter, by whom he had a daughter, ' 
Berenice, afterward the wife of Ptolemy Euer- ! 
gdtes. He died 25S. 

[Magdala (MayJoAa : NLaydalrivbc, probably 
the Old Testament Migdal-El : now El-Meydel), 
a village of Palestine, on the Sea of Galilee, 
piobably on the western shore, where the mod- 
ern El-Meijdd stands.] 

Magdocum (MuytSoAov, MaySaXov : in the Old 
Testament, Migdol), a city of Lower Egypt, 
near the northeastern frontier, about twelve 
miles southwest of Pelusium : where Pharaoh 
Necho defeated the Syrians, according to He- 
rodotus (ii., 159). 

Magetobria (now Moigte de Broie, on the 
Saone), a town on the western frontiers of the j 
Sequani, near which the Gauls were defeated 
by the Germans shortly before Caesar's arrival 
in Gaul. 

Magi (NLayoi), the name of the order of priests ! 
and religious teachers among the Medes and ; 
Persians, is said to be derived from the Persian 
word mag, mog, or mugh, i. e., a priest. There 
is strong evidence that a class similar to the 
Magi, and in some cases bearing the same name, I 
existed among other Eastern nations, especially j 
the Chaldaeans of Babylon ; nor is it at all prob- 
able that either the Magi, or their religion, were | 
of strictly Median or Persian origin ; but, in 
classical literature, they are presented to us 
almost exclusively in connection with Medo- 
Persian history. Herodotus represents them 
as one of the six tribes into which the Median 
people were divided. Under the Median em- 
pire, before the supremacy passed to the Per- I 
sians, they were so closely connected with the i 
throne, and had so great an influence in the 
state, that they evidently retained their posi- j 
tion after the revolution ; and they had power 
enough to be almost successful in the attempt J 
they made to overthrow the Persian dynasty : 
after the death of Cambyses, by putting forward 
one of their own number as a pretender to the 
throne, alleging that he was Smerdis, the son j 
of Cyrus, who had been put to death by his j 
brother Cambyses. It is clear that this was a 
plot to restore the Median supremacy ; but 
whether it arose from mere ambition, or from 
any diminution of the power of the Magi under j 
the vigorous government of Cyrus, can not be 
said with certainty. The defeat of this Magian 
conspiracy by Darius the son of Hystaspes and 
the other Persian nobles was followed by a gen- 
eral massacre of the. Magi, which was celebrated j 
by an annual festival (ra Mayotiovia), during ! 
which no Magian was permitted to appear in | 
public. Still their position as the only ministers 
of religion remained unaltered. The breaking 
up of the Persian empire must have greatly 
altered their condition ; but they still continue 
to appear in history down to the time of the 
later Roman empire. The " wise men" who 
came from the East to Jerusalem at the time 
of our Saviour's birth were Magi (fidym is their 
name in the original, Matt., ii., 1 ). Simon, who 
had deceived the people of Samaria before 
Philip preached to them (Acts viii.), ai d Elymas, | 



who tried to hinder the conversion of Sergius 
Paulus at Cyprus (Acts, xiii.), are both called 
Magians ; but in these cases the words jiuyoc 
and fiaycuuv are used in a secondary sense, for 
a person who pretends to the wisdom, or prac- 
tices the arts of the Magi. This use of the 
name occurs very early among the Greeks, and 
from it we get our word magic (ri tiayiKi), i. e., 
the. art or science of the Magi). The constitu- 
tion of the Magi as an order is ascribed by tra- 
dition to Zoroastres, or Zoroaster as the Greeks 
and Romans called him, the Zarathustra of the 
Zendavesta (the sacred books of the ancient 
Persians), and the Zerdusht of the modern Per 
sians ; but whether he was their founder, theii 
reformer, or the mythical representative of their 
unknown origin, can not be decided. He is said 
to have restored the true knowledge of the su- 
preme good principle (Ormuzd), and to have 
taught his worship to the Magi, whom he divid- 
ed into three classes, learners, masters, and per- 
fect scholars. They alone could teach the truths 
and perform the ceremonies of religion, foretell 
the future, interpret dreams and omens, and as- 
certain the will of Ormuzd by the arts of divi- 
nation. They had three chief methods of divi- 
nation, by calling up the dead, by cups or dishes, 
and by waters. The forms of worship and div- 
ination were strictly defined, and were handed 
down among the Magi by tradition. Like all 
early priesthoods, they seem to have been the 
sole possessors of all the science of their age. 
To be instructed in their learning was esteemed 
the highest of privileges, and was permitted, 
with rare exceptions, to none but the princes 
of the royal family. Their learning became cel- 
ebrated at an early period in Greece, by the 
name of (laycia, and was made the subject of 
speculation by the philosophers, whose knowl- 
edge of it seems, however, to have been very 
limited ; while their high pretensions, and the 
tricks by which their knowledge of science en- 
abled them to impose upon the ignorant, soon 
attached to their name among the Greeks and 
Romans that bad meaning which is still com- 
monly connected with the words derived from 
it. Besides being priests and men of learning, 
the Magi appear to have discharged judicial 
functions. 

[Magius, Decius, one of the most distinguish- 
ed men at Capua in the time of the second Pu- 
nic war, and leader of the Roman party in that 
town in opposition to Hannibal : on the surren- 
der of the tpwn Hannibal required him to be de- 
livered up to him.] 

Magna Gr^bcia. Vid. Gr^ecia. 

Magna Mater. Vid. Rhea. 

Magnentius, Roman emperor in the West, 
A.D. 350-353, whose full name was Flavius 
Popilius Magnentius. He was a German by 
birth, and after serving as a common soldier 
was eventually intrusted by Constans, the son 
of Constantine the Great, with the command of 
the Jovian and Herculian battalions who had 
replaced the ancient praetorian guards when the 
empire was remodelled by Diocletian. He avail- 
ed himself of his position to organize a conspir- 
acy against the weak and profligate Constans, 
who was put to death by his emissaries. Mag- 
nentius thereupon was acknowledged as emper- 
or in all the Western provinces except Illyria, 

469 



MAGNES. 



MAGO 



where Vetranio had assumed the purple. Con- 
stantius hurried from the frontier of Persia to 
crush the usurpers. Vetranio submitted to Con- 
stantius at Sardica in December, 350. Mag- 
nentius was first defeated by Constantius at the 
sanguinary battle of Mursa on the Drave, in the 
autumn of 351, and was obliged to fly into Gaul. 
He was defeated a second time in the passes 
of the Cottian Alps, and put an end to his own 
life about the middle of August, 353. Magnen- 
tius was a man of commanding stature and 
great bodily strength ; but not one spark of 
virtue relieved the blackness of his career as a 
sovereign. The power which he obtained by 
treachery and murder he maintained by extor- 
tion and cruelty. 

Magnes (Mdjv7]c), one of the most important 
of the earlier Athenian comic poets of the old 
comedy, was a native of the demus of Icaria or 
Icarius in Attica. He flourished B.C. 460 and 
onward, and died at an advanced age, shortly 
before the representation of the Knights of Aris- 
tophanes, that is, in 423. (Aristoph., Equ.it., 
524.) His plays contained a great deal of coarse 
buffoonery. [A few fragments of his plays are 
collected by Meineke, Fragm. Com. Grac, vol. 
i., p. 5-6.] 

Magnesia (Mayv?]ala : Mdyvqc, pi- MdyvrjTeg). 
1. The most easterly district of Thessaly, was a 
long, narrow slip of country, extending from the 
Peneus on the north to the Pagasaean Gulf on 
the south, and bounded on the west by the great 
Thessalian plain. It was a mountainous coun- 
try, as it comprehended the Mounts Ossa and 
Pelion. Its inhabitants, the Magnetes, are said 
to have founded the two cities in Asia mention- 
ed below. — 2. M. ad Sipylum (M. npbc StTriUo- 
or vnd Sinvhu : ruins at Manissa), a city in the 
northwest of Lydia, in Asia Minor, at the foot 
of the northwest declivity of Mount Sipylus, 
and on the south bank of the Hermus, is famous 
in history as the scene of the victory gained by 
the two Scipios over Antiochus the Great, which 
secured to the Romans the empire of the East, 
B.C. 190. After the Mithradatic war, the Ro- 
mans made it a libera civitas. It suffered, with 
other cities of Asia Minor, from the great earth- 
quake in the reign of Tiberius ; but it was still 
a place of importance in the fifth century. — 3. 

M. AD MiEANDRUM (M. 7] 7rp0f MaidvSpO, M. E7U 

Matavdpc) : ruins at Inek-bazar), a city in the 
southwest of Lydia, in Asia Minor, was situated 
on the River Lethasus, a northern tributary of 
the Mseander. It was destroyed by the Cim- 
merians (probably about B.C. 700f and rebuilt 
by colonists from Miletus, so that it became an 
Ionian city by race as well as position. It was 
one of the cities given to Themistocles by Ar- 
taxerxes. It was celebrated for its temple of 
Artemis Leucophryne, one of the most beauti- 
ful in Asia Minor, the luins of which still exist. 

Magnopous {Wlayvo-nolig), or Eupatoria Mag- 
nopolis, a city of Pontus, in Asia Minor, near 
the confluence of the rivers Lycus and Iris, be- 
gun by Mithradates Eupator and finished by 
Pompey, but probably destroyed before very 
long. 

[Magnus Portus. 1. (Now Gulf of Almeria), a 
harbor of Hispania Bajtica, on the Iberian Gulf, 
between Abdera and the promontory Charide- 
mus. — 2. (Meyag Xi/iijv), a harbor on the west 
470 



of the north coast of Hispania Tarraconensis 
among the Callaici Lucenses. — 3. (Meyag ?u 
ftijv), a haven on the south coast of Britain, op- 
posite the island Vectis (now Isle of Wight), i 
now probably the Gulf of Portsmouth.] 

[Magnus Sinus (6 fxtyag koAttoc, now Gulf i 
of Siam), the great gulf on the east coast of In- 
dia extra Gangem, or the Chersonesus Aurea, 
separating this from the opposite coast of the j 
Sina;.] 

Mago (Mdyuv). 1. A Carthaginian, said to j 
have been the founder of the military power of 
that city, by introducing a regular discipline 
and organization into her armies. He flour- 
ished from B.C. 550 to 500, and was probably 
the father of Hasdrubal, who was slain in the j 
battle against Gelo at Himera. Vid. Hamil- [ 
car, No. 1. — 2. Commander of the Carthaginian 
fleet under Himilco in the war against Dionys- 
ius, 396. When Himilco^ returned to Africa 
after the msastrous termination of the expedi- 
tion, Mago appears to have been invested with j 
the chief command in Sicily. He carried on the ' 
war with Dionysius, but in 392 was compelled | 
to conclude a treaty of peace, by which he aban- 
doned his allies the Sicilians to the power of Dio- 
nysius. In 383 he again invaded Sicily, but was 1 
defeated by Dionysius and slain in battle. — 3. 
Commanderof the Carthaginian army in Sicilyin 
344. He assisted Hicetas in the war against Ti- 
moleon ; but, becoming apprehensive of treach- 
ery, he sailed away to Carthage. Here he put 
an end to his own life, to avoid a worse fate at | 
the hands of his countrymen, who nevertheless j 
crucified his lifeless body. — 4. Son of Hamilcar 
Barca, and youngest brother of the famous Han- I 
nibal. He accompanied Hannibal to Italy, and ! 
after the battle of Cannas (216) carried the news 
of this great victory to Carthage ; but, instead 
of returning to Italy, he was sent into Spain 
with a considerable force to the support of his f, 
other brother Hasdrubal, who was hard pressed i 
by the two Scipios (215). He continued in this i 
country for many years ; and after his brother 
Hasdrubal quitted Spain in 208, in order to 
march to the assistance of Hannibal in Italy, 
the command in Spain devolved upon him and 
upon Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco. After their I 
decisive defeat by Scipio at Silpia in 206, Mago I 
retired to Gades, and subsequently passed the 
winter in the lesser of the Balearic Islands, 1 
where the memory of his sojourn is still pre- 
served in the name of the celebrated harbor, 
Portus Magonis, or Port Mahon. Early in the 
ensuing summer (205) Mago landed in Liguria, 
where he surprised the town of Genoa. Here 
he maintained himself for two yeavs, but in 203 
he was defeated with great loss, in Cisalpine 
Gaul by Quintilius Varus, and wds himself se- 
verely wounded. Shortly afterward he em- | 
barked his troops in order to return to Africa, I 
but he died of his wound before reaching Africa. 
Cornelius Nepos, in opposition to all other au- 
thorities, represents Mago as surviving the bat- j 
tie of Zama, and says that he perished in a ship- 
wreck, or was assassinated by his slaves. — 5 
Surnamed the Samn\te, was one of the chief of 
fleers of Hannibal in Italy, where he held for a 
considerable time the chief command in Brut- 
tium. — 6. Commander of the garrison of New [ 
Carthage when that city was taken by Seipio i 



MAGONIS PORTUS. 



MAMERCUS. 



Africanus, 209. Mago was sent a prisoner to 
Rome. — 7. A Carthaginian of uncertain date, 
who wrote a work upon agriculture in the Pu- 
dic language, in twenty-eight books. So great 
was the reputation of this work even at Rome, 
that after the destruction of Carthage, the sen- 
ate ordered that it should he translated into 
Latin bv competent persons, at the head of 
whom was D. Silanus. It was subsequently 
translated into Greek, though with some abridg- 
ment and alteration, by Cassius Dionysius of 
Utica. Mago's precepts on agricultural matters 
are continually cited by the Roman writers on 
those subjects in terms of the highest commen- 
dation. 

Magonis Poiitus. Vid. Mago, No. 4. 

Magontiacum. Vid. Mogontiacum. 

[Magkada (now Urumea, or, according to oth- 
ers, Bidassoa), a small river on the northern 
coast of Hispania Tarraconensis ] 

Maharbal (Maup6ac), son of Himilco, and one 
of the most distinguished officers of Hannibal 
in the second Punic war. He is first mention- 
ed at the siege of Saguntum. After the battle 
of Canna; he urged Hannibal to push on at once 
with his cavalry upon Rome itself ■ and on the 
refusal of his commander, he is said to have ob- 
served, that Hannibal knew indeed how to gain 
victories, but not how to use them. 

Maia (Maia or Mataf), daughter of Atlas and 
Pleione, was the eldest of the Pleiades, and the 
most beautiful of the seven sisters. In a grotto 
of Mount Cyllene in Arcadia she became by Ju- 
piter (Zeus) the mother of Mercury (Hermes). 
Areas, the son of Jupiter (Zeus) by Cailisto, 
was given to her to be reared. Vid. Pleiades. 
Maia was likewise the name of a divinity wor- 
shipped at Rome, who was also called Majesta. 
She is mentioned in connection with Vulcan, 
and was regarded by some as the wife of that 
god, though it seems for no other reason but 
because a priest of Vulcan offered a sacrifice to 
her on the first of May. In the popular super- 
stition of later times she was identified with 
Maia, the daughter of Atlas. 

Majoeianus, Julius Valerius, Roman em- 
peror in the West, A.D. 457-461, was raised to 
the empire by Ricimer. His reign was chiefly 
occupied in making preparations to invade the 
Vandals in Africa; but the immense fleet which 
he had collected for this purpose in the harbor 
of New Carthage in Spain was destroyed by the 
Vandals in 460. Thereupon he concluded a 
peace with Genseric. His activity and popu- 
larity excited the jealousy of Ricimer, who com- 
pelled him to abdicate, and then put an end to 
his life. 

Majuma. Vid. Constantia, No. .3. 

Malaca (now Malaga), an important town on 
the coast of Hispania Bastica. and on a river of 
the same name (now Guadalmedina), was found- 
ed by the Phoenicians, and has always been a 
flourishing place of commerce from the earliest 
times to the present day. 

Malalas. Vid. Malelas. 

Malanga (MaMyya), a city of India, probably 
the modern Madras. _ 

Malchus (MiU^of). 1. Of Philadelphia in Syr- 
ia ; a Byzantine historian and rhetorician, wrote 
a history of the empire from A.D. 474 to 488, 
of which we have some extracts, published along 



with Dexippus by Bekker and Niebuhr, Bonn, 
1829. — [2. King of Arabia Petraea, was contem- 
porary with Herod the Great, who fled to him 
for refuge when he was driven out of Jerusa- 
lem by Antigonus and the Parthians, B.C. 40. 
This was probably the same Malchus who is 
mentioned by Hirtius as sending an auxiliary 
force of cavalry to Caesar in Egypt.] 

Malea (Ma'Aea uupa : now Cape Maria), the 
southern promontory of the island of Lesbos. 

Malea (MaXea or MaAe'aj : now Cape St. An- 
gelo or Malio di St. Angela), a promontory on 
the southeast of Laconia, separating the Argolic 
and Laconic Gulfs ; the passage round it was 
much dreaded by sailors. Here was a temple 
of Apollo, who hence bore the surname Maleatcs. 

Malelas or Malalas, Joannes ('houvvnc « 
Male^a or MaAaAa), a native of Antioch, and a 
Byzantine historian, lived shortly after Justin- 
ian the Great. The word Malalas signifies in 
Syriac an orator. He wrote a chronicle of uni- 
versal history from the creation of the world to 
the reign of Justinian inclusive. Edited by Din 
j dorf, Bonn, 1831. 

Malene (Malrivr)), a city of Mysia, only men- 
tioned by Herodotus (vi., 29). 

[Maleventum. Vid. Beneventum.] 

Maliacus Sinus (Ma/Ua/cdf Kolirog : now Bay 
of Zeitun), a narrow bay in the south of Thes- 
saly, running west from the northwest point of 
the island of Euboea. On one side of it is the 
Pass of Thermopylae. It derived its name from 
the Malienses, who dwelt on its shores. It is 
sometimes called the Lamiacus Sinus, from the 
town of Lamia in its neighborhood. 

Malis (MaMc yn, Ionic and Attic MrjXic yij : 
M.a?.uvc or Mn'hiEvc, Maliensis, a district in the 
south of Thessaly, on the shores of the Malia- 
cus Sinus, and opposite the northwest point of 
the island of Euboea. It extended as far as the 
Pass of Thermopylae. Its inhabitants, the Ma- 
lians, were Dorians, and belonged to the Am- 
phictyonic league. ' 

Malli (Mal?ioi), an Indian people on both 
sides of the Hydraotes : tneir capital is sup- 
posed to have been on the site of the celebrated 
fortress of Moollan. 

Ma'llus (MaWdf), a very ancient city of Ci- 
licia, on a hill a little east of the mouth of the 
River Pyramus, was said to have been founded 
at the time of the Trojan war by Mopsus and 
Amphilochus. It had a port called Magarsa. 

[Malcetas (MaXolrac), a small river of Arca- 
dia, on which Orchomenus founded the colony 
Methydrium] 

Maluginensis, a celebrated patrician family 
of the Cornelia gens in the early ages of the 
republic, the members of which frequently held 
the consulship. It disappears from history be- 
fore the time of the Samnite wars. 

Malva. Vid. Mulucha. 

Mam^ea, Julia, a native of Emesa in Syria, 
was daughter of Julia Maesa, and mother of 
Alexander Severus. She was a woman of in- 
tegrity and virtue, and brought up her son with 
the utmost care. She was put to death by the 
soldiers along with her son, A.D. 235. 

Mamercus. 1. Son of King Numa accord- 
ing to one tradition, and son of Mars and Sil- 
via according to another. — 2. Tyrant of Cata 
na, when Timoleon landed in Sicily, B.C. 344 

471 



MAMERCUS. 



MANES. 



After his defeat by Timoleon he fled to Messa- 
na, and took refuge with Hippon, tyrant of that 
city. But when Timoleon laid siege to Messa- 
na, Hippon took to flight, and Mamercus sur- 
rendered, stipulating only for a regular trial be- 
fore the Syracusans. But as soon as he was 
brought into the assembly of the people there, 
he was condemned by acclamation, and exe- 
cuted like a common malefactor. 

Mamercus or Mamereinus, ^Emilius, a dis- 
tinguished patrician family which professed to 
derive its name from Mamercus in the reign of 
Numa. 1. L., thrice consul, namely, B.C. 484, 
478, 473.-2. Tib., twice consul, 470 and 467. 
—3. Mam., thrice dictator, 437, 433, and 426. 
In his first dictatorship he carried on war against | 
the Veientines and Fidenae. LarTolumnius, the j 
king of Veii, is said to have been killed in sin- 
gle combat in this year by Cornelius Cossus. 
In his second dictatorship ^Emilius carried a j 
law limiting to eighteen months the duration of i 
the censorship, which had formerly lasted for j 
five years. This measure was received with j 
great approbation by the people ; but the cen- 
sors then in office were so enraged at it that j 
they removed him from his tribe, and reduced 
him to the condition of an aerarian.— 4. L., a 
distinguished general in the Samnite wars, was 
twice consul, 341 and 329, and once dictator, j 
335. In his second consulship he took Priver- 
num, and hence received the surname of Pri- 
vernas. 

Mamers, the Oscan name of the god Mars. 

Mamertini. Vid. Messana. 

Mamertium (Mamertini), a town in Bruttium, 
of uncertain site, founded by a band of Sam- 
nites, who had left their mother country under j 
the protection of Mamers or Mars to seek a new 
home. 

MamilTa Gens, plebeian, was originally a dis- j 
Cinguished family in Tusculum. They traced j 
their name and origin to Mamilia, the daughter 
of Telegonus, the founder of Tusculum, and the 
son of Ulysses and the goddess Circe. It was 
to a member of this family, Octavius Mamilius, 
that Tarquinius betrothed his daughter ; and on 
his expulsion from Rome he took refuge with 
his son-in-law, who, according to the beautiful 
lay preserved by Livy, roused the Latin people 
against the infant republic, and perished in the 
great battle at the Lake Regillus. In B.C. 458, 
the Roman citizenship was given to L. Mamil- 
ius, the dictator of Tusculum, because he had 
two years before marched to the assistance of 
the city when it was attacked by Herdonius. 
The gens was divided into three families, Lim- 
etanus, Turrinus, and Vitulus, but none of them 
became of much importance. 

Mammula, the name of a patrician family of 
the Cornelia gens, which never became of much 
importance in the state. 

MamurIus VeturIus. Vid. Veturius. 

Mamurra, a Roman eques, born at Formiae, 
was the commander of the engineers (prafectus 
fabrum) in Julius Caesar's army in Gaul. He 
amassed great riches, the greater part of which, 
however, he owed to Caesar's liberality. He 
was the first person at Rome who covered all 
the walls of his house with layers of marble, 
and also the first all of the columns in whose 
house were made of solid marble. He was 
472 



violently attacked f>y Catullus in his poems, who 
called him decoctor Formianus. Mamurra seems 
to have been alive in the time of Horace, who 
calls Formiae, in ridicule, Mamurvarum urbs 
(Sat., i., 5, 37), from which we may infer thai 
his name had become a by -word of contempt. 

[Manastabal. Vid. Mastanabal.] 

Mancia, Helvius, a Roman orator about B.C 
90, who was remarkably ugly, and whose name 
is recorded chiefly in consequence of a laugh 
being raised against him on account of his de- 
formity by C. Julius Caesar Strabo, who was op- 
posed to him on one occasion in some lawsuit. 

Mancinus, Hostilius. 1. A., was praetor ur- 
banus B.C. 180, and consul 170, when he had 
the conduct of the war against Perseus, king of 
Macedonia. He remained in Greece for part of 
the next year (169) as proconsul.— 2. L., was 
legate of the consul L. Calpurnius Piso (148) in 
the siege of Carthage, in the third Punic war. 
He was consul 145. — 3. C, consul 137, had the 
conduct of the war against Numantia. He was j 
defeated by the Numantines, and purchased the 1 
safety of the remainder of his army by making | 
a peace with the Numantines. The senate re- 
fused to recognize it, and went through the 
hypocritical ceremony of delivering him over to 
the enemy by means of the fetiales. This was 
done with the consent of Mancinus, but the en- 
emy refused to accept him. On his return to 
Rome Mancinus took his seat in the senate as 
heretofore, but was violently expelled from it 
by the tribune P. Rutilius, on the ground that i 
he had lost his citizenship. As the enemy had 
not received him, it was a disputed question 
whether he was a citizen or not by the Jus 
Postliminii (vid. Diet, of Ant., s. v. Postlimini- 
um), but the better opinion was that he had lost 
his civic rights, and they were accordingly re- ( 
stored to him by a lex. 

[Mancunium (now Manchester), a city of the 
Brigantes in Britannia, on the road from Clano 
venta to Mediolanum.] 

Mandane. Vid. Cyrus. 

[Mandela (now Bardcla), a village to the 
southeast of Cures, near which stood Horace's 
Sabine villa.] 

[Mandrocles (Mav<SpoK^rjc), an architect of I 
Samos, who constructed the bridge on which I 
Darius led his army over the Thracian Bospo 
rus : he also made a painting commemorating 1 
this labor.] 

Mandonius. Vid. Indibilis. 

Mandrupium, Manoropus, or Mandrupolis 
(Mavdpovnolie ), a town in the south of Phrygia, 
on the Lake Caralitis. 

Mandiibii, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, in 
the modern Burgundy, whose chief town was 
Alesia. 

MandurTa (Mavdvptov in Plut. : now Casat j 
Nuovo), a town in Calabria, on the road from 
Tarentum to Hydruntum, and near a small lake, 
which is said to have been always full to the 
edge, whatever water was added to or taken 
from it. Here Archidamus III., king of Sparta, 
was defeated and slain in battle by the Messa- 
pians and Lucanians, B.C. 338. 

Manes, the general name by which the Ro- 
mans designated the souls of the departed ; but 
as it is a natural tendency to consider the souls 
of departed friends as blessed spirits, the Manes 



I 



MANETHO 



MANTINEA. 



were regarded as gods, and were worshipped 
with divine honors. Hence on Roman sepul- 
chres we find D. M. S., that is, Dis Manibus 
Sacrum. Vid. Lares. At certain seasons, which 
were looked upon as sacred days (feria. deni- 
cales), sacrifices were offered to the spirits of 
the departed. An annual festival, which be- 
longed to all the Manes in general, was cele- 
brated on the nineteenth of February, under the 
name of Feralia or Parentalia, because it was 
the duty of children and heirs to offer sacrifices 
to the shades of their parents and benefactors. 

Manetho (Maveddc or MaveQuv), an Egyptian 
piiest of the town of Sebennytus, who lived in 
the reign of the first Ptolemy. He was the first 
Egyptian who gave in the Greek language an 
account of the religion and history of his coun- 
try. He based his information upon the ancient 
works of the Egyptians themselves, and more 
especially upon their sacred books. The work 
in which he gave an account of the theology of 
the Egyptians, and of the origin of the gods and 
the world, bore the title of Tuv fyvomtiv 'Ettl- 
rojxrj. His historical work was entitled a His- 
tory of Egypt. It was divided into three parts 
or books. The first contained the history of 
the country previous to the thirty dynasties, or 
what may be termed the mythology of Egypt, 
and also of the first dynasties. The second 
opened with the eleventh, twelfth, and conclu- 
ded with the nineteenth dynasty. The third 
gave the history of the remaining eleven dynas- 
ties, and concluded with an account of Necta- 
nebus, the last of the native Egyptian kings. 
The work of Manetho is lost ; but a list of the 
dynasties is preserved in Julius Africanus and 
Eusebius (most correct in the Armenian ver- 
sion), who, however, has introduced various in- 
terpolations. According to the calculation of 
Manetho, the thirty dynasties, beginning with 
Menes, filled a period of three thousand five 
hundred and fifty-five years. The lists of the 
Egyptian kings and the duration of their sev- 
eral reigns were undoubtedly derived by him 
from genuine documents, and their correctness, 
so far as they are not interpolated, is said to be 
confirmed by the hieroglyphic inscriptions on 
the monuments. There exists an astrological 
poem, entitled , kiroT£7<.eapaTiKa, in six books, 
which bears the name of Manetho ; but this 
poem is spurious, and can not have been written 
before the fifth century of our era. Edited by 
Axt and Rigler, Cologne, 1832. 

Mania, a formidable Italian, probably Etrus- 
can, divinity of the lower world, called the moth- 
er of the Manes or Lares. The festival of the 
Compitalia was celebrated as a propitiation to 
Mania in common with the Lares. 

Manilios. 1. M., was consul B.C. 149, the 
first year of the third Punic war, and carried on 
war against Carthage. He was celebrated as 
a jurist, and is one of the speakers in Cicero's 
De Republica (i., 12).— 2. C, tribune of the 
plebs B.C. 66, proposed the law granting to 
Pompey the command of the war against Mith- 
radates and Tigranesj'and the government of 
the provinces of Asia, Cilicia, and Bitbynia. 
This bill was warmly opposed by Q. Catulus, 
Q. Hortensius, and the leaders of the aristocrat- 
ical party, but was supported by Cicero in an 
oration which has come down to us. At the 



i end of his year Manilius was brought to trial by 
I the aristocratical party, and was condemned ; 
j but we do not know of what offence he .was 
accused. — 3. Also called Manlius or Mallius, 
a Roman poet of uncertain age, but is conjectur 
ed to have lived in the time of Augustus. He 
is the author of an astrological poem in five 
books, entitled 'Astronomica. The style of this 
poem is extremely faulty, being harsh and ob- 
scure, and abounding in repetitions and in forced 
metaphors. But the author seems to have con- 
sulted the best authorities, and to have adopted 
their most sagacious views. The best edition 
is by Bentley, Lond., 1739. 

Manlia Gens, an ancient and celebrated patri- 
cian gens at Rome. The chief families were 
those of Acidinus, Torquatus, and Vulso. 

Manliana (Mavliava : ruins at Miliaria). 1. 
A city of importance in Mauretania Canadensis, 
where one of Pompey's sons died. — [2. A city 
of Etruria, on the road leading from Rome ove' 
the Alpes Maritimae to Arelate : it corresponds 
to the modern Magliana, near Siena.] 

Manlius, M., consul B.C. 392, took refuge « 
the Capitol when Rome was taken by the Gauls 
in 390. One night, when the Gauls endeavored 
to ascend the Capitol, Manlius was roused from 
his sleep by the cackling of his geese ; collect- 
ing hastily a body of men, he succeeded in driv- 
ing back the enemy, who had just reached the 
summit of the hill. From this heroic deed h< 
is said to have received the surname of Capj 
tolinus. In 395 he defended the cause of the. 
plebeians, who were suffering severely from 
their debts, and from the harsh and cruel treat- 
ment of their patrician creditors. The patri- 
cians accused him of aspiring to royal power, 
and he was thrown into prison by the dictator 
Cornelius Cossus. The plebeians put on mourn 
ing for their champion, and were ready to tak<> 
up arms in his behalf. The patricians, in alarm 
liberated Manlius ; but this act of concession 
only made him bolder, and he now did not 
scruple to instigate the plebeians to open vio- 
lence. In the following year the* patricians 
charged him with high treason, and brought him 
before the people assembled in the Campus Mar- 
tius ; but as the Capitol which had once been 
saved by him could be seen from this place, the 
court was removed to the Poetelinian grove, out- 
side the Porta Nomentana. Here Manlius was 
condemned, and the tribunes threw him down 
the Tarpeian Rock. The members of the Man- 
lia gens accordingly resolved that none of them 
should ever bear in future the pramomen of 
Marcus. 

Mannus, a son of Tuisco, was regarded by 
the ancient Germans, along with his father, as 
the founders of their race. They further as- 
scribed to Mannus three sons, from whom the 
three tribes of the Ingaevones, Hermiones, and 
Isteevones derived their names. 

Mantiana Palus. Vid. Arsissa Palus. 

Mantinea (Mavriveia : TtiavTwevc: now Pa- 
leopoli), one of the most ancient and important 
towns in Arcadia, situated on the small river 
Ophis, near the centre of the eastern frontier of 
the country. It is celebrated in history for the 
great battle fought under its walls between the 
Spartans and Thebans, in which Epaminondas 
fell, B.C. 362. According to tradition, Manti 

473 



MANTINORUM. 



MARCELLA. 



lvea was founded by Mantineus, the son of Ly- 
caon, but it was formed in reality out of the 
union of four or five hamlets. Till the founda- 
tion of Megalopolis, it was the largest city in 
Arcadia, and it long exercised a kind of suprem- 
acy over the other Arcadian towns ; but in the 
Peloponnesian war the Spartans attacked the 
city, and destroyed it by turning the waters of 
the Ophis against its walls, which were built of 
bricks. After the battle of Leuctra the city re- 
covered its independence. At a later period it 
joined the Achaean league, but, notwithstanding, 
formed a close connection with its old enemy 
Sparta, in consequence of which it was severely 
punished by Aratus, who put to death its lead- 
ing citizens and sold the rest of its inhabitants 
as slaves. It never recovered the effects of 
this blow. Its name was now changed into 
Anligoriia, in honor of Antigonus Doson, who 
had assisted Aratus in his campaign against the 
town. The Emperor Hadrian restored to the 
place its ancient appellation, and-ebuilt part of 
it in honor of iiis favorite Antinous, the Bithyn- 
ian, who derived his family from Mantinea. 

[Mantinorum Oppidum {NlavTLvuv ■koXlc, very 
probably the modern Bastia), a place in Corsica 
on the northwest coast, east of the River Va- 
lerius.] 

[Mantitheus {Mavrideoc), an Athenian, the 
companion of Alcibiades in his escape from Sar- 
dis B.C. 411 : in B.C. 408 he was one of the 
ambassadors sent from Athens to Darius ; but 
he and his colleagues were given up to Cyrus, 
and kept in custody three years.] 

Mantius (Mavrioc), son of Melampus, and 
brother of Antiphates. Vid. Melampus. 

Manto (Mavru, -ovc). 1. Daughter of the 
Theban soothsayer Tiresias, was herself proph- 
etess of the Ismenian Apollo at Thebes. After 
the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni, she was 
sent to Delphi with other captives, as an offer- 
ing to Apollo, and there became the prophetess 
of this god. Apollo afterward sent her and her 
companions to Asia, where they founded the 
sanctuaryof Apollo near the place where the 
town of Colophon was afterward built. Rha- 
cius, a Cretan, who had settled there, married 
Manto, and became by her the father of Mopsus. 
According to Euripides, she had previously be- 
come the mother of Amphilochus and Tisiphone, 
by Alcmaion, the leader of the Epigoni. Being 
a prophetess of Apollo, she is also called Daphne, 
i. e., the laurel virgin. — 2. Daughter of Hercu- 
les, was likewise a prophetess, and the person 
from whom the town of Mantua received its 
name. (Virg., Mn., x., 199.) 

Mantua (Mantuanus : now Mantua). 1. A 
town in Gallia Transpadana, on an island in the 
River Mincius, v as not a place of importance, 
but is celebrated because Virgil, who was born 
at the neighboring village of Andes, regarded 
Mantua as his birth-place. It was originally an 
Etruscan city, and is said to have derived its 
name from Manto, the daughter of Tiresias. — 
[2. Now probably Mondejar), a town of the Car- 
petani in Hispania Tarraconensis, by some er- 
roneously regarded as Madrid.'] 

Maracanda (tu MafidiiavAa : now Samarkand), 
the capital of the Persian province of Sogdiana, 
in the northern part of the country, was seventy 
st?dis (seven geographical miles) in circuit. It 
474 



! was here that Alexander the Great killed hia 

i friend Clitus. 

Maraphii (M.apu<f>Lot), one of the three noblest 
tribes of the Persians, standing, with the Mas- 
pii, next in hotior to the Pasargadae. 

[Maratha (Mdpada : now Atzikolo), a small \ 
town of Arcadia, at the sources of the Bupha- 

I gus, and in the neighborhood of Gortys.] 

Marathesium (Mapadr/atov), a town on the J 

' coast of Ionia, between Ephesus and Neapolis : 
it belonged to the Samians, who exchanged it 
with the Ephesians for Neapolis, which lay 

' nearer to their island. The modern Scala Nova j 

| marks the site of one of these towns, but it is 

j doubtful which. 

Marathon (M.apa66v : Mapaduvto^), a demus i 

I in Attica, belonging to the tribe Leontis, was 
situated near a bay on the eastern coast of At- 

j tica, twenty-two miles from Athens by one 

j road, and twenty-six miles by another. It orig- 
inally belonged to the Attic tetrapolis, and is 
said to have derived its name from the hero Mar- j 
athon. This hero, according to one account, 

| was the son of Epopeus, king of Sicyon, who, j 
having been expelled from Peloponnesus by the 
violence of his father, settled in Attica ; while, 
according to another account, he was an Arca- 
dian, who took part in the expedition of the 
Tyndaridee against Attica, and devoted him- 
self to death before the battle. The site of the 
ancient town of Marathon was probably not at 
the modern village of Marathon, but at a place 
called Vrana, a little to the south of Marathon, i 
Marathon was situated in a plain, which ex- 
Lends along the sea-shore, about six miles in 
length, and from three miles to one mile and a j 
half in breadth. It is surrounded on the other 
three sides by rocky hills and rugged mount- 
ains. Two marshes bound the extremity of 
(he plain ; the northern is more than a square 
mile in extent, but the southern is much small- 
er, and is almost dry at the conclusion of the 
great heats. Through the centre of the plain \ 
runs a small brook. In this plain was fought | 
the celebrated battle between the Persians and 
Athenians, B.C. 490. The Persians were drawn 
up on the plain, and the Athenians on some 
portion of the high ground above the plain ; but | 
the exact ground occupied by the two armies 
can not be identified, notwithstanding the in- 
vestigations of modern travellers. The tumu- i 
lus raised over the Athenians who fell in the 
battle is still to be seen. 

Marathus (Mdpadoc ), an important city on the 
coast of Phoenicia, opposite to Aradus and near 
Antaradus : it was destroyed by the people of 
Aradus in the time of the Syrian king, Alexan- 
der Balas, a little before B.C. 150. 

[Marathusa (MapdOovaa). 1. A small island 
of the JEgean Sea, on the coast of Ionia, near i 
Clazomenae. — 2. A city in the western part of 
Crete ; according to Hoeck, probably on the 
Promontorium Drepanum.] 

Marcella. 1. Daughter of C. Marcellus and 
Octavia, the sister of Augustus. She was thrice 
married : first to M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who 
separated from her in B.C. 21, in order to marry 
Julia, the daughter of Augustus ; secondly, to 
Julus Antonius, the son of the triumvir, by whom 
she had a son Lucius ; thirdly, to Sextus Ap- 
puleius, consul A.D. 14, by whom she had a I 



MARCELLINUS. 

daughter, Appuleia Varilia. — 2. Wife of the poet 
Martial, to whom he has addressed two epi- 
grams/xii., 21, 31). She was a native of Spain, 
and brought him as her dowry an estate. As 
Martial was married previously to Cleopatra, 
he espoused Mareella probably after his return 
to Spain about A.D. 96. 

Marcelmnits, the author of the life of Thu- 
cydides. Vid. Thucydides. 

Marcellus, Claudius, an illustrious plebeian 
family. 1. M., celebrated as five times consul, 
and the conqueror of Syracuse. In his first con- 
sulship, B.C. 222, Marcellus and his colleague 
conquered the Insubrians in Cisalpine Gaul, and 
took their capital Mediolanum. Marcellus dis- 
tinguishedhimself by slaying in battle with his 
own hancTBritomartus or Viridomarus, the king 
of the enemy, whose spoils he afterward dedi- 
cated as spolia opima in the temple of Jupiter 
Feretrius. This was the third and last instance 
in Roman history in which such an offering was 
made. In 216 Marcellus was appointed praetor, 
and rendered important service to the Roman 
cause in the south of Italy after the disastrous 
battle of Cannae. In 215 he remained in the 
south of Italy, with the title of proconsul. In 
the course of the same year he was elected 
consul in the place of Postumius Albinus, who 
had been killed in Cisalpine Gaul ; but as the 
senate declared that the omens were unfavor- 
able, Marcellus resigned the consulship. In 
214 Marcellus was consul a third time, and still 
continued in the south of Italy, where he car- 
ried on the war with ability, but without ob- 
taining any decisive results. In the summer 
of this year he was sent into Sicily, since the 
party favorable to the Carthaginians had ob- 
tained the upper hand in many of the cities in 
the island. After taking Leontini, he proceed- 
ed to lay siege to Syracuse, both by sea and 
land. His attacks were vigorous and unremit- 
ting ; but, though he brought many powerful 
military engines against the walls, these were 
rendered wholly unavailing by the superior skill 
and science of Archimedes, who directed those 
of the besieged. Marcellus was at last com- 
pelled to give up all hopes of carrying the city 
by open force, and to turn the siege into a block- 
ade. It was not till 212 that he obtained pos- 
session of the place. It was given up to plun- 
der, and Archimedes was one of the inhabitants 
slain by the Roman soldiers. The booty found 
in the captured city was immense ; and Mar- 
cellus also carried off many of the works of 
art with which the city had been adorned, to 
grace the temples at Rome. This was the first 
instance of a practice which afterward became 
so general. In 210 he was consul a fourth time, 
and again had the conduct of the war against 
Hannibal. He fought a battle with the Cartha- 
ginian general near Numistro in Lucania, but 
without any decisive result. In 209 he retain- 
ed the command of his army with the rank of 
proconsul. In 208 he was consul for the fifth 
time. He and his colleague were defeated by 
Hannibal near Venusia, and Marcellus himself 
was slain in the battle. He was buried with 
all due honors by order of Hannibal. Marcel- 
lus appears to have been a rude, stern soldier, 
brave and daring to excess, but harsh, unyield- 
ing, und cruel. The great praise? bestowed 



MARCELLUS, CLAUDIUS. 

upon Marcellus by the Roman historians are 
certainly undeserved, and probably found their 
way into history from his funeral oration by his 
son, which was used as an' authority by some 
of the earlier annalists. — 2. M., son of the pre- 
ceding, accompanied his father as military trib- 
une in 208, and was present with him at the 
time of his death. In 204 he was tribune of 
the people ; in 200, curule aedile ; in 198, prator ; 
and in 196, consul. In his consulship he carried 
on the war against the Insubrians and Boii in 
Cisalpine Gaul. He was censor in 189. — 3. M., 
consul 183, carried on the war against the Li- 
gurians. — 4. M., son of No. 2, was thrice consul, 
first in 166, when he gained a victory over the 
Alpine tribes of the Gauls; secondly in 155, 
when he defeated the Ligurians ; and thirdly in 
152, when he carried on the war against the 
Celtiberians in Spain. In 148 he was sent 
ambassador to Masinissa, king of Numidia, but 
was shipwrecked on the v6yage, and perished. 
— 5. M., an intimate friend of Cicero, is first 
mentioned as curule aedile with P. Clodius in 
56. He was consul in 51, and showed himself 
a bitter enemy to Caesar. Among other ways 
in which he displayed his enmity, he caifsed a 
citizen of Comum to be scourged, in order to 
show his contempt for the privileges lately be- 
stowed by Caesar upon that colony. But the 
animosity of Marcellus did not blind him to the 
imprudence of forcing on a war for which his 
party was unprepared ; and at the beginning of 
49 he in vain suggested the necessity of mak- 
ing levies of troops, before any open steps were 
taken against Caesar. His advice was over- 
ruled, and he was among the first to fly from 
Rome and Italy. After the battle, of Pharsalia 
(48) he abandoned all thoughts of prolonging 
the contest, and withdrew to Mytilene, where 
he gave himself up to the pursuits of rhetoric 
and philosophy. Marcellus himself was un- 
willing to sue to the conqueror for forgiveness, 
but his friends at Rome were not backward in 
their exertions for that purpose. At length, in 
46, in a full assembly of the senate, C. Mar- 
cellus, the cousin of the exile, threw himself at 
Caesar's feet to implore the pardon of his kins- 
man, and his example was followed by the 
whole body of the assembly. Caesar yielded to 
this demonstration of opinion, and Marcellus 
was declared to be forgiven. Cicero thereupon 
returned thanks to Caesar, in the oration Pro 
Marcello, which has come down to us. Marcel 
lus set out on his return ; but he was murder 
ed at the Piraeus by one of his own attendants, 
P. Magius Chilo. — 6. C, brother of the preced- 
ing, was consul 49. He is constantly confound- 
ed with his cousin, C. Marcellus (No. 8), who 
was consul in 50. He accompanied his col- 
league, Lentulus, in his flight from Rome, and 
eventually crossed over to Greece. In the fol- 
lowing year (48) he commanded part of Pom- 
pey's fleet ; but this is the last we hear of him. 
— 7. C, uncle of the two preceding, was prae- 
tor in 80, and afterward succeeded M. Lepidus 
in the government of Sicily. His administra- 
tion of the province is frequently praised by 
Cicero in his speeches against Verres, as af- 
fording the most striking contrast to that of the 
accused. Marcellus himsfelf was present on 
tnat occasion, as one of the judges of Verres. 

475 



MARCELLUS, EPRIUS. 



MARC I A GENS. 



I 



— 8. C , son of the preceding, and first cousin 
of M. Marcellus (No. 5), whom he succeeded in 
the consulship, 50. He enjoyed the friendship 
of Cicero from an early age, and attached him- 
self to the party of Pompey, notwithstanding 
his connection with Caesar hy his marriage 
with Octavia. In his consulship he was the ad- 
vocate of all the most violent measures against 
Caesar ; but when the war actually broke out, 
he displayed the utmost timidity and' helpless- 
ness. He could not make up his mind to join 
the Pompeian party in Greece ; and after much 
hesitation, he at length determined to remain in 
Italy. He readily obtained the forgiveness of 
Caesar, and thus was able to intercede with the 
dictator in favor of his cousin, M. Marcellus 
(No. 5). He must have lived till near the close 
of 41, as his widow, Octavia, was pregnant by 
him when betrothed to Antony in the following 
year. — 9. M., son of the preceding and of Oc- 
tavia, the daughter Of C. Octavius and sister of 
Augustus, was born in 43. As early as 39 he 
was betrothed in marriage to the daughter of 
Sextus Pompey; but the marriage never took 
place, as Pompey's death in 35 removed the oc- 
casion for it. Augustus, who had probably des- 
tined the young "Marcellus as his successor, 
adopted him as his son in 25, and, at the same 
time, gave him his daughter Julia in marriage. 
In 23 he was curule aedile, but in the autumn 
of the same year he was attacked by the disease 
of which he died shortly after atBaiae, notwith- 
standing all the skill and care of the celebrated 
physician Antonius Musa. He was in the twen- 
tieth year of his age, and was thought to have 
given so much promise of future excellence 
that his death was mourned as a public calam- 
ity ; and the grief of Augustus, as well as that 
of his mother Octavia, was for a time unbound- 
ed. Augustus himself pronounced the funeral 
oration over his remains, which were deposited 
in the mausoleum lately erected for the Julian 
family. At a subsequent period (14) Augustus 
dedicated in his name the magnificent theatre 
near the Forum Olitorium, of which the re- 
mains are still visible. But the most durable 
monument to the memory of Marcellus is to be 
found in the well-known passage of Virgil {Mil., 
vi., 860-886), which must have been recited to 
Augustus and Octavia before the end of 22. — 
10. M., called by Cicero, for distinction's sake, 
the father of ^Eserninus (Brut., 36), served un- 
der Marius in Gaul in 102, and as one of the 
lieutenants of L. Julius Csesar in the Marsic 
war, 90. — 11. M. Claudius Marcellus ^Eser- 
sinus, son or grandson of No. 10, quaestor in 
Spain in 48, under Q. Cassius Longinus, took 
part in the mutiny of the soldiers against Cas- 
sius. — 12. P. Cornelius Lentulus Marcel- 
linus, son of No. 10, must have been adopted 
by one of the Cornelii Lentuli. He was one 
of Pompey's lieutenants in the war against the 
pirates, B.C. 67. — 13. C.v. Cornelius Lentulus 
Marcellinus, son of the preceding, was praetor 
59, after which he governed the province of 
Syria for nearly two years, and was consul 56, 
when he showed himself a friend of the aristo- 
cratical party, and opposed all the measures of 
the triumvirate. 

Marcellus, Eprius, born of an obscure fam- 
ily at Capua, rose by his oratorical talents to 
476 



1 distinction at Rome in the reigns of Claudius, 
Nero, and Vespasian. He was one of the prin- 
cipal delators under Nero, and accused, many 
of the most distinguished men of his time. He 
was brought to trial in the reign of Vespasian, 
but was acquitted, and enjoyed the patronage ! 
and favor of this emperor as well. In A.D. 69, 
however, he was convicted of having taken part 
in the conspiracy of Alienus Caecina, and there- 
fore put an end to his own life. 

Marcellus, Nonius, a Latin grammarian, the ' 
author of an important treatise, entitled De 
Compendiosa Doctrina per Littcras ad Filivm, 
sometimes, but erroneously, called Dc Propric- 
tate Sermonis. He must have lived between 
the second and sixth centuries of th^Christian 
era. His work is divided into eighteen chap- 
ters, but of these the first twelve are in reality 
separate treatises on different grammatical sub- 
jects. The last six are in the style of the Ono- 
masticon of Julius Pollux, each containing a 
series of technical terms in some one depart- 
ment. The whole work contains numerous 
quotations from the earlier Latin writers. The I 
best edition is by Gerlach and Roth, Basil., 1842. 

Marcellus Sidetes, a native of Side in Parn- 
phylia, lived in the reigns of Hadrian and Anto- 
ninus Pius, A.D. 117-161. He wrote a long 
medical poem in Greek hexameter verse, con- 
sisting of forty-two books, of which two frag- j 
ments remain, [and are found in the Corpus | 
Poetarum of Maittaire\] 

Marcellus, Ulpius, a jurist, lived under An- 
toninus Pius and M. Aurelius. He is often : 
cited in the Digest. 

Marcia. 1. Wife of M. Regulus, who was 
taken prisoner by the Carthaginians. — 2. Wife 
of M. Cato Uticensis, daughter of L. Marcius 
Philippus, consul B.C. 56. It was about 56 
that Cato is related to have ceded her to his 
friend Q. Hortensius, with the approbation of 
her father. She continued to live with Hor- 
tensius till the death of the latter in 50, after 
which she returned to Cato. — 3. Wife of Fabius 
Maximus, the friend of Augustus, learned from 
her husband the secret visit of the emperor to 
his grandson Agrippa, and informed Livia of it, 
in consequence of which she became the cause 
of her husband's death, A.D. 13 or 14. She is 
mentioned on two or three occasions by Ovid. 
— 4. Daughter of Cremutius Cordus. Vid. Cor- 
pus. — 5. The favorite concubine of Commodus, 
organized the plot by which the emperor perish- 
ed. Vid. Commodus. She subsequently became 
the wife of Eclectus, his chamberlain, also a 
conspirator, and was eventually put to death by 
Julianus, along with Lretus, who also had been 
actively engaged in the plot. 

[Marcia Aqua, a Roman aqueduct commenc- 
ed by the pra;tor Marcius Rex 145 B.C., and fin- 
ished by him in the following year, his term of 
office having been renewed for that purpose. It 
passed near Tibur, and through the country of 
the Peligni and Marsi, and supplied Rome with 
its best water: vid. Roma p. 753 b.] 

Marcia Gens, claimed to De descended from 
Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome. Vid. 
Ancus Marcius. Hence one of its families sub- 
sequently assumed the name of Rex, and the 
heads of Numa Pompilius and Ancus Mareius 
were placed uoon the coins of the Marcii. But, 



MARCIANA. 



MARDTTS. 



notwithstariiling these claims to such high an- ] 
tiquity, no patricians of this name, with the ex- 
ception of Coriolanus, are mentioned in the ear- 
ly history of the republic (vid. Coriolanus) ; 
End it was not till after the enactment of the 
Licinian laws that any member of the gens ob- 
tained the consulship. The names of the most 
distinguished families are Censorinus, Philip- 
pus. Rex, and Rutilus. 

Marciana, the sister of Trajan, and mother 
of Matidia, who was the mother of Sabina, the 
wife of the Emperor Hadrian. 

Marcianopolis (WLapuLavuv-KoXtx ), an import- 
ant city in the interior of Moesia Inferior, west 
of Odessus, founded by Trajan, and named after 
his sister Marciana. It was situated on the high 
road from Constantinople to the Danube. It 
subsequently became the capital of the Bulga- 
rians, who .called it Pristhlava (RpwdXada), 
whence its modern name Prcsthlaw, but the 
Greeks still call it Marcenopoli. 

Marcianus. 1. Emperor of the East A.D. 
450-457, was a native of Thrace or Illyricum, 
and served for many years as a common soldier 
in the imperial army. Of his early history we 
have only a few particulars ; but he had attain- 
ed such distinction at the death of Theodosius 
II. in 450, that the widow of the latter, the cel- 
ebrated Pulcheria, offered her hand and the im- 
perial title to Marcian, who thus became Em- 
peror of the East. Marcian was a man of res- 
olution and bravery; and when Attila sent* to 
demand the tribute which the younger Theodo- 
sius had engaged to pay annually, the emperor 
sternly replied, " I have iron for Attila, but no 
gold." Attila swore vengeance ; but he first 
invaded the Western Empire, and his death, 
two years afterward, saved the East. In 451 
Marcian assembled the council of Chalcedon, in 
which the doctrines of the Eutychians were con- 
demned. He died in 457, and was succeeded 
by Leo. — 2. Of Heraclea in Pontus, a Greek 
geographer, of uncertain date, but who perhaps 
lived in the fifth century of the Christian era. 
He wrote a work in prose, entitled "APeriplus 
of the External Sea, both eastern and western, 
and of the largest Islands in it." The External 
Sea he used in opposition to the Mediterranean. 
This work was in two books ; of which the for- 
mer, on the East and South Seas, has come 
down to us entire ; but of the latter, which 
treated of the West and North Seas, we pos- 
sess only the three last chapters on Africa, and 
a mutilated one on the distance from Rome to 
the principal cities in the world. In this work 
he chiefly follows Ptolemy. He also made an 
epitome of the Periplus of Artemidorus of Eph- 
esus (vid. Artemidorus, No. 4), of which we ! 
possess the introduction, and the periplus of 
Pontus, Bithynia, and Paphlagonia. Marcianus 
likewise published an edition of Menippus with 
additions and corrections. Vid. Menippus. The 
works of Marcianus are edited by Hudson, in 
the Geographi Grmci Minores, and separately by 
Hoffmann, Marciani Periplus, &c, Lips., 1841. 

Marcianus, /Elius, a Roman jurist, who lived ! 
under Caracalia and Alexander Severus. His ! 
works are frequently cited in the Digest. 

Marcianus Capella. Vid. Capella. 

Marcius, an Italian seer, whose prophetic | 
Terses {Carraina Ma-ciana) were first discover- j 



ed by M. Atilius, the pra?tor, in B.C. 213. They 
were written in Latin, and two extracts from 
them are given by Livy, one containing a proph- 
ecy of the defeat of the Romans at Canna?, and 
the second, commanding the institution of the 
Ludi Apollinares. The Marcian prophecies 
were subsequently preserved in the Capitol 
with the Sibylline books. Some writers men- 
tion only one person of this name, but others 
speak of two brothers, the Marcii. 

Marcius. Vid. Marcia Gens. 

[Marcodurum (now Dilreri), a city of the. 
Ubii in Germania Inferior.] 

Marcomanni, that is, men of the mark orboi 
der, a powerful German people of the Suevic 
race, originally dwelt in the southwest of Ger 
many, between the Rhine and the Danube, on 
the banks of the Main ; but under the guidance 
of their chieftain Maroboduus, who had been 
brought up at the court of Augustus, they mi- 
grated into the land of the Boii, a Celtic race, 
who inhabited Bohemia and part of Bavaria. 
Here they settled after subduing the Boii, and 
founded a powerful kingdom, which extended 
south as far as the Danube. Vid. Maroboduus. 
At a later time, the Marcomanni, in conjunc- 
tion with the Quadi and other German tribes, 
carried on a long and bloody war with the Em- 
peror M. Aurelius, which lasted during the great- 
er part of his reign, and was only brought to a 
conclusion by his son Commodus purchasing 
peace of the barbarians as soon as he ascended 
the throne, A.D. 180. 

Mardene or Mardyene (MapSyvf/, MapSvr/vij), 
a district of Persis, extending north from Tao- 
cene to the western frontier and to the sea- 
coast. It seems to have taken its name from 
some branch of the great people called Mardior 
Amardi, who are found in various parts of west- 
ern and central Asia ; for example, in Arme- 
nia, Media, Margiana, and, under the same form 
of name as those in Persis, in Sogdiana. 

Mardi. Vid. Amardi, Mardene. 

MardonIus (Mapdovwc), a distinguished Per- 
sian, was the son of Gobryas, and the son-in- 
law of Darius Hystaspis. In B.C. 492 he was 
sent by Darius with a large armament to pun- 
ish Eretria and Athens for the aid they had 
given to the Ionians. But his expedition was 
an entire failure. His fleet was destroyed by a 
storm off Mount Athos, and the greater part oi 
his land forces was destroyed on his passage 
through Macedonia by the Brygians, a Thra- 
cian tribe. In consequence of his failure, he 
was superseded in the command by Datis and 
Artaphernes, 490. On the accession of Xerxes, 
Mardonius was one of the chief instigators of 
the expedition against Greece, with the gov 
eminent of which he hoped to be invested aftei 
its conquest ; and he was appointed one of the 
generals of the land army. After the battle of 
Salamis (480) he became alarmed for the con- 
sequences of the advice he had given, and per- 
suaded Xerxes to return home with the rest 
of the army, leaving three hundred thousand 
men under his command for the subjugation of 
Greece. He was defeated in the following year 
(470 B.C.), near Plataese, by the combined Greek 
forces under the command of Pausanias, and 
was slain in the battle. 

Mardus. Vid. Amardus. 

477 



MARDYENE. 



MARiUS. 



Mardyenk, Mardyeni. Vid. Maedene. 

Marea, -ea, -Ta (Mapev, Mapeia, Mapia: Ma- 
acarnc, Mareota : ruins at Mariouth), a town of 
Lower Egypt, in the district of Mareotis, on the 
southern side of the Lake Mareotis, at the mouth 
of a canal. 

Mareotis (Mapeunc). 1. Also called Mape- 
£nrjc No^of, a district of Lower Egypt, on the 
extreme northwest, on the borders of the Lib- 
yae Nomos : it produced good wine. — 2. A town 
in the interior of the Libyae Nomos, between 
the Oasis of Ammon and the Oasis Minor. 

Mareotis or Marea or (-ia) Lacus (?) Mapeu- 
rtc, Mapeta, M.apia 7d\ivn : now Birket- Mariouth, 
or El-Kreit), a considerable lake in the north- 
west of Lower Egypt, separated from the Med- 
iterranean by the neck of land on which Alex- 
andrea stood, and supplied with water by the 
Canopic branch of the Nile, and by canals. It 
was less than three hundred stadia (thirty geo- 
graphical miles) long, and more than one hund- 
red and fifty wide. It was surrounded with vines, 
palms, and papyrus. It served as the port of 
Alexandrea for vessels navigating the Nile. 

Mares (Mapsf), a people of Asia, on the north- 
ern coast of the Euxine, who served in the army 
of Xerxes, being equipped with helmets of wick- 
er-work, leathern shields, and javelins. 

Maresa, Marescha (Mapnau, Maptod, Mapia- 
vu, Mnpeaxa : probably ruins southeast of Beit 
Jibrin), an ancient fortress of Palestine, in the 
south of Judaea, of some importance in the his- 
tory of the early kings of Judah and of the Mac- 
cabees. The Parthians had destroyed it before 
the time of Eusebius ; and it is probable that 
its ruins contributed to the erection of the city 
of Eleutheropolis (now Beit Jibrin), which was 
afterward built on the site of the ancient Baeto- 
gabra, two Roman miles northwest of Maresa. 

Marescha. Vid. Maresa. 

Margiana (?) ~M.apy1a.v7} : the southern part of 
Khiva, southwest part of Bokhara, and north- 
east part of Khorassan), a province of the an- 
cient Persian empire, and afterward of the Gre- 
co-Syrian, Parthian, and Persian kingdoms in 
Central Asia, north of the mountains called 
Sariphi (now Ghoor), a part of the chain of the 
Indian Caucasus, which divided it from Aria ; 
and bounded on the east by Bactriana, on the 
northeast and north by the River Oxus, which 
divided it from Sogdiana and Scythia, and on 
the west by Hyrcania. It received its name 
from the River Margus (now Moorghab), which 
flows through it, from southeast to northwest, 
and is lost in the sands of the Desert of Khiva. 
On this river, near its termination, stood the 
capital of the district, Antiochia Margiana (now 
Meru). With the exception of the districts 
round this and the minor rivers, which produced 
excellent wine, the country was for the most 
part a sandy desert. Its chief inhabitants were 
the Derbices, Parni, Tapuri, and branches of 
the great tribes of the Massagetae, Dahae, and 
Mardi. The country became known to the 
Greeks by the expeditions of Alexander and 
Antiochus I., the first of whom founded, and 
the second rebuilt, Antiochia ; and the Romans 
of the age of Augustus obtained further infor- 
mation about it from the returned captives who 
had been taken by the Parthians and had resided 
at Antiochia. 

478 



] MargItes. Vid. Homerus, p. 378, a. 

Margum or Margus, a fortified place ill Moe- 
sia Superior, west of Viminacium, situated on 
| the River Margus (now Morava), at its confiu- 
I ence with the Danube. Here Diocletian gained 
i a decisive victory over Carinus. The River 
Margus, which is one of the southern tributa- 
ries of the Danube, rises in Mount Orbelus. 
Margus. Vid. Margiana. 
Maria. Vid. Marea, M.useotis. 
Mariaba. Vid. Saba. 

Mariamma (Mapiapfjjj, -id/in, -idjivif), a city ot 
! Coele-Syria, some miles west of Emesa, assign- 
ed by Alexander the Great to the territory of 
Aradus. 

Mariamne. Vid. Herodes. 
Mariamne Turris, a tower at Jerusalem, 
built by Herod the Great. 

[Mariana (Maptavr/), a colony established by 
C. Marius on the east coast of Corsica, the sec- 
ond chief city of the island, with a good har- 
] bor : its ruins still exist at the mouth of the 
Golo (the ancient Tavola), in a district called 
the plain of Mariana.]] 

Mariana Fossve. Vid. Fossa. 
Mariandyni (MapiavSwoi), an ancient people 
of Asia Minor, on the northern coast, east of 
| the River Sangarius, in the northeast part of 
Bithynia. With respect to their ethnical affin- 
ities, it seems doubtful whether they were con- 
nected with the Thracian tribes (the Thyni and 
Bithyni) on the west, or the Paphlagonians «n 
the east ; but the latter appears the more prot, 
able. 

Marianus Mons (now Sierra Moreno), a 
mountain in Hispania Baetica, properly only a 
western offshoot of the Orospeda. The east- 
ern part of it was called Saltus Castulonensis, 
and derived its name from the town of Castulo. 

Marica, a Latin nymph, the mother of La- 
tinus by Faunus, was worshipped by the inhab- 
itants of Minturnae in a grove on the River Li- 
ris. Hence, the country round Minturnae is 
called by Horace (Carm., iii., 17, 7) Marica 
litord. 

Marinus (Mapivoc). 1. Of Tyre, a Greek 
geographer, who lived in the middle of the sec- 
ond century of the Christian era, and was the 
immediate predecessor of Ptolemy. Marinus 
was undoubtedly the founder of mathematical 
geography in antiquity ; and Ptolemy based his 
whole work upon that of Marinus. Vid. Ptol- 
EMyEus. The chief merit of Marinus was, that 
he put an end to the uncertainty that had hith- 
erto prevailed respectingthe positions of places, 
by assigning to each its latitude and longitude. 
— 2. Of Flavia Neapolis, in Palestine, a philos- 
! opher and rhetorician, was the pupil and suc- 
! cessor of Proclus, whose life he wrote, a work 
which is still extant, edited by Boissonade, 
Lips., 1814. 

Marisus (now Marosch), called Maris (Mu- 
pic) by Herodotus, a river of Dacia, which, ac- 
cording to the ancient writers, falls into the Dan 
j ube, but which in reality falls into the Theiss 
and, along with this river, into the Danube. 

MaritIma, a sea-port town of the Avatici, and 
a Roman colony in Gallia Narbonensis. 
| Marius. 1. C, the celebrated Roman, who 
i was seven times consul, was horn in B.C. 157, 
! near Arpinum, of an obscure and humble family. 



MARIUS. 



MARIUS 



His father's name was C. Marius, and his moth- 
er's Fulcinia ; and his parents, as well as Mari- 
us himself, were clients of the noble plebeian 
house of the Herennii. So indigent, indeed, is 
the family represented to have been, that young 
Marius is said to have worked as a common 
peasant for wages, before he entered the ranks 
of the Roman army. (Comp. Juv., viii., 246.) 
The meanness of his origin has probably been 
somewhat exaggerated ; but, at all events, he 
distinguished himself so much by his valor at 
the siege of Numantia in Spain (134) as to at- 
tract the notice of Scipio Africanus, who is said 
to have foretold his future greatness. His name 
does not occur again for fifteen years ; but in 
119 he was elected tribune of the plebs, when 
he was thirty-eight years of age. In this office 
he came forward as a popular leader, and pro- 
posed a law to give greater freedom to the peo- 
ple at the elections ; and when the senate at- 
tempted to overawe him, he commanded one 
of his officers to carry the consul Metellus to 
prison. He now became a marked man, and 
the aristocracy opposed him with all their might. 
He lost his election to the aedileship, and with 
difficulty obtained the preetorship ; but he ac- 
quired influence and importance by his marriage 
with Julia, the sister of C. Julius Caesar, who 
was the father of the future ruler of Rome. In 
109 Marius crossed over into Africa as legate 
of the consul Q. Metellus. Here, in the war 
against Jugurtha, the military genius of Marius 
had ample opportunity of displaying itself, and 
he was soon regarded as the most distinguish- 
ed officer in the army. He also ingratiated 
himself with the soldiers, who praised him in 
the highest terms in their letters to their friends 
at Rome. His popularity became so great that 
he resolved to return to Rome, and become at 
once a candidate for the consulship ; but it was 
with great difficulty that he obtained from Me- 
tellus permission to leave Africa. On his arri- 
val at Rome he was elected consul with an 
enthusiasm which bore down all opposition be- 
fore it ; and he received from the people the 
province of Numidia, and the conduct of the 
war against Jugurtha (107). On his return to 
Numidia he carried on the war with great vigor ; 
„and in the following year (106) Jugurtha \vas 
surrendered to him by the treachery of Bocchus, 
King of Mauretania. Vid. Jugurtha. Marius 
sent his quaestor Sulla to receive the Numidian 
king from Bocchus. This circumstance sowed 
the seeds of the personal hatred which after- 
ward existed between Marius and Sulla, since 
the enemies of Marius claimed for Sulla the 
merit of bringing the war to a close by obtain- 
ing possession of the person of Jugurtha. Mean- 
time Italy was threatened by a vast horde of 
barbarians, who had migrated from the north 
of Germany. The two leading nations of which 
they consisted were called Cimbri and Teutoni, 
the former of whom are supposed to have been 
Celts, and the latter Gauls. To these two great 
races were added the Ambrones, and some of 
the Swiss tribes, such as the Tigurini. The 
whole host is said to have contained three hund- 
red thousand fighting men, besides a much 
larger number of women and children. They 
had defeated one Roman army after another, 
and it appeared that nothing could check their 



progress. The utmost alarm prevailed through- 
out Italy ; all party quarrels were hushed. 
Every one felt that Marius was the only man 
capable of saving the state, and he was accord- 
ingly elected consul a second time during his 
absence in Africa. Marius entered Rome in 
triumph on the first of January, 104, the first 
day of his second consulship. Meanwhile, the 
threatened danger was for awhile averted. In- 
stead of crossing the Alps, the Cimbri marched 
into Spain, which they ravaged for the next two 
or three years. But as the return of the bar- 
barians was constantly expected, Marius was 
elected consul a third time in 103, and a fourth 
time in 102. In the latter of these years the 
Cimbri returned into Gaul. The barbarians 
now divided their forces. The Cimbri marched 
round the northern foot of the Alps, in order to 
enter Italy by the northeast, crossing the Tyro- 
lese Alps by the defiles of Tridentum (now 
Trent). The Teutoni and Ambrones, on the 
other hand, marched against Marius, who had 
taken up a position in a fortified camp on the 
Rhone. The decisive battle was fought near 
Aquos Sextiae (now Aix). The carnage was 
dreadful. The whole nation was annihilated, 
for those who did not fall in the battle put an 
end to their own lives. The Cimbri, meantime, 
had forced their way into Italy. Marius was 
elected consul a fifth time (101), and joined the 
proconsul Catulus in the north of Italy. The 
two generals gained a great victory over the 
enemy on a plain called the Campi Raudii, near 
Vercellae (now Vercelli). The Cimbri met with 
the same fate as the Teutoni ; the whole nation 
was destroyed. Marius was received at Rome 
with unprecedented honors. He was hailed as 
the saviour of the state ; his name was coupled 
with the gods in the libations and at banquets, 
and he received the title of third founder of 
Rome. Hitherto the career of Marius had been 
a glorious one ; but the remainder of his life is 
full of horrors, and brings out the 1 worst features 
of his character. In order to .secure the con- 
sulship the sixth time, he entered into close con- 
nection with two of the worst demagogues that 
ever appeared at Rome, Saturninus and Glaucia. 
He gained his object, and was consul a sixth 
time in 100. In this year he drove into exile 
his old enemy Metellus ; and shortly afterward, 
when Saturninus and Glaucia took up arms 
against the state, Marius crushed the insurrec 
tion by command of the senate. Vid. Saturni- 
nus. His conduct in this affair was greatly 
blamed by the people, who looked upon him as 
a traitor to his former friends. For the next 
few years Marius took little part in public affairs. 
He possessed none of the qualifications which 
were necessary to maintain influence in the 
state during a time of peace, being an unletter- 
ed soldier, rude in manners, and arrogant in con- 
duct. The Social war again called him into 
active service (90). He served as legate of the 
consul P. Rutilius Lupus ; and after the latter 
had fallen in battle, he defeated the Marsi in 
two successive engagements. Marius was now 
sixty-seven, and his body had grown stout, and 
unwieldy ; but he was still as greedy of honor 
and distinction as he had ever been. He had 
set his 'heart upon obtaining the command of 
the war against Mithradates, which the senate 

479 



MARIUS. 



MARMARICA. 



bad bestowed upon the consul Sulla at the end 
of the Social war (88). In order to gain his ob- 
ject, Marius allied himself to the tribune P. 
Sulpicius Rufus, who brought forward a law for 
distributing the Italian allies, who had just ob- 
tained the Roman franchise, among all the Ro- 
man tribes. As those new citizens greatly ex- 
ceeded the old citizens in number, they would, 
of course, be able to carry whatever they pleased 
in the comitia. The law was carried, notwith- 
standing the violent opposition of the consuls ; 
and the tribes, in which the new citizens now 
had the majority, appointed Marius to the com- 
mand of the war against Mithradates. Sulla 
fled to his army, which was stationed at Nola ; 
and when Marius sent thither two military trib- 
unes to take the command of the troops, Sulla 
not only refused to surrender the command, but 
marched upon Rome at the head of his army. 
Marius was now obliged to take to flight. After 
wandering along the coast of Latium, and en- 
countering terrible sufferings and privations, 
which he bore with unflinching fortitude, he 
was at length taken prisoner in the marshes 
formed by the River Liris, near Minturnae. The 
magistrates of this place resolved to put him to 
death, in accordance with a command which 
Sulla had sent to all the towns in Italy. A 
Gallic or Cimbrian soldier undertook to carry 
their sentence into effect, and with a drawn 
sword entered the apartment where Marius was 
confined. The part of the room in which Ma- 
rius lay was in the shade ; and to the frightened 
barbarian the eyes of Marius seemed to dart out 
fire, and from the darkness a terrible voice ex- 
claimed, " Man, durst thou murder C. Marius V 
The barbarian immediately threw down his 
sword, and rushed out of the house- Straight- 
way there was a revulsion of feeling among the 
inhabitants of Minturnae. They got ready a 
ship, and placed Marius on board. He reached 
Africa in safety, and landed at Carthage ; but 
he had scarcely put his foot on shore before the 
Roman governor,sent an officer to bid him leave 
the country. This last blow almost unmanned 
Marius ; his only reply was, " Tell the prae- 
tor that you have seen C. Marius a fugitive sit- 
ting on the ruins of Carthage." Soon after- 
ward Marius was joined by his son, and they 
took refuge in the island of Cercina. During 
this time a revolution had taken place at Rome, 
in consequence of which Marius was enabled 
to return to Italy. The consul Cinna (87), who 
belonged to the Marian party, had been driven 
out of Rome by his colleague Octavius, and had 
subsequently been deprived by the senate of the 
consulate. Cinna collected an army, and re- 
solved to recover his honors by force of arms. 
As soon as Marius heard of these changes, he 
left Africa, and joined Cinna in Italy. Marius 
and Cinna now laid siege to Rome. The failure 
of provisions compelled the senate to yield, and 
Marius and Cinna entered Rome as conquerors. 
The most frightful scenes followed. The guards 
of Marius stabbed every one whom he did not 
salute, and the streets ran with the blood of the 
noblest of the Roman aristocracy. Among the 
victims of his vengeance were the great orator 
M. Antonius and his former colleague Q. Catu- 
lus. W ithout going through the form of an 
slc-clion, Marius and Cinna named themselves 
480 



consuls for the following year (86). But he did 
not long enjoy the honor: he was now in his 
seventy-first year; his body was worn out by 
the fatigues and sufferings he had recently un- 
dergone ; and on the eighteenth day of his con- 
sulship he died of an attack of pleurisy, after 
seven days' illness — 2. C, the son of the pre- 
ceding, but only by adoption. He followed in 
the footsteps of his father, and was equally dis- 
tinguished by merciless severity against his 
enemies. He was consul in 82, when he was 
twenty-seven years of age. In this year he 
was defeated by Sulla near Sacriportus on the 
frontiers of Latium, whereupon he took refuge 
in the strongly-fortified town of Praeneste. 
Here he was besieged for some time : but after 
Sulla's great victory at the Colline gate of Rome 
over Pontius Telesinus, Marius put an end to 
his own life, after making an unsuccessful at- 
tempt to escape. — 3. The false Marius. Vid. 
Amatius. — [4. M. Gratidienus Marius, son of 
M. Gratidius, but adopted by one of the Maria 
gens, probably a brother of the celebrated Ma- 
rius : he was a popular speaker, and in high 
favor with the people. During the proscrip- 
tions of Sulla he was killed by Catiline in a 
brutal manner, and his head was carried in tri- 
umph through the city.] — 5. M. Aurelius Ma- 
rius, one of the thirty tyrants, was the fourth 
of the usurpers who in succession ruled Gaul, 
in defiance of Gallienus. He reigned only two 
or three days, but there are coins of his extant. 
— 6. Marius Celsus. Vid. Celsus. — 7. Mari- 
us Maximus, a Roman historian, who is repeat- 
edly cited by the Augustan historians. Ho 
probably flourished under Alexander Severus, 
and appears to have written the biographies of 
the Roman emperors, beginning with Trajan 
and ending with Elagabalus. — 8. Marius Mer- 
cator, an ecclesiastical writer, distinguished as 
a zealous antagonist of the Pelagians and the 
Nestorians. He appears to have commenced 
his literary career during the pontificate of Zosi- 
mus, A.D. 418, at Rome, and he afterward re- 
paired to Constantinople. Mercator seems un- 
doubtedly to have been a layman, but we are 
ignorant of every circumstance connected with 
his origin and personal history. The works of 
Mercator refer exclusively to the Pelagian and, 
Nestorian heresies, and consist, for the most 
part, of passages extracted and translated from 
the chief Greek authorities. The best edition 
is by Baluze, Par., 1684. 

Marmarica (?) ^lapfiapiKri : Map/iapidat : now 
eastern part of Tripoli and northiccslcrn part of 
Egypt), a district of Northern Africa, between 
Cyrenaica and Egypt, but by some ancient ge- 
ographers reckoned as a part of Cyrenaica, and 
by others as a part of Egypt ; while others, 
again, call only the western part 'of it, from the 
borders of Cyrenaica to the Catabathmus Mag- 
nus, by the name of Marmarica, and the east- 
ern part, from the Catabathmus Magnus to the 
Sinus Plinthinetes, Libyae Nomos. Inland it- 
extended as far as the Oasis of Ammon. It 
was, for the most part, a sandy desert, inter- 
sected with low ranges of hills. Its inhabit- 
ants were called by the general name of Mar- 
maridae. Their chief tribes were the Adyr- 
machidae and Giligammas on the coast, and the 
Nasamones and Aug lac in the interior. 



MARMARIUM. 



MARSI. 



MarmarIum (Mapfidptov : Mappdpioc : now 
Marmari), a place on the southwestern coast 
of Eubcea, with a temple of Apollo Marmarius, 
and celebrated marble quarries, which belonged 
to Carystus. 

Maro, Virgilius. Vid. Virgilius. 

Maroboduus, the Latinized form of the Ger- 
man Marbod, king uf the Marcomanni, was a 
Suevian by birth, and was born about B.C. 18. 
He was sent in his boyhood with other host- 
ages to Rome, where he attracted the notice 
of Augustus, and received a liberal education. 
After his return to his native country he suc- 
ceeded in establishing a powerful kingdom in 
central Germany, along the northern bank of 
the Danube, from Regensberg nearly to the bor- 
ders of Hungary, and which stretched far into 
the interior. His power excited the jealousy 
of Augustus, who had determined to send a for- 
midable army to invade his dominions ; but the 
revolt of the Pannonians and Dalmatians (A.D. 
6) prevented the emperor from carrying his de- 
sign into effect. Maroboduus eventually be- 
came an object of suspicion to the other Ger- 
man tribes, and was at length expelled from 
his dominions by Catualda, a chief of the Go- 
thones, about A.D. 19. He took refuge in Italy, 
where Tiberius allowed him to remain, and he 
passed the remainder of his hfe at Ravenna. 
He died in 35, at the age of fifty-three years. 

Maron (Mdpuv). 1. Son of Evanthes, and 
grandson of Bacchus (Dionysus) and Ariadne, 
priest of Apollo at Maronea in Thrace. He was 
the hero of sweet wine, and is mentioned 
among the companions of Bacchus (Dionysus). 
— [2. One of the brave Spartan band who fought 
and fell with Leonidas at Thermopylae.] 

Maronea (Mapuveia : MapovetTTji; : now Ma- 
rogna), a town on the southern coast of Thrace, 
situated on the northern bank of the Lake Is- 
maris and on the River Sthenas, more anciently 
called Ortagurea. It belonged originally to the 
Cicones, but afterward received colonists from 
Chios. It was celebrated for its excellent wine, 
which even Homer mentions. 

Marpessa (Mapirrjaaa), daughter of Evenus 
and Alcippe. For details, vid. Idas. 

Marpessa (Mdprniaoa), a mountain in Paros, 
from which the celebrated Parian marble was 
obtained. Hence Virgil (Mn., vi., 471) speaks 
of Marpesia cautes. 

[Marpessus (Mapwr/caor), a city of Troas, be- 
longing to the territory of Lampsacus, the na- 
tive city of one of the Sibyls.] 

Marrucini, a brave and warlike people in 
Italy of the Sabellian race, occupying a narrow 
slip of country along the right bank of the River 
Aternus, and bounded on the north by the Ves- 
tini, on the west by the Peligni and Marsi, on 
the south by the Frentani, and on the east by 
the Adriatic Sea. Their chief town was Teate, 
and at the mouth of the Aternus they possess- 
ed, in common with the Vestini, the sea-port 
Aternum. Along with the Marsi, Peligni, and 
the other Sabellian tribes, they fought against 
Rome ; and, together with them, they submit- 
ted to the Romans in B.C. 304, and concluded 
a peace with the republic. 

Marruvium. or Maruvium. 1. (Now S. Ben- 
edetto), the chief town of the Marsi (who are 
therefore called gens Maruvia, Virg., Mn., vii., 
31 



750), situated on the eastern bank of the Lake 
Fucinus, and on the road between Corfinium 
and Alba Fucentia. — 2. (Now Morro), an an- 
cient town of the Aborigines in the country of 
the Sabines, not to be confounded with the Mar- 
sic Marruvium. 

Mars, an ancient Roman god, who was at an 
early period identified by the Romans with the 
Greek Ares, or the god delighting in bloody 
war. Vid. Ares. The name of the god in the 
Sabine and Oscan was Mamers ; and Mars it- 
self is a contraction of Mavers orMavors. Next 
to Jupiter, Mars enjoyed the highest honors at 
Rome. He is frequently designated as Father 
Mars, whence the forms Marspitcr and Maspitcr, 
analogous to Jupiter. Jupiter, Mars, and Qui- 
rinus were the three tutelary divinities of Rome, 
to each of whom King Numa appointed a fla- 
men. He was worshipped at Rome as the god 
of war, and war itself was frequently designat- 
ed by the name of Mars. His priests, the Salii, 
danced in full armor, and the place dedicated 
to warlike exercises was called after his name 
(Campus Martius). But, being the father of the 
Romans, Mars was also the protector of the 
most honorable pursuit, i. e., agriculture ; and 
under the name of Silvanus, he was worship 
ped as the guardian of cattle. Mars was also 
identified with Quirinus, who was the deity 
watching over the Roman citizens in their civil 
capacity as Quirites. Thus Mars appears un- 
der three aspects. As the warlike god, he was 
called Gradivus ; as the rustic god, he was call- 
ed Silvanus ; while, in his relation to the state, 
he bore the name of Quirinus. His wife was 
called Neria or Nericne, the feminine of Nero, 
which in the Sabine language signified " strong." 
The wolf and the woodpecker (picus) were sa- 
cred to Mars. Numerous temples were dedicat- 
ed to him at Rome, the most important of which 
was that outside the Porta Capena, on the Ap- 
pian road, and that of Mars Ultor, which was 
built by Augustus in the forum. 

[Marsacii, a people in Gallia Belgica, on one 
of the islands formed by the Rhine, which first 
became known to the Romans through the war 
with Civilis.] 

Marsi. 1. A brave and warlike people of the 
Sabellian race, dwelt in the centre of Italy, in 
the high land surrounded by the mountains of 
the Apennines, in which the Lake Fucinus is 
situated. Along with their neighbors the Pe- 
ligni, Marrucini, &c, they concluded a peace 
with Rome, B.C. 304. Their bravery was pro- 
verbial ; and they were the prime movers of 
the celebrated war waged against Rome by the 
Socii or Italian allies in order to obtain the Ro- 
man franchise, and which is known by the name 
of the Marsic or Social war. Their chief town 
was Marruvium. The Marsi appear to have 
been acquainted with the medicinal properties 
of several of the plants growing upon their 
mountains, and to have employed them as rem- 
edies against the bites of serpents, and in other 
cases. Hence they were regarded as magi- 
cians, and were said to be descended from a 
son of Circe. Others, again, derived their ori- 
gin from the Phrygian Marsyas simply on ac- 
count of the resemblance of the name. — 2. A 
people in Germany, appear to have dwelt orig 
inally on both banks of the Ems, and to havs 

481 



MARSIGNI. 



MARTIALIS. 



been only a tribe of the Cherusei, although Tac- 
itus makes them one of the most ancient tribes 
in Germany. They joined the Cherusei in the 
war against the Romans, which terminated in 
the defeat of Varus, but they were subsequently 
driven into the interior of the country by Ger- 
manicus. 

Marsigni, a people in the southeast of Ger- 
many, of Suevic extraction. 

Marsus, DomitIus, a Roman poet of the Au- 
gustan age. He wrote poems of various kinds, 
but his epigrams were the most celebrated of 
his productions. Hence he is frequently men- 
tioned by Martial, who speaks of him in terms 
of the highest admiration. He wrote a beauti- 
ful epitaph on Tibullus, which has come down 
to us. 

Marsyas (Mapcvac). 1. A mythological per- 
sonage, connected with the earliest period of 
Greek music. He is variously called the son 
of Hyagnis, or of CEagrus, or of Olympus. 
Some make him a satyr, others a peasant. All 
agree in placing him in Phrygia. The follow- 
ing is the outline of his story : Minerva (Athena) 
having, while playing the flute, seen the reflec- 
tion of herself in water, and observed the dis- 
tortion of her features, threw away the instru- 
ment in disgust. It was picked up by Marsyas, 
who no sooner began to blow through it, than 
the flute, having once been inspired by the 
breath of a goddess, emitted of its own accord 
the most beautiful strains. Elated by his suc- 
cess, Marsyas was rash enough to challenge 
Apollo to a musical contest, the conditions of 
which were that the victor should do what he 
pleased with the vanquished. The Muses, or, 
according to others, the Nysaeans, were the 
umpires. Apollo played upon the cithara, and 
Marsyas upon the flute ; and it was not till the 
former added his voice to the music of his lyre 
that the contest was decided in his favor. As 
a just punishment for the presumption of Mar- 
syas, Apollo bound him to a tree, and flayed 
him alive. His blood was the source of the 
River Marsyas, and Apollo hung up his skin in 
the cave out of which that river flows. His 
flutes (for, according to some, the instrument 
on which he played was the double flute) were 
carried by the River Marsyas into the Mean- 
der, and again emerging in the Asopus, were 
thrown on land by it in the Sicyonian territory, 
and were dedicated to Apollo in his temple at 
Sicyon. The fable evidently refers to the strug- 
gle between the citharcedic and aulcedic styles 
of music, of which the former was connected 
with the worship of Apollo among the Dorians, 
and the latter with the orgiastic rites of Cybele 
in Phrygia. In the fora of ancient cities there 
was frequently placed a statue of Marsyas, 
which was probably intended to hold forth an 
example of the severe punishment of arrogant 
presumption. The statue of Marsyas in the 
forum of Rome is well known by the allusions 
of Horace (Sat., i., 6, 120), Juvenal (ix., 1,2), 
and Martial (ii., 64, 7). — 2. A Greek historian, 
was the son of Periander, a native of Pella in 
Macedonia, a contemporary of Alexander, with 
whom he is said to have been educated. His 
principal work was a history of Macedonia, in 
ten books, from the earliest times to the wars 
of Alexander. He also wrote Oliver 'vorks, the 
482 



titles of which are given by Suidas. — 3. Of 
Philippi, commonly called the younger, to dis- 
tinguish him from the preceding, was also a 
Greek historian. The period at which he flour- 
ished is uncertain : the earliest writers by whom 
he is cited are Pliny and Atheneeus. 

Marsyas (Mapavag). 1. A small and rapid 
river of Phrygia, a tributary of the Meeander, 
took its rise, according toXenophon, in the pal- 
ace of the Persian kings at Celaenae, beneath the 
Acropolis, and fell into the Maeander outside of 
the city. Pliny, however, states that its source 
was in the valley called Aulocrene, about ten 
miles from Apamea Cibotus (which city was on 
or near the site of Celaenae), and that after a 
subterraneous course it first came out to light 
at Apamea. Colonel Leake reconciles these 
statements by the natural explanation that the 
place where the river first broke forth from its 
subterraneous course was regarded as its true 
origin. Tradition ascribed its name to the fa- 
ble of Marsyas. — 2. (Now Chinar-Chai), a con- 
siderable river of Caria, having its source in the 
.district called Idrias, flowing northwest and 
north through the middle of Caria, past Stra- 
tonicea and Alabanda, and falling into the south- 
ern side of the Maeander nearly opposite to 
Tralles.— 3. In Syria, a small tributary of the 
Orontes, into which it falls on the eastern side, 
near Apamea. — 4. A name given to the exten- 
sive plain in Syria through which the upper 
course of the Orontes flows, lying between the 
ranges of Casius and Lebanon, and reaching 
from Apamea on the north to Laodicea ad Liba- 
num on the south. 

Martialis. 1. M. Valerius, the epigram- 
matic poet, was born at Bilbilis in Spain in the 
third year of Claudius, A.D. 43. He came to 
Rome in the thirteenth year of Nero, 66 ; and 
after residing in the metropolis thirty-five years, 
he returned to the place of his birth in the third 
year of Trajan, 100. He lived there for upward 
of three years at least, on the property of his 
wife, a lady named Marcella, whom he seems 
to have married after his return to Bilbilis. His 
death can not have taken place before 104. His 
fame was extended, and his books were eagerly 
sought for, not only in the city, but also in Gaul, 
Germany, and Britain ; he secured the patron- 
age of the emperors Titus and Domitian, ob- 
tained by his influence the freedom of the state 
for several of his friends, and received for him 
self, although 'apparently without family, the 
privileges accorded to those who were the fa- 
thers of three children ( jus triuTA libcrorum), to- 
gether with the rank of tribunus and the rights 
of the equestrian order. His circumstances ap- 
pear to have been easy during his residence at 
Rome, for he had a mansion in the city whose 
situation he describes, and a suburban villa near 
Nomentum, to which he frequently alludes with 
pride. The extant works of Mart ial consist of 
a collection of short poems, all included undej 
the general appellation Epigrammata, upward 
of fifteen hundred in number, divided into four- 
teen books. Those which form the two last 
books, usually distinguished respectively as Xe 
nia and Apophorcta, amounting to three hund- 
red and fifty, consist of distichs, descriptive of 
a vast variety of small objects, chiefly articles 
of food or clothing, such as were usually sent 



MARTIALIS. 



MASINISSA. 



bs presents among friends during the Saturna- 
lia, and on other festive occasions. In addition 
to t,he» above, nearly all the printed copies in- 
clude thirty-three epigrams, forming a book 
apart rum the rest, which has been commonly 
known as Liber de Spectaculis, because the con- 
tents relate to the shows exhibited by Titus 
and Domitian, but there is no ancient authority 
for the title. The different books were collect- 
ed and published by the author, sometimes sin- 
gly and sometimes several at one time. The 
Liber de Spectaculis and the first nine books of 
the regular series involve a great number of 
historical allusions, extending from the games 
of Titus (80) down to the return of Domitian 
from the Sarmatian expedition in January, 94. 
All these books were composed at Rome ex- 
cept the third, which was written during a tour 
in Gallia Togata. The tenth book was publish- 
ed twice : the first edition was given hastily to 
the world; the second, that which we now read 
(x., 2), celebrates the arrival of Trajan at Rome, 
after his accession to the throne (99). The elev- 
enth book seems to have been published at 
Rome early in 100, and at the close of the year 
he returned to Bilbilis. After keeping silence 
for three years (xii., procem.), the twelfth book 
was dispatched from Bilbilis to Rome (xii., 3, 
18), and must therefore be assigned to' 104. 
Books xiii. and xiv., Xenia and Apophorcta, 
were written chiefly under Domitian, although 
the composition may have been spread over 
the holidays of many years. It is well known 
that the word Epigram, which originally denoted 
simply an inscription, was, in process of time, 
applied to any brief metrical effusion, what- 
ever the subject might be, or whatever the 
form under which it was presented. Martial, 
however, first placed the epigram upon the nar- 
row basis which it now occupies, and from his 
time the term has been in a great measure re- 
stricted to denote a short poern, in which all 
the thoughts and expressions converge to one 
sharp point, which forms the termination of the 
piece. Martial's epigrams are distinguished by 
singular fertility of imagination, prodigious flow 
of wit, and delicate felicity of language ; and 
from no source do we derive more copious in- 
formation on the national customs and social 
habits of the Romans during the first century 
of the empire. But, however much we may 
admire the genius of the author, we feel no re- 
spect for the character of the man. The servil- 
ity of adulation with which he loads Domitian, 
proves that he was a courtier of the lowest 
class ; and his works are defiled by the most 
cold-blooded filth, too clearly denoting habitual 
impurity of thought, combined with habitual im- 
purity of expression. The best edition is by 
Schneidewinn, Grem., 1842. — 2. Gargilius, a 
Roman historian, and a contemporary of Alex- 
ander Severus, who is cited by Vopiscus. There 
is extant a short fragment on veterinary sur- 
gery bearing the name of Gargilius Martialis ; 
and Angelo Mai discovered on a palimpsest in 
the royal library at Naples part of a work De 
Hurtis, also ascribed to Gargilius Martialis ; 
but whether Gargilius Martialis the horticul- 
turist, and Gargilius Martialis the veterinarian, 
are all, or any two of them, the same, or all dif- 
ferent personages, can not be determined. 



[Martianus. Vid. Marcianus.] 

Martinianus, was elevated to the dignity of 
Caesar by Licinius when he was making prep- 
arations for the last struggle against Constan- 
tine. After the defeat of Licinius, Martinianus 
was put to death by Constantine, A.D. 323. 

Martius Campus. Vid. Campus Martius. 

Martvropolis (MaprvpoTra'Aic : now MeiaFar- 
ekin), a city of Sophene, in Armenia Major, on 
the River Nymphus, a tributary of the Tigris ; 
under Justinian, a strong fortress, and the res- 
idence of the first Dux Armeniae. 

Marullus, C. Epidius, "tribune of the plebs 
B.C. 44, removed, in conjunction with his col- 
league L. Caesetius Flavus, the diadem which 
had been placed upon the statue of C. Julius 
Cessar, and attempted to bring to trial the per- 
sons who had saluted the dictator as king. Cae- 
sar, in consequence, deprived him of the tribu- 
nate, and expelled him from the senate. 

[Marus (now Marosch), mentioned by Tac- 
itus as a tributary of the Danube on the north, 
probably the same as the Marisus.} 

Maruvium. Vid. Marruvium. 

[Ma.sada (Mdaada), a fortress on the shore of 
the Dead Sea, built by Jonathan Maccabasus, 
and afterward greatly strengthened by Herod, 
as a place of refuge for himself. It fell into the 
hands of the Romans after the capture of Jeru- 
salem, the garrison having devoted themselves 
to self-destruction.] 

Mascas (MdaKac, Maaicac : now Wady-el-Se~ 
ba), an eastern tributary of the Euphrates in 
Mesopotamia, mentioned only by Xenophon (An- 
ab., i., 5), who describes it as surrounding the 
city of Corsote, and as being thirty-five para- 
sangs from the Chaboras. It appears to be the 
same river as the Saocoras of Ptolemy. 

Mases (Mtia^f : Maaf/noc), a town on the 
southern coast of Argolis, the harbor of Her- 
mione. 

Masinissa (Maoaavdaonc), king of the Nu- 
midians, was the son of Gala, king of the Mas- 
sylians, the easternmost of the two great tribes 
into which the Numidians were at that time di- 
vided ; but he was brought up at Carthage, 
where he appears to have received an educa- 
tion superior to that usual among his country- 
men. In B.C. 213 the Carthaginians persuaded 
Gala to declare war against Syphax, king of 
the neighboring tribe of the Massaesylians, who 
had lately entered into an alliance with Rome. 
Masinissa was appointed by his father to com- 
mand the invading force, with which he attack- 
ed and totally defeated Syphax. In the next 
year (212) Masinissa crossed over into Spain, 
and supported the Carthaginian generals there 
with a large body of Numidian horse. He 
fought on the side of the Carthaginians foi 
some years ; but after their great defeat by 
Scipio in 206, he secretly promised the latter to 
support the Romans as soon as they should 
send an army into Africa. In his desertion oi 
the Carthaginians he is said to have been also 
actuated by resentment against Hasdrubal, who 
had previously betrothed to him his beautiful 
daughter Sophonisba, but violated his engage- 
ment in order to bestow her hand upon Syphax. 
During the absence of Masinissa in Spain his 
father Gala had died, and the throne had been 
seized by a usurper ; but Masinissa, on his re« 

483 



MASISTES. 



MASSICYTUS. 



turn., soon expelled the usurper and obtained 
possession of the kingdom. He was now at- 
tacked by Syphax and the Carthaginians, who 
were anxious to crush him before he could re- 
ceive assistance from Rome. He was repeat- 
edly defeated by Syphax and his generals, and 
with difficulty escaped falling into the hands of 
his enemies. But the arrival of Scipio in Af- 
rica (204) soon changed the posture of affairs. 
He instantly joined the Roman general, and ren- 
dered the most important services to him dur- 
ing the remainder of the war. He took a prom- 
inent part in the defeat of the combined forces 
of Syphax and Hasdrubal, and, in conjunction 
with Laslius, he reduced Cirta, the capital of 
Syphax. Among the captives that fell into 
their hands on this occasion was Sophonisba, 
the wife of Syphax, and the same who had been 
formerly promised in marriage to Masinissa 
himself. The story of his hasty marriage with 
her, and its tragical termination, is related else- 
where. Viil. Sophonisba. In the decisive bat- 
tle of Zama (202), Masinissa commanded the 
cavalry of the right wing, and contributed in no 
small degree to the successful result of the day. 
On the conclusion of the final peace between 
Rome and Carthage, he was rewarded with the 
greater part of the territories which had be- 
longed to Syphax, in addition to his hereditary 
dominions. For the next fifty years Masinissa 
reigned in peace, though constantly making ag- 
gressions upon the Carthaginian territory. At 
length, in 150, he declared open war against Car- 
thage, and these hostilities led to the outbreak 
of the third Punic war. Masinissa died in the 
second year of the war, 148. On his death-bed 
he had sent for Scipio Africanus the younger, 
at that time serving in Africa as a military trib- 
une, but he expired before his arrival, leaving 
it to the young officer to settle the affairs of his 
kingdom. He died at the advanced age of nine- 
ty, having retained in an extraordinary degree 
his bodily strength and activity to the last, so 
that in the war against the Carthaginians, only 
two years before, he not only commanded his 
army in person, but was able to go through all 
his military exercises with the agility and vig- 
or of a young man. His character has been ex- 
lolled by the Roman writers far beyond his true 
merits. He possessed, indeed, unconquerable 
energy and fortitude ; but he was faithless to 
the Carthaginians as soon as fortune began to 
turn against them ; and though he afterward 
continued steady to the cause of the Romans, 
it was because he found it uniformly his inter- 
est to do so. He was the father of a very nu- 
merous family ; but it appears that three only 
of his legitimate sons survived him, Micipsa, 
Mastanabal, and Gulussa. Between these three 
the kingdom was portioned out by Scipio, ac- 
cording to the dying directions of the old king. 

[Masistes (MaaicTnc), son of Darius and 
Atossa, accompanied his brother Xerxes in his 
expedition against Greece.] 

[Masistius (MaoioTLoc), commander of the 
cavalry in the army of Xerxes in the invasion 
of Greece, distinguished for his bravery and 
commanding appearance ; he was slain in a 
skirmish before the battle of PlatEeae : the 
Greeks, says Herodotus (ix., 20), called him 
Macistius (Ma/tt'ortof).] 
484 



Masius Mons (to Mdawv upoc : now Karajch 
Dagk), a mountain chain in the north of Meso- 
potamia, between the upper course of the Ti- 
gris and the Euphrates, running from the main 
chain of the Taurus southeast along the border 
of Mygdonia. 

Maso, C. Papikius, consul B.C. 231, carried 
on war against the Corsicans, whom he sub- 
dued ; and from the booty obtained in this war, 
he dedicated a temple to Fons. Maso was the 
maternal grandfather of Scipio Africanus the 
younger, his daughter Papiria marrying iEmil- 
ius Paulus. 

[Maspii (MduTTtoi), mentioned by Herodotus 
as one of the most distinguished races of the 
Persian nation.] 

Massa, B^bios or BebIus, was accused by 
Pliny the younger and Herennius Senecio of 
plundering the province of Baetica, of which he 
had been governor, A.D. 93. He was condemn- 
ed, but escaped punishment by the favor of Do- 
mitian ; and from this time he became one of 
the informers and favorites of the tyrant. 

[Massa (Mdaaa) or Masasat {Maaaaar). I, A 
river on the west coast of Libya Interior, north- 
ward of the stream Daradus. — 2. M. Veteknen- 
sis, a city of Etruria, northeast of Populonium 
and northwest of Rusellse, perhaps the modem 
Massa.} 

Mass^esyli or -n. Vid. Mauretania, Nu- 

MIDIA. 

Massaga (rd Mdaaaya), the capital city of the 
Indian people Assaceni. 

Massaget^e (Maooayerai), a wild and warlike 
people of Central Asia, in Scythia intra Imaum, 
north of the Jaxartes (the Araxes of Herodo- 
tus) and the Sea of Aral, and on the peninsu- 
la between this lake and the Caspian. Their 
country corresponds to that of the Kirghiz Tar- 
tars in the north of Independent Tartary. Some 
of the ancient geographers give them a greater 
extent toward the southeast, and Herodotus ap- 
pears to include under the name all the nomad 
tribes of Asia east of the Caspian. They ap- 
pear to have been of the Turkoman race ; their 
manners and customs resembled those of the 
Scythians in general ; but they had some pecu- 
liarities, such as the killing and eating of their 
aged people. Their chief appearance in an- 
cient history is in connection with the expedi- 
tion undertaken against them by Cyrus the 
Great, in which Cyrus was defeated and slain. 
Vid. Cyrus. 

[Massala, a city of the Homeritae, on the 
southern coast of Arabia Felix.] 

[Massalioticum Ostium. Vid. Rhodanus.] 

Massani {Maaaavoi), a people of India intra 
Gangem, on the lower course of the Indus, near 
the island of Pattalenc. 

[MASsious.an Etrurian prince, who came with 
one thousand men from Clusium and Cosa to 
the aid of ^Eneas in his war with Turnus in 
Italy.] 

Massicus Mons, a mountain in the northwest 
of Campania, near the frontiers of Latium, cel- 
ebrated for its excellent wine, the produce of 
the vineyards on the southern slope of the 
mountain. The celebrated Falernian wine came 
from the eastern side of this mountain. 

Massicytds or Massicytes (MaaiKVTrjg), one 
of the principal mountain chains of Lycia. 



MASSILIA. 



MATRONA. 



Massilia (UaaaaTiia : MaaoaXiuTqc, Massili- 
ensis: now Marseilles), a Greek city in Gallia 
Narbonensis, on the coast of the Mediterranean, 
in the country of the Salyes. It was situated 
on a promontory, which was connected with 
the main land by a narrow isthmus, and was 
washed on three sides by the sea. Its excel- 
lent harbor, called Lacydon, was formed by a 
small inlet of the sea, about half a mile long and 
a quarter of a mile broad. This harbor had only 
a narrow opening, and before it lay an island 
where ships had good anchorage. Massilia was 
founded by the Phocaeans of Asia Minor about 
B.C. 600, and soon became a very flourishing 
city. It extended its dominion over the barba- 
rous tribes in its neighborhood, and planted sev- 
eral colonies on the coast of Gaul and Spain, 
such as Antipolis, Nic^ea, and Emporium. Its 
naval power and commercial greatness soon 
excited the jealousy of the Carthaginians, who 
made war upon the city, but the Massilians not 
only maintained their independence, but defeat- 
ed the Carthaginians in a sea-fight. At an early 
period they cultivated the friendship of the Ro- 
mans, to whom they always continued faithful 
allies. Accordingly, when the southeast corner 
of Gaul was made a Roman province, the Ro- 
mans allowed Massilia to retain its independ- 
ence and its own constitution. This constitu- 
tion was aristocratic. The city was governed 
by a senate of six hundred persons called Timu- 
clri. From these were selected fifteen presi- 
dents, who formed a sort of committee for car- 
rying on the ordinary business of the govern- 
ment, and three of these were intrusted with 
the executive power. The inhabitants retain- 
ed the religious rites of their mother country, 
and they cultivated with especial reverence the 
worship of the Ephesian Artemis or Diana. 
Massilia was for many centuries one of the 
most important commercial cities in the an- 
cient world. In the civil war between Caesar 
and Pompey (B.C. 49) it espoused the cause of 
the latter, but after a protracted siege, in which 
it lost its fleet, it was obliged to submit to Cae- 
sar. From the effects of this blow it never fully 
recovered. Its inhabitants had long paid atten- 
tion to literature and philosophy ; and under 
the early emperors it became one of the chief 
seats of learning, to which the sons of many il- 
lustrious Romans resorted to complete their 
studies. The modern Marseilles occupies the 
site of the ancient town, but contains no re- 
mains of ancient buildings. 

Massiva. 1. A Numidian, grandson of Gala, 
king of the Massylians, and nephew of Masinis- 
sa, whom he accompanied into Spain. — 2. Son 
of Gulussa, and grandson of Masinissa, was as- 
sassinated at Rome by order of Jugurtha be- 
cause he had put in his claim to the kingdom of 
Numidia. 

[Massugrada, a son of Masinissa, king of Nu- 
midia, by a concubine. Vid. Dabar.] 

Massurius Sabinus. Vid. Sabinus. 

Massyli or -ii. Vid. Mauretania, Numidia. 

Mastanabal or Manastabal, the youngest of 
the three legitimate sons of Masinissa, between 
whom the kingdom of Numidia was divided by 
Scipio after the death of the aged king (B.C. 
148). He dieel before his brother Micipsa, and 
]«ft two sons, Jugurtha and Gauda. 



Mastaura (tu Wiaravpa : now ruins of Mas- 
taura-Kalesi), a city of Lydia, on the borders of 
Caria, near Nysa. 

[Mastor (Muotw/j). 1. Father of Lycophron 
of Cythera. — 2. Father of the diviner Hali- 
therses, mentioned in the Odyssey.] 

Mastramela, a town on the southern coast 
of Gallia Narbonensis, east of the Rhone, and 
a'lake of the same name, called by Mela Avat- 
icorum. stagnum. 

Mastusia. 1. The southwest point of the 
Thracian Chersonesus, opposite Sigeum. — 2. A 
mountain of Lydia, on the southern slope of 
which Smyrna lay. 

Maternus, Curiatius, a Roman rhetorician 
and tragic poet, one of the speakers in the Dia- 
logus dr. Oratoribus ascribed to Tacitus. 

Maternus Firmicus. Vid. Firmious. 

Matho. 1. One of the leaders of the Cartha- 
ginian mercenaries in their war against Car- 
thage, after the conclusion of the first Punic 
war, B.C. 241. He was eventually taken pris- 
oner and put to death. — 2. A pompous, bluster- 
ing advocate, ridiculed by Juvenal and Martial. 

Matho, Pomponius. 1. M'., consul B.C. 233, 
carried on war against the Sardinians, whom 
he defeated. In 217 he was magister equitum, 
in 216 praetor, and in 215 propraetor in Cisal- 
pine Gaul. — 2. M., brother of the preceding, 
consul 231, also carried on war against the Sar- 
dinians. He was likewise praetor in 217. He 
died in 204. — 3. M., probably son of No. 2, aedile 
206, and praetor 204, with Sicily as his province. 

Matiana (Martavij, Manavol, -rivij, -rjvot, He- 
rod.), the southwesternmost district of Media 
Atropatene, along the mountains separating 
Media from Assyria, which were also called 
Matiani. The great salt lake of Spaura (Man- 
avri Mfivy : now Lake of Urmi) was in this dis- 
trict. Herodotus also mentions a people on the 
Halys in Asia Minor by the name of Matieni. 

Matinus, a mountain in Apulia running out 
into the sea, was one of the offshoots of Mount 
Garganus, and is frequently mentioned by Hor- 
ace in consequence of his being a native of 
Apulia. 

Matisco (now Macon), a town of the yEdui 
in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the Arar, and on the 
road from Lugdunum to Augustodunum. 

Matius Calvena, O, a Roman eques, and a 
friend of Caesar and Cicero. After Caesar's 
death he espoused the side of Octavianus, with 
whom he became very intimate. [This is prob- 
ably the same C. Matius who translated the 
Iliad into Latin verse, and was the author of 
several other works. Matius also wrote " Mim- 
iambi," which were as celebrated as his trans- 
lation of the Iliad, and paid great attention to 
economics and agriculture. He also wrote a 
work on the whole art and science of cookery, 
in three books, entitled respectively Cocus, Ce- 
tarius, Salmagarius. The fragments are given 
by Bothe, Poet. Seen. Lat. Vet., vol. vi., p. 265- 
268 ; and by Zell, Stuttgard, 1829,] 

Matron (Mdrpov), of Pitana, a celebrated wri- 
ter of parodies upon Homer, probably lived a 
little before the time of Philip of Macedon. 

Matrona (now Marne), a river in Gaul, which 
formed the boundary between Gallia Lugdunen- 
sis and Belgica, and which falls into the So- 
quana a little south of Paris. 

485 



MATTIACI. 

Mattlaci, a people in Germany, who dwelt on 
the eastern bank of the Rhine, between the 
Main and the Lahn, and were a branch of the 
Chatti. They were subdued by the Romans, 
who, in the reign of Claudius, had fortresses 
and silver mines in their country. After the 
death of Nero they revolted against the Ro- 
mans, and took part with the Chatti and other 
German tribes in the siege of Moguntiacufn. 
From this time they disappear from history ; 
and their country was subsequently inhabited 
oy the Alemanni. Their chief towns were 
Aquas Mattiacas (now Wiesbaden), and Mattia- 
cum (now Marburg), which must not be con- 
founded with Mattium, the capital of the Chatti. 

Mattium (now Maden), the chief town of the 
Chatti, situated on the Adrana (now Eder), was 
destroyed by Germanicus. 

Matuta, commonly called Mater Matuta, is 
usually considered as the goddess of the dawn 
of morning, and her name is considered to be 
connected with maturus or matutinus. It seems, 
however, to be well attested that Matuta was 
only a surname of Juno ; and it is probable that 
the name is connected with mater, so that Ma- 
ter Matuta is an analogous expression with 
Hostus Hostilius, Faunus Fatuus, Aius Locuti- 
us. and others. Her festival, the Matralia, was 
celebrated on the 1 1th of June {vid. Diet, of Ant., 
art. Matralia). The Romans identified Matuta 
with the Greek Leucothea. A temple was dedi- 
cated to Matuta at Rome by King Servius, and 
was restored by the dictator Camillus, after the 
taking of Veii. There was also a temple of 
Matuta at Satricum. 

Mauritania or Mauritania (f/ Mavpovata : 
Mavpovaioi, Mavpoi, Mauri), the westernmost of 
the principal divisions of Northern Africa, lay 
between the Atlantic on the west, the Mediter- 
ranean on the north, Numidia on the east, and 
Gastulia on the south ; but the districts em- 
braced under the names of Mauretania and Nu- 
midia respectively were of very different extent 
at different periods. The earliest known in- 
habitants of all Northern Africa west of the 
Syrtes were the Gaetulians, who were displaced 
and driven inland by tribes of Asiatic origin, 
who are found in the earliest historical ac- 
counts, settled along the northern coast under 
various names ; their chief tribes being the 
Mauri or Maurusii, west of the River Malva or 
Malucha (now Muluia or Mohalou) ; thence the 
Massaesylii to (or nearly to) the River Ampsaga 
(now Wady-cl-Kebir), and the Massylii between 
the Ampsaga and the Tusca (now Wady-Zain), 
the western boundary of the Carthaginian ter- 
ritory. Of these people, the Mauri, who pos- 
sessed a greater breadth of fertile country be- 
tween the - Atlas and the coasts, seem to have 
applied themselves more to the settled pursuits 
of agriculture than their kindred neighbors on 
the east, whose unsettled warlike habits were 
moreover confirmed by their greater exposure 
to the intrusions of the Phoenician settlers. 
Hence arose a difference, which the Greeks 
marked by applying the general name of No^d- 
6ee to the tribes between the Malva and the 
Tusca ; whence came the Roman names of 
Numidia for the district, and Numidae for it's 
people. Vid. Numidia. Thus Mauretania was 
at first only the country west of the Malva, and I 
486 



MAUSOLUS. 1 

corresponded to the later district of Mauretania 
Tingitana, and to the modern empire of Ma- 
j roceo, except that the latter extends further 
south ; the ancient boundary on the south was 1 
! the Atlas. The Romans first became acquaint- 
ed with the country during the war with Jugur- 
tha, B.C. 106; of their relations with it till il 
j became a Roman province, about 33, an accoun* 
is given under Bocchus. During this period I 
the kingdom of Mauretania had been increased • i 
by the addition of the western part of Numidia, ! 
as far as Saldae, which Julius Cassar bestowed 
on Bogud, as a reward for his services in the 
African war. A new arrangement was made 
about 25, when Augustus gave Mauretania to 
Juba IL, in exchange for his paternal kingdom j 
of Numidia. Upon the murder of Juba's son, 
Ptolemaeus, by Caligula (A.D. 40), Mauretania 
became finally a Roman province, and was for- 
mally constituted as such by Claudius, who 
added to it nearly half of what was still left of 
Numidia, namely, as far as the Ampsaga, and 
divided it into two parts, of which the western 
was called Tingitana, from its capital Tingis 
(now Tangier), and the eastern Canadensis, 
from its capital Julia Caesarea (now Zershell), 
the boundary between them being the River 
Malva, the old limit of the kingdom of Boc- 
chus I. The latter corresponded to the west- 
ern and central part of the modern regency (and 
now French colony) of Algiers. These "Mau- 
retania? duae" were governed by an equestrian 
procurator. In the later division of the empirt I 
under Diocletian and Constantine, the easten ' 
part of M. Caesariensis, from Saldae to the Amp- 
saga, was erected into a new province, and call 
ed M. Sitifensis, from the inland town of Sitifi 
(now Setif) ; at the same time, the western 
province, M. Tingitana, seems to have been j 
placed under the same government as Spain, so 
that we still find mention of the " Mauretania? 
duae," meaning now, however, Caesariensis and 
Sitifensis. From A.D. 429 to 534 Mauretania j 
was in the hands of the Vandals, and in 650 | 
and the following years it was conquered by the j 
Arabs. Its ancient inhabitants still exist a? 
powerful tribes in Marocco and Algier, undei 
the names of Berbers, Schillus, Kalyles, and Tua- I 
riks. Its chief physical features are described 
under Africa and Atlas. Under the later Ro- 
man emperors it was remarkable for the great 
number of its episcopal sees. 
Mauri. Vid. Mauretania. 
Mauricianus, Junius, a Roman jurist, lived 
under Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138-161). His 
works are cited a few times in the Digest. 

Mauricus, Junius, an intimate friend of Pliny, 
was banished by Domitian, but recalled from ex- 
ile by Nerva. 

Mauritania. Vid. Mauretania. 
Maurus, Terentianus. Vid. Terentianus. 
Maurusii. Vid. Mauretania. 
Mausolus (MaucrwAof or Mavoculoc), king of 
Caria, was the eldest son of Hecatomnus, whom 
he succeeded in the sovereignty B.C. 377. In 
362 he took part in the general revolt of the 
satraps against Artaxerxes Mnemon, and avail- 
ed himself of that opportunity to extend his 
dominions. In 358 he joined with the Rhpdi- 
ans and others in the war waged by them 
against the Athenians, known by the name of 



MAYOR J. 



MAXIMINUS. 



the Social war. He died in 353, leaving no 
children, and was succeeded by his wife and 
sister Artemisia. The extravagant grief of the 
latter for his death, and the honors she paid to 
his memory — especially by the erection -of the 
costly monument, which was called from him 
the Mausoleum— are related elsewhere. Vid. 
Artemisia. 

Mayors. Vid. Mars. 

Maxentius, Roman emperor A.D. 306-312, 
whose full name was M. Aurelius Valerius 
Maxentius. He was the son of Maximianus 
and Eutropia, and received in marriage the 
daughter of Galerius ; but he was passed over 
in the division of the empire which followed the 
abdication of his father and Diocletian in A.D. 
305. Maxentius, however, did not tamely ac- 
quiesce in this arrangement, and, being support- 
ed by the praetorian troops, who had been re- 
cently deprived of their exclusive privileges, he 
was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 306. He 
summoned his father, Maximianus, from his re- 
tirement in Lucania, who again assumed the 
purple. The military abilities of Maximianus 
were of great service to his son, who was of 
indolent and dissolute habits. Maximianus 
compelled the Cassar Severus, who had march- 
ed upon Rome, to retreat in haste to Ravenna, 
and soon afterward put the latter to death when 
he had treacherously got him into his power 
(307). The Emperor Galerius now marched in 
person against Rome, but Maximianus compel- 
led him likewise to retreat. Maxentius, relieved 
from these imminent dangers, proceeded to dis- 
entangle himself from the control which his 
father sought to exercise, and succeeded in 
driving him from his court. Soon afterward 
Maxentius crossed over to Africa, which he rav- 
aged with fire and sword, because it had sub- 
mitted to the indepeedent authority of a certain 
Alexander. Upon his return to Rome Maxen- 
tius openly aspired to dominion over all the 
Western provinces ; and soon afterward de- 
clared war against Constantine, alleging, as a 
pretext, that the latter had put to death his 
father Maximianus. He began to make prepa- 
rations to pass into Gaul ; but Constantine an- 
ticipated his movements, and invaded Italy. 
The struggle was brought to a close by the de- 
feat of Maxentius at Saxa Rubra, near Rome, 
October 27th, 312. Maxentius tried to escape 
over the Milvian bridge into Rome, but perished 
in the river. Maxentius is represented by all 
historians as a monster of rapacity, cruelty, and 
lust. The only favored class was the military, 
upon whom he depended for safety ; and in or- 
der to secure their devotion and to gratify his 
own passions, all his other subjects were made 
the victims of the most revolting licentiousness, 
and ruined by the most grinding exactions. 

Maxilua, a town in Hispania Bastica, where 
bricks were made so light as to swim upon wa- 
ter. Vid. Calentum. 

Maxima C^esariensis. Vid. Britannia, p. 
149, b. 

Maximianopolis, previously called PorsuljE, 
a town in Thrace, on the Via Egnatia, east of 
Abdera, probably the same place as the town 
called Mosynopolis (MoowovnoXic) by the By- 
zantine writers. 

Maximianopolis (Ma^ifnavovnoTiii : in the Old 



Testament, Hadad Rimmon), a city of Palestine, 
in the valley of Megiddo, a little to the south- 
west of Megiddo. 

Maximianus. I. Roman emperor A.D. 286- 
305, whose full name was M. Aurelius Vale- 
rius Maximianus. He was born of humble pa 
rents in Pannonia, and had acquired such fame 
by his services in the army, that Diocletian se 
lected this rough soldier for his colleague, as 
one whose abilities were likely to prove valua- 
ble in the disturbed state of public affairs, and 
accordingly created him first Caesar (285), and 
then Augustus (286), conferring at the same 
time the honorary appellation of Herculius, while 
he himself assumed that of Jovius. The sub- 
sequent history of Maximian has been fully de- 
tailed in former articles. Vid. Diocletianus, 
Constantinus L, Maxentius. It is sufficient 
to relate here, that after having been reluctant- 
ly compelled to abdicate, at Milan (305), he was 
again invested with the imperial title by his son 
Maxentius, in the following year (306), to whom 
he rendered'the most important services in the 
war with Severus and Galerius. Having been 
expelled from Rome shortly afterward by his 
son, he took refuge in Gaul with Constantine, 
to whom he had previously given his daughter 
Fausta in marriage. Here he again attempted 
to resume the imperial crown, but was easily 
deposed by Constantine (308). Two years aft- 
erward, he endeavored to induce his daughter 
Fausta to destroy her husband, and was, in con- 
sequence, compelled by Constantine to put an 
end to his own life. — II., Roman emperor A.D. 
305-311, usually called Galerius. His full 
name was Galerius Valerius Maximianus. 
He was born near Sardica in Dacia, and was 
the son of a shepherd. He rose from the ranks 
to the highest commands in the army, and was 
appointed Caesar by Diocletian, along with Con- 
stantius Chlorus, in 292. . At the same time he 
was adopted by Diocletian, whose daughter Va- 
leria he received in marriage, and was intrust- 
ed with the command of Illyria and Thrace. 
In 297 he undertook an expedition against the 
Persian monarch Narses, in which he was un- 
successful, but in the following year (298) he 
defeated Narses with great slaughter, and com- 
pelled him to conclude a peace. Upon the ab- 
dication of Diocletian and Maximian (305), Ga- 
lerius became Augustus or emperor. In 307 he 
made an unsuccessful attempt to recover Italy, 
which had owned the authority of the usurper 
Maxentius. Vid. Maxentius. He died in 311, 
of the disgusting disease known in modern 
times by the name of morbus pediculosus. He 
was a cruel persecutor of the Christians ; and 
it was at his instigation that Diocletian issued 
the fatal ordinance (303), which for so many 
years deluged the world with innocent blood. 

Maximinus. I., Roman emperor A.D. 235- 
238, whose full name was C. Julius Verus Max- 
iminus. He was born in a village on the con- 
fines of Thrace, of barbarian parentage, his father 
being a Goth, and his mother a German from 
the tribe of the Alani. Brought up as a shep- 
herd, he attracted the attention of Septimius 
Severus by his gigantic stature and marvellous 
feats of strength, and was permitted to enter the 
army. He eventually rose to the highest rank- 
in the service ; and on the murder of Alexander 

487 



MAXIMUS. 



MAXIMUS. 



Severus by the mutinous troops in Gaul (235), 
he was proclaimed emperor. He immediately 
bestowed the title of Cassar on his son Maxi- 
mus. During the three years of his reign he 
carried on war against the Germans with suc- 
cess ; but his government was characterized by 
a degree of oppression and sanguinary excess 
hitherto unexampled. The Roman world be- 
came at length tired of this monster. The 
senate and the provinces gladly acknowledged 
the two Gordiani, who had been proclaimed em- 
perors in Africa ; and after their death the 
senate itself proclaimed Maximus and Balbinus 
emperors (238). As soon as Maximinus heard 
of the elevation of the Gordians, he hastened 
from his winter-quarters at Sirmium. Having 
crossed the Alps, he laid siege to Aquileia, and 
was there slain by his own soldiers, along with 
his son Maximus, in April. The most extraor- 
dinary tales are related of the physical powers 
of Maximinus, which seem to have been almost 
incredible. His height exceeded, eight feet. 
The circumference of his thumb was equal to 
that of a woman's wrist, so that the bracelet of 
his wife served him for a ring. It is said that 
he was able single-handed to drag a loaded 
wagon, could with his fist knock out the grin- 
ders, and with a kick break the leg of a horse ; 
while his appetite was such, that in one day he 
could eat forty pounds of meat, and drink an 
amphora of wine. — II., Roman emperor 305- 
314, originally called Daza, and subsequently 
Galerius Valerius Maximinus. He was the 
nephew of Galerius by a sister, and in early life 
followed the occupation of a shepherd in his na- 
tive Illyria. Having entered the army, he rose 
to the highest rank in the service ; and upon 
the abdication of Diocletian in 305, he was 
adopted by Galerius, and received the title of 
Ca?sar. In 308 Galerius gave him the title of 
Augustus ; and on the death of the latter in 31 1, 
Maximinus and Licinius divided the East be- 
tween them. In 313 Maximinus attacked the 
dominions of Licinius, who had gone to Milan 
for the purpose of receiving in marriage the 
sister of Constantine. He was, however, de- 
feated by Licinius near Heraclea, and fled to 
Tarsus, where he soon after died. Maximinus 
possessed no military talents. He owed his 
elevation to his family connection. He sur- 
passed all his contemporaries in the profligacy 
of his private life, in the general cruelty of his 
administration, and in the furious hatred with 
which he persecuted the Christians. 

Maximus. 1. Of Ephesus or Smyrna, one of 
the teachers of the Emperor Julian, to whom he 
was introduced by ^Edesius. Maximus was a 
philosopher of the New Platonic school, and, 
like many others of that school, both believed 
in and practiced magic. . It is said that Julian, 
through his persuasion, was induced to abjure 
Christianity. On the accession of Julian, Max- 
imus was held in high honor at the court, and 
accompanied the emperor on his fatal expedi- 
tion against the Persians, which he had proph- 
esied would be successful. In 364 he was ac- 
cused of having caused by sorcery the illness 
of the Emperors Valens and Valentinian, and 
was thrown into prison, where he was exposed 
to cruel tortures. He owed his liberation to 
the philosopher Themistius. In 371 Maximus 
488 



was accused of taking part in a conspiracy 
against Valens, and was put to death. — 2. Of 
Epirus, or perhaps of Byzantium, was also an 
instructor of the Emperor Julian in philosophy 
and heathen theology. He wrote in Greek, De 
insolubilibus Oppositionibus, published by H. Ste- 
phanus, Paris, 1554, appended to the edition of 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, as well as other 
works. 

Maximus, Fabius. 1. Q. Fabius Maximus 
Rullianus, was the son of M. Fabius Ambus- 
tus, consul B.C. 360. Fabius was master of the 
horse to the dictator L. Papirius Cursor in 325, 
whose anger he incurred by giving battle to the 
Samnites during the dictator's absence, and 
contrary to bis orders. Victory availed Fabius 
nothing in exculpation. A hasty flight to Rome, 
where the senate, the people, and his aged 
father interceded for him with Papirius, barely 
rescued his life, but could not avert his degra- 
dation from office. In 322 Fabius obtained his 
first consulship. It was the second year of the 
second Samnite war, and Fabius was the most 
eminent of the Roman generals in that long and 
arduous struggle for the empire of Italy. Yet 
nearly all authentic traces are lost of the seat 
and circumstances of his numerous campaigns. 
His defeats have been suppressed or extenuat- 
ed, and the achievements of others ascribed to 
him alone. In 315 he was dictator, and was 
completely defeated by the Samnites at Lautulae. 
In 310 he was consul for the second time, and 
carried on the war against the Etruscans. In 
308 he was consul a third time, and is said to 
have defeated the Samnites and Umbrians. He 
was censor in 304, when he seems to have con- 
fined the libertini to the four city tribes, and to 
have increased the political importance of the 
equites. In 297 he was consul for the fifth time, 
and in 296 for the sixth time. In the latter 
year he commanded at the great battle of Sen- 
tinum, when the combined armies of the Sam- 
nites, Gauls, Etruscans, and Umbrians were 
defeated by the Romans. — 2. Q. Fabius Maxi- 
mus Gurges, or the Glutton, from the dissolute- 
ness of his youth, son of the last. His mature 
manhood atoned for his early irregularities. 
He was consul 292, and was completely defeat- 
ed by the Pentrian Samnites. He escaped deg- 
radation from the consulate only through his 
father's offer to serve as his lieutenant for the 
remainder of the war. In a second battle the 
consul retrieved his reputation, and was re- 
warded with a triumph, of which the most re- 
markable feature was old Fabius riding beside 
his son's chariot. He was consul the second 
time 276. Shortly afterward he went as lega- 
tus from the senate to Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
king of Egypt. He was consul a third time. 
265. — 3. Q. Fabius Maximus, with the agnomens 
Verrucosus, from a wart on his upper lip, Ovi- 
cula, or the Lamb, from the mildness or apathy 
of his temper, and Cunctator, from his caution 
in war, was grandson of Fabius Gurges. He 
vas consul for the first time 233, when Liguria 
was his province ; censor 230 ; consul a sec- 
ond time 228 ; opposed the agrarian law of C 
Flaminius 227 ; was dictator for holding the 
comitia in 221 ; and in 218 was legatus from 
the senate to Carthage, to demand reparation 
for the attack on Saguntum. In 217, immedi- 



MAXIMUS, MAGNUS CLEMENS 



MAZ^EUS. 



ately after the defeat at Thrasymenus, Fabius 
was appointed dictator. From this period, so 
long as the war with Hannibal was merely de- 
fensive, Fabius became the leading man at 
Rome. On taking the field he laid down a sim- 
ple and immutable plan of action. He avoided 
all direct encounter with the enemy ; moved 
his camp from highland to highland, where the 
Numidian horse and Spanish infantry could not 
follow him ; watched Hannibal's movements 
with unrelaxing vigilance, and cut off his strag- 
glers and foragers. His inclosure of Hannibal 
in one of the upland valleys between Cales and 
the Vulturnus, and the Carthaginian's adroit 
escape by driving oxen with blazing- fagots 
fixed to their horns up the hill-sides, are well- 
known facts. But at Rome and in his own 
camp the caution of Fabius was misinterpreted ; 
and the people, in consequence, divided the com- 
mand between him and M. Minucius Rufus, his 
master of the horse. Minucius was speedily 
entrapped, and would have been destroyed by 
Hannibal had not Fabius generously hastened 
to his rescue. Fabius was consul for the third 
time in 215, and for the fourth time in 214. In 
213 he served as legatus to his own son, Q. 
Fabius, consul in that year, and an anecdote is 
preserved which exemplifies the strictness of 
the Roman discipline. On entering the camp 
at Suessula, Fabius advanced on horseback to 
greet his son. He was passing the lictors when 
the consul sternly bade him dismount. " My 
son," exclaimed the elder Fabius, alighting, " I 
wished to see whether you would remember 
that you were consul." Fabius was consul for 
the fifth time in 209, in which year he retook 
Tarentum. In the closing years of the second 
Punic war Fabius appears to less advantage. 
The war had become aggressive under a new 
race of generals. Fabius disapproved of the 
new tactics ; he dreaded the political suprem- 
acy of Scipio, and was his uncompromising op- 
ponent in his scheme of invading Africa. He 
died in 203. — 4. Q. Fabius Maximus, elder son 
of the preceding, was preetor 214, and consul 
213. He was legatus to the consul M. Livius 
Salinator 207. He died soon after this period, 
and his funeral oration was pronounced by his 
father. — 5. Q. Fabius Maximus ^Emilianus, was 
by birth the eldest son of L. ^Emilius Paulus, 
the conqueror of Perseus, and was adopted by 
No. 3. Fabius served under his father (J3mil- 
ius) in the Macedonian war, 168, and was dis- 
patched by him to Rome with the news of his 
victory at Pydna. He was praetor in Sicily 149 
-148, and consul in 145. Spain was his prov- 
ince, where he encountered, and at length de- 
feated Viriathus. Fabius was the pupil and 
patron of the historian Polybius. — 6. Q. Fabius 
Maximus. Allobrogicus, son of the last. He 
was consul 121 ; and he derived his surname 
from the victory which he gained in this year 
over the Allobroges and their ally, Bituitus, 
king of the Arverni in Gaul. He was censor in 
108. He was an orator and a man of letters. 
— 7. Q. Fabius Maximus Servilianus, was 
adopted from the gens Servilia by No. 5. He 
was uterine brother of Cn. Servilius Caepio, 
consul in 141. He himself was consul in 142, 
when he carried on war with Viriathus. 
Maximi s>, Magnus Clemens, Roman emperor 



A.D. 383-388, in Gaul, Britain, and Spain, was 
a native of Spain. He was proclaimed emperor 
by the legions in Britain in 383, and forthwith 
crossed over to Gaul to oppose Gratian, who 
was defeated by Maximus, and was shortly aft- 
erward put to death. Theodosius found it ex- 
pedient to recognize Maximus as emperor of 
Gaul, Britain, and Spain, in order to secure 
Valentinian in the possession of Italy. Maxi- 
mus, however, aspired to the undivided empire 
of the West, and accordingly, in 387, he invaded 
Italy at the head of a formidable army. Valen- 
tinian"was unable to resist him, and fled to The 
odosius in the East. Theodosius forthwith pre- 
pared to avenge his colleague. In 388 he forceu 
his way through the Noric Alps, which had been 
guarded by the troops of Maximus, and shortly 
afterward took the city of Aquileia by storm, 
and there put Maximus to death. Victor, the 
son of Maximus, was defeated and slain in 
Gaul by Arbogates, the general of Theodosius. 

Maximus, Petronius, Roman emperor A.D. 
455, belonged to a noble Roman family, and en- 
joyed some of the highest offices of state under 
Honorius and Valentinian III. In consequence 
of the violence offered to his wife by Valentin- 
ian, Maximus formed a conspiracy against this 
emperor, who was assassinated, and Maximus 
himself proclaimed emperor in his stead. His 
reign, however, lasted only two or three months. 
Having forced Eudoxia, the widow of Valentin- 
ian, to marry him, she resolved to avenge the 
death of her former husband, and accordingly 
Genseric was invited to invade Italy. When 
Genseric landed at the mouth of the Tiber, 
Maximus prepared to fly from Rome, but was 
slain by a band of Burgundian mercenaries, 
commanded by some old officers of Valentinian. 

Maximus Planudes. Vid. Planudes. 

Maximus Tyrius, a native of Tyre, a Greek 
rhetorician and Platonic philosopher, lived dur- 
ing the reigns of the Antonines and of Com- 
modus. Some writers suppose that he was one 
of the tutors of M. Aurelius ; but it is more 
probable that he was a different person from 
Claudius Maximus, the Stoic, who was the 
tutor of this emperor. Maximus Tyrius ap- 
pears to have spent the greater part of his life 
in Greece, but he visited Rome once or twice. 
There are extant forty-one Dissertations (Ata- 
Xe&iC or Aoyot) of Maximus Tyrius on theolog' 
ical, ethical, and other philosophical subjects, 
written in an easy and pleasing style, but not 
characterized by much depth of thought. The 
best edition is by Reiske, Lips., 1774-5, 2 vols. 
8vo. 

Maximus, Valerius. Vid. Valerius. 
Maxula. Vid. Adis. 

Maxyes (Ma£Wf), a people of Northern Af- 
rica, on the coast of the Lesser Syrtis, on the 
western bank of the River Triton, who claimed 
descent from the Trojans. They allowed their 
hair to grow only on the left side of the head, 
and they painted their bodies with vermilion ; 
customs still preserved by some tribes in the 
same regions. 

Mazaca. Vid. C^sarea, No. 1. 

[MazjEUs (Mafaiof). 1- Satrap of Cilicia, 
who, with Belesys, satrap of Syria, made head 
against the revolted Phoenicians in the reign of 
Ochus, while the latter was preparing to march 

489 



MAZARA. 



MEDIA. 



against them. — 2. A Persian officer under Da- 
rius, sent to guard the passage of the Euphrates 
on the approach of Alexander the Great ; he 
behaved subsequently with great bravery at the 
battle of Gaugamela, in which he commanded 
the Persian cavalry. After the flight of Darius 
he retired to Babylon, but surrendered himself 
to Alexander, who appointed him satrap of 
Babylon B.C. 331.] 

Mazar a (Mafupa: Mafapaiof: now Mazzara), 
a town on the western coast of Sicily, situated 
on a river of the same name, between Lily- 
baeum and Selinus, and founded by the latter 
city, was taken by the Romans in the first Punic 
war. 

[Mazares (Mafo'p???), a Median officer in the 
service of Cyrus the Great ; he compelled the 
Lydians to submit to the terms imposed on them 
by Cyrus at the suggestion of Crcesus, and re- 
duced and enslaved the city of Priene.] 

Mazices (Mufi/cEf), a people of Northern Af- 
rica, in Mauretania Caesariensis, on the southern 
slope of Mount Zalacus. They, as well as the 
Maxyes, are thought to be the ancestors of the 
Amazirghs. 

[Mecisteus (M^/ciirreiif). 1. A son of Talaus 
and Lysimache, brother of Adrastus, and father 
of Euryalus of Thebes. — 2. A son of Echius, 
and one of the companions of Teucer at Troy, 
was slain by Polydamas.] 

Mecyberna (MnnvCepva : ~M.ynv6epva.ioc : now 
Molivo), a town of Macedonia in Chalcidice, at 
the head of the Toronaic Gulf, east of Olynthus, 
of which it was the sea-port. From this town 
part of the Toronaic Gulf was subsequently 
called Sinus Mecybernasus. 

Medaba (M^tfafia), a city of Perasa in Pales- 
tine. * 

Medama, Medma, or Mesma, a Greek town on 
the western coast of Bruttium, founded by the 
Locrians, with a celebrated fountain and a har- 
bor called Emporium. 

Medaura, Ad Medera, or Amedera (ruins at 
Ayedrah), a flourishing city of Northern Africa, 
on the borders of Numidia and Byzacena, be- 
tween Lares and Theveste ; a Roman colony, 
and the birth-place of Appuleius. 

Medea {MnSeia), daughter of J2gtes, king of 
Colchis, by the Oceanid Idyia, or, according to 
others, by Hecate, the daughter of Perses. She 
was celebrated for her skill in magic. The prin- 
cipal parts of her story are given under Absyr- 
tus, Argonaut/e, and Jason. It is sufficient to 
state here that, when Jason came to Colchis to 
fetch the golden fleece, she fell in love with the 
hero, assisted him in accomplishing the object 
for which he had visited Colchis, and afterward 
fled with him as his wife to Greece ; that, hav- 
ing been deserted by Jason for the youthful 
daughter of Creon, king of Corinth, she took 
fearful vengeance upon her faithless spouse by 
murdering the two children which she had had 
by him, and by destroying his young wife by a 
poisoned garment ; and that she then fled to 
Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. 
So far her story has been related elsewhere. 
At Athens she is said to have married King 
JEgeus, or to have been beloved by Sisyphus. 
Jupiter (Zeus) himself is said to have sued for 
her, but in vain, because Medea dreaded the 
anger of Juno (Hera) ; and the latter rewarded 
490 



her by promising immortality to her children. 
Her children are, according to some accounts, 
Mermerus, Pheres, or Thessalus, Alcimenes. 
and Tisander ; according to others, she had 
seven sons and seven daughters, while others 
mention only two children, Medus (some call 
him Polyxenus) and Eriopis, or one son Argus. 
Respecting her flight from Corinth there are 
different traditions. Some say, as we remark 
ed above, that she fled to Athens, and married 
-Egeus, but when it was discovered that she 
had laid snares for Theseus, she escaped and 
went to Asia, the inhabitanis of which were 
called after her Medes. Others relate that she 
first fled from Corinth to Hercules at Thebes, 
who had promised her his assistance while yet 
in Colchis, in case of Jason being unfaithful to 
her. She cured Hercules, who was seized with 
madness ; and, as he could not afford her the 
assistance he had promised, she went to Athens. 
She is said to have given birth to her son Me- 
dus after her arrival in Asia, where she had i 
married a king ; whereas others state that her 
son Medus accompanied her from Athens to 
Colchis, where her son slew Perses, and re- 
stored her father iEetes to his kingdom. The 
restoration of ^Eetes, however, is attributed by 
some to Jason, who accompanied Medea to 
Colchis. At length Medea is said to have be- I 
come immortal, to have been honored with di- 
vine worship, and to have married Achilles in 
Elysium. 

Medeon (MeSsuv : MeJeuvjoc). 1. Or Medion j 
(now Katuna), a town in the interior of Acar- 
nania, near the road which led from Limnaja 
to Stratos. — 2. A town on the coast of Phocis, I 
near Anticyra, destroyed in the sacred war, and 
never rebuilt. — 3. An ancient town in Boeotia, 
mentioned by Homer, situated at the foot of 
Mount Phcenicus, near Onchestus and the Lake ! 
Copais. — 4. A town of the Labeates in Dalma- 
tia, near Scodra. 

Media (rj Mndia : M>;c5of, Medus), an import- , 
ant country of Western Asia, occupying the ex- 
treme west of the great table-land of Iran, and ] 
lying between Armenia on the north and north- i 
west, Assyria and Susiana on the west and ' 
southwest, Persis on the south, the great des- | 
ert of Aria on the east, and Parthia, Hyrcania, I 
and the Caspian on the northeast. Its bounda- ' 
ries were, on the north the Araxes, on the west i 
and southwest the range of mountains called 
Zagros and Parachoatras (now Mountains of 
Kurdistan and. Louristan), which divided it from j 
the Tigris and Euphrates valley, on the east | 
the desert, and on the northeast the Caspii 
Montes (now Elburz Mountains), the country be- 
tween which and the Caspian, though reckoned 
as a part of Media, was possessed by the Gela?, 
Mardi, and other independent tribes. Media thus j 
corresponded nearly to the modern province of 
Irak-Ajcmi. It was for the most part a fertile 
country, producing wine, figs, oranges, and cit- 
rons, and honey, and supporting an excellent j 
breed of horses. It was well peopled, and was 
altogether one of the most important provinces 
of the ancient Persian empire. After the Mac- ( 
edonian conquest it was divided into two parts, 
Great Media (?) fityaln Mi;6ia) and Atropatene. 
Vid. Atropatene. The earliest history of Me- 
dia is involved in much obscurity. Herodotus I 



MEDIAE MURUS. 



MEDON. 



and Ctesias (in Diodorus) give different chro- 
nologies for its early kings: Ctesias makes Ait- 
baces the founder of the monarchy, about B.C. 
842, and reckons eight kings from him to the 
overthrow of the kingdom by Cyrus. Herodo- 
tus reckons only four kings of Media, namely, 
1. Dbioces, B.C. 710-657; 2. Phraortes, 657- 
635 ; 3. Cyaxares, 635-595 ; 5. Astyages, 595- 
560. The last king was dethroned by a revolu- 
tion, which transferred the supremacy to the 
Persians, who had formerly been the subordinate 
people in the united Medo-Persian empire. Vid. 
Cyrus. The Medes made more than one at- 
tempt to regain tlieir supremacy ; the usurpa- 
tion of the Magian Pseudo-Smerdis was no doubt 
such an attempt (vid. Magi) ; and another oc- 
curred in the reign of Darius II., when the 
Medes revolted, but were soon subdued (B.C. 
408). With the rest of the Persian empire, 
Media fell under the power of Alexander ; it 
next formed a part of the kingdom of the Se- 
leucidse, from whom it was conquered by the 
Parthians in the second century B.C., from which 
time it belonged to the Parthian, and then to 
the later Persian empire. The people of Me- 
dia were a branch of the Indo-Germanic fam- 
ily, and nearly allied to the Persians ; their lan- 
guage was a dialect, of the Zend, and their re- 
ligion the Magian. They called themselves Arii, 
which, like the native name of the Persians 
(Arteei), means noble. They were divided, ac- 
cording to Herodotus, into six tribes, the Buzas, 
Parataceni, Struchates, Arizanti, Budii, and 
Magi. In the early period of their history they 
were eminent warriors, especially as horse- 
archers ; but the long prevalence of peace, 
wealth, and luxury reduced them to a by-word 
for effeminacy. It is important to notice the 
use of the names Medus and Medi by the Ro- 
man poets for the nations of Asia east of the 
Tigris in general, and the Parthians in partic- 
ular. 

Mediae Murus (to Mrjdiac Kakovjisvov retxog), 
an artificial wall which ran from the Euphrates 
to the Tigris, at the point where they approach 
nearest, a little above 33° north latitude, and 
divided Mesopotamia from Babylonia. It is de- 
scribed by Xenophon (Anab., ii., 4) as being 
twenty parasangs long, one hundred feet high, 
and twenty thick, and as built of baked bricks, 
cemented with asphalt. Its erection was as- 
cribed to Semiramis, and hence it was also 
called to Zefiipiifiidoc 6iaTElxLopa. 

Mediolanum (Mediolanensis), more frequent- 
ly called by Greek writers Mediolanium (Medio- 
?.aviov), the name of several cities founded by 
the Celts. 1. (Now Milan), the capital of the 
Insubres in Gallia Transpadana, was situated 
in an extensive plain between the rivers Tici- 
nus and Addua. It was taken by the Romans 
B.C. 222, and afterward became both a muni- 
cipium and a colony. On the new division of 
the empire made by Diocletian, it became the 
residence of his colleague Maximianus, and con- 
tinued to be the usual residence of the emper- 
ors of the West till the irruption of Attila, who 
took and plundered the town, induced them to 
transfer the seat of government to the more 
strongly-fortified town of Ravenna. Mediola- 
num was at this time one of the first cities of 
the empire ; it possessed an imperial mint, and 



was the seat of an archbishopric. It is ceie* 
brated in ecclesiastical history as the see of St. 
Ambrose. On the fall of the Western empire, 
it became the residence of Theodoric the Great 
and the capital of the Ostrogothic kingdom, and 
surpassed even Rome itself in populousness 
and prosperity. It received a fearful blow in 
A.D. 539, when, in consequence of having sided 
with Belisarius, it was taken by the Goths un- 
der Vitiges, a great part of it destroyed, and its 
inhabitants put to the sword. It, however, grad- 
ually recovered fjom the effects of this blow, 
and was a place of importance under the Lom- 
bards, whose capital, however, was Pavia. The 
modern Milan contains no remains of antiquity, 
with the exception of sixteen handsome fluted 
pillars near the Church of S. Lorenzo. —2. 
(Now Saintes), a town of the Santones in Aqui- 
tania, northeast of the mouth of the Garumna; 
subsequently called Santones after the people, 
whence its modern name. — 3. (Now Chateau 
Meillan), a town of the Bituriges Cubi in Aqui- 
tania, northeast of the town last mentioned. — ■ 
4. (Now Evreux), a town of the Aulerci Ebu 
rovices in the north of Gallia Lugdunensis. 
south of the Sequana, on the road from Rotom- 
agus to Lutetia Parisiorum ; subsequently call 
ed Civitas Ebroicorum, whence its modern 
name. — 5. A town of the Segusiani in the south 
of Gallia Lugdunensis. — 6. A town in Gallia 
Belgica, on the road from Colonia Trajana to 
Colonia Agrippina. 

Mediomatrici, a people in the southeast of 
Gallia Belgica, on the Mosella, south of the Tre- 
viri. Their territory originally extended to the 
Rhine, but in the time of Augustus they had 
been driven from the banks of this river by the 
Vangiones, Nemetes, and other German tribes. 
Their chief town was Divodurum (now Mctz). 

Mediterraneum Mare. Vid. Internum Mare. 

Meditrina, a Roman divinity of the art of 
healing, in whose honor the festival of the Med- 
itrinalia was celebrated in the month of Octo- 
ber. (Vid. Diet, of Ant., art. Meditrinalia.) 

[Medius (Mrjdtoc), son of Onythemis, a native 
of Larissa in Thessaly, and a friend of Alexan- 
der the Great, whom he accompanied in his ex- 
pedition into India. After the death of Alex- 
ander he espoused the side-of Antigonus, and 
was one of his most useful and successful naval 
officers.] 

Medma. Vid. Medama. 

Medoacus or Meduacus, a river in Venetia, in 
the north of Italy, formed by the union of two 
rivers, the Medoacus Major (now Brenta) and 
Medoacus Minor (now Baechiglione), which falls 
into the Adriatic Sea near Edron, the harbor of 
Patavium. 

Medobriga (now Marvao, on the frontiers of 
Portugal), a town in Lusitania, on the road from 
Emerita to Scalabis. 

Medocus. Vid. Amadocus. 

Medon (Meduv). 1. Son of Oileus, and broth- 
er of the lesser Ajax, fought against Troy, and 
was slain by ^Eneas. — 2. Son of Codrus. Vid. 
Codrus. — [3. A herald in the house of Ulysses, 
in the suite of the suitors, disclosed to Penelope 
the danger of her son Telemachus, and was on 
this account preserved by the latter when the 
suitors were slain. — 4. Son of Pylades and Elec- 
tra. — 5. A Lacedaemonian statuary, brother of 

491 



MEDULI. 



ME GAR A. 



Dorycleidas, and the disciple of Dipoenus and 
Scyllis, made the gold and ivory statue of Mi- 
nerva (Athena) in the Heraeum at Olympia.] 

Meduli, a people in Aquitania, on the coast of 
the ocean, south of the mouth of the Garumna, 
in the modern Mcdoc. There were excellent 
oysters found on their shores 

Medulli, a people on the eastern frontier of 
Gallia Narbonensis and in the Maritime Alps, 
in whose country the Druentia (now Durance) 
and Duria (now Doria Minor) took their rise. 

Medullia (Medulllnus : new St. Angela), a 
colony of Alba, in the land of the Sabines, was 
situated between the Tiber and the Anio, in 
the neighborhood of Corniculum and Ameriola. 
Tarquinius Priscus incorporated their territory 
with the Roman state. 

Medullinus, Furius, an ancient patrician 
family at Rome, the members of which held the 
highest offices of state in the early times of the 
republic. 

Medullus, a mountain in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, near the Minius. 

Medus, a son of Medea. Vid. Medea. 

Medus (Mr/doc : now Farwar or Schamior), a 
small river of Persis, flowing from the confines 
of Media and falling into the Araxes (now Bend- 
Emir) near Persepolis. 

Medusa. Vid. Gorgones. 

Megabazus or Megabyzus. 1. One of the 
seven Persian nobles who conspired against the 
magian Smerdis, B.C. 521. Darius left him be- 
hind with an army in Europe when he himself 
reerossed the Hellespont on his return from 
Scythia, 506. Megabazus subdued Perinthus 
and the other cities on the Hellespont and along 
the coast of Thrace. — 2. Son of Zopyrus, and 
grandson of the above, was one of the com- 
manders in the army of Xerxes, 4S0. He after- 
ward commanded the army sent against the 
Athenians in Egypt, 458. 

Megacles (Mfya/cAjJf). 1. A name borne by 
several of the Athenian family of the Alcmae- 
onidae. The most important of these was the 
Megacles who put to death Cylon and his ad- 
herents after they had taken refuge at the altar 
of Minerva (Athena), B.C. 612. Vid. Cylon. 
— [2. Son of Alcmaeon, son-in-law of Clisthenes, 
leader of the Alcmaeonidae in the time of Solon. 
At first he was opposed to Pisistratus, and ex- 
pelled him from Athens ; but afterward he be- 
came reconciled to him, gave him his daughter 
Coesyra in marriage, and assisted in his resto- 
ration to Athens. Pisistratus not having treat- 
ed his wife in a proper manner, Megacles re- 
sented the affront, and again drove the former 
out of Athens : with the aid of large sums from 
the Thebans and other states, Pisistratus again 
raised an army, defeated his opponents, and 
drove Megacles and the partisans of the Alc- 
maeonidae into exile.] — 3. ASyracusan, brother 
of Dion, and brother-in-law of the elder Dio- 
nysius. He accompanied Dion in his flight from 
Syracuse, 358, and afterward returned with him 
to Sicily. 

Meg^era. Vid. Erinnyes. 

Megalia or Megaris, a small island in the 
Tyrrhene Sea, opposite Neapolis. 

Megalopolis {rj Meyd?iTi ttoXic, MeyaXonoXic : 
MtyaAoTToAtr^f). 1. (Now Sinano or Sinanu), 
the most recent but the most important of the 
492 



cities of Arcadia, was founded on the advice of 
Epaminondas, after'the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 
371, and was formed out of the inhabitants of 
thirty-eight villages. It was situated in Hie 
district Maenalia, near the frontiers of Messe- 
nia, on the River Helisson, which flowed through 
the city, dividing it into nearly two equal parts. 
It stood on the site of the ancient town Ores- 
tion or Orestia, was fifty stadia (six miles in 
circumference, and contained, when it was be- 
sieged by Polysperchon, about fifteen thousand 
men capable of bearing arms, which would give 
us a population of about seventy thousand in- 
habitants. Megalopolis was for a time subject 
to the Macedonians, but soon after the death 
of Alexander the Great it was governed by a 
series of native tyrants, the last of whom, Lyd- 
iades, voluntarily resigned the government and 
united the city to the Achaean league, B.C. 234. 
It became, in consequence, opposed to Sparta, 
and was taken and plundered by Cleomenes, 
who either killed or drove into banishment all 
its inhabitants, and destroyed a great part of the 
city, 222. After the battle of Sellasia in the 
following year it was restored by Philopoemen, 
who again collected its inhabitants, but it never 
recovered its former prosperity, and gradually 
sunk into insignificance. Philopoemen and the 
historian Polybius were natives of Megalopolis. 
The ruins of its theatre, once the largest in 
Greece, are the only remains of the ancient 
town to be seen in the village of Sinano. — 2. A 
town in Caria. Vid. Aphrodisias. — 3. A town 
in Pontus. Vid. Sebastia. — 4. A town in the 
north of Africa, was a Carthaginian city in the 
interior of Byzacena, in a beautiful situation ; 
it was taken and destroyed by the troops of 
Agathocles. 

Meganira (Nleyuveipa), wife of Celeus, usu- 
ally called Metanira. 

[Meganitas (Meyavirac), a small river of 
Achaia, in the territory of iEgium, flows into 
the sea west of that city.] 

Megapenthes QiUya-Kevdrjc;). 1. Son of Prce- 
tus, father of Anaxagoras and Iphianira, and 
king of Argos. He exchanged his dominion for 
that of Perseus, so that the latter received 
Tiryns instead of Argos. — 2. Son of Menelaus 
by an iEtolian slave, Pieris or Teridae. Mene- 
laus brought about a marriage between Mega- 
penthes and a daughter of Alector. According 
to a Rhodian tradition, Megapenthes, after the 
death of his father, expelled Helen from Argos, 
who thereupon fled to Polyxo at Rhodes. 

[Megaphernes (MeyaipepvTic), a Persian satrap 
put to death by Cyrus on the charge of having 
conspired against that prince.] 

Megara (Ueyupa), daughter of Creon, king of 
Thebes, and wife of Hercules. Vid. p. 356, b. 

Megara (rd Meyapa, in Lat. Megara, -ae, and 
pi. Megara, -orum : bleyapevc, Megarensis). 1. 
(Now Megara), the capital of Megaris, was sit- 
uated eight stadia (one mile) from the sea op- 
posite the island Salamis, about twenty-six 
miles from Athens and thirty-one miles from 
Corinth. It consisted of three parts: 1. The 
ancient Pelasgian citadel, called Caria, said to 
have been built by Car, the son of Phoroneus, 
which was situated on a hill northwest of the 
later city. This citadel contained the ancient 
and celebrated Megaron (fityapov) or temple of 



MEGARA. 



MEGISTIAS. 



Ceres (Demeter), from which the town is sup- 
posed to have derived its name. 2. The mod- 
ern citadel, situated on a lower hill to the south- 
west of the preceding, and called Alcathous, 
from its reputed founder Alcathous, son of Pe- 
lops. 3. The town properly so called, situated 
at the foot of the two citadels, said to have been 
founded by the Pelopidee under Alcathous, and 
subsequently enlarged by a Doric colony under 
Alethes and Athemenes at the time of Codrus. 
It appears to have been originally called Polich- 
ne (RoXlxvti). The town contained many public 
buildings, which are described at length by Pau- 
sanias. Its sea-port was Nisaa (Niaaia), which 
was connected with Megara by two walls, eight 
stadia in length, built by the Athenians when 
they had possession of Megara, B.C. 461-445. 
Ni^aea is said to have been built by Nisus, the 
son of Pandion ; and the inhabitants of Megara 
are sometimes called Nisaean Megarians (oi 
Nioatot Meyapeic) to distinguish them from the 
Hyblasan Megarians (oi 'T6Xatoi Meyapeic) in 
Sicily. In front of Nisaea lay the small island 
Minoa (Mivua), which added greatly to the secu- 
rity of the harbor. In the most ancient times 
Megara and the surrounding country was inhab- 
ited^ by Leleges. It subsequently became an- 
nexed to Attica ; and Megaris formed one of 
the four ancient divisions of Attica. It was 
next conquered by the Dorians, and was for a 
time subject to Corinth ; but it finally asserted 
its independence, and rapidly became a wealthy 
and powerful city. To none of these events 
can any date be assigned with certainty. Its 
power at an early period is attested by the flour- 
ishing colonies which it founded, of which Se- 
lymbria, Chalcedon, and Byzantium, and the 
Hyblaean Megara in Sicily, were the most im- 
portant. Its navy was a match for that of 
Athens, with which it contested the island of 
Salamis ; and it was not till after a long strug- 
gle that the Athenians succeeded in obtaining 
possession of this island. The government was 
originally an aristocracy, as in most of the Doric 
cities ; but Theagenes, who put himself at the 
head of the popular party, obtained the supreme 
power about B.C. 620. Theagenes was after- 
ward expelled, and a democratical form of 
government established. After the Persian 
wars, Megara was for some time at war with 
Corinth, and was thus led to form an alliance 
with Athens, and to receive an Athenian gar- 
rison into the city, 461 ; but the oligarchical 
party having got the upper hand, the Athenians 
were expelled, 441. Megara is not often men- 
ioned after this period. It was taken and its 
walls destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes ; it 
was taken again by the Romans under Q. Me- 
tellus ; and in the time of Augustus it had ceas- 
ed to be a place of importance. Megara is cel- 
ebrated in the history of philosophy as the seat 
of a philosophical school, usually called the Me- 
garian, which was founded by Euclid, a native 
of the city, and a disciple of Socrates. Vid. 
Euclides, No. 2. There are no remains of any 
importance of the ancient city of Megara. — 2. A 
town in Sicily, on the eastern coast, north of 
Syracuse, founded by Dorians from Megara in 
Greece, B.C. 728, on the site of a small town 
Hybla, and hence called Megara Hybl^ea, and 
its inhabitants Megarenses Hyblaei (Meyapeic 



'TBXatoi). From the time of Gelon it belonged 
to Syracuse. It was taken and plundered by 
the Romans in the second Punic war, and from 
that time sunk into insignificance, but it is still 
mentioned by Cicero under the name of Megaris. 

Megareus (Meyapevg), son of Onchestus, also 
called a son of Neptune (Poseidon) and CEnope, 
of Hippornenes, of Apollo, or of ^Egeus. He 
was a brother of Abrote, the wife of Nisus, kinp- 
of Megara, and the father of Evippus, Timalcus. 
Hippornenes, and Evaechme. Megara is said tt> 
have derived its name from him. 

Megaris (f) Meyapic or i] Meyapatrj, SC. yfj), i 
small district in Greece, between the Corinthiar- 
and Saronic gulfs, originally reckoned part of 
Hellas proper, but subsequently included in the 
Peloponnesus. It was bounded on the north 
by Bceotia, on the east and northeast by Attica, 
and on the south by the territory of Corinth. 
It contained about seven hundred and twenty 
square miles. The country was very mount- 
ainous ; and its only plain was the one in which 
the city of Megara was situated. It was sep- 
arated from Boeotia by Mount Cithaeron, and 
from Attica by the mountains called the Horns 
(ra Kipara), on account of their two projecting 
summits. The CEnean Mountains extended 
through the greater part of the country, and 
formed its southern boundary toward Corinth. 
There are two roads through these mountains 
from Corinth, one called the Scironian pass, 
which ran along the Saronic Gulf, passed by 
Crommyon and Megara, and was the direct road 
from Corinth to Athens ; the other ran along the 
Corinthian Gulf, passed by Geranea and Pegae, 
and was the road from Corinth into Bceotia. 
The only town of importance in Megaris waa 
its capital Megara. Vid. Megara. 

Megasthenes (Meyaadevrjc), a Greek writer, 
who was sent by Seleucus Nicator as ambassa- 
dor to Sandracottus, king of the Prasii, where 
he resided some time. He wrote a work on 
India, in four books, entitled Indica (ret 'Ivdiitd), 
to which later Greek writers were chiefly in- 
debted for their accounts of the country. [The 
fragments of Megasthenes have been collected 
by Schwanbeck, Mcgasth. Fragm., &c, Bonn, 
1846 ; and by Miiller, Hist. Grac. Fragm., vol 
ii., p. 397-439.] 

Meges (Meync), son of Phyleus, and grandson 
of Augeas, was one of the suitors of Helen, and 
led his bands from Dulichium and the Echina- 
des against Troy. 

Megiddo (MayfJJu, Mayedu : now Lejjun ?), 
a considerable city of Palestine, on the River 
Kishon, in a valley of the same name, which 
formed a part of the great plain of Jezreel or 
Esdraelon, on the confines of Galilee and Sama 
ria. It was a residence of the Canaanitish 
kings before the conquest of Palestine by the 
Jews. It was fortified by Solomon. It waa 
probably the same place which was called Legio 
under the Romans. 

[Megista (MeyioTrj), an island on the coast of 
Lycia, between Rhodes and the Chelidonian isl- 
ands, with a city of the same name, which, ac- 
cording to 'Strabo, was also called Cisthene. 
Vid. Cisthene, No. 2.] 

Megistani, a people of Armenia, in the dis- 
trict of Sophene, near the Euphrates.] 

[Megistias (Ucyiariac ) of Acarnania, c' the 
493 



MELA. 



MELANIPPE. 



race of Melampus, a celebrated seer, fought and 
fell at the battle of Thermopylae.] 

Mela, river. Yid. Mella. 

Mela, Fabius, a Roman jurist, who is often 
cited in the Digest, probably lived m the time 
of Antoninus Pins. 

Mela or Mella, M. Ann-sus, the youngest 
son of M. Annaaus Seneca the rhetorician, and 
Drother of L. Seneca the philosopher, and Gallio. 
By his wife Acilia he had at least one son, the 
celebrated Lucan. After Lucan's death, A.D. 
65, Mela laid claim to his property ; and as he 
was rich, he was accused of being privy to 
Piso's conspiracy, and anticipated a certain sen- 
tence by suicide. 

Mela, Pomponius, the first Roman author 
who composed a formal treatise upon Geogra- 
phy, was a native of Spain, and' probably flour- 
ished under the Emperor Claudius. His work 
is entitled De Situ Orbis Libri III. It contains 
a brief description of the whole world as known 
to the Romans. The text is often corrupt, but 
the style is simple, and the Latinity is pure ; 
and although every thing is compressed within 
the narrowest limits, we find the monotony of 
the catalogue occasionally diversified by ani- 
mated and pleasing pictures. The best edition 
is by Tzschucke, seven parts, 8vo, Lips., 1807. 

Mel^ena Acka {f/ MiZaiva uupa). 1. (Now 
Kara Burnu, which means the same as the 
Greek name, i. e., the Black Cape), the north- 
western promontory of the great peninsula of 
Ionia : formed by Mount Mimas ; celebrated for 
the millstones hewn from it. — 2. (Now Cape 
San Nicolo), the northwestern promontory of 
the island of Chios. — 3. (Now Kara Burnu), a 
promontory of Bithynia, a little east of the Bos- 
porus, between the rivers Rhebas and Artanes ; 
also called Ka?JvaKpov and BiBwiac anpov. 

Mel^en^e (MsvUivtzt : ~Me?Mcvev~). 1. Or Me- 
LjEse^; (M&aLvsat), a town in the west of Ar- 
cadia, on the Alpheus, northwest of Buphagium, 
and southeast of Heraja. — 2. A demus in Attica, 
on the frontiers of Bceotia, belonging to the tribe 
Antiochis. 

Melambium (Me?idp6iov), a town of Thessaly 
in Pelasgiotis, belonging to the territory of Sco- 
tussa. 

Melampus (Me7.ap.novc). 1. Son of Amythaon 
by Idomene, or, according to others, by Aglaia 
or Rhodope, and a brother of Bias. He was 
looked upon by the ancients as the first mortal 
who had been endowed with prophetic powers, 
as the person who first practiced the medical 
art, and who established the worship of Bac- 
chus (Dionysus) in Greece. He is said to have 
been married to Iphianassa (others call her 
Iphianira or Cyrianassa), by whom he became 
the father of Mantius and Antiphates. Abas, 
Bias,Manto, and Pronoe are also named bysome 
writers as his children. Before his house there 
stood an oak tree containing a serpent's nest. 
The old serpents were killed by his servants, 
but Melampus took care of the young ones and 
fed them carefully. One day, when he was 
asleep, they cleaned his ears with their tongues. 
On his waking, he perceived, to his astonish- 
ment, that he now understood the language of 
birds, and that with their assistance he could 
foretell the future. In addition to this, he ac- 
quired the power of prophesying from the vic- 
494 



I tims that were offered to the gods ; and, alter 
having an interview with Apollo on the banks 
of the Alpheus, he became a most renowned 
soothsayer. During his residence at Pylos his 
brother Bias w r as one of the suitors for the hand 
of Pero, the daughter of Neleus. The latter 
promised his daughter to the man who should 
bring him the oxen of Iphiclus, which were 
guarded by a dog whom neither man nor animal 
could approach. Melampus undertook the task 
of procuring the oxen for his brother, although 
he knew that the thief would be caught and 
kept in imprisonment for a year, after which he 
was to come into possession of the oxen. 
Things turned out as he had said ; Melampus 
was thrown into prison, and in his captivity he 
learned from the wood-worms that the building 
in which he was imprisoned would suon break 
down. He accordingly demanded to be let out, 
and as Phylacus and Iphiclus thus became ac- 
quainted with his prophetic powers, they asked 
him in what manner Iphiclus, who had no chil- ! 
dren, was to become father. Melampus, on the 
suggestion of a vulture, advised Iphiclus to take 1 
the rust from the knife with which Phylacus 
had once cut his son, and drink it in water dur- 
ing ten days. This was done, and IphiclusJ)e- 
came the father of Podarces. Melampus now 
received the oxen as a reward for his good 
services, drove them to Pylos, and thus gained 
Pero for his brother. Afterward Melampus ob- 
tained possession of a third of the kingdom of 
Argos in the following manner : In the reign 
of Anaxagoras, king of Argos, the women of 
the kingdom were seized with madness, and 
roamed about the country in a frantic state. 
Melampus cured them of their phrensy, on con- 
dition that he and his brother Bias should re- 
ceive an equal share with Anaxagoras in the 
kingdom of Argos. Melampus and Bias mar- 
ried the two daughters of Prcetus, and ruled 
over two thirds of Argos. — 2. The author of two 
little Greek works still extant, entitled Divinatio 
ex palpitatione and De Navis Olcaceis in Corporc. 
He lived probably in the third century B.C. at 
Alexandrea. Both the works are full of super- 
stitions and absurdities. Edited by Franz in 
his Scriplorcs Physiognomice Veteres, Altenburg, 
1780. 

Melanchl^eni (Ne?.uyx2ciivoi), a people in the 
north of Sarmatia Asiatica, about the upper 
course of the River Tanais (now Don), resem- 
bling the Scythians in manners, though of a 
different race. Their Greek name was derived 
from their dark clothing. 

[MELANDEPTiE (Me?.av5iTTTaL) Or MELANDiT-S; 

I (Me/iavdlrai), a people of Thrace, in the mount- 
i ains northwest of Byzantium, along the coast of 
the Pontus Euxinus.] 

[Melaneus (Ue?.avevc). 1. Son of Apollo, 
king of the Dryopes, was a famous archer ; he 
obtained from Perieres, king of Messenia, a 
town which he named after his wife QSchalia.— 
2. Father of Amphimedon -in Ithaca.] 

Melanippe {Melaviirnri). 1. Daughter of Chi- 
ron, also called Evippe. Being with child by 
/Eolus, she fled to Mount Pelion ; and in order 
that her condition might not become known, she 
prayed to be metamorphosed into a mare. Di- 
ana (Artemis) granted her prayer, and in the I 
form of a horse she was placed among the stars. 



MELA-NIPPIDES. 

Another account describes her metamorphosis 
as a punishment for having despised Diana (Ar- 
temis), or for having divulged the counsels of 
the gods. — [2. A queen of the Amazons, taken 
captive by Hercules ; she obtained her freedom 
by surrendering her girdle to the hero. 

Mklanipfides (M.e2.av mmdric), of Melos, a cel- 
ebrated lyric poet in the department of the dithy- 
ramb. He flourished about B.C. 440, and lived 
for some time at the court of Perdiccas, of Ma- 
cedonia, and there died. His high reputation 
as a poet is intimated by Xenophon, who makes 
Aristodemus give him the first place among 
dithyrambic poets, by the side of Homer, Soph- 
ocles, Polycletus, and Zeuxis, as the chief mas- 
ters in their respective arts ; and by Plutarch, 
who mentions him, with Simonides and Eurip- 
ides, as among the most distinguished masters 
of music. Several verses of his poetry are still 
preserved. Vid. Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Grac, p. 847- 
850. Some writers, following the authority of 
Suidas, make two poets of this name. 

Melanippus (M.e'Auvnrn-os). 1. Son of Astacus 
of Thebes, who, in the attack of the Seven on 
his native city, slew Tydeus and Mecisteus. 
His tomb was shown in the neighborhood of 
Thebes, on the road to Chalcis. — [2. A Trojan, 
slain by Teucer. — 3. Another Trojan warrior, 
son of Hicetaon, slain by Antilochus. — 4. An- 
other Trojan warrior, slain by Patrqclus. — 5. A 
son of Theseus and Perigune, gained the prize 
in running at the games celebrated by the Epig- 
oni after the capture of Thebes.] 

MelanoGjDtuli. Vid. G^etulia. 

Melanthius (Meluvdwc). 1. Also called Me- 
lantheus, son of Dolius, was a goat-herd of 
Ulysses, who sided with the suitors of Penelope, 
and was killed by Ulysses. — 2. An Athenian 
tragic poet, of whom little is known beyond the 
attacks made on him by Aristophanes and the 
other comic poets. The most important pas- 
sage respecting him is in the Peace of Aristoph- 
anes (796, &c). He was celebrated for his 
wit, of which several specimens are preserved 
by Plutarch. — 3. Or Melanthus, an eminent 
Greek painter of the Sicyonian school, was con- 
temporary with Apelles (B.C. 332), with whom 
he studied under Pamphilus. He was one of 
the best colorists of all the Greek painters. — 
[4. Leader of the twenty ships sent by the Athe- 
nians to the aid of Aristagoras of Miletus in his 
revolt against the Persian government.] 

Melanthius (M-eMvdioc, now probably Melet- 
Irma), a river of Pontus, in Asia Minor, east 
of the Promontorium Jasonium ; the boundary 
between Pontus Polemoniacus and Pontus Cap- 
padocius. 

[Melantho (MeTiavdu), daughter of Dolius, 
sister of the goat-herd Melanthius (vid. Melan- 
thius), female attendant upon Penelope, was 
put to death by Ulysses because she had aided 
the suitors.] 

Melanthus or Melanthius (MeXavOoc). 1. 
One oftheNelidae, and king of Messenia, whence 
he was driven out by the Heraclidae, on their 
conquest of the Peloponnesus ; and, following 
the instructions of the Delphic oracle, took 
refuge in Attica. In a war between the Athe- 
nians and Boeotians, Xanthus, the Boeotian king, 
challenged Thymoetes, king of Athens and the 
last of the Thesidae, to single combat. Thy- 



MELEAGER. 

moetes declined the challenge on the ground ol 
age and infirmity. So ran the story, which 
strove afterward to disguise the violent change 
of dynasty; and Melanthus undertook it on 
condition of being rewarded with the throne in 
the event of success. He slew Xanthus, and 
became king, to the exclusion of the Thesidae. 
According to Pausanias, the conqueror of Xan- 
thus was Andropompus, the father of Melan- 
thus ; according to Aristotle, it was Codrus, 
his son. — [2. One of the Tyrrhenian pirates, 
who wished to carry off Bacchus (Dionysus), 
but were changed into dolphins.] 

[Melas (MMaf). 1. A son of Phrixus and 
Chalciope, married Euryclea. by whom he be- 
came father of Hyperes. — 2. A son of Porthaon 
and Euryte, and brother of CEneus.] 

Melas (MeAac), the name of several rivers, 
whose waters were of a dark color. 1. (Now 
Muuro Nero or Mauro Potamo), a small river in 
Bceotia, which rises seven stadia north of Or- 
chomenus, becomes navigable almost from its 
source, flows between Orchomenus and Asple- 
don, and loses the greater part of its waters 
in the marshes connected with Lake Gopais. 
A small portion of its waters fell in ancient 
times into the River Cephisus. — 2. A river of 
Thessaly, in the district Malis, flows near Hera 
clea and Trachis, and falls into the Maliac Gulf. 
— 3. A river of Thessaly in Phthiotis, falls into 
the Apidanus. — 4. A river of Thrace, flows firs 
southwest, then northwest, and falls north of 
Cardia into the Melas Sinus. — 5. A river in the 
northeast of Sicily, which flows into the sea be- 
tween Mylae and Naulochus, through excellent 
meadows, in which the oxen of the sun are 
said to have fed. — 6. (Now Manavgat.-Su), a 
navigable river, fifty stadia (five geographical 
miles) east of Side, was the boundary between 
Pamphylia and Cilicia. — 7. (Now Kara-Su, i. e., 
the Black River), in Cappadocia, rises in Mount 
Argeeus, flows past Mazaca, and, after forming 
a succession of morasses, falls into the Halys, 
and not (as Strabo says) into the Euphrates. 

Melas Sinus (Me/Uf KoXnoc : now Gulf of 
Saros), a gulf of the iEgasan Sea, between the 
coast of Thrace on the northwest and the Thra- 
cian Chersonesus on the southeast, into which 
the River Melas flows. 

Meldi or Meld^e, a people in Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis, on the borders of Belgica, and upon the 
River Sequana (now Seine), in whose territory 
Caesar built forty ships for his expedition against 
Britain. 

Meleager (Meteaypoc). 1. Son of CEneus 
and Althaea, the daughter of Thestius, husband 
of Cleopatra, and father of Polydora. Others 
call him a son of Mars (Ares) and Althaea. He 
was one of the most famous JEtolian heroes of 
Calydon, and distinguished himself by his skill 
in throwing the javelin. He took part in the 
Argonautic expedition. On his return home, 
the fields of Calydon were laid waste by a mon- 
strous boar, which Diana (Artemis) had sent 
against the country as a punishment, because 
CEneus, the king of the place, once neglected 
to offer up a sacrifice to the goddess. No one 
dared encounter the terrible animal, till at length 
Meleager, with a band of other heroes, went out 
to hunt the boar. He slew the animal ; but the 
I Calydonians and Curetes quarrelled about the 

495 



MELES. 



MELISSA. 



head and bid*-, and at length waged open war 
against each other. The Calydonians were 
always victorious, so long as Meleager went 
out with them. But when his mother Althaea 
pronounced a curse upon h : m, enraged at the 
death of her brother who hac /alien in the fight, 
Meleager stayed at home with his wife Cleopa- 
tra. The Curetes now began to press Calydon 
very hard. It was in vain that the old men of 
the town made him the most brilliant promises 
if he would again join in the fight, and that his 
father, his sisters, and his mother supplicated 
him. At length, however, he yielded to the 
prayers of his wife Cleopatra : he put the Cu- 
retes to flight, but he never returned home, for 
the Erinnys, who had heard the curse of his 
mother, overtook him. Such is the more an- 
cient form of the legend, as we find it in Homer. 
(77., ix., 527, &eq.) In the later traditions Me- 
leager collects the heroes from all parts of 
Greece to join him in the hunt. . Among others 
was the fair maiden Atalanta ; but the heroes 
refused to hunt with her, until Meleager, who 
was in love with her, overcame their opposition. 
Atalanta gave the animal the first wound, which 
was at length slain by Meleager. He present- 
ed the hide to Atalanta, but the sons of Thes- 
tius took it from her, whereupon Meleager in a 
rage slew them. This, however, was the cause 
of his own death, which came to pass in the 
following way. When he was seven days old 
the Mcerae appeared, declaring that the boy 
would die as soon as the piece of wood which 
was burning on the hearth should be consumed. 
Althfea, upon hearingthis, extinguished the fire- 
brand, and concealed it in a chest. Meleager 
himself became invulnerable ; but after he had 
killed the brothers of his mother, she lighted 
the piece of wood, and Meleager died. Altheea, 
too late repenting of what she had done, put an 
end to her life ; and Cleopatra died of grief. 
The sisters of Meleager wept unceasingly after 
his death, until Diana (Artemis) changed them 
into Guinea-hens (/j.e2.eayptdeg), which were 
transferred to the island of Leros. Even in 
this condition they mourned during a certain 
part of the year for their brother. Two of 
them, Gorge and Dei'anira, through the media- 
tion of Bacchus (Dionysus), were not meta- 
morphosed. — 2. Son of Neoptolemus, a Mace- 
donian officer in the service of Alexander the 
Great. After the death of Alexander the Great 
(B.C. 323) Meleager resisted the claims of Per- 
diccas to the regency, and was eventually asso- 
ciated with the latter in this office. Shortly 
afterward, however, he was put to death by 
order of Perdiccas. — [3. Commander of a squad- 
ron of cavalry in the army of Alexander the 
Great at the battle of Arbela. He was after- 
ward slain in an insurrection against the offi- 
cers left by Antigonus in the government of 
Media.] — 4. Son of Eucrates, the celebrated 
writer and collector of epigrams, was a native 
of Gadara in Palestine, and lived about B.C. 
60. There are one hundred and thirty-one of 
his epigrams in the Greek Anthology, written 
in a good Greek style, though somewhat affect- 
ed, and distinguished by sophistic acumen and 
amatory fancy. An account of his collection of 
epigrams is given under Planudes. 
[Meles (MeA^f), a small stream of Ionia flovv- 
496 



ing by Smyrna, on the banks of which Homer 
is said to have been born ; (according to anoth 
er account, he composed his poems in a grot- 
to at its source). nd hence was called Mele- 
sigenes (Meh;aiyei>Tic) : from this also was de- 
rived the phrase Mdetece chartce in Tibullus. 
Another account makes Meles, the god of :his 
stream, to have been the father of Homer.] 

[Mblesander (Mcfa'/ciavdpoe), an Athenian 
general, who was sent out with six ships in the 
year 430 B.C. against Caria and Lycia; fell in 
battle in Lycia.] 

[Melesippus (Mf?^<r(7T7rof), a Lacedemonian, 
one of the ambassadors sent to Athens B.C. 
432, and again the next year to demand the 
restoration of the independence of the Greek 
states, but without success.] 

Meletus or Melitcs (MeAiyrof : McAiTof), an 
obscure tragic poet, but notorious as one of the 
accusers of Socrates, was an Athenian, of the 
Pitthean demus. He is represented by Plato 
and Aristophanes and their scholiasts as a frigid 
and licentious poet, and a worthless and profli- 
gate man. In the accusation of Socrates it was 
Meletus who laid the indictment before the 
archon Basileus ; but, in reality, he was the 
most insignificant of the accusers ; and, accord- 
ing to one account, he was bribed by Anytus 
and Lycon to take part in the affair. Soon after 
the death of Socrates, the Athenians repented 
of their injustice, and Meletus was stoned to 
death as one of the authors of their folly. 

Melia (MeAta), a nymph, daughter of Oceanus, 
became by Inachus the mother of Phoroneus 
and iEgialeus or Pegeus ; and by Silenus the 
mother of the centaur Pholus ; and by Nep- 
tune (Poseidon) of Amycus. She was carried 
off by Apollo, and became by him the mother 
of Ismenius and of the seer Tenerus. She was 
worshipped in the Ismenium, the sanctuary of 
Apollo, near Thebes. In the plural form, the 
Melice or Meliades (MMai, MeAtadef) are the 
nymphs who, along with the Gigantes and 
Erinnyes, sprang from the drops of blood that 
fell from Ccelus (Uranus) and were received by 
Terra (Gasa). The nymphs that nursed Jupiter 
(Zeus) are likewise called Melia?. 

Melibcea (MeMBoia : Me/UfioEiJf). 1. A town 
on the coast of Thessaly, in Magnesia, between 
Mount Ossa and Mount Pelion, is said to have 
been built by Magnes, and to have been named 
Meliboea in honor of his wife. It is mentioned 
by Homer as belonging to the dominions of 
Philoctetes, who is hence called by Virgil (JEn., 
iii., 401) dux MclibtBus. It was celebrated fo: 
its purple dye. (Lucret., ii., 499 ; Virg., Mn., 
v., 251.)— 2. A small island at the mouth of the 
River Orontes, in Syria. 

Melicertes. Yid. Pal^ejion. 

[Melinophagi (Me7avo<j>dyoi, "Millet-eaters"), 
a Thracian people on the coast of Salmydessus, 
whom the Greeks named after their chief article 
of food, not knowing their real name ] 

Melissa (M&iaoa). 1. A nymph said to haw 
discovered the use of honey, and from whom 
bees were believed to have received their name 
(lisXiacai). There can be no doubt, however, 
that the name really came from fiiXt, honey, 
and was hence given to nymphs. According 
to some traditions, bees were nymphs meta- 
morphosed. Hence the nymphs who fed the 



MELISSA. 

infant Jupiter (Zeus) with honey are called Me- 
lissa?. — 2. The name of priestesses in general, 
I but more especially of the priestesses of Cere's 
(Demeter), Proserpina (Persephone), Apollo, 
and Diana (Artemis). — 3. Wife of Periander, 
tyrant of Corinth, and daughter of Procles, 
tyrant of Epidaurus, was slain by her husband. 
Vid. Periander. 

[Melissa (Meliaaa), a village in the eastern 
part of Phrygia Magna, between Synnada and 
Metropolis, with the tomb of Alcibiades, where, 
I at Hadrian's order, a statue was erected to 
! him of Parian marble and sacrifices annually 
offered.] 

Melissus (Me?a<7CT0f). 1. Of Samos, a Greek 
philosopher, the son of Ithagenes, was, accord- 
ing to the common account, the commander of 
the fleet opposed to Pericles, B.C. 440. But he 
is not mentioned by Thucydides, and ought 
probably to be placed much earlier, as he is said 
to have been connected with Heraclitus, and 
to have been a disciple of Parmenides. It ap- 
pears from the fragments of his work, which 
was written in prose, and in the Ionic dialect, 
that he adopted the doctrines of the Eleatics. 
— 2. A Latin grammarian and a comic poet, 
was a freedman of Maecenas, and was intrusted 
by Augustus with the arrangement of the li- 
brary in the portico of Octavia. 

Melita or Melite (MeAZt^ : Me Xitoloq, Meli- 
tensis). 1. (Now Malta), an island in the Medi- 
terranean Sea, situated fifty-eight miles from 
the nearest point of Sicily, and one hundred 
and seventy-nine miles from the nearest point 
of Africa. Its greatest length is seventeen 
miles and a quarter, and its greatest breadth 
nine miles and a quarter. The island was first 
colonized by the Phoenicians, who used it as a 
place of refuge for their ships, on account of its 
excellent harbors. It afterward passed into the 
hands of the Carthaginians, but was taken pos- 
session of by the Romans in the second Punic 
war, and annexed to the province of Sicily. 
The Romans, however, appear to have neglect- 
ed the island, and it is mentioned by Cicero as 
a frequent resort of pirates. It contained a 
town of the same name, founded by the Cartha- 
ginians, and two celebrated temples, one of 
Juno on a promontory near the town, and an- 
other of Hercules in the southeast of the island. 
It is celebrated in sacred history as the island 
on which the Apostle Paul was shipwrecked ; 
though some writers erroneously suppose that 
the apostle was shipwrecked on the island of 
the same name off the Illyrian coast. The in- 
habitants manufactured fine cloth, which was ] 
in much request at Rome. They also exported j 
a considerable quantity of honey ; and from 
this island, according to some authorities, came 
the catuli Mclitai, 'he favorite lap-dogs of the 
Roman ladies, though other writers make them 
come from the island off the Illyrian coast.— 2. 
(Now Mdetla), a small island in the Adriatic 
Sea, off the coast of Illyria (Dalmatia), north- 
west of Epidaurus. — 3. A demus in Attica, 
which also formed part of the city of Athens, 
was situated south of the inner Ceramicus, and 
probably included the hill of the Museum. It 
was said to have derived its name from a nymph 
Melite, with whom Hercules was in love, and 
it therefore contained a temple of this god. 
32 



ME LOS. 

One of the gates of Athens was called the Me 
litian gate, because it led to this demus. Vid, 
p. 122, b. — 4. A lake in iEtolia, near the mouth 
of the Achelous, belonging to the territory of 
the town CEniadae. 

Memt/EA, Melitea, or MelitTa (McTi/rata, 
Me/jTEia, MeAirt'u : MeAiTuicvc), a town of Thes- 
saly, in Phthiotis, on the northern slope of 
Mount Othrys, and near the River Enipeus, It 
is said to have been called Pyrrha in more an- 
cient times, and the sepulchre of Hellen was 
shown in its market-place. 

Melite (Me/U'tj/). 1. A nymph, one of the 
Nereides, a daughter of Nereusand Doris. — [2. 
A Naiad, daughter of the river-god .ZEgaeus, be- 
came -by Hercules mother of Hyllus, in the 
land of the Phaeacians.] 

Melitene {MeTitTTivr/), a district of Armenia 
Minor, between the Anti-Taurus and the Eu- 
phrates, celebrated for its fertility, and espe- 
cially for its fruit-trees, oil, and wine. It pos- 
sessed no great town until the first century of 
our era, when a city, also called Melitene (now 
Malatiyah) was built on a tributary of the Eu- 
phrates, and near that river itself, probably on 
the site of a very ancient fort. This became 
a place of considerable importance ; the centre 
of several roads ; the station, under Titus, of 
the twelfth legion ; and, in the later division of 
the provinces, the capital of Armenia Secunda. 
In A.D. 577 it was the scene of a victory gain- 
ed by the Romans over the Persians under 
Chosroes I. 

Melito (MsMtuv), a Christian write <• of con- 
siderable eminence, was bishop of Sardes in the 
reign of M. Aurelius, to whom he presented an 
Apology for the Christians. Of his numerous 
works only fragments are extant. 

Mella or Mela (now Mella), a river in Gallia 
Transpadana, which flows by Brixia and falls 
into the Ollius (now Oglio). 

Mellaria. 1. A town of the Bastuli in His- 
pania Baetica, between Belon and Calpe, on the 
road from Gades to Malaca. — 2. A town in the 
same province, considerably north of the for 
mer, on the road from Corduba to Emerita 

Melodunum (now Melun), a town of the Se- 
nones in Gallia Lugdunensis, on an island of 
the Sequana (now Seine), and on the road from 
Agendicum to Lutetia Parisiorum. 

Melos QA.7j2.0Q : M?/Atoc : now Milo), an isl- 
and in the Mge&n Sea, and the most westerly 
of the group of the Cyclades, whence it was 
called Zephyria by Aristotle. It is about sev- 
enty miles north of the coast of Crete, and six- 
ty-five east of the coast of Peloponnesus. Its 
length is about fourteen miles from east to 
west, and its breadth about eight, miles. It con- 
tains on the north a deep bay, which forms an 
excellent harbor, and on which was situated ? 
town, bearing the same name as the island 
The island is of volcanic origin ; it contains hot 
springs, and mines of sulphur and alum. Its 
soil is very fertile, and it produced in antiquity, 
as it does at present, abundance of corn, oil, 
wine, &c. It was first colonized by the Phoe- 
nicians, who are said to have called it Byblus 
or Byblis, after the Phoenician town Byblus. It 
was afterward colonized by Lacedaemonians, oi 
at least by Dorians ; and consequently in the 
Peloponnesian war it embraced the side of 

497 



MELPOMENE. 

Sparta. In B.C. 426 the Athenians made an 
unsuccessful attack upon the island; but in 416 
they obtained possession of the town after a 
siege of several months, whereupon they killed 
all the adult males, sold the women and chil- 
dren as slaves, and peopled the island by an 
Athenian colony. Melos was the birth-place of 
Diagoras, the atheist, whence Aristophanes calls 
Socrates also the Melian. 

Melpomene (Mt?iirofievri), i. e., the singing 
goddess, one of the nine Muses, who presided 
over Tragedy. Vid. Mvsje. 

[Melpum (now Melza), a city of Gallia Trans- 
padana, in the territory of the Insubres.] 

[Melsus (now Narad), a small stream in the 
territory of the Astures, in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, flowing into the Oceanus Cantabricus, 
west of Flavionovia.] 

Memini, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, on 
the western bank of the Druentia, whose chief 
town was Carpentoracte (now Carpentras). 

Memmia Gens, a plebeian house at Rome, 
whose members do not occur in history before 

B. C. 173, but who pretended to be descended 
from the Trojan Mnestheus. (Virg., Mn., v. 
117.) 

Memmius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs B.C. 
Ill, was an ardent opponent of the oligarchical 
party at Rome during the Jugurthine war. 
Among the nobles impeached by Memmius 
were L. Calpurnius Bestia and M. JEmilius 
Scaurus. Memmius was slain by the mob of 
Saturninus and Glaucia, while a candidate for 
the consulship in 100. — 2. C. Memmius Gemel- 
lus, tribune of the plebs 66, curule aedile 60, 
and praetor 58. He belonged at that time to 
the Senatorian party, since he impeached P. 
Vatinius, opposed P. Clodius, and was vehe- 
ment in his invectives against Julius Caesar. 
But before he competed for the consulship, 54, 
he had been reconciled to Caesar, who support- 
ed him with all his interest. Memmius, how- 
ever, again offended Caesar by revealing a cer- 
tain coalition with his opponents at the comitia. 
He was impeached for ambitus, and, receiving 
uo aid from Caesar, withdrew from Rome to 
Mytilene, where he was living in the year of 
Cicero's proconsulate. Memmius married Faus- 
ta, a daughter of the dictator Sulla, whom he 
divorced after having by her at least one son, 

C. Memmius. Vid. No. 3. He was eminent both 
in literature and in eloquence. Lucretius ded- 
icated his poem, De Rerum Natura, to him. He 
was a man of profligate character, and wrote 
indecent poems. — 3. C. Memmius, son of the 
preceding, was tribune of the plebs 54, when 
he prosecuted A. Gabinius for malversation in 
his province of Syria, and Domitius Calvinus 
for ambitus at his consular comitia. Memmius 
was step-son of T. Annius Milo, who married 
his mother Fausta after her divorce. He was 
consul suffectus 34. — 4. P. Memmius Regulus, 
consul suffectus A.D. 31, afterward praefect of 
Macedonia and Achaia. He was the husband 
of Lollia Paulina, and was compelled by Caligu- 
la to divorce her. 

Memnon (Mefivuv). 1. The beautiful son of 
Tithonus and Eos (Aurora), and brother of Ema- 
thion. He is rarely mentioned by Homer, and 
must be regarded essentially as a post-Homeric 
hero. According to these later traditions, he 
49S 



MEMNON. 

was a prince of the .'Ethiopians, who came to 
the assistance of his uncle Priam, for Tithonus 
and Priam were half-brothers, being both sons 
of Laomedon by different mothers. Respecting 
his expedition to Troy there are different le- 
gends. According to some, Memnon the ^Ethi- 
opian first went to Egypt, thence to Susa, and 
thence to Troy. At Susa, which had been found- 
ed by Tithonus, Memnon built the acropolis, 
which was called after him the Memnonium ' ( 
According to others, Tithonus was the govern- > 
or of a Persian province and the favorite of 
Teutamus ; and Memnon obtained the com- 
mand of a large host of .Ethiopians and Susans . 
to succor Priam. Memnon came to the wai 
in armor made for him by Vulcan (Hephaestus). 
He slew Antilochus, the son of Nestor, but was 
himself slain by Achilles after a long and fierce 
combat. While the two heroes were fighting, 
Jupiter ( Zeus) weighed their fates, and the scale | 
containing Memnon's sank. His mother was 
inconsolable at his death. She wept for him ) 
every morning ; and the dew-drops of the morn- 
ing are the tears of Aurora (Eos). To soothe 
the grief of his mother, Jupiter (Zeus) caused 
a number of birds to issue out of the funeral 
pile, on which the body of Memnon was burn- 
ing, which, after flying thrice around the burn- 
ing pile, divided into two separate bodies, which 
fought so fiercely that half of them fell down 
upon the ashes of the hero, and thus formed a 
funeral sacrifice for him. These birds were 
called Memntmidcs, and, according to a story 
current on the Hellespont, they visited every 
year the tomb of the hero. At the entreaties ( 
of Aurora (Eos), Jupiter (Zeus) conferred im- 
mortality upon Memnon. At a comparatively 
late period, the Greeks gave the name of Mem- | 
non to the colossal statue in the neighborhood j 
of Thebes, which was said to give forth a sound 
like the snapping asunder of a chord when it 
was struck by the first rays of the rising sun. 
Although the Greeks gave this name to the 
statue, they were well aware that the Egyptians 
did not call the statue Memnon, but Amenophis. 
This figure was made of black stone, in a sit- 
ting posture, with its feet close together, and the 
hands leaning on the seat. Several very in- j 
genious conjectures have been propounded re- ! 
specting the alleged meaning of the so-called 
statue of Memnon. Some have asserted that 
it served for astronomical purposes, and others 
that it had reference to the mystic worship of 
the sun and light, but there can be little doubt 
that the statue represented nothing else than 
the Egyptian king Amenophis. — 2. A native of 
Rhodes, joined Artabazus, satrap of Lower 
Phrygia, who had married his sister, in his re- 
volt against Darius Ochus. When fortune de- 
serted the insurgents, they fled to the court of 
Philip. Mentor, the brother of Memnon, being 
high in favor with Darius, interceded on behalt 
of Artabazus and Memnon, who were pardoned 
and again received into favor. On the death ' 
of Mentor, Memnon, who possessed great mili- 
tary skill and experience, succeeded him in his 
authority, which extended over all the western 
coast of Asia Minor (about B.C. 336). When 
Alexander invaded Asia, Memnon defended 
Halicarnassus against Alexander until it was 
no longer possible to hold out ; he then collect 



MEMNONIUM- 



MENANDER. 



ed an army and a fleet, with the design of carry- 
ing the war into Greece, but died at Mytilene in 
383, before he could carry his plan into execu- 
tion. His death was an irreparable loss to the 
Persian cause, for several Greek states were 
prepared to join him had he carried the war into 
Greece. — 3. A native of Heraclea Pontica, wrote 
a large work on the history of that city. Of how 
many books it consisted, we do not know. Pho- 
tius had read from the ninth to the sixteenth 
inclusive, of which portion he has made a tol- 
erably copious abstract. The first eight books 
he had not read, and he speaks of other books 
after the sixteenth. The ninth book began with 
an account of the tyrant Clearchus, the disciple 
of Plato and Isocrates, and the sixteenth book 
came down to the time of Julius Cassar, after 
the latter had . obtained the supreme power. 
The work was probably written in the time of 
Augustus, and certainly not later than the time 
of Hadrian or the Antonines. The Excerpta 
of Photius are published separately by Orelli, 
Lips., 1816 

Memnon-um and -ia (Mefivoveiov, Ms^voveia), 
were nanu.s applied by the Greeks to certain 
very ancient buildings and monuments in Egypt 
and Asia, which they supposed to have been 
erected \,y or in honor of Memnon. 1. The 
most ce'ebrated of these was a great temple at 
Thebes-, described by Strabo, and commonly 
identi'ied by modern travellers with the mag- 
nificent ruins of the temple of Remeses the 
Greit, at Western Thebes, or, as it is usually 
ca)<ed, the tomb of Osymandyas, from its agree- 
ment with the description of that monument giv- 
en by Diodorus. There are, however, strong 
grounds for supposing that the true Memnoni- I 
um, described by Strabo, stood behind the two 
colossal sitting statues on the plain of Thebes, 
one of which is clearly the vocal statue of Mem- 
non, and that it has entirely disappeared. — 2 
Vid. Abydos, No. 2. — 3. The citadel of Susa was 
so called, and its erection was ascnned to the 
Memnon who appears in the legends of the Tro- 
jan war; but there is no reason to suppose that 
this connection of Memnon with the Persian cap- 
ital existed before the Persian conquest of Egypt. 

Memphis (Mc^jf, Mev^: in the Old Testament, 
Moph : ME^if>))f, Memphites : now ruins at Mcnf 
and Mctrahenny), a great city of Egypt, second 
in importance only to Thebes, after the fall of 
which it became the capital of the whole country, 
a position which it had previously shared with 
Thebes. It was of unknown antiquity, its found- 
ation being ascribed to Menes. It stood on the 
left (western) bank of the Nile, about ten miles 
above the Pyramids of Jiseh, near the northern 
limit of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, a 
nome of which (Me/i^tr^r) was named after the 
city. It was connected by canals with the lakes 
of Moeris and Mareotis, and was the great centre 
of the commerce of Egypt until the Persian con- 
quest (B.C. 524), when Cambyses partially de- 
stroyed the city. After the foundation of Alex- 
andrea it sank into insignificance, and was final- 
ly destroyed at the Arab conquest in the sev- 
enth century. In the time of its splendor it is 
said to have been one hundred and fifty stadia 
in circumference, and half a day's journey in 
every direction. Of the splendid buildings with 
which it was adorned, the chief were the palace 



of the Pharaohs ; the temple-palace of the god- 
bull Apis ; the temple of Serapis, with its ave- 
nue of sphinxes, now covered by the sand of the 
desert ; and the temple of Vulcan (Hephajstus), 
the Egyptian Phtha, of whose worship Memphis 
was the chief seat. The ruins of this temple, 
! and of other buildings, still cover a large por- 
tion of the plain between the Nile and the west- 
I ern range of hills which skirt its valley. 

Menjenum or Men^e (Menenius, Cic, Menam- 
nus, Plin., but on coinsMenasnus : now Mineo), 
a town on the eastern coast of Sicily, south of 
Hybla, the birth-place and residence of the Si- 
celian chief Ducetius, who was long a formida- 
ble enemy of the Greek cities in Sicily. Vid. 
Ducetius. On his fall the town lost all its im • 
portance. 

Menalippus. Vid. Melanippus. 

Menander (MeVavdpoc), of Athens, the most 
distinguished poet of the New Comedy, was 
the son ofDiopithes and Hegesistrate, and flour- 
ished in the time of the successors of Alexan- 
der. He was born B.C. 342. His father, Dio- 
pithes, commanded the Athenian forces on the 
Hellespont in the year of his son's birth. Alex 
is, the comic poet, was the uncle of Menander 
on the father's side ; and we may naturally sup- 
pose that the young Menander derived from his 
uncle his taste for the comic drama, and was 
instructed by him in its rules of composition. 
His character must have been greatly influenced 
by his intimacy with Theophrastus and Epicu- 
rus, of whom the former was his teacher and 
the latter his intimate friend. His taste and 
sympathies were altogether with the philosophy 
of Epicurus ; and in an epigram he declared 
that " as Themistocles rescued Greece from 
slavery, so Epicurus from unreason." From 
Theophrastus, on the other hand, he must have 
derived much of that skill in the discrimination 
of character which we so much admire i* the 
Ckaracteres of the philosopher, and which form- 
ed the great charm of the comedies of Menan- 
der. His master's attention to external ele- 
gance and comfort he not only imitated, but, as 
was natural in a man of an elegant person, a 
joyous spirit, and a serene and easy temper, he 
carried it to the extreme of luxury and effem- 
inacy. The moral character of Menander is de- 
fended by modern writers against the asper- 
sions of Suidas and others. Thus much is cer- 
tain, that his comedies contain nothing offens- 
ive, at least to the taste of his own and the fol- 
lowing ages, none of the purest, it must be ad- 
mitted, as they were frequently acted at private 
banquets. Of the actual events of his life we 
know but little. He enjoyed the friendship of 
Demetrius Phalereus, whose attention was first 
drawn to him by admiration of his works. Ptol- 
emy, the son of Lagus, was also one of his ad- 
mirers ; and he invited the poet to his court at 
Alexandrea, but Menander seems to have de- 
clined the proffered honor. He died at Athens 
B.C. 291, at the age of 52, and is said to have 
been drowned while swimming in the harbor of 
Piraeus. Notwithstanding Menander's fame as 
a poet, his public dramatic career was not emi- 
nently successful ; for, though he composed up- 
ward of one hundred comedies, he gained the 
prize only eight times. His preference for ele- 
gant exhibitions of character above coarse jest- 



MENANDER. 



MENEDEMUS. 



sng may have been the reason why he was not 
so great a favorite with the common people as 
his principal rival, Philemon, who is said, more- 
over, to have used unfair means of gaining 
popularity. Menander appears to have borne 
the popular neglect very lightly, in the con- 
sciousness of his superiority ; and once when 
he happened to meet Philemon, he is said to 
have asked him, " Pray, Philemon, do not you 
blush when you gain a victory over me V The 
neglect of Menander's contemporaries has been 
amply compensated by his posthumous fame. 
His comedies retained their place on the stage 
down to the time of Plutarch, and the unani- 
mous consent of antiquity placed him at the 
head of the New Comedy, and on an equality 
with the great masters of the various kinds of 
poetry. His comedies were imitated by the Ro- 
man dramatists, particularly by Terence, who 
was little more than a translator of Menander. 
But we can not form, from any one play of Ter- 
ence, a fair notion of the corresponding play of 
Menander, as the Roman poet frequently com- 
pressed two of Menander's plays into one. It 
was this mixing up of different plays that Cae- 
sar pointed to by the phrase dimidiate Menan- 
der, in the epigram which he wrote upon Ter- 
ence. Of Menander's comedies only fragments 
are extant. The best edition of them is by Mei- 
neke, in his Fragmenta Comicorum Gracorurn, 
Berol., 1841. 

[Menander (MevavSpoc). 1. An Athenian of- 
ficer in the Sicilian expedition, associated in the 
supreme command with Nicias, toward the end 
of the year B.C. 414 : he afterward served with 
Alcibiades against Pharnabazus, and was one 
of the commanders at the disastrous battle of 
J2gos potami. — 2. King of Bactria, was one of 
the most powerful of all the Greek rulers of 
that country, and one of those who made the 
most extensive conquests in India, reaching be- 
yond the Hypanis or Sutledj. — 3. Surnamed Pro- 
tector, a Greek writer of Byzantium in the latter 
half of the sixth century. He wrote a history 
of the Eastern empire from A.D. 559 to 582 in 
eight books, of which considerable extracts 
have been preserved in the " Eclogae Legation- 
um" attributed to Constantinus Porphyrogeni- 
tus Edited by BekkerandNiebuhr, Bonn, 1830.] 
Menapia (Mevairia), a city of Bactriana, on 
the River Zariaspis. 

MenapIi, a powerful people in the north of 
Gallia Belgica, originally dwelt on both banks 
of the Rhine, but were afterward driven out of 
their possessions on the right bank by the Usi- 
petes and Tenchteri, and inhabited only the left 
bank near its mouth, and west of the Mosa. 
Their country was covered with forests and 
swamps. They had a fortress on the Mosa 
called Castellum Menapiorum (now Kessel). 

Menas (Mj^vdf), also called Menodorus (M77- 
vodupof) by Appian, a freedman of Pompey the 
Great, was one of the principal commanders of 
the fleet of Sextus Pompey in his war against 
Octavianus and Antony, B.C. 40. In 39 he 
tried in vain to dissuade his master from con- 
cluding a peace with Octavianus and Antony ; 
and, at an entertainment given to them by Sex- 
tus on board his ship at Misenum, Menas sug- 
gested to him to cut the cables of the vessel, 
and, running it out to sea, dispatch both his 
500 



I rivals. The treacherous proposal, however, was 
j rejected by Pompey. On the breaking out of 
, the war again in 38, Menas deserted Pompey 
■ and went over to Octavianus. In 36 he return- 
i ed to his old master's service ; but in the course 
of the same year he again played the deserter, 
and joined Octavianus. In 35 he accompanied 
Octavianus in the Pannonian campaign, and 
was slain at the siege of Siscia. According to 
the old scholiasts, this Menas is the person so 
vehemently attacked by Horace in his fourth 
epode. This statement has been called in ques- 
tion by many modern commentators ; but their 
arguments are far from satisfactory. 

Mende or MenDjE (Mevdn, MeixScziof), a town 
on the western coast of the Macedonian penin- 
sula Pellene and on the Thermaic Gulf, was a 
colony of the Eretrians, and was celebrated for 
its wine. It was for some time a place of con- 
siderable importance, but was ruined by the 
foundation of Cassandrea. 

Mendes (MfTvdTjc : Mei>c5?}<7ioc : ruins near Ma- 
tarieh), a considerable city of the Delta of Egypt, 
on the southern side of the Lake of Tanis (now 
Mcnzaleh), and on the bank of one of the lesser 
arms of the Nile, named after it Mevdrjoiov cropa : 
the chief seat of the worship of Mendes. 

Menecles (MeveKh'/c). 1. Of Barce in Gy- 
rene, an historian of uncertain date. — 2. Of Ala- 
banda, a celebrated rhetorician. He and his 
brother Hierocles taught rhetoric at Rhodes, 
where the orator M. Antonius heard them, about 
B.C. 94. 

Meneceates QUEveKpdrnc). 1. A Syracusan 
physician at the court of Philip, king of Mace- 
don, B.C. 359-336. He made himself .ridicu 
lous by calling himself " Jupiter," and assuming 
divine honors. There is a tale that he was in- 
vited one day by Philip to a magnificent enter- 
tainment, where the other guests were sump- 
tuously fed, while he himself had nothing but 
incense and libations, as not being subject to 
the human infirmity of hunger. He was at first 
pleased with his reception, but afterward per- 
ceiving the joke, and finding that no more sub- 
stantial food was offered him, he left the party 
in disgust. — 2. Tiberius Claudius Menecra- 
tes, a physician mentioned by Galen, composed 
more than one hundred and fifty medical works, 
of which only a few fragments remain. 

Menedemus (Msfcd^of), a Greek philosopher, 
was a native of Eretria, and, though of noble 
birth, was poor, and worked for a livelihood 
either as a builder or as a tent-maker. Accord- 
ing to one story, he seized the opportunity af- 
forded by his being sent on some military serv- 
ice to Megara to hear Plato, and abandoned 
the army to addict himself to philosophy ; but 
it may be questioned whether he was old enough 
to have heard Plato before the deatli of the 
latter. According to another story, he and his 
friend Asclepiades got their livelihood as millers, 
working during the night, that they might have 
leisure for philosophy in the day. The two 
friends afterward became disciples of Stilpo at 
Megara. From Megara they went to Elis, and 
placed themselves under the instruction of 
some disciples of Phsedo. On his return to 
Eretria Menedemus established a school of phi- 
losophy, which was called the Eretrian. He 
did not, however, confine himself to philosophi- 



t 



MENELAI. 



MENESTHEUS. 



ca) pursuits, but took an active part in the polit- 
; cal affairs of his native city, and came to be 
thf> leading man in the state. He went on vari- 
ous embassies to Lysimachus, Demetrius, and 
others ; but, being suspected of the treacherous 
intention of betraying Eretria into the power of 
Antigonus, he quitted his native city secretly, 
and took refuge with Antigonus in Asia. Here 
he starved himself to death in the seventy-fourth 
year of his age, probably about B.C. 277. Of 
the philosophy of Menedemus little is known, 
except that it closely resembled that of the Me- 
garian school. Vid. Euclides, No. 2. 

Menelai or -us, Portus (MeyeAutof Tiifir/v, 
Meve^aoc : now Marsa-Toubrouk, or Ras-el- 
Milhr ?), an ancient city on the coast of Mar- 
marica, in Northern Africa, founded, according 
to tradition, by Menelaus. It is remarkable in 
history as the place where Agesilaus died. 

Menelaium (Mevelauov), a mountain in La- 
conia, southeast of Sparta, near Therapne, on 
which the heroum of Menelaus was situated, the 
foundations of which temple were discovered 
in the year 1834. 

Menelaus (McesAaof, Mev&cuc or MfytAaf). 
I. Son of Plisthenes or Atreus, and younger 
brother of Agamemnon. His early life is re- 
lated under Agamemnon. He was king of La- 
cedsemon, and married to the beautiful Helen, 
by whom he became the father of Hermione. 
When Helen had been carried off by Paris, Men- 
elaus and Ulysses sailed to Troy in order to 
demand her restitution. Menelaus was hospi- 
tably treated by Antenor, but the journey was 
of no avail; and the Trojan Antimachus even 
advised his fellow-citizens to kill Menelaus and 
Ulysses. Thereupon Menelaus and his brother 
Agamemnon resolved to march against Troy 
with all the forces that Greece could muster. 
Agamemnon was chosen the commander-in- 
chief. In the Trojan war Menelaus was under 
the special protection of Juno (Hera) and Mi- 
nerva {Athena), and distinguished himself by 
his bravery in battle. He killed many illustri- 
ous Trojans, and would have slain Paris also 
in single combat, had not the latter been carried 
off by Venus (Aphrodite) in a cloud. Menelaus 
was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden 
horse ; and as soon as Troy was taken, he and 
Ulysses hastened to the house of Deiphobus, 
who had married Helen after the death of Paris, 
and put him to death in a barbarous manner. 
Menelaus is said to have been secretly intro- 
duced into the chamber of Deiphobus by Helen, 
who thus became reconciled to her former hus- 
band. He was among the first that sailed away 
from Troy, accompanied by his wife Helen and 
Nestor ; but he was eight years wandering about 
the shores of the Mediterranean before he 
reached home. He arrived at Sparta on the 
very day on which Orestes was engaged in 
burying Clytaemnestra and ^Egisthus. Hence- 
forward he lived with Helen at Sparta in peace 
and wealth, and his palace shone in its splendor 
like the sun or the moon. When Telemachus 
visited Sparta to inquire after his father, Mene- 
laus was solemnizing the marriage of his daugh- 
ter Hermione with Neoptolemus, and of his son 
Megapenthes with a daughter of Alector. In 
the Homeric poems Menelaus is described as a 
man of an athletic figure ; he spoke little, but 



what he said was always impressive ; he was 
brave and courageous, but milder than Aga- 
memnon, intelligent and hospitable. Accord- 
ing to the prophecy of Proteus in the Odyssey, 
Menelaus and Helen were not to die, but the 
gods were to conduct them to Elysium. Ac- 
cording to a later tradition, he and Helen went 
to the Taurians, where they were sacrificed by 
Iphigenia to Diana (Artemis). Menelaus was 
worshipped as a hero at Therapne, where his 
tomb and that of Helen were shown. Respect- 
ing the tale that Helen never werft to Troy, but 
was detained in Egypt, vid. Helena. — 2. Son 
of Lagus, and brother of Ptolemy Soter, held 
possession of Cyprus for his brother, but was 
defeated and driven out of the island by Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes, B.C. 306. — 3. A Greek mathe- 
matician, a native of Alexandrea, the author. of 
an extant treatise in three books, on the Sphere. 
He made some astronomical observations at 
Rome in the first year of the Emperor Trajan, 
A.D. 98. 

Menelaus (NieveXaog), a city of Lower Egypt, 
on the Canopic branch of the Nile, named after 
the brother of Ptolemy the son of Lagus. It 
was made the capital of the district between 
the lakes o{ Mceris and Mareotis (vo^oj- Mcvs- 
Tiatrrig). 

Menenius Lanatus. 1. Agrippa, consul B.C. 
503, conquered the Sabines. It was owing to 
his mediation that the first great rupture be- 
tween the patricians and plebeians, when the 
latter seceded to the Sacred Mount, was brought 
to a happy and peaceful termination in 493 , 
and it was upon this occasion he is said to have 
related to the plebeians his well-known fable 
of the belly and its members. — 2. T, consul 
477, was defeated by the Etruscans. He had 
previously allowed the Fabii to be destroyed by 
the Etruscans, although he might have assisted 
them with his army. For this act of treachery- 
he was brought to trial by the tribunes and con 
demned to pay a fine. He took his punishment 
so much to heart, that he shut himself up in 
his house and died of grief. 

Menus (M^v7?f), first king of Egypt, according 
to the traditions of the Egyptians themselves. 
Herodotus records of him that he built Mem- 
phis on a piece of ground which he had rescued 
from the river by turning it from its former 
course, and erected therein a magnificent tem- 
ple to Hephaestus (Phthah). Diodorus tells us 
that he introduced into Egypt the worship of 
the gods aiid the practice of sacrifices, as well 
as a more elegant and luxurious style of living. 
That he was a conqueror, like other founders 
of kingdoms, we learn from an extract from 
Manetho preserved by Eusebius. By Marsham 
and others he has been identified with the Miz- 
raim of Scripture. According to some accounts 
he was killed by a hippopotamus. 

Menesthei Portus (now Puerto de S. Maria), 
a harbor in Hispania Baetica, not far from Gades, 
with an oracle of Menestheus, who is said in 
some legends to have settled in Spain. 

[Menesthes (Meviadjic), a Greek warrior at 
the siege of Troy, slain by Hector.] 

Menestheus (MeverrOevc). I. Son of Peteus, 
an Athenian king, who led the Athenians against 
I "^roy, and surpassed all other mortals in arrang- 
i ing the war-steeds and men for battle. With 

501 



MENESTHIUS. 



MENTOR. 



the assistance of the Tyndarids, he is said to 
have driven Theseus from his kingdom. — 2. Son 
of Iphicrates, the famous Athenian general, by 
the daughter of Cotys, king of Thrace. He 
married the daughter of Timotheus ; and in 
356 was ch osen commander in the Social war, 
his father and his father-in-law being appointed 
to aid him with their counsel and experience. 
They were all three impeached by their col- 
league, Chares, for alleged misconduct and 
treachery in the campaign ; but Iphicrates and 
Menestheus*were acquitted. 

[Menesthius (MevEtrffiog). 1- Son of Are'i- 
thous, king of Arne in Bceotia, was slain by Par- 
is. — 2. Son of Sperchlus or of Borus and Poly- 
dora, nephew of Achilles, a leader of the Myr- 
midons before Troy.] 

[Menestratus ( MEVEorpargc )> a sculptor, 
whose Hercules and Hecate were greatly ad- 
mired. The latter stood in the opisthodomus 
of the temple of Diana (Artemis) at Ephesus, 
and was made of marble of such brilliancy that 
it was necessary to warn beholders to shade 
their eyes, says Pliny.] 

[Menexenus (Msvsljcvoc), an Athenian, son of 
Demophon, was a disciple of Socrates, and is 
introduced by Plato as one of the,interlocutors 
in the dialogues Lysis and Menexenus.] 

Meninx or Lotophagitis, afterward Girba 
(M^viyf, AuroQayiTtg, AuTOipayuv vfjoog : now 
Jerbah), a considerable island, close to the coast 
of Africa Propria, at the southeastern extremity 
of the Lesser Syrtis, with two cities, Meninx 
(now Menaz) on the northeast, and Girba, or 
Gerra, on the southwest. It was the birth-place 
of the emperors Vibius Gallus and Volusianus. 

Menippe (M.ev'LTznri), daughter of Orion and 
sister of Metioche. These two sisters put them- 
selves to death of their own accord in order to 
propitiate the two Erinnyes, who had visited 
Aonia with a plague. They were metamorph- 
osed by Proserpina (Persephone) and Pluto 
(Hades) into comets, and the Aonians erected 
to them a sanctuary near Orchomenos. 

Menippus (Mium-nog). 1. A cynic philosopher, 
and originally a slaw, was a native of Gadara 
in Coele-Syria. He seems to have been a hear- 
er of Diogenes, and flourished about B.C. 60. 
He amassed great wealth as a usurer (yj/iepoSa- 
veioTns), but was cheated out of it all, and com- 
mitted suicide. We are told that he wrote noth- 
ing serious, but that his books were full of jests; 
whence it would appear that he was one of 
those cynic philosophers who threw all their 
teaching into a satirical form. In this charac- 
ter he is several times introduced by Lucian. 
His works are now entirely lost ; but we have 
considerable fragments of Varro's Saturce Me- 
nippcce, written in imitation of Menippus. — [2. 
Of Stratonice, a Carian by birth, was the most 
accomplished orator of his time in all Asia. 
Cbero, who heard him, puts him almost on a 
level with the Attic orators. — 3. Of Pergamus, 
a geographer, lived in the time of Augustus, and 
wrote a flfpiTrAovf rr/g evrog ■&a\6.TTi)g, of which 
an abridgment was made by Marcianus, and of 
which some fragments are preserved. Vid. 
Marcianus.] 

Mennis, a city of Adiabene, in Assyria, only 
mentioned by Curtius (v., 1). 

[Menodorus Q:l7]v66o)pog). Vid. Menas.] 
502 



Menodotus (M^ocSorof), a physician of Nico-- 
media in Bithynia, who was a pupil of Antio- 
chus of Laodicea, and tutor to Herodotus ot j 
Tarsus ; he belonged to the medical sect of the 
Einpirici, and lived probably about the begin- ! 
ning of the second century after Christ. 

Meno:ceus (MevoiKevr). 1. A Theban, grand- 
son of Pentheus, and father of Hipponome, Jo- \ 
casta, and Creon. — 2. Grandson of the former, 
and son of Creon. He put an end to his life | 
because Tiresias had declared that his death 1 
would bring victory to his country, when the ; 
seven Argive heroes marched against Thebes. 
His tomb was shown at Thebes near the Nei- ! 
tian gate. 

[Mencetes. 1. Pilot of the ship of Gyas, who i 
threw him overboard for having delayed his ves- j 
sel in the race at the celebration of the games j 
in honor of Anchises. — 2. An Arcadian who f 
fought on the side of ^Eneas in Italy, and was i ; 
slain by Turnus.] 

Mencetius (Mevoirwg). 1. Son of Iapetus | 
and Clymene or Asia, and brother of Atlas, 
Prometheus, and Epimetheus. He was killed 1 
by Jupiter (Zeus) with a flash of lightning in 
the battle with the Titans, and was hurled into | 
Tartarus.— 2. Son of Actor and ^Egina, hus- 
band of Polymele or Sthenele, and father of Pa- 
troclus, who is hence called Mencetiades. After 
Patroclus had slain the son of Amphidamas. 
Menostius fled with him to Peleus in Phthia, 
and had him educated there. 

[Menon (Mevav). 1. A Trojan warrior slain 
by Leonteus. — 2. A citizen of Pharsalus in j 
Thessaly, who aided the Athenians at Eion 
with twelve talents and two hundred horsemen 
raised by himself from his own penestae, and 
was rewarded for these services with the free- 
dom of the city.] — 3. AThessalian adventurer, 
was one of the generals of the Greek mercena- 
ries in the army of Cyrus the Younger when 
the latter marched into Upper Asia against his 
brother Artaxerxes, B.C. 401. After the death [ 
of Cyrus he was apprehended along with the 
other Greek generals by Tissaphernes, and was ! 
put to death by lingering tortures, which lasted 
for a whole year. His character is drawn in 
the blackest colors by Xenophon. He is the 
same as the Menon introduced in the dialogue 
of Plato, which bears his name. 

Mens, a personification of mind, worshipped 
by the Romans. She had a sanctuary on the 
Capitol ; and the object of her worship was, 
that the citizens might always be guided by a 
right spirit. 

[Mentes (M^vr^f). 1. Leader of the Cicones, 
under whose form Apollo encouraged Hector to 
prevent Menelaus carrying off the armor of 
Euphorbus. — 2. Son of Anchialus, leader of the 
Taphians, guest-friend of Ulysses. Minerva as 
sumed his form when she appeared to Telem 
achus to arouse him to go in search of the ab 
sent Ulysses.] 

Mentesa (Mentesanus). 1. Surnamed Bas- 
tia, a town of the Oretani in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, on the road from Castulo to Carthago 
Nova.— 2. A small town of the Bastuli in the 
south of Hispania Baetica. 

Mentor (MeVrup). 1. Son of Alcimus, and 
a faithful friend of Ulysses, [to whom the lattei 
confided the supervision of his household when 



MENTORES. 



MEROE. 



setting out for Troy. Minerva assumed his 
form to give instructions to the young Telem- 
achus, and accompanied him as Mentor to the 
court of Nestor. —2. Father of Imbrius of Caria, 
who fought on the side of the Trojans, is called 
by Homer "rich in horses."]— 3. A Greek of 
Rhodes, who, with his brother Memnon, ren- 
dered active assistance to Artabazus. When 
the latter found himself compelled to take ref- 
uge at the court of Philip, Mentor entered the 
service of Nectanabis, king of Egypt. He was 
sent to the assistance of Tennes, king of Sidon, 
in his revolt against Darius Ochus ; and when 
Tennes went over to the Persians, Mentor was 
taken into the service of Darius. He rose rap- 
idly in the favor of Darius, and eventually re- 
ceived a satrapy, including all the western 
coast of Asia Minor. His influence with Da- 
rius enabled him to procure the pardon of his 
brother Memnon. He died in possession of his 
satrapy, and was succeeded by his brother Mem- 
non. Vid. Memnon. — 4. The most celebrated 
silver-chaser among the Greeks, who must have 
flourished before B.C. 356. His works were 
vases and cups, which were most highly prized 
by the Romans. 

[Mentores {WvTopcg), a people on the coast 
of Liburnia, in the district Mentorice (Mevro- 
eiKTj) ; they also possessed the islands situated 
on this coast in the Adriatic called " Insulae 
Mentorides" (Mevropcdeg), now probably Veglia, 
Arht, Cherso, &c] 

[Menyllus (Me'vuMof ). 1. A Macedonian, ap- 
pointed to command the Macedonian garrison 
in Munychia after the Lamiac war, B.C. 322. 
He was a just man, and on friendly terms with 
Phocion. He was replaced by Nicanor, B.C. 
319, on the death of Antipater.— 2. Of Alaban- 
da, ambassador to Rome in B.C. 162, from Ptol- 
emy VI. Philometor, to plead his cause against 
his younger brother Physcon : his mission, how- 
ever, was unsuccessful. While at Rome, he, 
with Polybius, aided in effecting the escape of 
the Syrian prince Demetrius.] 

Mercurii Promontorium. Vid. Herm^eum. 

Mercurius, a Roman divinity of commerce 
and gain. The character of the god is clear 
from his name, which is connected with men 
and mercari. A temple was built to him as 
early as B.C. 495, near the Circus Maxirrius ; 
an altar of the god existed near the Porta Ca- 
pena, by the side of a well ; and in later times 
a temple seems to have been built on the same 
spot. Under the name of the ill-willed (malcv- 
olus), he had a statue in what was called the 
vicus sobrius, or the sober street, in which no 
shops were allowed to be kept, and rnilk was 
offered to him there instead of wine. This 
statue had a purse in its hand, to indicate his 
functions. His festival was celebrated on the 
twenty-fifth of May, and chiefly by merchants, 
who also visited the well near the Porta Cape- 
na, to which magic powers were ascribed ; and 
with water from that well they used to sprinkle 
themselves and their merchandise, that they 
might be purified, and yield a large profit. The 
Romans of later times identified Mercurius, the 
patron of merchants and tradespeople, with the 
Greek Hermes, and transferred all the attri- 
butes and myths of the latter to the former. The 
Fetiales, however, never recognized the iden- 



tity, and, instead of the caduceus, used a sacred 
branch as the emblem of peace. The resem 
blance between Mercurius and Hermes is in 
deed very slight, and their identification is a 
proof of the thoughtless manner in which the 
Romans acted in this respect. Vid. Hermes. 

Mercurius Trismegistus. Vid. Hermes 
Trismegistus. 

MerIones (Nhipwvric), a Cretan hero, son of 
Molus, who, conjointly with Idomeneus, led the 
Cretans in eighty ships against Troy. He was 
one of the bravest heroes in the Trojan war, 
and usually acted together with his friend Ido- 
1 meneus. Later traditions relate that on his 
way homeward he was thrown on the coast of 
Sicily, where he was received by the Cretans 
I who had settled there ; whereas, according to 
! others, he returned safely to Crete, and was 
buried and worshipped as a hero, together with 
J Idomeneus, at Cnosus. 

Mermerus (Mep/iepog). I. Son of Jason and 
j Medea, also called Macareus or Mormorus, was 
I murdered, together with his brother Pheres, by 
his mother at Corinth.— 2. Son of Pheres, and 
grandson of Jason and Medea. — [3. A Trojan, 
slain by Antiloehus.— 4. A Centaur, slain at the 
nuptials of Pirithous ] 

Mbrmessus or Myrmessus (Mep/irjaaog, Mup- 
firjaaog), also written Marmessus and Marpes- 
sus, a town of Mysia, in the territory of Lamp- 
sacus, not far from Polichna, the native place 
of a sibyl. 

[Mermnad.b (Meppvddcu), a Lydian family, 
which, on the murder of Candaules by Gyges, 
succeeded the Heraclidae on the throne of Lyd- 
ia, and held it for five generations, about 716- 
546 B.C. The sovereigns of this family were 
Gyges, Ardys, Sadyattes, Alyattes, and Crce- 
i sus.] 

Merobaudes, Flavius, a general and a poet, 
j whose merits are recorded in an inscription op. 
I the base of a statue dug up in the Ulpian forum 
at Rome in the year 1812 or 1813. We learn 
from the inscription that the statue was erect- 
ed in A.D. 435. Some fragments of the poems 
of Merobaudes were discovered by Niebuhr 
upon a palimpsest belonging to the monastery 
of St. Gall, and were published by him at Bonn, 
1823, [and again in 1824; they are also print- 
ed in a volume of the Corpus Script. Byzant., 
with Corippus, edited by Bekker, Bonn, 1836.] 
Meroe Q/lepor/ : now ports of Nubia and Sen- 
nar), the island, so called, and almost an isl- 
and in reality, formed by the rivers Astapua 
(now Blue Nile) and Astaboras (now Atbarah), 
and the portion of the Nile between their 
mouths, was a district of ^Ethiopia. Its capital, 
also called Meroe, stood near the northern point 
of the island, on the eastern bank of the Nile, 
below the modern Shendy, where the plain, near 
the village of Assour, is covered with ruins of 
temples, pyramids, and other works in a style 
closely resembling the Egyptian. Standing in 
a fertile district, rich in timber and minerals, 
at the foot of the highlands of Abyssinia, and at 
the junction of two great rivers, Meroe became, 
at a very early period, a chief emporium for the 
trade between Egypt, Northern Africa', ^Ethi- 
opia, Arabia, and India, and the capital of a 
powerful state. The government was a hie- 
rarchical monarchy, entirely in the hands of a 

503 



MEROM LACUS. 



MESPILA. 



ruling caste of priests, who chose a king from 
among themselves, bound him to govern accord- 
ing to their laws, and put him to death when 
they chose ; until King Ergamenes (about B.C. 
300) threw off the yoke of the priests, whom 
he massacred, and converted his kingdom into 
an absolute monarchy. The priests of Meroe 
were closely connected in origin and customs 
with those of Egypt ; and, according to some 
traditions, the latter sprang from the former, 
and they from India; but the settlement of this 
point involves an important ethnical question, 
which lies beyond the limits of this book. For 
further details respecting the kingdom of Meroe, 
vid. ^Ethiopia. Meroe had a celebrated oracle 
of Ammon. 

Merom Lacus. Vid. Semechonitis- 

Merope (Mepoirn). 1. One of the Heliades or 
sisters of Phaethon. — 2. Daughter of Atlas, one 
of the Pleiades, and wife of Sisyphus of Corinth, 
by whom she became the mother of Glaucus. 
In the constellation of the Pleiades she is the 
seventh and the least visible star, because she 
is ashamed of having had intercourse with a 
mortal man. — 3. Daughter of Cypselus, wife of 
Cresphontes, and mother of JEpytus. For de- 
tails, vid. JEpytus. 

Merops (Mipoijj). 1. King of the island of 
Cos, husband of the nymph Ethemea, and fa- 
ther of Eumelus. His wife was killed by Diana 
(Artemis) because she had neglected to worship 
that goddess. Merops, in order to rejoin his 
wife, wished to make away with himself, but 
Juno (Hera) changed him into an eagle, whom 
she pla<)3d among the stars. — 2. King of the 
/Ethiopians, by whose wife, Clymene, Helios 
became the father of Phaethon. — 3. King of 
Rhyndacus, on the Hellespont, also called Ma- 
car or Macareus, was a celebrated soothsayer, 
and father of Clite, Arisbe, Amphius, and Adras- 
tus. — [4. A Trojan, companion of JEneas, slain 
by Turn us in Italy.] 

Merula, L. Cornelius, was fiamen dialis, 
and, on the deposition of L. Cinna in B.C. 87, 
was elected consul in his place. On the cap- 
ture of Rome by Marius and Cinna at the close 
of the same year, Merula put an end to his own 
life in order to escape the hands of the execu- 
tioner. 

Mesambria (MeaafiOptrj : now Buskehr), a pen- 
insula on the. coast of Persis, near the River 
Padargus. 

Meschela (Meff£f?Aa : probably near Bonah), 
a large city on the coast of Northern Africa, 
said to have been founded by Greeks returning 
from the Trojan war. It was taken by Euma- 
chus, the lieutenant of Agathocles. 

MESEMBRiA(Mfcr^udpia, Herod. Meaa/i6ptn : Me- 
a->ju6ptav6c). 1. (Now Missivria or Messuri), a 
celebrated town of Thrace on the Pontus Eux- 
inus, and at the foot of Mount Haemus, founded 
by the inhabitants of Chalcedon and Byzanti- 
um in the time of Darius Hystaspis, and hence 
called a colony of Megara, since those two 
towns were founded by the Megarians. — 2. A 
town in Thrace, but of much less importance, 
on the coast of the^Egean Sea, and in the ter- 
ritory of the Cicones, near the mouth of the 
Lissus, and the most westerly of the Samothra- 
cian settlements on the main land. 

Mesene {M.€ci]vrj, i. e., Midland), a name given 
504 



to that part of Babylonia which consisted of the 
great island formed by the Euphrates, the Ti- 
gris, and the Royal Canal, and contained, there- 
fore, the greater part of Babylonia. 

Mesoa or Messoa. Vid. Sparta 

Mesogis. Vid. Messogis. 

Mesomedes (Mecofitjihig), a lyric and epigram 
matic poet under Hadrian and the Antonines, 
was a native of Crete, and a freedman of Ha- 
drian, whose favorite Antinous he celebrated in 
a poem. A salary, which he had received from 
Hadrian, was diminished by Antoninus Pius. 
Three poems of his are preserved in the Greek 
Anthology. 

Mesopotamia (Mecoxo-afica, VLean ruv koto- 
ftuv : in the Old Testament, Aram Naharaim, 
i. e., Syria between the Rivers : LXX., Msaoiro-a- 
fiia Xvpiac : now Al-Jesira, i. e., The Island), a 
district of Western Asia, named from its posi- 
tion between the Euphrates and the Tigris, of 
which rivers the former divided it from Syria 
and Arabia on the west, the latter from Assyria 
on the east : on the north it was separated from 
Armenia by a branch of the Taurus, called Ma- 
sius, and on the south from Babylonia by the 
Median Wall. The name was first used by the 
Greeks in the time of the Seleueidae. In earlier 
times th? country was reckoned a part, some- 
times of S.-ria, and sometimes of Assyria. Nor 
in the division of the Persian empire was it 
recognized as a distinct country, but it belonged 
to the satrapy of Babylonia. Excepting the 
mountainous region on the north and north- 
east, formed by the chain of Masius, and its 
prolongation parallel to the Tigris, the country 
formed a vast plain, broken by few hills, well 
watered by rivers and canals, and very fertile, 
except in the southern part, which was more 
like the Arabian Desert on the opposite side of 
the Euphrates. Besides corn, and fruits, and 
spices (e. g., the amomum), it produced fine tim- 
ber and supported large herds of cattle ; in the 
southern, or desert part, there were numerous 
wild animals, such as wild asses, gazelles, os- 
triches, and lions. Its chief mineral products 
were naphtha and jet. The northern part of 
Mesopotamia was divided into the districts of 
Mygdonia and Osroene. It belonged success- 
ively to the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, 
Macedonian, Syro-Grecian, Parthian, and later 
Persian empires. In a wider sense, the name 
is sometimes applied to the whole country be- 
tween the Euphrates and the Tigris. 

Mespila (i) MeaKiXa : ruins at Kmiyounjik, 
opposite to Mdsul, Layard : others give differ- 
ent sites for it), a city of Assyria, on the east- 
ern side of the Tigris, which Xenophon (Anab.. 
iii., 4) mentions as having been formerly a great 
city, inhabited by Medes, but in his time fallen 
to decay. It had a wall six parasangs in cir- 
cuit, composed of two parts, namely, a base fif- 
ty feet thick and fifty high, of polished stone, 
full of shells (the limestone of the country), 
upon which was built a brick wall fifty feet 
thick and one hundred high. It had served, ac- 
cording to tradition, as the refuge for the Me- 
dian queen when the Persians overthrew the 
empire of the Medes, and it resisted all the ef- 
forts of the Persian king to take it, until a thun- 
der storm frightened the inhabitants into a sur- 
render. 



MESSA. 



MESSALA 



Messa (Meoaa, Meaan : now Mez&po), a town 
and harbor in Laconia, near Taenarum Promon- 
tonum. 

Messabatene or -ice (Meooa6aT7ivrj, Mscca- 
SaTucrj: Meaaa6uTai), a small district on the 
southeastern margin of the Tigris and Eu- 
phrates valley, on the borders of Media, Persis, 
and Susiana, reckoned sometimes to Persis and 
sometimes to Susiana. The name seems to be 
derived from the mountain passes in the dis- 
trict. 

Messala or Messalla, the name of a distin- 
guished family of the Valeria gens at Rome. 
They appear for the first time on the consular 
Fasti in B.C. 263, and for the last in A.D. 506. 
1. M'. Valerius Maximus Coevinus Messala, 
was consul B.C. 263, and, in conjunction with 
his colleague M. Otacilius, carried on the war 
with success against the Carthaginians in Sic- 
ily. The two consuls concluded a peace with 
Hieron. In consequence of his relieving Mes- 
sana, he obtained the cognomen of Messala. 
His triumph was distinguished by two remark- 
able monuments of his victory — by a pictorial 
representation of a battle with the Sicilian and 
Punic armies, which he placed in the Curia 
Hostilia, and by a sun-dial (horologium), from 
the booty of Catana, which was set up on a col- 
umn behind the rostra in the forum. Messala 
was censor in 252. — 2. M. Valerius Messala, 
consul 226. — 3. M. Valerius Messala, praetor 
peregrinus 194, and consul 188, when he had 
the province of Liguria. — 4. M. Valerius Mes- 
sala, consul 161, and censor 154. — 5. M. Vale- 
rius Messala Niger, prastor 63, consul 61, 
and censor 55. He belonged to the aristocrati- 
cal party. He married a sister of the orator Q. 
Hortensius, by whom he had at least one son. 
— 6. M. Valerius Messala, son of the preced- 
ing ; consul 53 ; belonged, like his father, to 
the aristocratical party ; but in consequence, 
probably, of his enmity to Pompey, he joined 
Caesar in the civil war, and served under him 
in Africa. He was in high repute for his skill 
in augury, on which science he wrote. — 7. M. 
Valerius Messala Corvinus, son of the pre- 
ceding, was partly educated at Athens, where 
probably began his intimacy with Horace and 
L. Bibulus. After Caesar's death (44) he joined 
the republican party, and attached himself espe- 
cially to Cassius, whom, long after, when he 
had become the friend of Augustus, he was ac- 
customed to call " my general." Messala was 
proscribed ; but since his kinsmen proved his 
absence from Rome at the time of Caesar's as- 
sassination, the triumvirs erased his name from 
the list, and offered him security for his person 
and property. Messala, however, rejected their 
offers, followed Cassius into Asia, and at Phi- 
lippi, in the first day's battle, turned Augustus's 
flank, stormed his camp, and narrowly missed 
taking him prisoner. After the death of Brutus 
and Cassius, Messala, with a numerous body 
of fugitives, took refuge in the island of Tha- 
sos. His followers, though defeated, were not 
disorganized, and offered him the comoand. 
But he induced them to accept honorable terms 
from Antony, to whom he attached himself un- 
til Cleopatra's influence made his ruin certain 
and easy to be foreseen. Messala then again 
changed his parly, and served Augustus effect- 



ively in Sicily, 36 ; against the Salassians, a 
mountain tribe lying between the Graian and 
the Pennine Alps, 34; and at Actium, 31. A 
decree of the senate had abrogated Antony's 
consulship for 31, and Messala was appointed 
to the vacant place. He was proconsul of Aqui- 
tania in 28-27, and obtained a triumph for his 
reduction of that province. Shortly before or 
immediately after his administration of Aquita- 
nia, Messala held a prefecture in Asia Minor. 
He was deputed by the senate, probably in 30, 
to greet Augustus with the title of " Pater 
Patriae ;" and the opening of his address on that 
occasion is preserved by Suetonius. During 
the disturbances at the comitia in 27, Augustus 
nominated Messala to the revived office of war- 
den of the city ; but he resigned it in a few 
days. Messala soon afterward withdrew from 
all public employments except his augurship, 
to which Augustus had specially appointed him, 
although, at the time of his admission, there 
was no vacancy in the augural college. About 
two years before his death, which happened 
about the middle of Augustus's reign, B.C. 3 to 
A.D. 3, Messala's memory failed him, and he 
often could not recall his own name. His tomb 
was of remarkable splendor. Messala was as 
much distinguished in the literary as in the po- 
litical world of Rome. He was a patron of 
learning and the arts, and was himself an his- 
torian, a poet, a grammarian, and an orator. 
He wrote commentaries on the civil wars after 
Caesar's death, and a genealogical work, De 
Romanis Familiis. The treatise, however, De 
Progenie Augusti, which sometimes accompa- 
nies Eutropius anuthe minor Roman historians, 
is the forgery of a much later age. Messala's 
poems were of a satirical or even licentious 
character. His writings as a grammarian were 
numerous and minute, comprising treatises on 
collocation and lexicography, and on the pow- 
ers and uses of single letters. His eloquence 
reflected the character of his age. More smooth 
and correct than vigorous or original, he per- 
suaded rather than convinced, and conciliated 
rather than persuaded. His health was feeble, 
and the procemia of his speeches generally plead- 
ed indisposition and solicited indulgence. He 
mostly took the defendant's side, and was fre- 
quently associated in causes with C. Asinius 
Pollio. He recommended and practiced trans- 
lation from the Greek orators ; and his version 
of the Phryne of Hyperides was thought to ex- 
hibit remarkable skill in either language. His 
political eminence, the wealth he inherited or 
acquired in the civil wars, and the favor of An- 
tony and Augustus, rendered Messala one of 
the principal persons of his age, and an effective 
patron of its literature. His friendship for Hor- 
ace and his intimacy with Tibullus are well 
known In the elegies of the latter poet, the 
name of Messala is continually introduced. 
The dedication of the Ciris, a doubtful vork, is 
not sufficient proof of his friendship with Vir- 
gil ; but the companion of " Plotius and Varius, 
of Maecenas and Octavius" (Hon, Sat., i., 10, 
81), can not well have been unknown to the 
author of the Eclogues and Georgics. He di- 
rected Ovid's early'studies {ex Pont., iv., 16), 
and Tiberius sought his acquaintance in early 
manhood, and took him for his model in elo 

505 



MESSALINA. 



MESSANA. 



quence. — 8. M. Valerius Messala Barbatus 
Appianus, was consul B.C. 12, and died in his 
year of office. He was the father (or grand- 
father) of the Empress Messalina. — 9. L. Vale- 
rius Messala Volesus, consul A.D. 5, and aft- 
erward proconsul of Asia, where his cruelties 
drew on him the anger of Augustus and a con- 
demnatory decree from the senate. — 10. L. Vip- 
stanus Messala, legionary tribune in Vespa- 
sian's army, A.D. 70, was brother of Aquilius 
Regulus, the notorious delator in Domitian's 
reign. He is one of Tacitus's authorities for 
the history of the civil war after Galba's death, 
and a principal interlocutor in the dialogue Dc 
Oratoribus ascribed to Tacitus. 

Messalina. I. Statilia, grand-daughter of T. 
Statilius Taurus, consul A.D. 11, was the third 
wife of the Emperor Nero, who married her in 
A.D. 66. She had previously espoused Atticus 
Vestinus, whom Nero put to death without ac- 
cusation or trial, merely that he might marry 
Messalina. — 2. Valeria, daughter of M. Vale- 
rius Messala Barbatus and of Domitia Lepida, 
was the third wife of the Emperor Claudius. 
She married Claudius, to whom she was previ- 
ously related, before his accession to the em- 
pine. Her profligacy and licentiousness were 
notorious ; and the absence of virtue was not 
concealed by a lingering sense of shame or even 
by a specious veil of decorum. She was as 
cruel as she was profligate ; and many mem- 
bers of the most illustrious families of Rome 
were sacrificed to her fears or her hatred. She 
long exercised an unbounded empire over her 
weak husband, who alone was ignorant of her 
infidelities. For some time she was supported 
in her career of crime by the freedmen of Clau- 
dius ; but when Narcissus, the most powerful 
of the emperor's freedmen, perceived that he 
should probably fall a victim to Messalina's in- 
trigues, he determined to get rid of her. The 
insane folly of Messalina furnished the means 
of her own destruction. Having conceived a 
violent passion for a handsome Roman youth, 
C. Silius, she publicly married him, with all the 
rites of a legal connubium, during the absence 
of Claudius at Ostia, A.D. 48. Narcissus per- 
suaded the emperor that Silius and Messalina 
would not have dared such an outrage had they 
aot determined also to deprive him of empire 
and life. Claudius wavered long, and at length 
Narcissus himself issued Messalina's death- 
warrant. She was put to death by a tribune of 
the guards in the gardens of Lucullus. 

[Messalinus. M. Valerius Catullus, govern- 
or of the Libyan Pentapolis in the reigns of 
Vespasian and Titus, where he treated the Jew- 
ish provincials with extreme cruelty : he was 
afterward a delator under Domitian.J 

Messana (Mfcwui-'a Dor., Mectot/i;?; : }AeaadvwQ : 
now Messina), a celebrated town on the north- 
eastern coast of Sicily, on the stra ; 's separat- 
ing Italy from this island, which are here about 
four miles bioad. The Romans called the town 
Messana, according to its Doric pronunciation, 
but Mcssenc was its more usual name among 
the Greeks. It was originally a town of the 
Siceli, and was called Zancle (Zu/kAj?), or a 
sickle, on account of the shape of its harbor, 
which is formed by a singular curve of sand 
and shells. The first Greek colonists were, 
506 



j according to Thucydides, pirates fiom the Chal 
: cidian town of Cumae in Italy, who were joined 
by Chalcidians from Eubcea, and, according to 
Strabo, by Naxians ; but these two accounts 
are not contradictory, for since Naxos in Sicily 
was also a colony from Chalcis, we may easily 
suppose that the Naxians joined the other Chal 
cidians in the foundation of the town. Zancle 
soon became so powerful that it founded the 
town of Himera, about B.C. 648. After the 
capture of Miletus by the Persians, the inhabit- 
ants of Zancle invited the Ionians, who had 
been expelled from their native country, to set- 
tle on their " beautiful coast" (Ka?.i) uktij, He- 
rod., vi, 22), and a number of Samians and 
other Ionic Greeks accepted their offer. On 
landing in the south of Italy, they were per- 
suaded byAnaxilas, tyrant of Rhegium, to take 
possession of Zancle during the absence of 
Scythes, the tyrant of the city, who was en- ' 
gaged in the siege of some other Sicilian town. 
But their treachery was soon punished ; foi 
Anaxilas himself shortly afterward drove the 
Samians out of Zancle, and made himself mas 
ter of the town, the name of which he changed 
into Messana or Messene, both because he was 
himself a Messenian, and because he transfer- 
red to the place a body of Messenians from 
Rhegium. Anaxilas died 476 ; and, about ten 
years afterward (466), his sons were driven out 
of Messana and Rhegium, and republican gov- 
ernments established in these cities. Messana 
now enjoyed great prosperity for several years, 
and, in consequence of its excellent harbor and 
advantageous position, it became a place of 
great commercial importance. But in 396 it 
was taken by the Carthaginians, who destroyed 
the town because they saw that they should 
be unable to maintain so distant a possession 
against the power of Dionysius of Syracuse. 
Dionysius began to rebuild it in the same year, 
and, besides collecting the remains of the for- 
mer population, he added a number of Locrians, 
Messenians, and others, so that its inhabitants 
were of a very mixed kind. After the banish- 
ment of the younger Dionysius, Messana was 
for a short time free, hut it fell into the power 
of Agathocles about 312. Among the merce- 
naries of this tyrant were a number of Mamer- 
tini, an Oscan people from Campania, who had 
been sent from home under the protection of 
the god Mamers or Mars to seek their fortune 
in other lands. These Mamertini were quar- 
tered in Messana ; and, after the death of 
Agathocles (282), they made themselves mas- 
ters of the town, killed the male inhabitants, 
and took possession of their wives, their chil- 
dren, and their property. The town was now 
called Mamertina, and the inhabitants Mamer- 
tini ; but its ancient name of Messana continu- 
ed to be in more general use. The new in- 
habitants could not lay aside their old predatory 
habits, and, in consequence, became involved 
in a war with Hieron of Syracuse, who defeat- 
ed them in several battles, and would probably 
have conquered the town had not the Cartha- 
ginians come in to the aid of the Mamertini, 
and, under the pretext of assisting them, taken 
possession of their citadel. The Mamertini 
had, at the same time, applied to the Romans 
for help, who gladly availed themselves of the 



MESSAPIA. 

opportunity to obtain a footing in Sicily. Thus 
Messana was the immediate cause of the first 
Punic war, 264. The Mamertini expelled the 
Carthaginian garrison, and received the Ro- 
mans, in whose power Messana remained till 
the latest times. There are scarcely any re- 
mains of the ancient city at Messina. 

Messapia (Meaaania). 1. The Greek name 
of Calabria. — 2. (Now Messagna), a town in 
Calabria, between Uria and Brundisium. 

Messapium (to M-EaaaitLov opoc), a mountain 
In Boeotia, on the eastern coast, near the town 
Anthedon, from which Messapus is said to have 
sailed to the south of Italy. 

Messapus (Kiaaa-n-og), a Boeotian, from whom 
Messapia, in the south of Italy, was believed to 
have derived its name. 

[Messe (Ueaaij, now Massa), a town and har- 
bor of Laconia, nearTasnarum Promontorium.] 

[MesseIs (Mecr<T?/tf). 1. A celebrated fountain 
in Phera? in Thessaly. — 2. A fountain near The- 
rapne in Laconia.] 

Messene (M.e(jafjvri), daughter of Triopas, and 
wife of Polycaon, whom she induced to take 
possession of the country which was called after 
her, Messenia. She is also said to have intro- 
duced there the worship of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
the mysteries of the great goddess of Eleusis. 

Messene (M.eaa^vr/ : Meo-oijuioc). 1. (Now 
Mavromati), the later capital of Messenia, was 
founded by Epaminondas B.C. 369, and com- 
pleted and fortified within the space of eighty- 
five days. It was situated at the foot of the 
steep hill of Ithome, which was so celebrated 
as a fortress in -the history of the Messenian 
wars, and which now formed the acropolis of 
the new city. Messene was one of the most 
strongly fortified cities of Greece. It was sur- 
rounded by massive walls built entirely of stone, 
and flanked with numerous towers. There are 
still considerable remains of some of these 
towers, as well as the foundations of the walls, 
and of several public buildings. They are de- 
scribed by a modern traveller as " built of the 
most regular kind of masonry, and formed of 
large stones fitted together with great accura- 
cy." The northern gate of the city is also ex- 
tant, and opens into a circular court, sixty-two 
feet in diameter. The city was supplied with 
water from a fountain called Clepsydra, which 
is still a fine spring, from which the modem 
village of Mavromati derives its name, meaning 
Black Spring, or, literally, Black Eye. — 2. Vid. 
Messana. 

Messenia Q&eaarivia : Mecof/vLoc), a country 
in Peloponnesus, bounded on the east by Laco- 
nia, on the north by Elis and Arcadia, and on 
the south and west by the sea. It was sepa- 
rated from Laconia by Mount Taygetus ; but 
part of the western slope of Taygetus belonged 
to Laconia ; and it ; s difficult to determine the 
exact boundaries between the two countries, as 
they were different at different periods. In the 
most ancient times the River Nedon formed the 
b.oundary between Messenia and Laconia to- 
ward the sea ; but Pausanias places the frontier 
line further east, at a woody hollowcalled Choeri- 
us, twenty stadia south of Abia. The River Ne- 
da formed the northern boundary between Mes- 
senia and Elis. The area of Messenia is about 
one thousand one hundred and sixty-two square 



MESSENIA. 

miles. It was for the most part a mountainous 
country, and contained only two plains of any 
extent, in the north the plain of Stcnyclerus, and 
in the south a still larger plain, through which 
the Pamisus flowed, and which was called Ma- 
caria or the Blessed, on account of its great 
fertility. There were, however, many smaller 
valleys among the mountains ; and the country 
was much less rugged and far more productive 
than the neighboring Laconia. Hence Messe- 
nia is described by Pausanias as, the most fer- 
tile country in Peloponnesus ; and it is praised 
by Euripides on account of its climate, which 
was neither too cold in winter nor too hot in 
summer. The most ancient inhabitants of Mes- 
senia were Leleges, intermingled with Argives. 
According to tradition, Polycaon, the younger 
son of Lelex, married the Argive Messene, a 
daughter of Triopas, and named the country 
Messene in honor of his wife. This is the name 
by which it is called in Homer, who does not 
use the form Messenia. Five generations aft- 
erward ^Eolians settled in the country, under 
the guidance of Perieres, a son of iEolus. His 
son Aphareus gave a home to Neleus, who had 
been driven out of Thessaly, and who founded 
the town of Pylos, which became the capital of 
an independent sovereignty. For a long time 
there was properly no Messenian kingdom. The 
western part of the land belonged to the domin- 
ions of the Neleid princes of Pylos, of whom 
Nestor was the most celebrated, and the east- 
ern to the Laceda?monian monarchy. Thus it 
appears to have remained till the conquest of 
Peloponnesus by the Dorians, when Messenia 
fell to the share of Cresphontes, who destroyed 
the kingdom of Pylos, and united the whole 
country under his sway. The ruling class were 
now Dorians, and they continued to speak the 
purest Doric down to the latest times. The 
Spartans soon coveted the more fertile territory 
of their brother Dorians ; and after many dis- 
putes between the two nations, and various in- 
roads into each other's territories, open war at 
length broke out. This war, called the first 
Messenian war, lasted twenty years, B.C. 743- 
723 ; and notwithstanding the gallant resist- 
ance of the Messenian king, Aristodemus, the 
Messenians were obliged to submit to the Spar 
tans after the capture of their fortress Ithome, 
and to become their subjects. Vid. Aristode- 
mus. After bearing the yoke thirty-eight years, 
the Messenians again took up arms under their 
heroic leader Aristomenes. Vid. Aristomenes. 
The second Messenian war lasted seventeen 
years, B.C. 685-668, and terminated with the 
conquest of Ira and the complete subjugation 
of the country. Most of the Messenians emi 
grated to foreign countries, and those who re 
mained behind were reduced to the condition 
of Helots or serfs. In this state they remained 
till 464, when the Messenians and other Helots 
took advantage of the devastation occasioned 
by the great earthquake at Sparta, to rise against 
their oppressors. This third Messenian war 
lasted ten years, 464-455, and ended by the 
Messenians surrendering Ithome to the Spar- 
tans on condition of their being allowed a free 
departure from Peloponnesus. They settled at 
Naupactus on the Corinthian Gulf opposite Pe 
loponnesus, which town the Athenians had )ate- 

507 



MESSENIACUS SINUS. 



METAURUS. 



Iy taken from the Locri Ozolae, and gladly 
granted to such deadly enemies of Sparta. At 
the conclusion of the Peloponnesian war (404), 
the unfortunate Messenians were obliged to 
leave Naupactus and take refuge in Italy, Sicily, 
and other countries ; but when the supremacy 
of Sparta was overthrown by the battle of Leuc- 
tra, Epaminondas resolved to restore the inde- 
pendence of Messenia. He accordingly fath- 
ered together the Messenian exiles from the 
various lands in which they were scattered ; 
and in the summer of 369 he founded the town 
of Messene at the foot of Mount Ithome. Vid. 
Messene. Messenia was never again subdued 
by the Spartans, and it maintained its independ- 
ence till the conquest of the Achaeans and the 
rest of Greece by the Romans, 146. 

[Messeniacus Sinus ( MeaonviaKbe ko^ttoc, 
now Gulf of Coron), a large gulf or bay, wash- 
ing the southern shore of Messenia, and extend- 
ing from the promontory Acritas on the west 
to the promontory Thyrides on the east, or, ac- 
cording to others, to CapeTaenarus ; the north- 
' ern part was also called Coronaeus from the city 
Corone, and its southern Asinaeus from the city 
Asine, though Strabo makes this another appel- 
lation for the whole gulf] 

[Messius, C, was tribune of the plebs in B.C. 
56, when he brought in a bill for Cicero's recall 
from exile. In the same year the Messian law, 
by the same tribune, assigned extraordinary 
powers to Cn. Pompey. Cicero defended Mes- 
sius when he was recalled from a legatio, and 
attacked by the Caesarian party. Messius aft- 
erward appears as an adherent of Caesar's, 
whose troops he introduced into Acilla, a town 
in Africa.] 

[Messius Cicirkhus, an ugly and disfigured 
Oscan, whose wordy war with the runaway 
slave Sarmentus is humorously described by 
Horace in his Brundisian journey {Sat., i., 5, 
49-69).] 

[Messius Vectius, a Volscdan, who, in B.C. 
431, distinguished himself in battle against the 
Romans.] 

[Mesthles (MeodXnc), son of Pylaemenes and 
the nymph Gygaea, leader of the Maeonians, 
came with his brother Antiphus to the aid of 
the Trojans.] 

Mestleta (MecjTXrjTa), a city of Iberia, in 
Asia, probably on the River Cyrus. 

[Mestor (Mrjarup). 1. Son of Perseus and 
Andromeda, and father of Hippothoe. — 2. One 
of the sons of Priam.] 

Mestra (M^orpa), daughter of Erysichthon, 
and grand-daughter of Triopas, whence she is 
called Trio-pels by Ovid. She was sold by her 
hungry father, that he might obtain the means 
of satisfying his hunger. In order to escape 
from slavery, she prayed to Nepture (Poseidon), 
who loved her, and who conferred upon her the 
power of metamorphosing herself whenever 
she was sold. 

Mesyla, a town of Pontus, in Asia Minor, on 
the road from Tavium to Comana. 

[Metabum. Vid. Metapontum.] 

[Metabus (Me'rafiof). 1. Son of Sisyphus, 
from whom the town of Metapontum in Italy 
was believed to have derived its name. — 2. Vid. 
Camilla.] 

[Metagenes (MeTaycvrjc). 1. An Athenian 
508 



comic poet of the old comedy, contemporary 
with Aristophanes : the few fragments remain- 
ing of his plays are given by Meineke, Fragm 
Comic. Graze, vol. i., p. 424-427, edit, minor. — 
2. An architect, son of Chersiphron. Vid. Cher- 
siphron. — 3. An Athenian architect in the time 
of Pericles, was engaged with Coroebus and 
Ictinus and Xenocles in the erection of the 
great temple at Eleusis.] 

Metagonitis (MerayaviTic : McTayovlrai, Me- 
tagomtae), a name applied to the northern coast 
of Mauretania Tingitana (now Morocco), be- 
tween the Fretum Gaditanum and the River 
Mulucha ; derived probably from the Cartha- 
ginian colonies (fierayuvia) settled along it. 
There was at some point of this coast a prom 
ontory called Metagonium or Metagonites, prob 
ably the same as Russadir (now Rasud-Dir, or 
Capo Tres Forcas.) 

Metagonium. Vid. Metagonitis. 

MetallInum or Metellinum (Metallinensis : 
now Medellin), a Roman colony in Lusitania on 
the Anas, not far from Augusta Emerita. 

Metanira (Merdvetpa), wife of Celeus, and 
mother of Triptolemus, received Ceres (Deme- 
ter) on her arrival in Attica. Pausanias calls 
her Meganaera. For details, vid. Celeus. 

Metaphrastes, Symeon (Zvfieuv 6 Mtra&pdo- 
rnc), a celebrated Byzantine writer, lived in the 
ninth and tenth centuries, and held many high 
offices at the Byzantine court. His surname 
Metaphrastes was given to him on account of 
his having composed a celebrated paraphrase 
of the lives of the saints. Besides his other 
works, he wrote a Byzantine history, entitled 
Annates, beginning with the Emperor Leo Ar- 
menus, A.D. 813, and finishing with Romanus, 
the son of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 963. 
Edited by Bekker, Bonn, 1838. 

Metapontium, called Metapontum by the Ro- 
mans (MeranovTcov : MeranovTioc, Metapontl- 
nus : now Torre di Mare), a celebrated Greek 
city in the south of Italy, on the Tarentine Gulf, 
and on the eastern coast of Lucania, is said to 
have been originally called Metabum (M.era6ov). 
There were various traditions respecting its 
foundation, all of which point to its high anti- 
quity, but from which we can not gather any 
certain information on the subject. It is said 
to have been afterward destroyed by the Sam- 
nites, and to have been repeopled by a colony 
of Achaeans, who had been invited for that pur- 
pose by the inhabitants of Sybaris. Hence it is 
called by Livy an Achaean town, and is regard- 
ed by some writers as a colony from Sybaris. 
It fell into the hands of the Romans with the 
other Greek cities in the south of Italy in the 
war against Pyrrhus, but it revolted to Han- 
nibal after the battle of Cannae. From the time 
of the second Punic war it disappears from his- 
tory, and was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. 

[Metaris .iEsTUARiuM (Meraplc EiQ^iHf, now 
The Wash), an estuary on the eastern coast of 
Britannia Romana, between the mouths of the 
Tamesa and the Abus.] 

Metaurum. Vid. Metaurus, No. 2. 

Metaurus. 1. (Now Mctaro), a small river 
in Umbria, flowing into the Adriatic Sea, but 
rendered memorable by the defeat and death of 
Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, on its banks, 
B.C. 207. — 2. (Now Marro), a river on the east- 



METELIS. 



METELLUS. 



ern coast of Bruttium. at whose mouth was the 
town ot Metaurum. 

[Metelis (Mer^Aif, now probably Fouah), a 
place in Lower Egypt, between the Bolbitene 
and Sebennytic mouths of the Nile, capital of 
the Metelites Nomos (Mer^Ai'r^c Nofwc).] 

Metella. Vid. Cecilia. 

Metellus, a distinguished plebeian family 
of the Cajcilia gens at Rome. 1. L. C^ecilius 
Metellus, consul B.C. 251, carried on the war 
in Sicily against the Carthaginians. In the fol- 
lowing year he gained a great victory over Has- 
drubal, the Carthaginian general. The ele- 
phants which he took in this battle were exhib- 
ited in his triumph at Rome. Metellus was 
consul a second time in 249, and was elected 
pontifex maximus in 243, and held this dignity 
for twenty-two years. He must, therefore, 
have died shortly before the commencement of 
the second Punic war. In 241 he rescued the 
Palladium when the temple of Vesta was on 
fire, but lost his sight in consequence. He was 
dictator in 224, for the purpose of holding the 
comitia. — 2. Q. C^ecilius Metellus, son of the 
preceding, was plebeian aedile 209, curule sedile 
208, served in the army of the consul Claudius 
Nero 207, and Vvas one of the legates sent to 
Rome to convey the joyful news of the defeat 
and death of Hasdrubal ; and was consul with 
L. Veturius Philo, 206. In his consulship he 
and his colleague carried on the war against 
Hannibal in Bruttium, where he remained as 
proconsul during the following year. In 205 he 
was dictator for the purpose of holding the co- 
mitia. Metellus survived the second Punic 
war many years, and was employed in several 
public commissions. — 3. Q. C<ecilius Metellus 
Macedonicus, son of the last, was prastor 148, 
and carried on war in Macedonia against the 
usurper Andriscus, whom he defeated and took 
prisoner. He next turned his arms against the 
Achseans, whom he defeated at the beginning 
of 146. On his return to Rome in 146, he tri- 
umphed, and received the surname of Mace- 
donicus. Metellus was consul in 143, and re- 
ceived the province of Nearer Spain, where he 
carried on the war with success for two years 
against the Celtiberi. He was succeeded by 
Q. Pompeius in 141. Metellus was censor 131. 
He died 115, full of years and honors. He is 
frequently quoted by the ancient writers as an 
extraordinary instance of human felicity. He 
had filled all the highest offices of the state 
with reputation and glory, and was carried to 
the funeral pile by four sons, three of whom 
had obtained the consulship in his lifetime, while 
the fourth was a candidate for the office at the 
time of his death. — 4. L. Cecilius Metellus 
Calvus, brother of the last, consul 142. — 5. Q. 
CjEcilius Metellus Balearicus, eldest son of 
No. 3, was consul 123, when he subdued the in- 
habitants of the Balearic islands, and received, 
in consequence, the surname of Balearicus. He 
was censor 120. — 6. L. C^ecilius Metellus 
Diadematus, second son of No. 3, has been fre- 
quently confounded with Metellus Dalmaticus, 
consul 119 (No. 9). Metellus Diadematus re- 
ceived the latter surname from his wearing for 
a long time a bandage round his forehead, in 
consequence of an ulcer. He was consul 117. 
<-7. M. C^ecilius Metellus, third son of No. 



3, was consul 115, the year in which his father 
died. In 114 he was sent into Sardinia as pro- 
consul, and suppressed an insurrection in the 
island, in consequence of which he obtained a 
triumph in 113 on the same day as his brother 
Caprarius.— 8. C. Ctecilius Metellus Capra- 
rius, fourth son of No. 3. The origin of his 
surname is quite uncertain. He was consul 
113, and carried on war in Macedonia against 
the Thracians, whom he subdued. He obtain- 
ed a triumph, in consequence, in the same year 
and on the same day with his brother Marcus. 
He was censor 102 with his cousin Metellua 
Numidicus. — 9. L. C^ecilius Metellus Dal- 
maticus, elder son of No. 4, and frequently con- 
founded, as has been already remarked, with 
Diadematus (No. 6), was consul 119, when he 
subdued the Dalmatians, and obtained, in con- 
sequence, the surname Dalmaticus. He was 
censor with Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus in 115, 
and he was also pontifex maximus. He was 
alive in 100, when he is mentioned as one of 
the senators of high rank who took up arms 
against Saturninus. — 10. Q. C^ecilius Metellus 
Numidicus, younger son of No. 4, was one of 
the most distinguished members of his family. 
The character of Metellus stood very high 
among his contemporaries ; in an age of grow- 
ing corruption his personal integrity remained 
unsullied ; and he was distinguished for his 
abilities in war and peace. He was one of the 
chief leaders of the aristocratical party at Rome. 
He was consul 109, and carried on the war 
against Jugurtha in Numidia with great suc- 
cess. Vid. Jugurtha. He remained in Numid- 
ia during the following year as proconsul ; but, 
as he was unable to bring the war to a conclu- 
sion, his legate C. Marius industriously circu- 
lated reports in the camp and the city that Me- 
tellus designedly protracted the war for the pur- 
pose of continuing in the command. These 
rumors had the desired effect. Marius was 
raised to the consulship, Numidia was assigned 
to him as his province, and Metellus saw ihe 
honor of finishing the war snatched from his 
grasp. Vid. Marios. On his return to Rome 
in 107 he was received with the greatest honor. 
He celebrated a splendid triumph, and received 
the surname of Numidicus. In 102 he was 
censor with his cousin Metellus Caprarius. In 
100 the tribune Saturninus and Marius resolved 
to ruin Metellus. Saturninus proposed an agra- 
rian law, to which he added the clause that the 
senate should swear obedience to it within five 
days after its enactment, and that whosoever 
should refuse to do so should be expelled the 
senate, and pay a heavy fine. Metellus refused 
to take the oath, and was therefore expelled 
the senate ; but Saturninus, not content with 
this, brought forward a bill to punish him with 
exile. The friends of Metellus were ready to 
take up arms in his defence ; but Metellus quit- 
ted the city, and retired to Rhodes, where he 
bore his misfortune with great calmness. He 
was, however, recalled to Rome in the follow- 
ing year (99) on the proposition of the tribune 
Q. Calidius. The orations of Metellus are spoken 
of with praise by Cicero, and they continued to 
be read with admiration in the time of Pronto. 
— 11. Q. C^ecilius Metellus Nepos, son of 
Balearicus (No. 5), and grandson of Macedoni- 

509 



METELLUS. 

cus (No. 3), appears to have received the sur- 
name of Nepos because he was the eldest 
grandson of the latter. Metellus Nepos exert- 
ed himself in obtaining the recall of his kins- 
man Metellus Numidicus from banishment in 
99, and was consul in 98 with T. Didius. In 
this year the two consuls carried the lex Cas- 
ciiia Didia. — 12. Q. (Lecilius Metellus Pius, 
son of Numidicus (No. 10), received the sur- 
name of Pius on account of the love which he 
displayed for his father when he besought the 
people to recall him from banishment in 99. 
He was praetor 89, and was one of the com- 
manders in the Marsic or Social war. He was 
still in arms in 87, prosecuting the war against 
the Samnites, when Marius landed in Italy and 
joined the consul Cinna. The senate, in alarm, 
summonedMetellus to Rome ; but, as he was un- 
able to defend the city against Marius and Cinna, 
he crossed over to Africa. After remaining in 
Africa three years, he returned to Italy and 
joinyj Sulla, who also returned to Italy in 83. 
In the war which followed against the Marian 
pax iy, Metellus was one of the most success- 
ful of Sulla's generals, and gained several im- 
porlant victories both in Umbria and in Cis- 
alpme Gaul. In 80, Metellus was consul with 
Sulla himself ; and in the following year (79) 
he went as proconsul into Spain, in order to 
prosecute the war against Sertorius, who ad- 
hered to the Marian party. Here he remained 
for the next 'eight years, and found it so diffi- 
cult to obtain any advantages over Sertorius, 
that the senate sent Pompey to his assistance 
with proconsular power and another army. Ser- 
torius, however, was a match for them both, 
and would probably have continued to defy all 
the efforts of Metellus and Pompey, if he had 
not been murdered by Perperna and his friends 
in 72. Fid. Sertorius. Metellus was pontifex 
maximus, and, as he was succeeded in this dig- 
nity by Julius Caesar in 63, he must have died 
either in this year or at the end of the preced- 
ing. — 13. Q. O-flEciLius Metellus Celer, elder 
son of Nepos (No. 11). In 66 he served as leg- 
ate in the army of Pompey in Asia, and was 
rrraetor in 63, the year in which Cicero was con- 
sul. During his year of office he afforded warm 
and efficient support to the aristocratical party. 
He prevented the condemnation of C. Rabirius 
by removing the military flag from the Janicu- 
lum. He co operated with Cicero in opposing 
the schemes of Catiline ; and, when the latter 
left the city to make war upon the republic, Me- 
tellus had the charge of the Picentine and Se- 
nonian districts. By blocking up the passes he 
prevented Catiline from crossing the Apennines 
and penetrating into Gaul, and thus compelled 
him to turn round and face Antonius, who was 
marching against him from Etruria. In the fol- 
lowing year, 62, Metellus went with the title of 
proconsul into the province of Cisalpine Gaul, 
which Cicero had relinquished because he was 
unwilling to leave the city. In 60 Metellus was 
consul with L. Afranius, and opposed all the ef- 
forts of his colleague to obtain the ratification 
of Pompey's acts in Asia, and an assignment of 
lands for his soldiers. He died in 59, and it 
was suspected that he had been poisoned by his 
wife Clodia, with whom he lived on the most 
unhappy terms, and who was a woman of the 
510 



* METELLUS. 

u:most profligacy. — 14. Q. C^ecilius Metellus 
Nepos, younger- son of the elder Nepos (No. It). 
He served as legate of Pompey in the war against 
the pirates and in Asia from 67 to 64. He re- 
turned to Rome in 63 in order to become a can- 
didate for the tribunate, that he might therehy 
favor the views of Pompey. His election was 
opposed by the aristocracy, but without success. 
His year of office was a stormy one. One of 
his first acts in entering upon his office on the 
tenth of December, 63, was a violent attack 
upon Cicero. He maintained that the man who 
had condemned Roman citizens without a hear- 
ing ought not to be heard himself, and accord- 
ingly prevented Cicero from addressing the peo 
pie on the last day of his consulship, and only 
allowed him to take the usual oath, whereupon 
Cicero swore that he had saved the state. In 
the following year (62) Metellus brought for- 
ward a bill to summon Pompey, with his army, 
to Rome, in order to restore peace, but, on the 
day on which the bill was to be read, the two 
parties came to open blows, and Metellus was 
obliged to take to flight. He repaired to Pom- 
pey, with whom he returned to Rome in 61. He 
was praetor in 60, and consul in 57 with P. 
Lentulus Spinther. Notwithstanding his pre- 
vious enmity with Cicero, he did not oppose his 
recall from exile. In 56 Metellus administered 
the province of Nearer Spain, where he carried 
on war against the Vaccaei. He died in 55. 
Metellus did not adhere strictly to the political 
principles of his family. He did not support 
the aristocracy like his brother ; nor, on the 
other hand, can he be said to have been a lead- 
er of the democracy. He was, in fact, little 
more than a servant of Pompey, and, according 
to his bidding, at one time opposed and at an- 
other supported Cicero. — 15. Q. Cecilius Me- 
tellus Pius Scipio, the adopted son of Metel- 
lus Pius (No. 12). He was the son of P. Scipio 
Nasica, praetor 94. Hence his name is given 
in various forms. Sometimes he is called P. 
Scipio Nasica, sometimes Q. Metellus Scipio, 
and sometimes simply Scipio or Metellus. He 
was tribune of the plebs in 59, and was a can- 
didate for the consulship along with Plautius 
Hypsauis and Milo in 53. He was supported 
by the Clodian mob, since he was opposed to 
Milo, but, in consequence of the disturbances 
in the city, the comitia could not be held for the 
election of consuls. After the murder of Clo- 
dius at the beginning of 52, Pompey was elect- 
ed sole consul. In the course of the same year 
Pompey married Cornelia, the daughter of Scip- 
io, and on the first of August he made his fa- 
ther-in-law his colleague in the consulship. 
Scipio showed his gratitude by using every ef- 
fort to destroy the power of Caesar and strength- 
en that of Pompey. He took an active part in 
all the proceedings which led to the breaking 
out of the civil war in 49, and, in the division 
of the provinces, made among the Pompeian 
party, he obtained Syria, to which he hastened 
without delay. After plundering the province 
in the most unmerciful manner, he crossed over 
into Greece in 48 to join Pompey. He com- 
manded the centre of the Pompeian army at the 
battle of Pharsalia. After the loss of the battle 
he fled, first to Ccrcya and then to Africa, 
where ae received ths chief command of the 



/ 



METHANA. 



METIS. 



Pompeian troops. He was defeated by Caesar 
at the decisive battle of Thapsus in 46. He at- 
tempted to escape by sea, but his squadron hav- 
ing been overpowered by P. Sittius, he put an 
end to his own life. MetelJus Scipio never ex- 
hibited any proofs of striking abilities either in 
war or in peace. In public he showed himself 
cruel, vindictive, and oppressive; in private he 
was mean, avaricious, and licentious, even be- 
yond most of his contemporaries. — 16. Q. Cm- 
cilius Metellus Creticus, was consul 69, and 
carried on war against Crete, which he subdued 
in the course of three years. He returned to 
Rome in 66, but was unable to obtain a triumph 
in consequence of the opposition of Pompey, to 
whom he had refused to surrender his com- 
mand in Crete, which Pompey had claimed in 
virtue of the Gabinian law, which had given him 
the supreme command in the whole of the Med- 
iterranean. Metellus, however, would not re- 
linquish his claim to a triumph, and according- 
ly resolved to wait in the neighborhood of the 
eicy till more favorable circumstances. He was 
still before the city in 63, when the conspiracy 
of Catiline broke out. He was sent into Apu- 
lia to prevent an apprehended rising of the 
slaves ; and in the following year, 62, after the 
death of Catiline, he was at length permitted to 
make his triumphal entrance into Rome, and 
received the surname of Creticus. Metellus, as 
was to be expected, joined the aristocracy in 
their opposition to Pompey, and succeeded in 
preventing the latter from obtaining the ratifi- 
cation of his acts in Asia. — 17. L. C^ecilius 
Metellus, brother of the last, was praetor 71, 
and as propraetor succeeded Verres in the gov- 
ernment of Sicily in 70. He defeated the pi- 
rates, and compelled them to leave the island. 
His administration is praised by Cicero ; but he 
nevertheless attempted, in conjunction with his 
brothers, to shield Verres from justice. He 
was consul 68 with Q. Marcius Rex, but died 
at the beginning of the year.— 18. M. Cjecilius 
Metellus, brother of the two last, was praetor 
69, in the same year that his eldest brother was 
consul. The lot gave him the presidency in 
the court de pecuniis repetundis, and Verres was 
very anxious that his trial should come on be- 
fore Metellus. — 19. L. Cjecilius Metellus 
Creticus, was tribune of the plebs 49, and a 
warm supporter of the aristocracy. He did not 
fly from Rome with Pompey and the rest of his 
party ; and he attempted to prevent Caesar from 
taking possession of the sacred treasury, and 
only gave way upon being threatened with death. 

Methana. Vid. Methone, No. 4. 

Metharme (Medup/ij]), daughter of King Pyg- 
malion, and wife of Cinyras. Vid. Cinyras. 

[Methodius (Medodwc), surnamed Patarensis, 
and sometimes Eubulus or Eubulius, success- 
ively bishop of Olympus and Patara in Lycia, 
and Tyre in Phoenicia, lived in the third, and 
died at the beginning of the fourth century. He 
was a man of great learning and exemplary pi- 
ety ; and wrote several works, most of which 
are extant, and were published collectively by 
Comberls, Paris, 1644, folio.] 

[Methon (MeOov), a kinsman of Orpheus, from 
whom the Thracian town of Methone was be- 
lieved to have derived its name.] 

Mhthone (JAeQ'jvrj : Meduvaloc). 1. Or Mo- 



thone (Moduvn : now Modon), a town at the 
southwest corner of Messenia, with an excel 
lent harbor, protected from the sea by a reef of 
rocks, of which the largest was called Mothon 
The ancients regarded Methone as the Pedasus 
of Homer. After the conquest of Messenia it 
became one of the Lacedaemonian harbors, and 
is mentioned as such in the Peloponnesian war. 
The Emperor Trajan conferred several privi- 
leges upon the city. — 2. ( Eleutherokhori), a Greek 
town in Macedonia, on the Thermaic Gulf, forty 
stadia northeast of Pydna, was founded by the 
Eretrians, and is celebrated from Philip having 
lost an eye at the siege of the place. After its 
capture by Philip it was destroyed, but was sub- 
sequently rebuilt, and is mentioned by Strabo 
as one of the towns of Macedonia. — 3. A town 
in Thessaly mentioned by Homer, but does not 
occur in historical times. The ancients placed 
it in Magnesia. — 4. Or Methana (Medava : now 
Methana or Mitone), an ancient town in Argo- 
lis, situated on a peninsula of the same name, 
opposite the island of ^Egina. The peninsula 
runs a considerable way into the sea, and is 
connected with the main land by a narrow isth- 
mus, lying between the towns of Trcezen and 
Epidaurus. The town of Methana lay at the 
foot of a mountain of volcanic origin. 

Methora (Medopa, Modovpa r) tuv Qeuv : now 
Matra, the sacred city of Krishna), a city of In- 
dia intra Gangem, on the River Jomanes (now 
Jumna), in the territory of the Surasenae, a 
tribe subject to the Prasii. It was a great seat 
of the worship of the Indian god whom the 
Greeks identified with Hercules. 

[Methydrium (MsduSpiov), a small town of 
Arcadia, on the road from Olyrnpia to Orcho- 
menus, deriving its name from the circumstance 
of its being built on a steep cliff between the ten- 
ters of Malcetas and Mylaon.] 

Methymna (f/ JArjQvfiva, TAtdvfiva, the former 
generally in the best writers ; also on coins the 
^Eolic form Mu0v/.iva : Mqdu/ivaioc, Medv/xvaiog : 
now Molivo), the second city of Lesbos, stood at 
the northern extremity of the island, and had a 
good harbor. It was the birthplace of the mu- 
sician and dithyrambic poet Arion, and of the 
historian Hellanicus. The celebrated Lesbian 
wine grew in its neighborhood. In the Pelo- 
ponnesian war it remained faithful to Athens, 
even during the great Lesbian revolt {vid. Myti- 
lene) : afterward it was sacked by the Spartans 
(B.C. 406), and never quite recovered its pros- 
perity. 

[Metiochus (Mnrioxoc). 1. Son of Miltiades, 
captured by the Phoenicians, and taken to the 
Persian court. Darius did him no injury, but 
conferred many favors on him, and gave him a 
Persian lady in marriage, by whom he had chil- 
dren, who were held in estimation among the 
Persians. — 2. An Athenian orator, a contem- 
porary and friend of Pericles, for whom he often 
spoke in the assembly at Athens.] 

Metion (M.t)tluv), son of Erechtheus and 
Praxithea, and husband of Alcippe. His sons, 
the Metionidae, expelled their cousin Pandion 
from his kingdom of Athens, but were them- 
selves afterward expelled by the sons of Pan- 
dion. 

Metis (Mf/nc), the personification of pru- 
dence, is described as a daughter of Oceanus 

511 



METISCUS. 



METULUM. 



and Tethys, and the first wife of Jupiter (Zeus). 
Afraid lest she should give birth to a child wiser 
and more powerful than himself, Jupiter (Zeus) 
devoured her in the first month of her pregnan- 
cy. Afterward he gave birth to Minerva (Athe- 
na), who sprang from his head. Vid. p. 120, b. 

[Metiscus, charioteer of Turnus, ejected from 
his place by Juturna, who guided the chariot 
herself, when Turnus was about to engage in 
single combat with ^Eneas.] 

Metius. Vid. Mettius. 

Meton (Metov), an astronomer of Athens, 
who, in conjunction with Euctemon, introduced 
the cycle of nineteen years, by which he ad- 
justed the course of the sun and moon, since 
he had observed that two hundred and thirty- 
five lunar months correspond very nearly to 
nineteen solar years. The commencement of 
this cycle has been placed B.C. 432. We have 
no details of Meton's life, with the exception 
that his father's name was Pausanias, and that 
he feigned insanity to avoid sailing for Sicily 
in the ill-fated expedition of which he is stated 
to have had an evil presentiment. 

[Metope (MerunTj). 1. A daughter of the 
Arcadian river-god Ladon, was married to Aso- 
pus, and became the mother of Thebe. — 2. Wife 
of the river-god Sangarius, and mother of Hec- 
uba, the wife of Priam.] 

[Metopus (Me'raTTOf), a Pythagorean of Meta- 
pontum ; author of a work on virtue, some ex- 
tracts from which have been preserved by Sto- 
bseus, and are given among the Pythagorean 
fragments in Gale's Opuscula Mythologica ] 

[Metrobius (MsrpoBiog), an actor who per- 
formed in women's parts, a great favorite of the 
dictator Sulla.] 

Metrodorus (MjjTpodapoc). 1. Of Cos, son 
of Epicharmus, and grandson of Thyrsus. Like 
several of that family, he addicted himself partly 
to_ the study of the Pythagorean philosophy, 
partly to the science of medicine. He wrote a 
treatise upon the works of Epicharmus. He 
flourished about B.C. 460. — 2. Of Lampsacus, a 
contemporary and friend of Anaxagoras. He 
wrote on Homer, the leading feature of his sys- 
tem of interpretation being that the deities and 
stories in Homer were to be understood as alle- 
gorical modes of representing physical powers 
and phenomena. He died 464. — 3. Of Chios, 
a disciple of Democritus, or, according to other 
accounts, of Nessus of Chios, flourished about 
330. He was a philosopher of considerable rep- 
utation, and professed the doctrines of the skep- 
tics in their fullest sense. He also studied, if 
he did not practice, medicine, on which he wrote 
a good deal. He was the instructor of Hippoc- 
rates and Anaxarchus. — 4. A native of Lamp- 
sacus or Athens, was the most distinguished of 
the disciples of Epicurus, with whom he lived 
on terms of the closest friendship. He died 
277, in the fifty-third year of his age, seven 
years before Epicurus, who would have appoint- 
ed him his successor had he survived him. 
The philosophy of Metrodorus appears to have 
been of a more grossly sensual kind than that 
of Epicurus. Perfect happiness, according to 
Cicero's account, he made to consist in having 
a well-constituted body. He found fault with 
his brother Timocrates for not admitting that 
the belly was the test and measure of every 
612 



thing that pertained to a happy life. He was 
the author of several works quoted by the an- 
cient writers. — 5. Of Scepsis, a philosopher, who 
was raised to a position of great influence and 
trust by Mithradates Eupator, being appointed 
supreme judge without appeal even to the king. 
Subsequently he was led to desert his allegi- 
ance, when sent by Mithradates on an embassy 
to Tigranes, king of Armenia. Tigranes sent 
him, back to Mithradates, but he died on the 
road. According to some accounts, he was dis- 
patched by order of the king; according to 
others, he died of disease. He is frequently 
mentioned by Cicero ; he seems to have been 
particularly celebrated for his powers of mem- 
ory. In consequence of his hostility to the Ro- 
mans, he was surnamed the Roman-haler. — 6 
Of Stratonice in Caria, was at first a disciple 
of the school of Epicurus, but afterward at- 
tached himself to Carneades. He flourished 
about 110. 

[Metrophanes {M.T]Tpo<fidvT)fj, a general of 
Mithradates the Great, who sent him with an 
army into Greece to support Archelaus, B.C. 
87. He reduced Euboea and some other places, 
but was defeated by the Roman general Brut- 
tius Sura.] 

Metropolis (MrjTpoiroXis). 1. The most an- 
cient capital of Phrygia, but in historical times 
an inconsiderable place. Its position is doubt- 
ful. Some identify it with Afioum-Kara-Hisar 
near the centre of Great Phrygia, which agrees 
well enough with the position of the Campus 
Metropolitanus of Livy (xxxviii., 15), while 
others find it in the ruins at Pismesk-Kalessi in 
the north of Phrygia, and suppose a second 
Metropolis in the south as that to which the 
Campus Metropolitanus belonged. — 2. In Lydia 
(ruins at Turbali), a city in the plain of the 
Cayster, between Ephesus and Smyrna, one 
hundred and twenty stadia from the former, and 
two hundred from the latter. There were other 
cities of Asia so called, but they are either un- 
important, or better known by other names, 
such as Ancyra, Bostra, Ccesarea in Palestine, 
Edessa, and others. — 3. (Now Kaslri), a town 
of Thessaly in Histia;otis, near the Peneus, and 
between Gomphi and Pharsalus, formed by the 
union of several small towns, to which Ithome 
also belonged. — 4. A town of Acarnania in the 
district Amphilochia, between the Ambracian 
Gulf and the River Achelous. 

Metroum, afterward Aulia (Mrjrpuov, on coins 
M^rpof, AvXta, AvXaia), a city of Bithynia. 

Mettius or Metius. 1. CurtIus. Vid. Cuk- 
tius. — 2. FuffetTus, dictator of Alba in the 
reign of Tullus Hostilius, third king of Rome. 
After the combat between the Horatii and 
Curiatii had determined the supremacy of the 
Romans, Mettius was summoned to aid them 
in a war with Fidenes and the Veienlines. On 
the field of battle Mettius drew off his Albans 
to the hills, and awaited the issue of the battle. 
On the following day the Albans were all de- 
prived of their arms, and Mettius himself, as 
the punislvmer of his treachery, was torn asun- 
der by chariots driven in opposite directions. 

Metulum, the chief town of the Iapydes in 
Illyricum, was near the frontiers of Liburnia, 
and was situated on two peaks of a steep mount- 
ain. Augustus nearly lost his life in reduc- 



MEVANIA. 



MIDIAS. 



Ing this place, the inhabitants of which fought 
against him with the most desperate courage. 

Mevania (Mevanas, atis : now Bcvagna), an 
ancient city in the interior of Umbria, on the 
River Tinea, was situated on the road from 
Rome to Ancona, in a very fertile country, and 
was celebrated for its breed of beautiful white 
oxen. It was a strongly-fortified place, though 
its walls were built only of brick. According 
to some accounts, Propertius was a native of 
this place. 

Mezentius (MsueiTtoc), king of the Tyrrhe- 
nians or Etruscans, at Cajre or Agylla, was ex- 
pelled by his subjects on account of his cruelty, 
and took refuge with Turnus, king of the Rutu- 
lians, whom he assisted in the war against 
.Eneas and the Trojans. Mezentius and his 
son Lausus were slain in battle by iEneas. 
This is the account of Virgil. Livy and Dionys- 
ius, however, say nothing about the expulsion 
of Mezentius from CaDre, but represent him as 
an ally of Turnus, and relate that iEneas dis- 
appeared during the battle against the Rutu- 
lians and Etruscans at Lanuvium. Dionysius 
adds that Ascanius was besieged by Mezentius 
and Lausus ; that the besieged in a sally by 
night slew Lausus, and then concluded a peace 
with Mezentius, who from henceforth continu- 
ed to be their ally. 

[Miccion (MtKKtQv), a painter, mentioned by 
Lucian as a disciple of Zeuxis.] 

Micipsa (Mi/m/jaf), king of Numidia, the eld- 
est of the sons of Masinissa. After the death 
of the latter (B.C. 148), the sovereign power 
was divided by Scipio between Micipsa and his 
two brothers, Gulussa and Mastanabal, in such 
a manner that the possession of Citta, the cap- 
ital of Numidia, together with the financial ad- 
ministration of the kingdom, fell to the share 
of Micipsa. It was not long, however, before 
the death of both his brothers left him in pos- 
session of the undivided sovereignty of Numid- 
ia, which he held from that time without in- 
terruption till his death. He died in 118, leav- 
ing the kingdom to his two sons, Adherbal and 
Hiempsal, and their adopted brother Jugurtha. 

Micon (MUuv), of Athens, son of Phanochus, 
was a very distinguished painter and statuary, 
contemporary with Polygnotus, about B.C. 460. 

[Micvthus (Mt'/raftof), son of Chcerus, was at 
first a slave in the service of Anaxilas, tyrant 
of Rhegium, but gradually rose to so high a 
place in the confidence of his master, that the 
latter, at his death (B.C. 476), left him guardian 
of his infant sons, and regent until they attain- 
ed their majority. He discharged his duty, and 
at the proper time resigned the sovereignty into 
the hands of the young princes, set out for 
Greece, and settled at Tegea, where he resided 
for the rest of his life.] 

Midaeum (Midueiov), a city of Phrygia Epicte- 
tus, between Doryla?um and Pessinus ; the place 
where Sextus Pompeius was captured by the 
troops of Antony, B.C. 35. 

Midas (M«Saf), son of Gordius and Cybele, is 
said to have been a wealthy but effeminate king 
of Phrygia, a pupil of Orpheus, and a great 
patron of the worship of Bacchus (Dionysus). 
His wealth is alluded to in a story connected 
with his childhood, for it is said that while a 
child, ants carried grains of wheat into his 
33 



mouth, to indicate that one day he should be 
the richest of all mortals. Midas was intro- 
duced into the Satyric drama of the Greeks, 
and was represented with the ears of a satyr, 
which were afterward lengthened into the ears 
of an ass. He is said to have built the town 
of Ancyra, and as king of Phrygia he is called 
Berecynthius heros (Ov., Met., xi., 106). There 
are several stories connected with Midas, of 
which the following are the most celebrated. 
1. Silenns, the companion and teacher of Bac- 
chus (Dionysus), had gone astray in a state of 
intoxication, and was caught by country people 
in the rose gardens of Midas. He was'bound 
with wreaths of flowers and led before the king. 
These gardens were in Macedonia, near Mount 
Bermion or Bromion, where Midas was king 
of the Briges, with whom he afterward emi- 
grated to Asia, where their name was changed 
into Phryges. Midas received Silenus kindly ; 
and, after treating him with hospitality, he led 
him back to Bacchus (Dionysus), who, allowed 
Midas to ask a favor of him. Midas, in his folly, 
desired that all things which he touched should 
be changed into gold. The request was grant- 
ed*; but as even the food which he touched be- 
came gold, he implored the god to take his favor 
back. Bacchus (Dionysus) accordingly ordered 
him to bathe in the source of Pactolus, near 
Mount Tmolus.. This bath saved Midas, but 
the river from that time had an abundance of 
gold in its sand. — 2. Midas, who was himself 
related to the race of Satyrs, once had a visit 
from a Satyr, who indulged in all kinds of jokes 
at the king's expense. Thereupon Midas mix 
ed wine in a well ; and when the Satyr had 
drank of it, he fell asleep and was caught. T \ his 
well of Midas was at different times &iS.gned 
to different localities. Xenophon (Anab., i. k 2, 
<) 13) places it in the neighborhood of Thym- 
brium and Tyra?um, and Pausanias at Ancyra. — 
3. Once, when Pan and Apollo were engaged in 
a musical contest on the flute and lyre, Midas 
was chosen to decide between them. The king 
decided in favor of Pan, whereupon Apollo 
changed his ears into those of an ass. Midas 
contrived to conceal them under his Phrygian 
cap, but the servant who used to cut his hair 
discovered them. The secret so much harassed 
this man, that, as he could not betray it to a 
human being, he dug a hole in the earth, and 
whispered into it, " King Midas has ass's ears." 
He then filled the hole up again, and his heart 
was relieved. But on the same spot a reed 
grew up, which in its whispers betrayed the 
secret. Midas is said to have killed himself by 
drinking the blood of an ox. 

Midea orMiDEA (Mideia, MiSea : M.i6ed.T7ic), a 
town in Argolis, of uncertain site, is said to 
have been originally called Persepolis, because 
it had been fortified by Perseus. It was de- 
stroyed by the Argives. 

Midianitje. Vid. Madianit/e. 

Midias (MficSZaf), an Athenian of wealth and 
influence, was a violent enemy of Demosthenes 
the orator. In B.C. 354 Midias assaulted De- 
mosthenes when he was discharging the duties 
of Choregus, during the celebration of the greal 
Dionysia. Demosthenes brought an accusation 
against Midias ; but the speech which he wrote 
for the occasion, and which is extant, was never 

513 



MIEZA. 



MTLO. 



delivered, since Demosthenes dropped the ac- 
cusation in consequence of his receiving the 
sum of thirty minae. 

Mieza (M/'sfa : Mu&vc), a town of Macedonia 
in Emathia, southwest of Pella, and not far from 
the frontiers of Thessaly. 

[Migonium (Miyuvwv), a place in or near the 
island Cranae in Laconia, where Venus (Aph- 
rodite), hence called Migonitis (MLyuvlTic), had 
a temple.] 

MilanIon (Met'Aaviav), son of Amphidamas, 
and husband of Atalanta. For details, vid. Ata- 

LANTA. 

MlLETOPOLIS (MlTiTjTOTTO^lC tlOW MuJialich OT 

Hamamli 1 ruins), a city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, 
at the confluence of the River Rhyndacus and 
Macestus, and somewhat east of the lake which 
was named after it, Lacu's Miletopolitis (MiXt]- 
tottoHtic TiiftvTj : now Lake of Maniyas). This 
lake, which was also called Artynia, lies some 
miles west of the larger lake of Apollonia (now 
Abullionte). 

MlLETOPOLIS. Vid. BoRYSTUENES. 

Miletus (Mt'^roc), son of Apollo and Aria of 
Crete. Being beloved by Minos and Sarpedon, 
he attached himself to the latter, and fled from 
Minos to Asia, where he built the city of Mile- 
tus. Ovid {Met., ix., 442) calls him a son of 
Apollo and Dei'one, and hence Dei'onides. 

Miletus (M£/b?rof, Dor. ~M.ila.roc : MiMjcnoc, 
and on inscriptions, Mei/bjciof ■ Milesius). 1 . One 
of the greatest cities of Asia Minor, belonged 
territorially to Caria and politically to Ionia, 
being the southernmost of the twelve cities of 
the Ionian confederacy. It is mentioned by 
Homer as a Carian city ; and one of its early 
names, Lelegei's, is a sign that the Leleges also 
formed a part of its population. Its first Greek 
colonists were said to have been Cretans who 
were expelled by Minos ; the next were led to 
it by Neleus at the time of the so-called Ionic 
migration. Its name was derived from the 
mythical leader of the Cretan colonists, Mile- 
tus : it was also called Pityusa (RiTvovoa) and 
Anactoria ('AvaK-opia). The city stood upon 
the southern headland of the Sinus Latmicus, 
opposite to the mouth of the Mseander, and pos- 
sessed four distinct harbors, protected by a 
group of islets, called Lade, Dromiscus, and 
Feme. The city wall inclosed two distinct 
towns, called the outer and the inner ; the lat- 
ter, which was also called Old Miletus, stood 
upon an eminence overhanging the sea, and 
was of great strength. Its territory extended 
on both sides of the Mseander, as far apparently 
as the promontories of Mycale on the north and 
Posidium on the south. It was rich in flocks ; 
and the city was celebrated for its woollen fab- 
rics, the Milesia vellera. At a very early period 
it became a great maritime state, extending its 
commerce throughout the Mediterranean, and 
even beyond the Pillars of Hercules, but more 
especially in the direction of the Euxine, along 
the shore of which the Milesians planted sev- 
eral important colonies, such as Cyzicus, Si- 
nope, Abydos, Istropolis, Tomi, Olbia or Borys- 
thenes, Apollonia, Odessus, and Panticapaeurn. 
Naucratis in Egypt was also a colony of Mile- 
tus. It also occupies a high place in the early 
history of Greek literature, as the birth-place 
of the Philosophers Thales, Anaximander, and 
514 



Anaximenes, and of the historians Cadmus and 
Hecataeus. After the rise of the Lydian mon- 
archy, Miletus, by its naval strength, resisted 
the attacks of Alyattes and Sadyattes for eleven 
years, but fell before Croesus, whose success 
may perhaps be ascribed to the intestine fac- 
tions which for a long time weakened the city. 
With the rest of Ionia, it was conquered by 
Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, in B.C. 557; 
and under the dominion of the Persians it still 
retained its prosperity till the great Ionian re- 
volt, of which Miletus was the centre (vid. 
Aristagoras, HistivEus), and after the suppres- 
sion of which it was destroyed by the Persians 
(B.C. 494). It recovered sufficient importance 
to oppose a vain resistance to Alexander the 
Great, which brought upon it a second ruin. 
Under the Roman empire it still appears as a 
place of some consequence, until its final de- 
struction by the Turks. Its ruins are difficult 
to discover, on account of the great change 
made in the coast by the River Maeander. Vid. 
Meander. They are usually supposed to be 
those at the wretched village of Palatia, on the 
southern bank of the Menderch, a little above 
its present mouth ; but Forbiger has shown 
that these are more probablyHhe ruins of Myus, 
and that those of Miletus are buried in a lake 
formed by the Mendereh at the foot of Mount 
Latmus. — [2. A city of Crete, not far from Lyc- 
tos, whence the first settlers of the Ionian Mile- 
tus are said to have come.] 

MIlichus, a Phoenician god, represented as 
the son of a satyr and of the nymph Myrice, and 
with horns on his head. (Sil. Ital., iii., 103.) 

Milichus (MsiAi^of), a small river in Achaia, 
which flowed by the town of Patrae, and is said 
to have been originally called Amilichus ('Afiet- 
lixoc) on account of the human victims sacri- 
ficed on its banks to Diana (Artemis). 

[Milichus, a freedman of Flavius Scaevinus, 
gave, Nero the first information of Piso's con- 
spiracy in A.D. 66. Milichus was liberally re- 
warded by the emperor, and assumed the sur- 
name of Soter or the Preserver.] 

Milo or Milon (WlIuv). 1. Of Crotona, son 
of Diotimus, an athlete, famous for his extraor- 
dinary bodily strength. He was six times vic- 
tor in wrestling at the Olympic games, and as 
often at the Pythian ; but, having entered the 
lists at Olympia a seventh time, he was worsted 
by the superior agility of his adversary. By 
these successes he obtained great distinction 
among his countrymen, so that he was even ap- 
pointed to command the army which defeated 
the Sybarites, B.C. 511. Many stories are re- 
lated by ancient writers of Milo's extraordinary 
feats of strength ; such as his carrying a heifer 
of four years old on his shoulders through the 
stadium at Olympia, and afterward eating the 
whole of it in a single day. The mode of his 
death is thus related : as he was passing through 
a forest when enfeebled by age, he saw the 
trunk of a tree which had been partially split 
open by woodcutters, and attempted to rend it 
further, but the wood closed upon his hands, and 
thus held him fast, in which state he was attack- 
ed and devoured by wolves. — 2. A general in 
the service of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who sent 
him forward with a body of troops to garrison 
the citadel of Tarentum previous to his own 



M1L0. 



MILTIADES. 



arrival in Italy. When Pyrrhus finally quitted 
that country and withdrew into Epirus, he still 
left Milo in charge of the citadel of Tarentum, 
together with his son Helenus. — [3. Of Bercea, 
an officer in the army of Perseus, with which 
he opposed the Roman consul P. Licinius Cras- 
sus B C. 171. He is mentioned again as holding 
an important command under Fferseus, just be- 
fore the battle of Pydna, B.C. 166. He after- 
ward proved a traitor, and surrendered the for- 
tress of Bercea into the hands of the Roman 
general Paulkis iEmilius.] — 4. T. Annius Milo 
Papinianus, was the son of C. Papius Celsus 
and Annia, and was adopted by his maternal 
grandfather T. Annius Luscus. He was born 
at Lanuvium, of which place he was in B.C. 53 
dictator or chief magistrate. Milo was a man 
of a daring and unscrupulous character ; and as 
he was deeply in debt, he resolved to obtain a 
wealthy province. For this purpose he con- 
nected himself with the aristocracy. As tribune 
of the plebs, B.C. 57, he took an active part in 
obtaining Cicero's recall from exile, and from 
this time he carried on a fierce and memorable 
contest with P. Clodius. In 53 Milo was can- 
didate for the consulship, and Clodius for the 
praetorship of the ensuing year. Each of the 
candidates kept a gang of gladiators, and there 
were frequent combats between the rival ruf- 
fians in the streets of Rome. At length, on the 
twentieth of January, 52, Milo and Clodius met 
apparently by accident at Bovillae on the Appian 
road. An affray ensued between their follow- 
ers, in which Clodius was slain. At Rome such 
tumults followed upon the burial of Clodius, that 
Pompey was appointed sole consul in order to 
restore order to the state. Pompey immediate- 
ly brought forward various laws in connection 
with the late disturbances. As soon as these 
were passed, Milo was formally accused. All 
Pompey's influence was directed against him ; 
but Milo was not without hope, since the higher 
aristocracy, from jealousy of Pompey, supported 
him, and Cicero undertook his defence. His 
trial opened on the fourth of April, 52. He was 
impeached on 'three counts — de Vi, de Ambitu, 
or bribery, and de Sodalitiis, or illegal interfer- 
ence with the freedom of elections. L. Domi- 
tius Ahenobarbus, a consular, was appointed 
quaesitor by a special law of Pompey's, and all 
Rome and thousands of spectators from Italy 
thronged the forum and its avenues. But Milo's 
chances of acquittal were wholly marred by the 
virulence of his adversaries, who insulted and 
obstructed the witnesses, the process, and the 
conductors of the defence. Pompey availed 
himself of these disorders to line the forum and 
its encompassing hills with soldiers. Cicero 
was intimidated, aid Milo was condemned. 
Had he even been acquitted on the first count, 
de Vi, the two other charges of bribery and con- 
spiracy awaited him. He therefore went into 
exile. Cicero, who could not deliver, re- wrote 
and expanded the defence of Milo — the extant 
oration — and sent it to him at Marseilles. Milo 
remarked, "I am glad this was not spoken, 
since I must have been acquitted, and then had 
nr^ver known the delicate flavor of these Mar- 
seilles mullets." Caesar refused to recall Milo 
from exile in 49, when he permitted many of 
the other exiles to return. In the following 



year (48), M. Caelius, the praetor, had, during 
Caesar's absence, promulgated a bill for the ad- 
justment of debts. Needing desperate allies, 
Caelius accordingly invited Milo to Italy, as the 
fittest tool for his purposes. At the head of a 
band of criminals and run-away slaves, Milo ap- 
peared in the south of Italy, but was opposed by 
the praetor Q. Pedius, and slain under the walls 
of an obscure fort in the district of Thurii. Milo, 
in 57, married Fausta, a daughter of the dicta- 
tor Sulla. She proved a faithless wife, and Sal- 
lust, the historian, was soundly scourged by 
Milo for an intrigue with her. 

[Miltas (MtAraf), a Thessalian, a contempo- 
rary of Plato, spoken of by Plutarch as a seer, 
and a follower of the Platonic philosophy : he 
served in the army of Dion against Dionysius 
the younger, and encouraged the troops when 
alarmed by an eclipse.] 

Miltiades (MihTiddric). 1. Son of Cyps«las, 
was a man of considerable distinction in Athens 
in the time of Pisistratus. The Doloncians, a 
Thracian tribe dwelling in the Chersonesus, 
being hard pressed in war by the Absinthians, 
applied to the Delphic oracle for advice, and 
were directed to admit a colony led by the man 
who should be the first to entertain them after 
they left the temple. This was Militiades, who, 
eager to escape from the rule of Pisistratus, 
gladly took the lead of a colony under the sanc- 
tion of the oracle, and became tyrant of the 
Chersonesus, which he fortified by a wall built 
across its isthmus. In a war with the people 
of Lampsacus he was taken prisoner, but was 
set at liberty on the demand of Croesus. He 
died without leaving any children, and his sov- 
ereignty passed into the hands of Stesagoras, 
the son of his half-brother Cimon. Sacrifices 
and games were instituted in his honor, in which 
no Lampsacene was suffered to take part. — 2~ 
Son of Cimon and brother of Stesagoras, be- 
came tyrant of the Chersonesus on the death 
of the latter, being sent out by Pisistratus from 
Athens to take possession of the vacant inherit- 
ance. By a stratagem he got the chief men of 
the Chersonesus into his power and threw them 
into prison, and took a force of mercenaries into 
his pay. In order to strengthen his position 
still more, he married Hegesipyla, the daughter 
of a Thracian prince named Olorus. He joined 
Darius Hystaspis on his expedition against the 
Scythians, and was left with the other Greeks 
in charge of the bridge over the Danube. When 
the appointed time had expired, and Darius had 
not returned, Miltiades recommended the Greeks 
to destroy the bridge and leave Darius to his 
fate. Some time after the expedition of Darius, 
an inroad of the Scythians drove Miltiades from 
his possessions ; but after the enemy had re- 
tired, the Doloncians brought him back. It ap- 
pears to have been between this period and his 
withdrawal to Athens that Miltiades conquered 
and expelled the Pelasgian inhabitants of Lem- 
nos and Imbros, and subjected the islands to the 
dominion of Attica. Lemnos and Imbros be- 
longed to the Persian dominions ; and it is prob- 
able that this encroachment on the Persian pos- 
sessions was the cause which drew upon Mil- 
tiades the hostility of Darius, and led him to fly 
from the Chersonesus when the Phoenician 
fleet approached after the subjugation of Ionia. 



MILTO. 



MINERVA. 



Miltiades reached Athens in safety, but his eld- 
est son Metiochus fell into the hands of the 
Persians. At Athens Miltiades was arraigned, 
as being amenable to the penalties enacted 
against tyranny, but was acquitted. When At- 
tica was threatened with invasion by the Per- 
sians under Datis and Artaphernes, Miltiades 
was chosen one of the ten generals. Miltiades, 
by his arguments, induced the polemarch Callim- 
achus to give the casting vote in favor of risk- 
ing a battle with the enemy, the opinions of the 
ten generals being equally divided. Miltiades 
waited till his turn came, and then drew his 
army up in battle array on the ever-memorable 
field of Marathon. Vid. Marathon. After the 
defeat of the Persians Miltiades endeavored to 
urge the Athenians to measures of retaliation, 
and induced them to intrust to him an arma- 
ment of seventy ships, without knowing the 
purpose for which they were designed. He pro- 
ceeded to attack the island of Paros, for the' 
purpose of gratifying a private enmity. His 
attacks, however, were unsuccessful ; and after 
rjeceiving a dangerous hurt in the leg while 
penetrating into a sacred inclosure on some 
superstitious errand, he was compelled to raise 
the siege and return to Athens, where he was 
impeached by Xanthippns for having deceived 
the people. His wound had turned into a gan- 
grene, and being unable to plead his cause in 
person, he was brought into court on a couch, 
his brother Tisagoras conducting his defence 
for him. He was condemned ; but on the 
ground of his services to the state, the penalty 
was commuted to a fine of fifty talents, the 
cost of the equipment of the armament. Being 
unable to pay this, he was thrown into pris- 
on, where he not long after died of his wound. 
The fine was subsequently paid by his son Ci- 
mon. 

[Milto (MtAru), the name of the favorite mis- 
tress of Cyrus, afterward called Aspasia. Vid. 
Aspasia, No. 2.] 

[Miltocythes (Mt/U-o/cOffyf), a Thracian offi- 
cer in the army of the younger Cyrus, who, 
after the death of Cyrus, abandoned the Greeks 
and went over with about thirty cavalry and 
three hundred infantry to the side of the king.] 
Milvius Pons. Vid. Rosia. 
Milyas (>? MAvdc : MMat, Milya?), was orig- 
inally the name of all Lycia ; but it was after- 
ward applied to the high table-land in the north 
of Lycia, between the Cadmus and the Taurus, 
and extending considerably into Pisidia. Its 
people seem to have been the descendants of 
the original inhabitants of Lycia. It contained 
a city of the same name. After the defeat of 
Antiochus the Great, the Romans gave it to Eu- 
menes, king of Pergamus, but its real govern- 
ment seems to have been in the hands of Pisid- 
ian princes. 

MlMALLON (MijrioAAojv), pi. MlMALLONES, the 

Macedonian name of the Bacchantes, or, accord- 
ing to others, of Bacchic Amazons. Ovid (Ars 
Am., i., 541) uses the form Mimallonides. 

Mimas {Mi/xac) 1. A giant, said to have been 
killed by Mars (Ares), or by Jupiter (Zeus), with 
a flash of lightning. The island of Prochyte, 
near Sicily, was believed to rest upon his body. 
—[2. Son of jEoIus, king of ^Eolis, and father 
of Hippotes. — 3. Son of Amycus and Theano, 
516 



! was born on the same night as Paris, went with 
i .<Eneas to Italy, where he was slain by Mezen- 
j tius. — 4. A Bebrycian, slain by Pollux during 
I the Argonautic expedition.] 

[Mimas Mons (Jfiifiac). 1. A mountain chain 
of Ionia, a branch of Mount Tmolus, extending 
I toward the sea, and forming the three promon- 
tories Coryceurh (now Koraka), Argennutn (now 
I Cape Blanc), and Melaena (now Kara Burnu).— 
2. A mountain chain of Thrace, which unites 
itself with Mount Rhodope, mentioned only by 
Silius Italicus.] 

Mimnekjius (Mi/ivep/ioc), a celebrated elegiac 
poet, was generally called a Colophonian, but 
was properly a native of Smyrna, and was de- 
scended from those Colophonians who recon- 
quered Smyrna from the ^Eolians. He flourish- 
ed from about B.C. 634 to 600. He was a con- 
temporary of Solon, who, in an extant fragment 
of one of his poems, addresses him as still living. 
Only a few fragments of the compositions of 
Mimnermus have come down to us. They be- 
long chiefly to a poem entitled Nanno, and are 
addressed to the flute-player of that name. The 
compositions of Mimnermus form an epoch in 
the history of elegiac poetry. Before his time 
the elegy had been devoted chiefly either to 
warlike or national, or to convivial and joyous 
subjects. Archilochns had, indeed, occasion- 
ally employed the elegy for strains of lamenta- 
tion, but Mimnermus was the first who system- 
atically made it the vehicle for plaintive, mourn- 
ful, and erotic strains. The instability of human 
happiness, the helplessness of man, the cares 
and miseries to which life is exposed, the brief 
season that man has to enjoy himself in, the 
wretchedness of old age, are plaintively dwelt 
upon by him, while love is held up as the only j 
consolation that men possess, life not being 
worth having when it can no longer be enjoyed. 
The latter topic was most frequently dwelt j 
upon, and as an erotic poet he was held in high 
estimation in antiquity. (Hor., Epist., ii., 2, 
100.) The fragments are published separately 
by Bach, Lips., 1826. 

Min/ei (Mivaloi), one of the chief communi- 
ties of Arabia, dwelt on the western coast of 
Arabia Felix, and in the interior of the penin- 
sula, and carried on a large trade in spices, in- 
cense, and the other products of the land. 

Minas Sabbatha (Metvac Sadardd), a fort in 
Babylonia, built in the time of the later Roman 
empire, on the site of Seleucia, which the Ro- 
mans had destroyed. 

Mincius {Mincio), a river in Gallia Transpa- 
dana, flows through the Lake Benacus (nowia- 
go di Garda), and falls into the Po a little be 
low Mantua. 

Mindarus (MivSapor), a Lacedaemonian, suc- 
ceeded Astyochus in the command of the Lace- 
daemonian fleet, B.C. 411. He was defeated 
and slain in battle by the Athenians near Cyz- 
icus in the following year. 

Minerva, called Athena by the Greeks. The 
Greek goddess is spoken of in a separate arti- 
cle. Vid. Athena. Minerva was one of the 
great Roman divinities. Her name seems to be 
of the same root as mens ; and she is accord- 
ingly the thinking, calculating, and inventive 
power personified. Jupiter was the first, Juno 
the second, and Minerva the third in the num- 



MINERVA ARX. 



MINOS. 



ber of the Capitoline divinities. Tarquin, the 
son of Demaratus, was believed to have united 
the three divinities in one common temple, and 
hence, when repasts were prepared for the gods, 
these three always went together. She was the 
daughter of Jupiter, and is said to have some- 
times wielded the thunderbolts of her father. 
As Minerva was a virgin divinity, and her fa- 
ther ihe supreme god, the Romans easily iden- 
tified her with the Greek Athena, and accord- 
ingly all the attributes of Athena were gradual- 
ly transferred to the Roman Minerva. But we 
confine ourselves at present to those which were 
peculiar to the Roman goddess. Being a maid- 
en goddess, her sacrifices consisted of calves 
which had not borne the yoke. She is said 
to have invented numbers ; and it is added 
that the law respecting the driving in of the 
annual nail was for this reason attached to the 
temple of Minerva. She was worshipped as 
the patroness of all the arts and trades, and 
at her festival she was particularly invoked by 
all who desired to distinguish themselves in any 
art or craft, such as painting, poetry, the art of 
teaching, medicine, dyeing, spinning, weaving, 
and the like. This character of the goddess 
may be perceived also from the proverbs "to do 
a thing pingui Minerva," i. «., to do a thing in 
an awkward or clumsy manner ; and sus Miner- 
aam, of a stupid person who presumed to set 
right an intelligent one. Minerva, however, 
was the patroness, not only of females, on 
whom she conferred skill in sewing, spinning, 
weaving, &c, but she also guided men in the 
dangers of war, where victory is gained by 
cunning, prudence, courage, and perseverance. 
Hence she was represented with a helmet, 
shield, and a coat of mail ; and the booty mads 
in war was frequently dedicated to her. Mineir- 
va was further believed to be the inventor of 
musical instruments, especially wind instru- 
ments, the use of which was very important in 
religious worship, and which were accordingly 
subjected to a sort of purification every year on 
the last day of the festival of Minerva. This 
festival lasted five days, from the nineteenth 
to the twenty-third of March, and was called 
Quinquatrus, because it began on the fifth day 
after the ides of the month. This number of 
days was not accidental, for we are told that 
the number five was sacred to Minerva. The 
most ancient temple of Minerva at Rome was 
probably that on the Capitol ; another existed 
on the Aventine, and she had a chapel at the 
foot of the Ceelian Hill, where she bore the sur- 
name of Capta. 

Minerva Arx or MinervJum (now Castro), a 
oill on the coast of Calabria, where ^Eneas is 
said to have landed. 

MiNERViE Promontorium (now Punta della 
Campanella or della Minerva), a rocky promon- 
tory in Campania, running out a long way into 
the sea, six miles southeast of Surrentum, on 
whose summit was a temple of Minerva, which 
was said to have been built by Ulysses, and 
which was still standing in the time of Seneca. 
Here the Sirens are reported to have dwelt. 
The Greeks regarded it as the northwestern 
boundary of CEnotria. 

Minio (now Mignone), a small river in Etru- 
ria, which rises near Satrium, and falls into the 



Tyrrhene Sea between Graviscee and Centum 
Celte. 

Minius (now Minho), a river in the north- 
west of Spain, rises in the Cantabrian Mount- 
ains in the north of Gallaecia, and falls into the 
ocean. It was also called Bsenis, and derived 
its name of Minius from the minium or vermil 
ion carried down by its waters. 

Minoa (Mtfuo.). 1. A small island in the 
Saronic Gulf, off the coast of Megaris, and op 
posite a promontory of the same name, was 
united to the main land by a bridge, and form- 
ed, with the promontory, the harbor of Nisa?a. 
Vid. p. 493.-2. A town on the eastern coast of 
Laconia, and on a promontory of the same name, 
northeast of Epidaurus Limera. — 3. A town on 
the western part of the northern coast of Crete, 
between the promontories Drepanum and Psa- 
cum. — 4. A town on the eastern part of the 
northern coast of Crete, belonging to the terri- 
tory of Lyctus, and situated on the narrowest 
part of the island. — 5. A town in Sicily. Vid. 
Heraclea Minoa. 

[MinoTdes Insula (Mtvutdeg Nf/aoi), small 
islands in the southern part of the JEgean, form- 
ing a portion of the Cyelades, just north of 
Crete.] 

Minos (Mtwuf). 1, Son of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Europa, brother of Rhadamanthys, was the king 
and legislator of Crete. After his death he be- 
came one of the judges of the shades in Hades. 
He was the father of Deucalion and Ariadne ; 
and, according to Apollodorus, the brother of 
Sarpedon. Some traditions relate that Minos 
married Itone, daughter of Lyctius, by whom 
he had a son, Lycastus, and that the latter be- 
came, by Ida, the daughter of Corybas, the fa- 
ther of another Minos. But it should be ob- 
served that Homer and Hesiod know only of 
one Minos, the ruler of Cnosus, and the son 
and friend of Jupiter (Zeus), and that they re- 
late nearly the same things about him which 
later traditions assign to a second Minos, the 
grandson of the former. In this case, as in 
many other mythical traditions, a rationalistic 
criticism attempted to solve contradictions and 
difficulties in the stories about a person by as- 
suming that the contradictory accounts must 
refer to two different personages. — 2. Grand- 
son of the former, and a son of Lycastus and 
Ida, was likewise a king and lawgiver of Crete. 
He is described as the husband of Pasiphae, a 
daughter of Helios ; and as the father of Ca- 
treus, Deucalion, Glaucus, Androgeos, Acalle, 
Xenodice, Ariadne, and Phasdra. After the 
death of Asterius, Minos aimed at the suprem- 
acy of Crete, and declared that it was destined 
to him by the gods; in proof of which, he assert- 
ed that the gods always answered his prayers. 
Accordingly, as he was offering up a sacrifice 
to Neptune (Poseidon), he prayed that a bull 
might come forth from the sea, and promised to 
sacrifice the animal. The bull appeared, and 
Minos became king of Crete. (Others say that 
Minos disputed the government with his broth- 
er Sarpedon, and conquered.) But Minos, who 
admired the beauty of the bull, did not sacrifice 
him, and substituted another in his place. Nep- 
tune (Poseidon) therefore rendered the bull fu 
rious, and made Pasiphae conceive a passion 
for the animal. Daedalus enabled Pasiphae to 

517 



MINOTAURUS. 



MINYAS. 



gratify her passion, and she became by the bull 
the mother of the Minotaurus, a monster with 
a human body and a bull's head, or, according 
to others, with a bull's body and a human head. 
The monster was kept in the labyrinth at Cno- 
sus, constructed by Dasdalus. Daedalus fled 
from Crete to escape the wrath of Minos, and 
took refuge in Sicily. Minos followed him to 
Sicily, and was there slain by Cocalus and his 
daughters. Minos is further said to have di- 
vided Crete into three parts, and to have ruled 
nine years. The Cretans traced their legal and 
political institutions to Minos. He is said to 
have been instructed in the art of law-giving by 
Jupiter (Zeus) himself; and the Spartan Ly- 
curgus was believed to have taken the legisla- 
tion of Minos as his model. In his time Crete 
was a powerful maritime state ; and Minos not 
only checked the piratical pursuits of his con- 
temporaries, but made himself master of the 
Greek islands of the Mgean. The most an- 
cient legends describe Minos as a just and wise 
law-giver, whereas the later accounts repre- 
sent him as an unjust and cruel tyrant. In or- 
der to avenge the wrong done to his son (vid. 
Androgeos) at Athens, he made war against 
the Athenians and Megarians. He subdued 
Megara, and compelled the Athenians either 
every year or every nine years to send him as 
a tribute seven youths and seven maidens, who 
were devoured in the labyrinth by the Minotau- 
rus. The monster was slain by Theseus. 

Minotaurus. Vid. Minos. 

Mintha (Mivdij), a daughter of Cocytus, be- 
loved by Hades, was metamorphosed by Ceres 
(Demeter) or Proserpina (Persephone) into a 
plant called after her mintha, or mint. In the 
neighborhood of Pylos there was a hill called 
after her, and at its foot there was a temple of 
Pluto (Hades), and a grove of Ceres (Demeter). 

Mi nth e (Mivdrj : now Viinuka), a mountain 
of Elis in Triphylia, near Pylos. 

Minturn^e (Minturnensis : now Trajetta), an 
important town in Latium, on the frontiers of 
Campania, was situated on the Appia Via, and 
on both banks of the Liris, and near the mouth 
of this river. It was an ancient town of the 
Ausones or Aurunci, but surrendered to the Ro- 
mans of its own accord, and received a Roman 
colony B.C. 296. It was subsequently recol- 
onized by Julius Caesar. In its neighborhood 
was a grove sacred to the nymph Marica, and 
also extensive marshes (Paludes Minturnenses), 
formed by the overflowing of the River Liris, 
in which Marius was taken prisoner. Vid. p. 
480, a. The neighborhood of Minturnae pro- 
duced good wine. There are the ruins of an 
amphitheatre and of an aqueduct at the modern 
Trajetta. ' 

[Minucia, one of the vestal priestesses in 
B.C. 337. Her passion for gay attire made her 
conduct suspected. On inquiry, suspicion was 
justified, and Minucia was buried alive.] 

Minuciands (NlivovKiavoe). 1. A Greek rhet- 
orician, was a contemporary of the celebrated 
rhetorician Hermogenes of Tarsus (flourished 
A.D. 170), with whom he was at variance. — 2. 
An Athenian, the son of Nicagoras, was also a 
Greek rhetorician, and lived in the reign of 
Gallienus (A.D. 260-268). He was the author 
of several rhetorical works, and a portion of his 
518 



Tex v V frriTopinii is extant, and is published in the 
ninth volume of "Walz's Rhctorcs Grtzci. 

Minucius Augurinus. Vid. Augurinus. 

Minucius Bash.us. Vid. Basii-us. 

MinucIus Rufus. 1. M., consul B.C. 221, 
when he carried on war against the Istrians. 
In 217 he was magister equitum to the dictator 
Q. Fabius Maximus. The cautious policy of 
Fabius displeased Minucius ; and accordingly, 
when Fabius was called away to Rome, Minu- 
cius disobeyed the positive commands of the 
dictator, and risked a battle with a portion of 
Hannibal's troops. He was fortunate enough 
to gain a victory ; in consequence of which, he 
became so popular at Rome that a bill was pass- 
ed giving him equal military power with the 
dictator. The Roman army was now divided, 
and each portion encamped separately under its 
own general. Anxious for distinction, Minu- 
cius eagerly accepted a battle which was offer- 
ed him by Hannibal, but was defeated, and his 
troops were only saved from total destruction [ 
by the timely arrival of Fabius with all his forces. 
Thereupon Minucius generously acknowledged I 
his error, gave up his separate command, and 
placed himself again under the authority of the 
dictator. He fell at the battle of Cannas in 
the following year. — 2. Q., plebeian asdile 201, 
prastor 200, and consul 197, when he carried on 
war against the Boii with success. In 189 he 
was one of the ten commissioners sent into j 
Asia after the conquest of Antiochus the Great ; 
and in 1S3 he was one of the three ambassadors 1 
sent into Gaul. — 3. M., praetor 197. — 4. M., trib- 
une of the plebs 121, brought forward a bill to ! 
repeal the laws of C. Gracchus. This Marcus 
Minucius and his brother Quintus are mention- 
ed as arbiters between the inhabitants of Genua 
and the Viturii, in a very interesting inscrip- | 
tion which was discovered in the year 1506, 
about ten miles from the modern city of Genoa. 
— 5. Q., consul 110, obtained Macedonia as his 
province, carried on war with success against i 
the barbarians in Thrace, and triumphed on his 
return to Rome. He perpetuated the memory 
of his triumph by building the Porticus Minu- 
cia, near the Circus Flaminius. 

Minucius Felix. Vid. Felix. 

Miny,e (Mtviiai), an ancient Greek race, who \ 
originally dwelt in Thessaly. Iolcos, in Thes- 
saly, was one of their most ancient seats. Their 
ancestal hero, Minyas, is said to have migrated 
from Thessaly into the north of Bceotia, and 
there to have established the empire of the 
Minyas, with the capital of Orchomenos. Vid. 
Orchomenos. As the greater part of the Argo 
nauts were descended from the Minyas, they 
are themselves called Minyas. The descend- 
ants of the Argonauts founded a colony in Lem- 
nos called Minyas. Thence they proceeded to 
Elis Triphylia, and to the island of Thera. 

Min? as (Mivva;), son of Chryses, and the an 
cestral hero of the race of the Minyas. The ac- 
counts of his genealogy vary very much in the 
different traditions, for some call him a son 
of Orchomenus or Eteocles, others of Neptune 
(Poseidon), Aleus, Mars (Ares), Sisyphus, or 
Halmus. He is further called the husband of 
Tritogenia, Clytodora, or Phanosyra. Orchome- 
nus, Presbon, Athamas, Diochthondas, Eteocly- 
mene, Periclymene, Leucippe, Arsinoe, and Al 



MIROBRIGA. 



MITHRADATES. 



cathoS or Alcithoe, are mentioned as his chil- 
dren. His tomb was shown at Orchomenos in 
Bceotia. A daughter of Minyas was called 
Minyeias (-adis) or Mineis (Mis). Vid. Ov.,Met., 
iv., 1, 32. 

Mirobriga. 1. A town of the Celtici in Lu- 
sitania, on the coast of the ocean. — 2. A Ro- 
man municipium in the territory of the Turduli, 
in Hispania Baetica, on the road from Emerita 
to Caesarangusta. 

Misenum (now Punta di Miseno), a promon- 
tory in Campania, south of Cuma?, said to have 
derived its name from Misenus, the companion 
and trumpeter of ^Eneas, who was drowned and 
buried here. The bay formed by this promon- 
tory was converted by Augustus into an excel- 
lent harbor, and was made the principal station 
of the Roman fleet on the Tyrrhene Sea. A 
town sprung up around the harbor, and here the 
admiral of the fleet usually resided. The in- 
habitants were called Misenates and Misenen- 
ses. The Roman nobles had previously built 
villas on the coast. Here was the villa of C. 
Marius, which was purchased by Lucullus, and 
which afterward passed into the hands of the 
Emperor Tiberius, who died at this place. 

[Misenus (Mw^vdf). 1. A companion of Ulys- 
ses. — 2. Pilot of the fleet of .(Eneas ; according 
to Virgil, at first a companion and trumpeter of 
Hector, afterward followed^Eneas to Italy. Vid. 
Misenum.] 

Misitheus, the father-in-law of the Emperor 
Gordian III., who married his daughter Sabinia 
Tranquillina in A.D. 241. Misitheus was a man 
of learning, virtue, and ability. He was ap- 
pointed by his son-in-law preefect of the praeto- 
rians, and effected many important reforms in 
the royal household. He accompanied Gordian 
in his expedition against the Persians, whom he 
defeated ; but in the course of this war he was 
cut off either by disease or by the treachery of 
his successor Philippus, 243. 

MiTHRADATES Or MlTHRIDATES (Mldpa(iuT7ig OT 

M-idpiSuTrji;), a common name among the Medes 
and Persians, derived from Mitra or Mithra, the 
Persian name for the sun, and the root da, sig- 
nifying « to give." Mithradates would there- 
fore mean, " given by the sun." [The form 
Mithradates, which is found on coins, is more 
correct than Mithridates, though the latter is 
the usual one in Greek writers.] 1. I. King, 
or, more properly, satrap of Pontus, was son of 
Ariobarzanes I., and was succeeded by Ariobar- 
zanes II., about B.C. 363. The kings of Pontus 
claimed to be lineally descended from one of 
the seven Persians who had conspired against 
the Magi, and who was subsequently establish- 
ed by Darius Hystaspis in the government of 
the countries bordering on the Euxine Sea. 
Very little is know:* of their history until after 
the fall of the Persian empire. — 2. II. King of 
Pontus (337-302), succeeded his father Ariobar- 
zanes II., and was the founder of the independ- 
ent kingdom of Pontus. After the death of 
Alexander the Great, he was for a time subject 
to Antigonus ; but during the war between the 
successors of Alexander, he succeeded in es- 
tablishing his independence. He died at the 
age of 84.-3. III. King of Pontus (302-266), 
son and successor of the preceding. He en- 
larged his paternal dominions by the acquisi- | 



tion of great part of Cappadocia and Paphlago- 
nia. He was succeeded, by his son Ariobar- 
zanes III.— 4. IV. King of Pontus (about 240- 
190), son and successor of Ariobarzanes III. 
He gave his daughter Laodice in marriage to 
Antiochus III. He was succeeded by his son 
Pharnaces I. — 5. V. King of Pontus (about 156- 
120), surnamed Euergetes, son and successor 
of Pharnaces I. He was the first of the kings 
of Pontus who made an alliance with the Ro- 
mans, whom he assisted in the third Punic war 
and in the war against Aristonicus (131-129). 
He was assassinated at Sinope by a conspiracy 
among his own immediate attendants. — 6. VI. 
King of Pontus (120-63), surnamed Eupator, 
also Dionysus, but-more commonly the Great, 
was the son and successor of the preceding, 
and was only eleven years old at the period of 
his accession. We have very imperfect infor- 
mation concerning the earlier years of his reign, 
and much of what has been transmitted to us 
wears a very suspicious aspect. We are told 
that immediately on ascending the throne he 
found himself assailed by the designs of his 
guardians, but that he succeeded in eluding all 
their machinations, partly by displaying a cour- 
age and address in warlike exercises beyond 
his years, partly by the use of antidotes against 
poison, to which he began thus early to accus- 
tom himself. In order to evade the designs 
against his life, he also devoted much of his 
time to hunting, and took refuge in the remot- 
est and most unfrequented regions, under pre- 
tence of pursuing the pleasures of the chase. 
Whatever truth there may be in these accounts, 
it is certain that when he attained to manhood 
he was not only endowed with consummate 
skill in all martial exercises, and possessed of 
a bodily frame inured to all hardships, as well 
as a spirit to brave every danger, but his nat- 
urally vigorous intellect had been improved by 
careful culture. As a boy, he had been brought 
up at Sinope, where he had probably received 
the elements of a Greek education ; and so 
powerful was his memory, that he is said to 
have learned not less than twenty-five langua- 
ges, and to have been able, in the days of his 
greatest power, to transact business with the 
deputies of every tribe subject to his rule in 
their own peculiar dialect. The first steps of 
his career were marked by blood. He is said 
to have murdered his mother, to whom a share 
in the royal authority had been left by Mithra- 
dates Euergetes ; and this was followed by the 
assassination of his brother. In the early part 
of his reign he subdued the barbarian tribes be- 
tween the Euxine and the confines of Armenia, 
including the whole of Colchis and the province 
called Lesser Armenia, and even extended his 
conquests beyond the Caucasus. He assisted 
Parisades, king of the Bosporus, against the 
Sarmatians and Roxolani, and rendered the 
whole of the Tauric Chersonese tributary to his 
kingdom. After the death of Parisades, the 
kingdom of Bosporus itself was incorporated 
with his dominions. He was now in posses- 
sion of such great power that he began to deem 
himself equal to a contest with Rome itself. 
Many causes of dissension had already arisen 
between them, but Mithradates had hitherto 
submitted to the mandates of Rome. Even 

519 



MITHRADATES. 



MITHRADATES. 



alter expelling Ariobavzanes from Cappadocia, 
and Nicomedes from Bithynia in 90, he offered 
no resistance to the Romans when they re- 
stored these monarchs to their kingdom. But 
when Nicomedes, urged by the Roman legates, 
invaded the territories of Mithradates, the lat- 
ter made preparations for immediate hostilities. 
His success was rapid and striking. In 88 he 
drove Ariobarzanes out of Cappadocia, and Nic- 
omedes out of Bithynia, defeated the Roman 
generals who had supported the latter, made 
himself master of Phrygia and Galatia, and at 
last of the Roman province of Asia. During 
the winter he issued the sanguinary order to 
all the cities of Asia to put to death, on the 
same day, all the Roman and Italian citizens 
who were to be found within their walls. So 
hateful had the Romans rendered themselves, 
that these commands were obeyed with alac- 
rity by almost all the cities of Asia, and eighty 
thousand Romans and Italians are said to have 
perished in this fearful massacre. Meantime 
Sulla had received' the command of the war 
against Mithradates, and crossed over into 
Greece in 87. Mithradates, however, had re- 
solved not to await the Romans in Asia, but had 
already sent his general Archelaus into Greece 
at the head of a powerful army. The war proved 
unfavorable to the king. Archelaus was twice 
defeated by Sulla with immense loss nearChas- 
ronea, and Orchomenos in Bceotia (86). About 
the same time Mithradates was himself defeat- 
ed in Asia by Fimbria. Vid. Fimbria. These 
disasters led him to sue for peace, which Sulla 
was willing to grant, because he was anxious 
to return to Italy, which was entirely in the 
hands of his enemies. Mithradates consented 
to abandon all his conquests in Asia, to pay a 
sum of two thousand talents, and to surrender 
to the Romans a fleet of seventy ships. Thus 
terminated the first Mithradatic war (84). Short- 
ly afterward Murena, who had been left in com- 
mand of Asia by Sulla, invaded the dominions 
of Mithradates (83), under the flimsy pretext 
that the king had not yet evacuated the whole 
of Cappadocia. In the following year (82) Mu- 
rena renewed his hostile incursions, but was 
defeated by Mithradates on the banks of the 
River Halys. But shortly afterward Murena 
received peremptory orders from Sulla to de- 
sist from hostilities ; in consequence of which, 
peace was again restored. This is usually call- 
ed the second Mithradatic war. Mithradates, 
however, was well aware that the peace be- 
tween him and Rome was in fact a mere sus- 
pension of hostilities, and that the republic would 
never suffer the massacre of her citizens in Asia 
to remain ultimately unpunished. No formal 
treaty was ever concluded between Mithradates 
and the Roman senate ; and the king had in vain 
endeavored to obtain the ratification of the 
. terms agreed on between him and Sulla. The 
death of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia, at 
the beginning of 74, brought matters to a crisis. 
That monarch left his dominions by will to the 
Roman people ; and Bithynia was accordingly 
declared a Roman province ; but Mithradates 
asserted that the late king had left a legitimate 
son by his wife Nysa, whose pretensions he im- 
mediately prepared to support by his arms. He 
had employed thp last few years in forming a 
520 



powerful army, armed and disciplined in the Ro- 
man manner; and he now took the field with 
one hundred and twenty thousand foot soldiers, 
sixteen thousand horse, and a vast number of 
barbarian auxiliaries. This was the commence- 
ment of the third Mithradatic war. The two 
Roman consuls, Lucullus and Cotta, were un- 
able to oppose his first irruption. He traversed 
Bithynia without encountering any resistance ; 
and when at length Cotta ventured to give him 
battle under the walls of Chalcedon, the consul 
was totally defeated both by sea and land. Mith- 
radates then proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus 
both by sea and land. Lucullus marched to the 
relief of the city, cut off the king's supplies, and 
eventually compelled him to raise the siege 
early in 73. On his retreat Mithradates suf- 
fered great loss, and eventually took refuge in 
Pontus. Hither Lucullus followed him in the 
next year. The new army which the king had 
collected was entirely defeated by the Roman 
general ; and Mithradates, despairing of oppos- 
ing the further progress of Lucullus, took ref- 
uge in the dominions of his son-in-law Tigranes. 
the king of Armenia. Tigranes at first showed 
no disposition to attempt the restoration of his 
father-in-law ; but being offended at the haugh- 
ty conduct of Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus 
had sent to demand the surrender of Mithra- 
dates, the Armenian king not only refused this 
request, but determined to prepare for war with 
the Romans. Accordingly, in 69, Lucullus 
marched into Armenia, defeated Tigranes and 
Mithradates nearTigranocerta, and in the next 
year (68) again defeated the allied monarchs 
near Artaxata. The Roman general then turned 
aside into Mesopotamia, and laid siege to Nis- 
ibis. Here the Roman soldiers broke out into 
open mutiny, and demanded to be led home ; 
and Lucullus was obliged to raise the siege, and 
return to Asia Minor. Meanwhile Mithradates 
had taken advantage of the absence of Lucul- 
lus to invade Pontus at the head of a large 
army. He defeated Fabius and Triarius, to 
whom the defence of Pontus had been commit- 
ted ; and when Lucullus returned to Pontus, 
he was unable to resume the offensive in con- 
sequence of the mutinous spirit of his own sol- 
diers. Mithradates was thus able, before the 
close of 67, to regain possession of the greater 
part of his hereditary dominions. In the fol- 
lowing year (66) the conduct of the war was in- 
trusted to Pompey. Hostilities were resumed 
with greater vigor than ever. Mithradates was 
obliged to retire before the Romans, but was sur- 
prised and defeated by Pompey ; and as Tigra- 
nes now refused to admit him into his own do- 
minions, he rpsolved to plunge with his small 
army into the heart of Colchis, and thence make 
his way to the Palus Maeotis and the Cimme- 
rian Bosporus. Arduous as this enterprise ap- 
peared, it was successfully accomplished ; and 
he at length established himself without oppo- 
sition at Panticapasum, the capital of Bosporus. 
He had now nothing to fear from the pursuit of 
Pompey, who turned his arms first against Ti- 
granes, and afterward against Syria. Unablo 
to obtain peace from Pompey, except he would 
come in person to make his submission, Mith- 
radates conceived the daring project of march- 
ing round the northern and western coasts of 



MITHRADATIS. 



MNESILOCHUS. 



the Euxine, through the wild tribes of the Sar- 
matians and Getae, and having gathered round 
his standard all these barbarous nations, to pen- 
etrate into Italy itself. But meanwhile disaf- 
fection had made rapid progress among his fol- 
lowers. His son Pharnaces at length openly re- 
belled against him. He was joined both by the 
whole army and the citizens of Panticapaeum, 
who unanimously proclaimed him king ; and 
Mithradates, who had taken refuge in a strong 
tower, saw that no choice remained to him but 
death or captivity. Hereupon he took poison, 
which he constantly carried with him ; but his 
constitution had been so long inured to antidotes 
that it did not produce the desired effect, and he 
was compelled to call in the assistance of one of 
his Gaulish mercenaries to dispatch him with 
his sword. He died in 63. His body was sent 
by Pharnaces to Pompey at Amisus, as a tcken 
of his submission ; but the conqueror caused it 
to be interred with regal honors in the sepul- 
chre of his forefathers at Sinope. He was sixty- 
eight or sixty-nine years old at the time of his 
death, and had reigned fifty-seven years, of 
which twenty-five had been occupied, with only 
a few brief intervals, in one continued struggle 
against the Roman power. The estimation in 
which he was held by his adversaries is the 
strongest testimony to his great abilities : Cice- 
ro calls him the greatest of all kings after Alex- 
ander, and in another passage says that he was 
a more formidable opponent than any other 
monarch whom the Roman arms had yet en- 
countered. — 7. Kings of Parthia. Vid. Arsa- 
ces, 6, 9, 13. — 8. Of Pergamus, son of Menodo- 
tus ; but his mother having had an amour with 
Mithradates the Great, he was generally looked 
upon as in reality the son of that monarch. 
The king himself bestowed great care on his 
education ; and he appears as early as 64 to 
have exercised the chief control over the affairs 
of his native city. At a subsequent period he 
served under Julius Caesar in the Alexandrean 
war (48) ; and after the defeat of Pharnaces in 
the following year (47), Caesar bestowed upon 
Mithradates the kingdom of the Bosporus, and 
also the tetrarchy of the Galatians. But the 
kingdork of the Bosporus still remained to be 
won, for Asander, who had revolted against 
Pharnaces, was, in fact, master of the whole 
country, and Mithradates having attempted to 
expel Asander, was defeated and slain. 

Mithradatis Regio (MidpiSdrov x"pa)> a dis- 
trict of Sarmatia Asiatica, on the western side 
of the River Rha (now Wolga), so called be- 
cause it was the place of refuge of the last 
Mithradates, in the reign of Claudius. 

Mithras (Mt'flpaf), the god of the sun among 
the Persians. About the time of the Roman 
emperors his worship was introduced at Rome, 
and thence spread over all parts of the empire. 
The god is commonly represented as a hand- 
some youth, wearing the Phrygian cap and at- 
tire, and kneeling on a bull which is thrown on 
the ground, and whose throat he is cutting. 
The bull is at the same time attacked by a dog, 
a serpent, and a scorpion. This group appears 
frequently among ancient works of art, and a 
fine specimen is preserved in the British Mu- 
seum. 

fMiTHRiDATiuii (MidpidaTtov), a mountain for- 



tress in the territory of the Trocmi, on the boi 
ders of Galatia and Pontus.] 

[MlTHROB ARZANES ( M.ldpo6ap&V1)<; ). 1. F& 

ther-in-law of Datames, whom he joined in lit* 
revolt from the Persian king, but afterwaru 
having deserted with his troops, lie was slain 
by Datames. — 2. General of the Cappadocian 
forces in the Persian army at the battle of the 
Granicus, where he lost his life. — 3. A general 
of Tigranes, was sent to oppose the Romans 
under Lucullus, but was defeated and slain by 
them.] 

[Mitys, a river of Macedonia, north of the 
Haliacmon, emptied into the Thermaicus Sinus.] 

MlTYLENE. Vid. MYTILENE. 

[Mnasalcas (MvaodTiicac), an epigrammatic 
poet of Sicyonia, under whose name eighteen 
epigrams are given in Brunck's Analecta. His 
date is uncertain.] 

Mnaseas (Mvaaiag), of Patara in Lycia, not 
of Patrae in Achaia, was a pupil of Eratosthe- 
nes, and a grammarian of considerable celeb- 
rity. He wrote two works, one of a chorograph- 
ical description, entitled Periplus (Tleplnlovs), 
and the other a collection of oracles given at 
Delphi. 

[Mnasippus (Mvuciniroc), a Spartan naval com- 
mander ; led the Spartan fleet of sixty ships 
against Corcyra, B.C. 373. He was at first suc- 
cessful, but, having relaxed his vigilance, he 
was defeated and slain by the Corcyreans.] 

Mneme (M.vt]hi]), i. e. t memory, one of the 
three Muses who were in early times worship- 
ped at Ascra in Bceotia. There seems to have 
been also a tradition that Mneme was the moth- 
er of the Muses, for Ovid (Met., v., 268) calls 
them Mnemonides ; unless this be only an 
abridged form for the daughters of Mnemosyne. 
Vid. MvsjE. 

Mnemosyne (Mvrjjioavvri), i. e., memory, daugh 
ter of Uranus, and one of the Titanides, became 
by Jupiter (Zeus) the mother of the Muses. 

Mnesarchus (Mvijijapxoc )■ I. Son of Eu- 
phron or Euthyphron, and father of Pythagoras. 
He was generally believed not to have been of 
purely Greek origin. According to some ac- 
counts, he belonged to the Tyrrhenians of Lem- 
nos and Imbros, and is said to have been an 
engraver of rings. According to other accounts, 
the name of the father of Pythagoras was Mar- 
macus, whose father Hippasus came from Phlius 
— 2. Grandson of the preceding, and son of Py- 
thagoras and Theano. According to some ac- 
counts he succeeded Aristaeus as president of 
the Pythagorean school. — 3. A Stoic philoso- 
pher, a disciple of Panaetius, flourished aboul 
B.C. 110, and taught at Athens. Among his 
pupils was Antiochus of Ascalon. 

Mnesicles (Mv>7<7«Aj7r), one of the great Athe- 
nian artists of the age of Pericles, was the archi- 
tect of the Propylaa of the Acropolis, the build- 
ing of which occupied five years, B.C. 437-433. 
It is said that, during the progress of the work, 
he fell from the summit of the building, and 
was supposed to be mortally injured, but was 
cured by a herb which Minerva (Athena) show- 
ed to Pericles in a dream. 

[Mnesilochus QUvtjolXoxos). 1. One of the 
thirty tyrants at Athens.— 2. Son of Euripides 
by Choerile, whose father waa also called Mne- 
silochus, is said to have been an actor ; he is 

521 



MNESIMACHUS. 

said also to have aided Euripides in the com- 
position of his. tragedies.] 

[Mnesimachus (MvT/aifiaxog), a comic poet of 
the middle comedy, some fragments of whose 
plays are still extant, and are given by Meineke, 
Fragm. Comic. Gr'esc, vol. ii., p. 787-793, edit, 
minor.] 

[Mnesithides {MyrjuidditiO, one of the thirty 
tyrants at Athens.] 

Mnesitheus (Mvrjtjideoc), a physician, was a 
native of Athens, and lived probably in the 
fourth century B.C., as he is quoted by the 
comic poet Alexis. He enjoyed a great repu- 
tation, and is frequently mentioned by Galen 
and others. 

Mnesteb Q&vrjGTrip), a celebrated pantomime 
actor in the reigns of Caligula and Claudius, 
was also one of the lovers of the Empress Mes- 
salina, and was put to death upon the ruin of 
the latter. 

Mnestheus, a Trojan, who accompanied 
iEneas to Italy, and is said to have been the an- 
cestral hero of the Memmii. 

[Mnevis (Mvevic), the name of the sacred 
bull worshipped at Heliopolis. Vid. Heliopo- 
lis, No. 2.] 

Moabitis (Mwafiinf, M66a : MaaBirai, Moabl- 
ta? : in the Old Testament, Moab, for both coun- 
try and people), a district of Arabia Petraea, 
east of the Dead Sea, from the River Arnon 
(now Wady-el-Mojib, the boundary between Pal- 
estine and Arabia) on the north, to Zoar, near 
the south end of the Dead Sea, on the south, 
between the Amorites on the north, the Midi- 
anites on the east, and the Edomites on the 
south, that is, before the Israelitish conquest of 
Canaan. At an earlier period, the country of 
Moab had extended northward, beyond the 
northern end of the Dead Sea, and along the 
eastern bank of the Jordan, as far as the River 
Jabbok, but it had been wrested from them by 
the Amorites. The plains east of the Jordan 
were, however, still called the plains of Moab. 
The Moabites were left undisturbed by the Is- 
raelites on their march to Canaan : but Balak, 
king of Moab, through fear of the Israelites, did 
what he could to harm them, first by his vain 
attempt to induce the prophet Balaam to curse 
the people whom a divine impulse forced him 
to bless, and then by seducing them to worship 
Baal-Peor.- Hence the hereditary enmity be- 
tween the Israelites and Moabites, and the 
threatenings denounced against Moab by the 
Hebrew prophets. In the time of the Judges 
they subdued the southern part of the Jewish 
territory, with the assistance of the Ammonites 
and Amalekites, and held it for eighteen years 
(Judges, iii., 12, foil.). They were conquered 
by David, after the partition of whose kingdom 
they belonged to the kingdom of Israel. They 
revolted after the death of Ahab (B.C. 896), and 
appear to have become virtually independent ; 
and after the ten tribes had been carried into 
captivity, the Moabites seem to have recovered 
the northern part of their original territory. 
They were subdued by Nebuchadnezzar, with 
other nations bordering on Palestine, very soon 
after the Babylonian conquest of Judaea, after 
which they scarcely appear as a distinct nation, 
but, after a few references to them, they disap- 
pear in the general name of the Arabians. The 
522 



MCER2E. . | 

name Moabitis, however, was still applied to tha 
district of Arabia, between the Arnon (the south- 
ern frontier of Perasa, or Palestine east of the 
Jordan), and the Nabathaei, in the mountains of 
Seir. The Moabites were a kindred race with 
the Hebrews, being descended from Moab, the 
son of Lot They worshipped Baal-Peor and 
Chemosh with most licentious rites, and they I 
sometimes offered human sacrifices. Their J 
government was monarchical. They were orig- 
inally a pastoral people ; but the excessive fer- 
tility of their country, which is a mountainous 
tract intersected with rich valleys and numer- 
ous streams, led them to diligence and success 
in agriculture. The frequent ruins of towns 
and traces of paved roads, which still cover the 
face of the country, show how populous and 
prosperous it was. The chief city, Ak or Rab- 
bath-Moab, afterward Areopolis (now ruins at 
Rabba), was about twenty-five miles south of 
the Arnon. 

[Moagetes, tyrant of the Cibyrates, in Upper j 
Phrygia, made himself conspicuous by his en- ■ 
mity to Rome during the war with Antiochus | 
the Great, for which he was condemned by the 
consul Manlius Vulso to pay a heavy fine ] 

[Moca (Mo/ca, now Mocha), a city of Arabia 
Petraea, which, under the Roman supremacy, 
was regarded as a holy city, and had its own 
laws ; coins of this city of the time of the An- 
tonines and Septimius Severus are still extant.] ^ 

Modestinus, Herennius, a Roman jurist, and 
a pupil of Ulpian, flourished in the reigns of Al- | 
exander Severus, Maximinus, and the Gordians, 
A.D. 222-244. He taught law to the younger 
Maximinus. Though Modestinus is the latest I 
of the great- Roman jurists, he ranks among the 
most distinguished. There are three hundred 
and forty-five excerpts in the Digest from his 
writings, the titles of which show the extent 
and variety of his labors. 

Modestus, a military writer, the author of a 1 
Libellus de Vocabulis Rei Militaris, addz'essed to j 
the Emperor Tacitus, A.D. 275. It is very brief, 
and presents no features of interest. Printed 
in all the chief collections of Scriptores de Re 
Militari. 

Modici a (nowMo)!:a),a town in Gallia Trans- | 
padana, on the River Lambrus, north of Medio- ! 
lanum (now Milan), where Theodoric built a 
palace, and Theodolinda, queen of the Lango- 
bards, a splendid church, which still contains 
many of the precious gifts of this queen. 

Modin (Modeiv, -etiv, or iriv), a little village j 
on a mountain north of Lydda or Diospolis, on 
the extreme northwest of Judaea, celebrated as 
the native place of the Maccabaean family. Its 
exact site is uncertain. 

Moenus, Mcenis, Mjenus, or Menus (now 
Main), a river in Germany, which rises in the | 
Sudeti Montes, flows through the territory of 
the Hermunduri and the Agri decumates of the 
Romans, and falls into the Rhine opposite Mo- 
gontiacum. 

Mcer.e (Moipai), called Parcje by the Ro- 
mans, the Fates. Mcera properly signifies " a 
share," and as a personification " the deity who | 
assigns to every man his fate or his share." 
Homer usually speaks of one Mcera, and only 
once mentions the Mara, in the plural (7/., xxiv., 
29). In his poems Mcera is fate personified, I 



MCERiE. 



MCESIA. 



which, at the birth of man, spins out the thread 
of his future life, follows his steps, and directs 
the consequences of his actions according to 
the counsel of the gods. But the personifica- 
tion of his Moera is not complete ; for he men- 
tions no particular appearance of the goddess, 
no attributes, and no parentage. His Moera is 
therefore quite synonymous with JEsa (Alca). 
In Hesiod the personification of the Mcerae is 
complete. He calls them daughters of Jupiter 
(Zeus) and Themis, and makes them three in 
number, viz., Clotho, or the spinning fate ; 
Lachesis, or the one who assigns to man his 
fate; and Atropos, or the fate that can not be 
avoided. Later writers differ in their genealogy 
of the Mceraj from that of Hesiod ; thus they 
are called children of Erebus and Night, of Sat- 
urn (Cronos) and Night, of Terra (Ge) and Oce- 
anus, or lastly of Ananke or Necessity. The 
character and nature of the Mcerae are different- 
ly described at different times and by different 
authors. Sometimes they appear as divinities 
of fate in the strict sense of the term, and some- 
times only as allegorical divinities of the dura- 
tion of human life. In the former character 
they take care that the fate assigned to every 
being by eternal laws may take its course with- 
out obstruction ; and Jupiter (Zeus), as well as 
the other gods and men, must submit to them. 
They assign to the Erinnyes, who inflict the 
punishment for evil deeds, their proper func- 
tions ; and with them they direct fate accord- 
ing to the laws of necessity, whence they are 
sometimes called the sisters of the Erinnyes. 
These grave and mighty goddesses were repre- 
sented by the earliest artists with staffs or scep- 
tres, the symbol of dominion. The Mosrae, as 
the divinities of the duration of human life, 
which is determined by the two points of birth 
and of death, are conceived either as goddesses 
of birth or as goddesses of death, and hence 
their number was two, as at Delphi, and was 
subsequently increased to three. The distribu- 
tion of the functions among the three was not 
strictly observed, for we sometimes find all 
three described as spinning, although this should 
be the function of Clotho alone, who is, more- 
over, often mentioned alone as the representa- 
tive of all. As goddesses of birth, who spin 
the thread of the beginning of life, and even 
prophesy the fate of the newly born, they are 
mentioned along with Ilithyia, who is called 
their companion. The symbol with which they, 
or rather Clotho alone, are represented to in- 
dicate this function, is a spindle, and the idea 
implied in it w T as carried out so far, that some- 
times we read of their breaking or cutting off 
the thread when life is to end. Being goddess- 
es of fate, they must necessarily know the fu- 
ture, which at times they reveal, and thus be- 
come prophetic divinities. As goddesses of 
death, they appear together with the Keres and 
the infernal Erinnyes, with whom they are even 
confounded. For the same reason they, along 
with the Charites, lead Persephone out of the 
lower world into the regions of light. The va- 
rious epithets which poets apply to the Mceras 
generally refer to the severity, inflexibility, and 
sternness of fate. They had sanctuaries in 
many parts of Greece. The poets sometimes 
describe them as aged and hideous women, and 



even as lame, to indicate the slow march of 
fate ; but in works of art they are represented 
as grave maidens, with different attributes, viz., 
Clotho with a spindle or a roll (the book of fate) ; 
Lachesis pointing with a staff to the globe ; and 
Atropos with a pair of scales, or a sun-dial, or 
a cutting" instrument. 

Mceris or Myris (Moipic, Mvpig), a king of 
Egypt, who, Herodotus tells us, reigned some 
nine hundred years before his own visit to that 
country, which seems to have been about B.C. 
450. We hear of Mceris that he formed the 
lake known by his name, and joined it by a 
canal to the Nile, in order to receive the waters 
of the river when they were superabundant, and 
to supply the defect when they did not rise suf- 
ficiently. In the lake he built two pyramids, on 
each of which was a stone statue, seated on a 
throne, and intended to represent himself and 
his wife. 

Mceris (MoZp(f), commonly called Mceris At- 
ticista, a distinguished grammarian, the author 
of a work still extant, entitled M&is 'Am/tal, 
though the title varies somewhat in different 
manuscripts. Of the personal history of the 
author nothing is known. He is conjectured to 
have lived about the end of the second century 
after Christ. His treatise is a sort of compar- 
ison of the Attic with other Greek dialects, 
consisting of a list of Attic words and expres- 
sions, which are illustrated by those of other 
dialects, especially the common Greek. Edited 
by Pierson, Lugd. Bat., 1759; [reprinted with 
some additions by Koch, Lips., 1831 : and by 
Bekker with Harpocration, Berlin, 1833.] 

Mceris Lacus (Mcupjo? or Motpidoi; XifivTj : 
now Birket-el-Keroun), a great lake on the west- 
ern side of the Nile, in Middle Egypt, used for 
the reception and subsequent distribution of a 
part of the overflow of the Nile. It was believ- 
ed by the ancients to have been dug by King 
Mceris ; but it is really a natural, and not an 
artificial lake. 

Mcero (Hotpu) or Myro (Mupo), a poetess 
of Byzantium, wife of Andromachus, surnamed 
Philologus, and mother of the grammarian and 
tragic poet Homerus, lived about B.C. 300. 
She wrote epic, elegiac, and lyric poems. 

Mcerocles (M.oipoK.%Tjg), an Athenian orator, 
a native of Salamis, was a contemporary of De- 
mosthenes, and, like him, an opponent of Philip 
and Alexander. 

Mcesia, called by the Greeks Mysia (Mvala, 
also M. J) iv Eipo7r?;, to distinguish it from My- 
sia in Asia), a country of Europe, was bounded 
on the south by Mount Haemus, which separated 
it from Thrace, and by Mount Orbelus and Scor- 
dus, which separated it from Macedonia, on the 
west by Mount Scordus and the rivers Drinus 
and Savus, which separated it from Illyricum 
and Pannonia, on the north by the Danube, 
which separated it from Dacia, and on the east 
by the-Pontus Euxinus, thus corresponding to 
the present Servia and Bulgaria. This country 
was subdued in the reign of Augustus, but does 
not appear to have been formally constituted a 
Roman province till the commencement of the 
reign of Tiberius. It was originally only one 
province, but was afterward formed into two 
provinces (probably after the conquest of Dacia 
by Trajan), called Mcesia Superior and Mccsia 

523 



MOGONTIACUM. 



MUNA. 



Inferior, the former being the western, and tho 
latter the eastern half of the country, and sepa- 
rated from each other by the River Cebrus or 
Ciabrus, a tributary of the Danube. When Au- 
relian surrendered Dacia to the barbarians, and 
removed the inhabitants of that province to the 
south of the Danube, the middle part of Mcesia 
was called Dacia Aureliani ; and this new prov- 
ince was divided into Dacia Ripensis, the district 
along the Danube, and Dacia Interior, the district 
south of the latter as far as the frontiers of Ma- 
cedonia. In the reign of Valens, some of the 
Goths crossed the Danube and settled in Mcesia. 
These Goths are sometimes called Mceso-Goths, 
and it was for their use that Ulphilas translated 
the Scriptures into Gothic about the middle of 
the fourth century. The original inhabitants 
of the country, called Mcesi by the Romans, and 
Mysi (Uvaoi) by the Greeks, were a Thracian 
race, and were divided into several tribes, such 
as the TrIballi, Peucini, &c. 

MoGONTIACUM, MoGUNTIACUM, 01' MaGONTIA- 

cum (now Mainz or Maycnce), a town on the 
left bank of the Rhine, opposite the mouth of 
the River Mcenus (now Main), was situated in 
the territory of the Vangiones, and was subse- 
quently the capital of the province of Germania 
Prima. It was a Roman municipium, and was 
founded, or at least enlarged an3 fortified, by 
Drusus. It was always occupied by a strong 
Roman garrison, and continued to the downfall 
of the empire to be one of the chief Roman for- 
tresses on the Rhine. 

Molione. Vid. Moliones. 

Moliones or Molionid^e (M.0I10V8C, MoXiove, 
M.olcnvidat), that is, Eurytus and Cteatus, so 
called after their mother Molione. They are 
also called Actorida. or Actoribne ('A-KTopiuve), 
after their reputed father Actor, the husband 
of Molione, though they were generally regard- 
ed as the sons of Neptune (Poseidon). Ac- 
cording to a late tradition, they were born out 
of an egg ; and it is further stated that their 
bodies grew together, so that they had only one 
body, but two heads, four arms, and four legs. 
Homer mentions none of these extraordinary 
circumstances ; and, according to him, the Mo- 
liones, when yet boys, took part in an expedi- 
tion of the Epeans against Neleus and the Pyli- 
ans. They are represented as nephews of Au- 
geas, king of the Epeans. When Hercules 
marched against Augeas, the latter intrusted 
the conduct of the war to the Moliones ; but, 
as Hercules was taken ill, he concluded peace 
with Augeas, whereupon his army was attacked 
and defeated by the Molionidae. In order to 
take vengeance, he afterward slew them near 
Cleona?, on the frontiers of Argolis, when they 
had been sent from Elis to sacrifice at the Isth- 
mian games on behalf of the town. The Mo- 
liones are mentioned as conquerors of Nestor 
in the chariot race, and as having taken part in 
the Calydonian hunt. Cteatus was the father 
of Amphimachus by Theronice, and Eurytus of 
Thalpius byTheraphone. Their sons, Amphim- 
achus and Thalpius, led the Epeans to Troy. 

Molo, surname of Apollonius, the rhetorician 
of Rhodes. Vid. Apollonius, No. 2. 

Molochath. Vid. Mulucha. 

[Molo'i's (MoAoe(c), a little river in Boeotia, 
near Plateea? on the banks of which stood a 
524 



temple or the Eleusinian Ceres, alluded to in 
the description of the battle of Plateea; ] 

[Molorchus (MoAop^of),»the mythical found- 
er of Molorchia, near Nemea, entertained Her- 
cules when he went against the Nemean lion.] 

Molossi (MoAocruoi), a people in Epirus, who 
inhabited a narrow slip of country, called after 
them Molossia (NloTioaaia) or Molossis, which 
extended from the Aous, along the western 
bank of the Arachthus, as far as the Ambracian 
Gulf. The Molossi were a Greek people, who 
claimed descent from Molossus, the son of Pyr- 
rhus (Neoptolemus) and Andromache, and are 
said to have emigrated from Thessaly into 
Epirus, under the guidance of Pyrrhus himself. 
In their new abodes they intermingled with the 
original inhabitants of the land and with the 
neighboring Illyrian tribes, in consequence of 
which they were regarded by the other Greeks 
as half barbarians. They were, however, by 
far the most powerful people in Epirus, and 
their kings gradually extended their dominion 
over the whole of the country. The first of 
their kings, who took the title of King of Epi- 
rus, was Alexander, who perished in Italy B.C. 
326. Vid. Epirus. The ancient capital of the 
Molossi was Passaron, but Ambracia afterward 
became their chief town, and the residence of 
their kings. The Molossian hounds were cele- 
brated in antiquity, and were much prized for 
hunting. 

[Molossus (MoXoacoc), son of Pyrrhus and 
Andromache. Vid. Molossi.] 

[Molpadia (MoA7ra(Sta), an Amazon, slewAn- 
tiope, another Amazon, who had married The- 
seus, and was herself slain by Theseus.] 

[Molus (MoAof), son of Deucalion, and fathei 
of Meriones (Horn.): according to a Cretan 
legend, son of Minos, and brother of Deuca- 
lion.] 

Molycrium (MoXvupsiov, also DJlolvKpeia, Mo- 
XvKpLa : Mo\vnptoc, MoTiVKpievc, Mohvupacoc), a 
town in the most southerly part of vEtolia, at 
the entrance of the Corinthian Gulf, gave the 
name of Rhium Molycrium ('Piov Moivxpiov) to 
the neighboring promontory of Antirrhium. It 
was founded by the Corinthians, but was after 
ward taken possession of by the ^Etolians. 

Momemphis (M<ifiefi(l>ic ■ now Panouf-Kkct, oi 
Manouf-el-Scffli, i. e., Lower Memphis), the cap- 
ital of the Nomos Momemphites in Lower 
Egypt, stood on the eastern side of the Lake 
Mareotis. 

Momus (Mo/iof), the god of mockery and cen- 
sure, is not mentioned by Homer, but is called 
in Hesiod the son of Night. Thus he is said tc 
have censured in the man formed by Vulcan 
(Hephaestus), that a little door had not been left 
in his breast, so as to enable one to look into 
his secret thoughts. 

Mona (now Anglesey), an island off the coast 
of the Ordovices in Britain, was one of the 
chief seats of the Druids. It was invaded by 
Suetonius Paulinus A.D. 61, and was conquer- 
ed byAgricola, 78. Ceesar (B. G., v., 13) er- 
roneously describes this island as half way be- 
tween Britannia and Hibernia. Hence it has 
been supposed by some critics that the Mona 
of Caisar is the Isle of Man ; but it is more 
probable that he received a false report respect- 
ing the real position of Mona, especially since 



MOJN.ESES. 



MORGANTIUM. 



all other ancient writers give the name of Mona 
to the Isle of Anglesey, and the name of the 
latter island is likely to have been mentioned 
to Caesar on account of its celebrity in connec- 
tion with the Druids. 

Mon^eses. 1. A Parthian general, mentioned 
by Horace (Carm., iii., 6, 9), is probably the 
same as Surenas, the general of Orodes, who 
defeated Crassus. — 2. A Parthian noble, who 
deserted to Antony and urged him to invade 
Parthia, but soon afterward returned to the 
Parthian king Phraates. — 3. A general of the 
Parthian king, Vologeses I., in the reign of 
Nero. 

Monapia or Monarina (now Isle of Man), an 
island between Britannia and Hibernia. 

Monda or Munda (now Mondego), a river on 
the western coast of Spain, which flows into 
the ocean between the Tagus and Durius. 

Moneta, a surname of Juno among the Ro- 
mans, by which she was characterized as the 
protectress of money. Under this name she 
had a temple on the Capitoline, in which there 
was at the same time the mint, just as the pub- 
lic treasury was in the temple of Saturn. The 
temple had been vowed by the dictator L. Furius 
in a battle against the Aurunci, and was erect- 
ed on the spot where the house of M. Manlius 
Capitolinus had stood. Moneta signifies the 
mint ; but some writers found such a meaning 
too plain. Thus Livius Andronicus used Moneta 
as a translation of Mnemosyne (TSlvnfioovv?]), and 
thus made her the mother of the Muses or Ca- 
menae. Cicero relates that, during an earth- 
quake, a voice was heard issuing from the tem- 
ple of Juno on the Capitol, and admonishing 
(monens) that a pregnant sow should be sacri- 
ficed. A somewhat more probable reason for 
the name is given by Suidas, though he assigns 
it to too late a time. In the war with Pyrrhus 
and the Tarentines, he says, the Romans, being 
in want of money, prayed to Juno, and were 
told by the goddess that money would not be 
wanting to them so long as they would fight 
with the arms of justice. As the Romans by 
experience found the truth of the words of Juno, 
they called her Juno Moneta. Her festival was 
celebrated on the first of June. 

Monima (M.ovijxrj), a Greek woman, either of 
Stratonicea, in Ionia, or of Miletus, was the 
wife of Mithradates, but was put to death by 
order of this monarch when he fled into Arme- 
nia, B.C. 72. 

Monojci Portus, also Herculis Moncsci 
Portus (now Monaco), a port-town on the coast 
of Liguria, between Nicaea and Aibiurn Inteme- 
lium, founded by the Massilians, was situated 
on a promontory (hence the arx Monozci of Virg., 
Mn., vi., 801), and possessed a temple of Her- 
cules Monoecus, from whom the place derived 
its name. The harbor, though small and ex- 
posed to the southeastern wind, was of import- 
ance, as it was the only one on this part of the 
coast of Liguria. 

Montanus, Curtius, was exiled by Nero A. D. 
67, but was soon afterward recalled at his fa- 
ther's petition. On the accession of Vespasian, 
he vehemently attacked in the senate the noto- 
rious delator Aquilius Regulus. If the same 
person with the Curtius Montanus satirized by 
Juvenal (iv., 107, 131 ; xi., 34), Montanus in 



later life sullied the fair reputation he enjoyed 
in youth ; for Juvenal describes him as a corpi^ 
lent epicure, a parasite of Domitian, and a hack- 
neyed declaimer. 

[Montanus, Julius, a versifier of some re- 
pute in the reign of Tiberius, and one of the 
emperor's private friends.] 

Montanus, Voltienus, an orator and declaim- 
er in the reign of Tiberius. From his propen- 
sity to refine upon thought and diction, he waa 
named the " Ovid" of the rhetorical schools. 
He was convicted on a charge of majestas, and 
died an exile in the Balearic islands, A.D. 25. 

Mopsia or Mopsopia, an ancient name of Pam- 
phylia, derived from Mopsus, the mythical lead- 
er of certain Greeks who were supposed to have 
settled in Pamphylia, as also in Cilicia and 
Syria, after the Trojan war, and whose name 
appears more than once in the geographical 
names in Cilicia. (Vid. e. g. Mopsucrene, Mop- 
suestia.) 

Mopsium (Mofiov : Moibioc), a town of Thes- 
saly in Pelasgiotis, situated on a hill of the 
same name, between Tempe and Larissa. 

Mopsucrene (Moi/jou Kpijvti or Kpfjvai, i. e., the 
Spring of Mopsus), a city of Cilicia Campestris^, 
on the southern slope of the Taurus, and twelve 
Roman miles from Tarsus, was the place where 
the Emperor Constantius died, A.D. 364. 

Mopsuestia (Moi/jou eoria, Morjjovearia, i. e., 
the Hearth of Mopsus, also Mofov nolic and 
M6\poc : Moipedrnc ■ Mamistra, in the Middle 
Ages : now Messis), an important city of Cilicia 
Campestris, on both banks of the River Pyr- 
amus, twelve Roman miles from its mouth, or 
the road from Tarsus to Issus, in the beautifu' 
plain called to 'AXijlov nediov, was a civitas li- 
bera under the Romans. The two parts of th« 
city were connected by a handsome bridge buih 
by Constantius over the Pyramus. In ecclesi- 
astical history, it is notable as the birth-plact 
of Theodore of Mopsuestia. 

Mopsus (Mpipoc). 1. Son of Ampyx or Am- 
| pycus by the nymph Chloris. Being a seer, he 
was also called a son of Apollo by Hirnantis. 
He was one of the Lapithas of CEchalia or Ti- 
ta>ron (Thessaly), and took part in the combat 
at the wedding of Pirithous. He was one of 
the Calydonian hunters, and also one of the 
Argonauts, and was a famous prophet among 
the Argonauts. He died in Libya of the bite 
of a snake, and was buried there by the Argo- 
nauts. He was afterward worshipped as an 
oracular hero. — 2. Son of Apollo and Manto, the 
daughter of Tiresias, and also a celebrated seer. 
He contended in prophecy with Calchas at Col- 
ophon, and showed himself superior to the lat- 
ter in prophetic power. Vid. Calchas. He 
was believed to have founded Mallos in Cilicia, 
in conjunction with the seer Amphilochus. A 
dispute arose between the two seers respecting 
the possession of the town, and both fell in 
combat by each other's hand. Mopsus had an 
oracle at Mallos, which existed as late as the 
time of Strabo. 

MORGANTIUM, MoRGANTINA, MuRGANTIA, MoK 

gentia (Mopyavrtov, M.opyavTtvn ' Mopyavrivoc, 
Murgentinus), a town in Sicily founded by the 
Morgetes, after they had been driven out of 
Italy by the QSnotrians. According to Livy 
(xxiv., 27), this city was situated on the east- 

525 



/ 



MORGETES. 



MOSELLA. 



ern coast, probably at the mouth of the Symae- 
thus ; but, according to other writers, it was 
situated in the interior of the island, southeast 
of Agyrium, and near the Symaethus. The 
neighboring country produced good wine. 

Morgetes (MopytjTes), an ancient people in 
the south of Italy. According to Strabo they 
dwelt in the neighborhood of Rhegium, but, be- 
ing driven out of Italy by the (Enotrians, cross- 
ed over to Sicily, and there founded the town 
of Morgantium. According to Dionysius of 
Halicarnassus, Morges was the successor of 
the CEnotrian king Italus, and hospitably re- 
ceived Siculus, who had been driven out of Lati- 
um by the Aborigines, in consequence of which 
the earlier CEnotrians were called Italietes, Mor- 
getes, and Siculi. According to this account, 
the Morgetes ought to be regarded as a branch 
of the CEnotrians. 

Moria or Morija (Muptov opoc), a mountain 
of Judaea, within the city of Jerusalem, on the 
summit of which the temple was built. Vid. 
Jerusalem. 

[MORICAMBE iEsTUARIUM (MoplKafiSlJ UCXVULc), 

now Morecam.be Bay), an estuary or bay on the 
western coast of Britannia.] 

Mortmene (MopLfiev7i), the northwestern dis- 
trict of Cappadocia, on the banks of the Halys, 
assigned under the Romans to Galatia. Its 
meadows were entirely devoted to the feeding 
of cattle. 

Morini, a people in Gallia Belgica, west of 
the Nervi: and Menapii, and the most northerly 
people in all Gaul, whence Virgil calls them 
extremi hominum {Mn., viii., 727). They dwelt 
on the coast, opposite Britain, and at the nar- 
rowest part of the channel between Gaul and 
Britain, which is hence sometimes called Fre- 
tum Morinorum or Morinum. They were a brave 
and warlike people. Their country was cov- 
ered with woods and marshes. Their princi- 
pal town was Gesoriacum. 

[Moritasgus, brother of Cavarinus, king of 
the Senones at the arrival of Caesar in Gaul.] 

MorIus (Mwptor), a small river in Boeotia, a 
southern tributary of the Cephisus, at the foot 
of Mount Thurion, near Chaeronea. 

Mormo (Mopfzu, also MopfioXvKT}, Mop/io2.vK- 
stov), a female spectre, with which the Greeks 
used to frighten children. 

Morpheus (MopQevc), the son of Sleep, and 
the god of dreams. The name signifies the 
fashioner or moulder, because he shaped or 
formed the dreams which appeared to the 
sleeper. 

Mors, called Thanatos (Quvaroc) by the 
Greeks, the god of death. In the Homeric po- 
ems Death does not appear as a distinct divin- 
ity, though he is described as the brother of 
Sleep, together with whom he carries the body 
of Sarpedon from the field of battle to the coun- 
try of the Lycians. In Hesiod he is a son of 
Night and a brother of Ker and Sleep, and 
Death and Sleep reside in the lower world. In 
the Alcestis of Euripides, where Death comes 
upon the stage, he appears as an austere priest 
of Hades in a dark robe and with the sacrificial 
sword, with which he cuts off a lock of a dying 
person, and devotes it to the lower world. On 
the whole, later poets describe Death as a sad 
or terrific being (Herat., Carm., i. t 4, 13 ; Sat., 
526 



ii., 1, 57) ; but the best artists of the Greeks, 
avoiding any thing that might be displeasing, 
abandoned the idea suggested to them by the 
poets, and represented Death under a more 
pleasing aspect. On the chest of Cypselus, 
Night was represented with two boys, one black 
and the other white ; and at Sparta there were 
statues of both Death and Sleep. Both were 
usually represented as slumbering youths, or as 
genii with torches turned upside down. There 
are traces of sacrifices having been offered 
to Death, but no temples are mentioned any 
where. 

[Morsimus (Mopct/ioc), son of Philocles, and 
brother of Melanthius, a tragic poet, who, as 
well as his brother, was made the object of the 
bitterest attacks of Aristophanes, on account 
of both his dull and lifeless poetry and his de- 
based character.] 

Morychus (Mopvxoc), a tragic poet, a con- 
temporary of Aristophanes, noted especially for 
his gluttony and effeminacy. 

[Morys (Mopvc), son of Hippotion, a Phrygi- 
an, slain by Meriones at the siege of Troy.] 

Mosa (now Maas or Meuse), a river in Gallia 
Belgica, rises in Mount Vogesus, in the terri- 
tory of the Lingones, flows first northeast and 
then northwest, and falls into the Vahalis or 
western branch of the Rhine. 

Moscha (Moaxa : now Muscat), an important 
sea-port on the northeastern coast of Arabia 
Felix, northwest of Syagrus, the easternmost 
promontory of the peninsula (now Ras el-Had) : 
a chief emporium for the trade between India 
and Arabia. 

Moscin (Mii^oi), a people of Asia, whose ter- 
ritory (jj MoaxiKn, Moschorum Tractus) formed 
originally the southern part of Colchis, but, at 
the time of Augustus, was divided between Col- 
chis, Iberia, and Armenia. 

Moschici Montes or -icus Mons (rd Mooxi- 
tca opri : now Mesjidi), a range of mountains ex- 
tending south and southwest from the main 
chain of the Caucasus to that of the Anti-Tau- 
rus, and forming the boundary between Colchis 
and Iberia: named after theMoscm, who dwelt 
among them. Though lofty, they were well 
wooded to the summit, and their lower slopes 
were planted with vines. 

Moschion (Mooxluv), a Greek physician, the 
author of a short Greek treatise " On Female 
Diseases," is supposed to have lived in the be- 
ginning of the second century after Christ. The 
work is edited by Dewez, Vienn., 1793. 

Moschus (Mocxoc), of Syracuse, a gramma- 
rian and bucolic poet, lived about B.C. 250, 
Suidas says that he was acquainted with Aris- 
tarchus. According to this statement, his date 
ought to be placed later ; but he calls himself a 
pupil of Bion in the idyl in which he bewails 
the death of the latter. Vid. Bion. There are 
four of his idyls extant. He writes with ele- 
gance and liveliness; but he is inferior to Bion, 
and comes still further behind Theocritus. His 
style labors under an excess of polish and or- 
nament. For editions, vid. Bion, [and add, by 
Hermann, Leipzig, 1849.] 

Mosella (now Mosel or Moselle), a river in 
Gallia Belgica, rises in Mount Vogesus, flows 
northeast through the territories of the Treviri, 
and falls into the Rhine at Confluentes (now 



MOSTENI. 



MUMMIUS. 



Coblenz) This river forms the subject of a de- 
scriptive poem by Ausonius. 

MOSTENI (M.0GTTjV0l, MoOTtVCl, MllVarr/VT/, Ml>(T- 

rijvTj), a city of Lydia, in the Hyrcanian plain, 
southeast of Thyatira, was one of the cities of 
Asia Minor destroyed by the great earthquake 
of A. D. 17. Its coins are numerous. 
Mosychlus. Vid. Lemnos. 

MoSYNOSCt (MoOVVOlKOl, M.OGOVVOI K.OI), OX Mo- 

syni or Mossyni (Moavvoc, Moauvvol), a people 
on the northern coast of Asia Minor, in Pontus, 
east of the Chalybes and the city of Cerasus, 
celebrated for their warlike spirit and savage 
customs, which are described by Xenophon 
(Anab., iv., 4 ; v., 4). Their name was derived 
from the conical wooden houses in which they 
dwelt. Their government was very curious : 
a king chosen by them was strictly guarded in 
a house higher than the rest, and maintained at 
the public cost ; but as soon as he displeased 
the commons, they literally stopped the sup- 
plies, and starved him to death. 

Mothone. Vid. Methone. 

Motuca (Morovica: Mutycensis : now Modi- 
ca), a town in the south of Sicily, west of the 
promontory Pachynus and near the sources of 
the River Motychanus (now Fiume di Ragusa). 
Since both Cicero and Pliny call the inhabit- 
ants Mutycenses, it is probable that Mutyca is 
the more correct form of the name. This town 
must not be confounded with the more cele- 
brated MoTYA. 

Motya (JAoTvr; : Morvaioc), an ancient town 
in the northwest of Sicily, situated on a small 
island (now Isola di Mezzo) only six stadia from 
the coast, with which it was connected by a 
mole. It was founded by the Phoenicians in the 
territory of the Elymi. It possessed a good 
harbor, and was in early times one of the most 
flourishing cities of Sicily. It afterward passed 
into the hands of the Carthaginians, was taken 
from them by Dionysius of Syracuse, and was 
finally captured by the Carthaginian general 
Himilco, who transplanted all its inhabitants to 
the town of Lilybaeum, which he had founded 
in its neighborhood B.C., 497. From this time 
it disappears from history. 

Motychanus. Vid. Motuca. 

Mucia, daughter of Q. Mucins Scaevola, the 
augur, consul B.C. 95, was married to Cn. Pom- 
pey, by whom she had two sons, Cneius and 
Sextus, and a daughter, Pompeia. She was di- 
vorced by Pompey in 62. She next married M. 
/Emilius Scaurus, a step-son of the dictator 
Sulla. In 39 Mucia went to Sicily to mediate 
between her son Sextus Pompey and Augustus. 
She was living at the time of the battle of Ac- 
tium, 31. Augustus treated her with great re- 
spect. 

Mucianus. 1. P. LicinTus Crassus Dives 
Mucianus, was the son of P. Mucius Scaevola, 
and was adopted by P. Licinius Crassus Dives. 
He was consul B.C. 131, and carried on the war 
against Aristonicus in Asia, but was defeated 
by the latter. He succeeded Scipio Nasica as 
pontifex maximus. He was distinguished both 
as an orator and a lawyer. — 2. Licinius Mucia- 
nus, three times consul, in A.D. 52, 70, and 75. 
On Nero's death in 68, Mucianus had the com- 
mand of the province of Syria, and he rendered 
efficient aid to Vespasian when the latter re- 



solved to seize the imperial throne. As soon 
as Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, Mucia- 
nus set out for Europe to oppose Vitellius ; but 
the Vitellians were entirely defeated by Anto- 
nius Primus {vid. Primus), before Mucianus en- 
tered Italy. Antonius, however, had to sur- 
render all power into the hands of Mucianus, 
upon the arrival of the latter at Rome. Mucia- 
nus was an orator and a historian. His pow- 
ers of oratory are greatly praised by Tacitus 
He made a collection of the speeches of the re- 
publican period, which he published in eleven 
books of Acta, and three of Epistola. The sub- 
ject of his history is not mentioned, but it ap- 
pears to have treated chiefly of the East. 

Mucius ScyEvola. Vid. Scevqla. 

Mugilla (Mugillanus), a town in Latium, near 
Corioli, from which a family of the Papirii prob- 
ably derived their name Mugillanus. 

Mulciber, a surname of Vulcan, which seems 
to have been given to him as an euphemism, that 
he might not consume the habitations and prop- 
erty of men, but might kindly aid them in their 
pursuits. It occurs frequently in the Latin 
poets. 

[Mulius {MovXloc). 1. Son-in-law of Augeas, 
and husband of Agamede, slain by Nestor. — 2. 
Name of two noble Trojans, of whom one was 
slain by Patroclus, the other by Achilles. — 3. 
Herald and attendant of the suitor Amphino- 
mus of Dulichium.] 

Mulucha, Malva, or Molochath (Mo/lo^aO : 
now Wad el Mulwia, or Mokalou, or Sourb-ou- 
Herb), the largest river of Mauretania, rising in 
the Atlas, and flowing north by east into the 
Gulf of Melillah, has been successively the 
boundary between the Mauri and the Masaae- 
sylii, Mauretania and Numidia, Mauretania Tin- 
gitana and Mauretania Caesariensis, Mawcco 
and Algier. Compare Mauretania. 

Mummius. 1. L., tribune of the plebs B.C. 
187, and praetor 177. — 2. L., surnamed Achai- 
cus, son of the last, was praetor 154, when he 
carried on the war successfully in further Spain 
against the Lusitanians. He was consul in 146, 
when he won for himself the surname of Acha- 
icus by the conquest of Greece and the estab- 
lishment of the Roman province of Achaia. 
After defeating the army of the Achaean league, 
at the Isthmus of Corinth, he entered Corintr 
without opposition. The city was burned, razed 
and abandoned to pillage ; the native Corinth- 
ians were sold for slaves, and the rarest speci- 
mens of Grecian art were given up to the 
rapacity of an ignorant conqueror. Polybius 
the historian saw Roman soldiers playing at 
draughts upon the far-famed picture of Bacchus 
(Dionysus) -by Aristides ; and Mummius him 
self was so unconscious of the real value of 
his prize, that he sold the rarer works of paint 
ing, sculpture, and carving to the King of Per- 
gamus, and exacted securities from the masters 
of vessels who conveyed the remainder to Italy 
to replace by equivalents any picture or statue 
lost or injured in the passage. Pie remained in 
Greece during the greater part of 145 witU the 
title of proconsul. He arranged the fiscal and 
municipal constitution of the newly-acquired 
province, and won the confidence and esteem 
of the provincials by his integrity, justice, and 
equanimity. He triumphed in 145. He was 

527 



MUNATIUS PLA *CUS 



MURGIS. 



censor in 142 with Scipio Africanus the youn- 
ger. The political opinions of Mummius in- 
clined to the popular side. — 3. Sp., brother of 
the preceding, and his legatus at Corinth in 
146-145, was an intimate friend of the younger 
Scipio Africanus. In political opinions Spurius 
was opposed to his brother Lucius, and was a 
high aristocrat. He composed ethical and satir- 
ical epistles, which were extant in Cicero's age, 
and were probably in the style which Horace 
afterward cultivated so successfully. 

Munatius Plancus. Vid. Plancus. 

Munda. 1. A Roman colony and an important 
town in Hispania Baetica, situated on a small 
river, and celebrated on account of two battles 
fought in its neighborhood, the victory of Cn. 
Scipio over the Carthaginians in B.C. 216, and 
the important victory of Julius Caesar over the 
sons of Pompey in 45. The town had fallen 
into decay as early as the time of Pliny. The 
site of the ancient town is usually supposed to 
be the modern village of Monda, southwest of 
Malaga ; but Munda was more probably in the 
neighborhood of Cordova, and there are ruins 
of ancient walls and towers between Martos, 
Alcandete, Espejo, and Beena which are con- 
jectured to be the remains of Munda. — 2. A 
river. Vid. Monda. 

Munychia (Movvvxia), a hill in the peninsula 
of Piraeus, which formed the citadel of the ports 
of Athens. It was strongly fortified, and is fre- 
quently mentioned in Athenian history. At its 
foot lay the harbor of Munychia, one of the 
three harbors in the peninsula of Piraeus, forti- 
fied by Themistocles. The names of these 
three harbors were Piraeus, Zea, and Munychia. 
The last was the smallest and the most easter- 
ly of the three, and is called at the present day 
Phanari: Zea was situated between Piraeus and 
Munychia. Most topographers have erroneous- 
ly supposed Phanari to be Phaleron, and Zea to 
be Munychia. The entrance to the harbor of 
Munychia was very narrow, and could be closed 
by a chain. The hill of Munychia contained 
several public buildings. Of these the most 
important were, (1 ) A temple of Diana (Arte- 
mis) Munychia, in which persons accused of 
crimes against the state took refuge : (2.) The 
Bendideum, the sanctuary of the Thracian Ar- 
temis Bendis, in whose honor the festival of 
the Bendidea was celebrated : (3.) The theatre 
on the northwestern slope of the hill, in which 
the assemblies of the people were sometimes 
held. 

Murcia, Murtea, or Murtia, a surname of 
Venus at Rome, where she had a chapel in the 
circus, with a statue. This surname, which is 
said to be the same as Myrtea (from myrtus, a 
myrtle), was believed to indicate the fondness 
of the goddess for the myrtle tree. In ancient 
times there is said to have been a myrtle grove 
in the front of her chapel at the foot of the 
Aventine. 

Murcds, L. Statius, was Caesar's legatus 
B.C. 48, and praetor 45. He went into Syria 
after his year of office expired ; and after Cae- 
sar's death became an active supporter of the 
republican party. Cassius appointed him pre- 
fect of the fleet. After the ruin of the republi- 
can party at Philippi in 42, Murcus went over 
to Sextus Pompey in Sicily. Here he was as- 
528 



sassinated by Pompey's order at the instigation 
of his freedman Menas, to whom Murcus had 
borne himself loftily. 

Murena, Licinius. The nameMurena, which 
is the proper way of writing the word, not Mu- 
raena, is said to have been given in consequence 
of one of the family having a great liking for 
the lamprey (murena), and building tanks (viva- 
ria) for them. 1. P., a man of some literary 
knowledge, lost his life in the wars of Marius 
and Sulla, B.C. 82.-2. L., brother of the pre- 
ceding, served under Sulla in Greece, in the 
Mithradatic war. After Sulla had made peace 
with Mithradates (84), Murena was left as pro- 
praetor in Asia. Anxious for distinction, Mure- 
na sought a quarrel with Mithradates ; and after 
carrying on the war for two years, was at length 
compelled by the strict orders of Sulla to stop 
hostilities. Vid. p. 520, a. Murena returned 
to Rome, and had a triumph in 81. He proba- 
bly died soon after. — 3. L., son of the last, 
served under his father in the second Mithra- 
datic war, and also under Lucullus in the third 
Mithradatic war. In 65 he was praetor, in 64 
propraetor of Gallia Cisalpina, and in 63 was 
elected consul with D. Junius Silanus. Servius 
Sulpicius, an unsuccessful canaidate, instituted 
a prosecution against Murena for bribery {am- 
bitus), and he was supported in the matter by 
M. Porcius Cato, Cn. Postumius, and Servius 
Sulpicius the younger. Murena was defended 
by Q. Hortensius, M. Tullius Cicero, who was 
then consul, and M. Licinius Crassus. The 
speech of Cicero, which is extant, was deliver- 
ed in the latter part of November. The orator 
handled his subject skillfully, by making merry 
with the formulae and the practice of the law- 
yers, to which class Sulpicius belonged, and 
with the paradoxes of the Stoics, to which sect 
Cato had attached himself. Murena was ac- 
quitted, and was consul in the following year, 
62. — 4. A. Terentius Varro Murena, probably 
the son of the preceding, was adopted by A. Te- 
rentius Varro, whose name he took, according 
to the custom in such cases. In the civil wars 
he is said to have lost his property, and C. Pro- 
culeius, a Roman eques, is said to have given 
him a share of his own property. This Procu- 
leius is called the brother of Varro, but, if we 
take the words of Horace literally (Carm., ii., 
2), Proculeius had more than one brother. It 
■is conjectured that this Proculeius was a son 
of the brother of No. 3, who had been adopted 
by one Proculeius. This would make Procu- 
leius the cousin of Varro. It was common 
enough among the Romans to call cousins by 
the name of brothers ( j rater palruclis and /rater). 
In 25 Murena subdued the Salassi in the Alps, 
and founded the town of Augusta (now Aosta) in 
their territory. He was consul suffectus in 23. 
In 22 he was involved in the conspiracy of Fan- 
nius Caepio, and was condemned to death and 
executed, notwithstanding the intercession of 
Proculeius and Terentia, the sister of Murena. 
Horace (Carm., ii., 1C) addresses Murena by the 
name of Licinius, and probably intended to give 
him some advice as to being more cautious in 
his speech and conduct. 

MurgantIa. 1. Vid. Morgantium. — 2. A 
town in Samnium of uncertain site. 

Murqis, a town in Hispania Baetica, on thf 



MURIDUNUM. 



MUS/E. 



frontiers of Tarraconensis, and on the road from 
Acci to Malaga. 

Muridunum or Moridunum (now Dorchester), 
called Donium by Ptolemy, the capital of the 
Durotriges in the south of Britain. At Dorches- 
ter there are remains of the walls and the am- 
phitheatre of the ancient town. 

[MuRRANtrs, a companion of Turnus, slain by 
/Eneas in Italy.] 

Mursa or Muksia (now Esseck, capital of Sla- 
vonian an important town in Pannonia Inferior, 
situated on the Dravus, not far from its j unction 
with the Danube, was a Roman colony founded 
by the Emperor Hadrian, and was the residence 
of the governor of Lower Pannonia. HereMag- 
nentius was' defeated by Constantius II., A.D. 
351. 

Mursella, or Mursa Minor, a town in Pan- 
nonia Inferior, only ten miles west of the great 
Mursa. 

Mus, Decius. Vid. Decius. 

Musa, Antonius, a celebrated physician at 
Rome about the beginning of the Christian era. 
He was brother to Euphorbus, the physician to 
King Juba, and was himself the physician to the 
Emperor Augustus. He had been originally a 
slave. When the emperor was seriously ill, and 
had been made worse by a hot regimen and 
treatment, B.C. 23, Antonius Musa succeeded 
in restoring him to health by means of cold 
bathing and cooling drinks, for which service 
he received from Augustus and the senate a 
large sum of money and the permission to wear 
a gold ring, and also had a statue erected in his 
honor near that of ..Esculapius by public sub- 
scription. He seems to have been attached to 
this mode of treatment, to which Horace alludes 
(Epist., i., 15, 3), but failed when he applied it 
to the case of M. Marcellus, who died under his 
care a few months after the recovery of Au- 
gustus, 23. He wrote several pharmaceutical 
works, which are frequently quoted by Galen, 
but of which nothing except a few fragments 
remain. There are, however, two short Latin 
medical works ascribed to Antonius Musa, but 
these are universally considered to be spurious. 

Musa or Muza (Movaa, MoOfa : now probably 
Moushid, north of ' Mokha), a celebrated port of 
Arabia Felix, on the western coast, near its 
southern extremity, or, in other words, on the 
eastern shore of the Red Sea, near the Straits 
of Bab-el-Mandeb. 

Mus^e (Moiaai), the Muses, were, according 
to the earliest writers, the inspiring goddesses 
of song, and, according to later notions, divini- 
ties presiding over the different kinds of poetry, 
and over the arts and sciences. They were 
originally regarded as the nymphs of inspiring 
wells, near which they were worshipped, and 
they bore different names in different places, 
Jintil the Thraco-Bceotian worship of the nine 
Muses spread from Bceotia over other parts of 
Greece, and ultimately became generally estab- 
lished. 1. Genealogy of the Muses. The most 
common notion was that they were the daugh- 
ters of Jupiter (Zeus) and Mnemosyne, and born 
in Pieria, at the foot of Mount Olympus. Some 
call them the daughters of Coelus (Uranus) and 
Terra (Ga;a), and others daughters of Pierus 
and Antiope, or of Apollo, or of Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Plusia, or of Jupiter (Zeus) and Moneta, 



probably a mere translation of Mnemosyne or 
Mneme, whence they are called Mnemonides, or 
of Jupiter (Zeus) and Minerva, or, lastly, of 
^Ether and Terra (Gaea).— 2. Number of the Mu- 
ses. Originally there were three Muses wor- 
shipped on Mount Helicon in Boeotia, namely, 
Melete (meditation), Mneme (memory), and Aoide 
(song). Three Muses also were recognized at 
Sicyon and at Delphi. As daughters of Jupiter 
(Zeus) and Plusia we find mention of four Mu- 
ses, viz., Thelxinoe (the heart delighting), Aoide 
(song), Arche (beginning), and Melete. Some 
accounts, in which they are called daughters of 
Pierus, mention seven Muses, viz., Nilo, Tri- 
tone, Asopo, Heptapora, Achelois, Tipoplo, and 
Rhodia ; and others, lastly, mention eight, which 
is also said to have been the number recognized 
at Athens. At length, however, the number 
nine became established throughout all Greece. 
Homer sometimes mentions Musa only . in the 
singular, and sometimes Musa? in the plural, and 
once only he speaks of nine Muses, though with- 
out mentioning any of their name's. Hesiod is 
the first who states the names of all the nine, 
and these nine names became the usual ones. 
They are Clio, Euterpe, Thalia, Melpomene, 
Terpsichore, Erato, Polymnia or Polyhymnia, 
Urania, and Calliope. — 3. Nature and character 
of the Muses. In Homer's poems, they are the 
goddesses of song and poetry, and live in Olym 
pus. There they sing the festive songs at the 
repast of the immortals. They bring before the 
mind of the mortal poet the events which he 
has to relate, and confer upon him the gift of 
song. The earliest poets in theh- invocation of 
the Muse or Muses were perfectly sincere, and 
actually believed in their being inspired by the 
goddesses ; but in later times the invocation of 
the Muses was a mere formal imitation of the 
early poets. Thamyris, who presumed to excel 
the Muses, was deprived by them of the gift 
they had bestowed on him, and punished with 
blindness. The Sirens, who likewise ventured 
upon a contest with them, were deprived of the 
feathers of their wings, and the Muses put them 
on their own persons as ornaments. The nine 
daughters of Pierus, who presumed to rival the 
Muses, were metamorphosed into birds. Since 
poets and bards derived their power from the 
Muses, they are frequently called either their 
disciples or sons. Thus Linus is called a son 
of Amphimarus and Urania, or of Apollo and 
Calliope, or Terpsichore ; Hyacinthus a son of 
Pierus and Clio ; Orpheus a son of Calliope or 
Clio, and Thamyris a son of Erato. These and 
a few others are the cases in which the Muses 
are described as mothers ; but the more gener- 
al idea was, that, like other nymphs, they were 
virgin divinities. Being goddesses of song, 
they were naturally connected with Apollo, the 
god of the lyre, who, like them, instructs the 
bards, and is mentioned along with them even 
by Homer. In later times Apollo is placed in 
very close connection with the Muses, for he 
is described as the leader of the choir of the 
Muses by the surname Musagetcs (Movaayfanc). 
A further feature in the character of the Mu^Ji 
is their prophetic power, which belongs to them, 
partly because they were regarded as inspiring 
nymphs, and partly because of their connection 
with the prophetic god of Delphi. Hence theT 

529 



MUSJEUS. 



MUTINES. 



instructed, for example, Aristasus in the art of 
prophecy. As the Muses loved to dwell on 
Mount Helicon, they were naturally associated 
with Bacchus (Dionysus) and dramatic poetry, 
and hence they are described as the compan- 
ions, playmates, or nurses of Bacchus (Diony- 
sus). The worship of the Muses points origi- 
nally to Thrace and Pieria about Mount Olym- 
pus, whence it was introduced into Boeotia ; and 
the names of mountains, grottoes, and wells, 
connected with their worship in the north, were 
likewise transferred to the south. Near Mount 
Helicon, Ephialtes and Otus are said to have 
offered the first sacrifices to them. In the same 
place there was a sanctuary with their statues, 
the sacred wells Aganippe and Hippocrene, and 
on Mount Libethrion, which is connected with 
Helicon, there was a sacred grotto of the Mu- 
ses. Pierus, a Macedonian, is said to have 
been the first who introduced the worship of 
the nine Muses, from Thrace to Thespias, at the 
foot of Mount Helicon. There they had a tem- 
ple and statues, and the Thespians celebrated a 
solemn festival of the Muses on Mount Helicon, 
called Musca. Mount Parnassus was likewise 
sacred to them, with the Castalian spring, near 
which they had a temple. The sacrifices offer- 
ed to the Muses consisted of libations of water 
or milk, and of honey. The various surnames 
by which they are designated by the poets are 
for the most part derived from the places which 
were sacred to them or in which they were 
worshipped, while some are descriptive of the 
sweetness of their songs. — 4. Representations of 
the Muses in uforks of art. In the most ancient 
works of art we find only three Muses, and their 
attributes are musical instruments, such as the 
flute, the lyre, or the barbiton. Later artists 
gave to each of the nine sisters different attri- 
butes as well as different attitudes. 1. Calliope, 
the Muse of epic poetry, appears with a tablet 
and stylus, and sometimes with a roll of paper ; 
2. Clio, the Muse of history, appears in a sitting 
attitude, with an open roll of paper, or an open 
chest of books ; 3. Euterpe, the Muse of lyric 
poetry, with a flute ; 4. Melpomene, the Muse of 
tragedy, with a tragic mask, the club of Hercu- 
les, or a sword ; her head is surrounded with 
vine leaves, and she wears the cothurnus ; 5. 
Terpsichore, the Muse of choral dance and song, 
appears with the lyre and the plectrum ; 6. Era- 
to, the Muse of erotic poetry and mimic imita- 
tion, sometimes also has the lyre ; 7. Polymriia 
or Polyhymnia, the Muse of the sublime hymn, 
usually appears without any attribute, in a pen- 
sive or meditating attitude ; 8. Urania, the Muse 
of astronomy, with a staff pointing to a globe ; 
9. Thalia, the Muse of comedy and of merry or 
idyllic poetry, appears with a comic mask, a 
shepherd's staff, or a wreath of ivy. Some- 
times the Muses are seen with feathers on their 
heads, alluding to their contest with the Sirens. 

Mus.s:us (Movo-aloc). 1. A semi-mythological 
personage, to be classed with Olen, Orpheus, and 
Pamphus. He was regarded as the author of 
various poetical compositions, especially as con- 
nected with the mystic rites of Ceres (Demeter) 
at Eleusis, over which the legend represented 
him as presiding in the time of Hercules. He 
was reputed to belong to the family of the Eu- 
tnolpidae, being the son of Eumolpus and Selene. 
530 



In other variations of the myth he was less def- 
initely called a Thracian. According to other 
legends, he was the son of Orpheus, of whom 
he was generally considered as the imitator and 
disciple. Some accounts gave him a wife De 
ioce and a son Eumolpus. There was a tradi- 
tion that the Museum in Piraeus bore that name 
from having been the place where Musaeus was 
buried. Among the numerous compositions at- 
tributed to him by the ancients, the most cele- 
brated were his Oracles. Onomacritus, in the 
time of the Pisistratidae, made it his business 
to collect and arrange the oracles that passed 
under the name of Musajus, and was banished 
by Hipparchus for interpolating in the collection 
oracles of his own making. — 2. A grammarian, 
the author of the celebrated poem on the loves 
of Hero and Leander. Nothing is known of 
the personal history of the writer ; but it is 
certain that the poem is a late production. 
Some critics suppose that the author did not 
live earlier than the fifth century of our era. 
Edited by Passow, Lips., 1810 ; and by Schae- 
fer, Lips., 1825. 

MlTSAGETES. Vid. MuS.ffi. 

Musonius Rufos, C, a celebrated Stoic phi- 
losopher, was the son of a Roman eques, and 
was banished by Nero to the island of Gyaros 
in A.D. 66, under the pretext of his having been 
privy to the conspiracy of Piso. He returned 
from exile on the accession of Galba, and seems 
to have been held in high estimation by Vespa- 
sian, as he was allowed to remain at Rome 
when the other philosophers were banished 
from the city. Musonius wrote various philo- 
sophical works, all of which have perished. 

Mdsti (Movon?), a town in the Carthaginian 
territory (Zeugitana), near the River Bagradas, 
on the road from Carthage to Sicca Veneria. 
Here Regulus killed an enormous serpent. 

Muthul, a river of Numidia, the boundary 
between the kingdoms of Jugurtha and Adher- 
bal. It is probably the same as the Rubrica- 
tus. 

[Mutilum, a fortified place in Gallia Cispa- 
dana, between the rivers Gabellus and Scul 
tenna, answering probably to the modern Me 
dolo-l 

Mutilus, C. Papius, one of the principal Sam- 
nite generals in the Marsic war, B.C. 90-89. 

MutIna (Mutinensis : now Moiena), an im- 
portant town in Gallia Cispadana, on the high 
road from Mediolanum to the south of Italy, 
was originally a Celtic town, and was the first 
place which the Romans took away from the 
Boii. It is mentioned at the beginning of the 
second Punic war (B.C. 218) under the name 
of Motina, as a fortified place inhabited by the 
Romans ; but it was not till 183 that it was 
made a Roman colony. Mutina is celebrated 
in the history of the civil war after Caesar's 
death. Decimus Brutus was besieged here by 
M. Antonius from December, 44, to April, 43 ; 
and under its walls the battles were fought in 
which the consuls Hirtius and Pansa perished. 
Hence this war was called the Bellum Muti- 
?icnse. The best wool in all Italy came from 
the neighborhood of Mutina. 

[Mutines (Movrivac, or Mvrropac, Polyb.), a 
Lybio-Phcenician, an active and able officer of 
Hannibal, selected by him to t£>ke command in 



MUTUNUS. 



MYGDON. 



Sicily after the death of Hippocrates. He prov- 
ed a source of great annoyance to the Romans, 
and baffled all their efforts to capture or subdue 
him ; but at length, having been superseded 
through the jealousy of Hanno, he betrayed 
Agrigentum into the hands of the Romans, who 
rewarded him with the rights of citizenship, 
and bestowed other honors on him.] 

Mutunus or Mutinus, was among the Ro- 
mans the same as the phallus, or Priapus, among 
the Greeks, and was believed to be the most 
powerful averter of demons, and of all evil that 
resulted from pride, boastfulness, and the like. 

[Mutyca. Vid. Motuca.] 

[Muziris (Mowfjpt'f or Movfrvpic : now Mird- 
jan), a port of the district Limyrica, on the 
west coast of India intra Gangem, five hundred 
stadia (fifty geographical miles) east of Tyndis, 
where vessels usually landed.] 

Mycale (Mvk&2.7} : now Samsun), a mountain 
in the south of Ionia in Asia Minor, north of 
the mouth of the Maeander. It forms the west- 
ern extremity of Mount Messogis, and runs far 
out into the sea, opposite to Samos, forming a 
sharp promontory, which, was called Mycale or 
Trogilium (Tpuyiiiov, TpuyvXwv : now Cape S. 
Maria). This cape and the southeast promon- 
tory of Samos (Posidonium) overlap one an- 
other, and the two tongues of land are separat- 
ed by a strait only seven stadia (little more than 
three fourths of a mile) in width, which is re- 
nowned in Greek history as the scene of the 
victory gained over the Persian fleet by Leo- 
tychides and Xanthippus, B.C. 479. There 
seems to have been a city of the same name 
on or near the promontory. On the northern 
side of the promontory, near Priene, was the 
great temple of Neptune (Poseidon), which was 
the place of meeting for the Panionic festival 
and Amphictyony. 

Mycalessus (MvKaTiijGooc '■ Wvnakrioaios), an 
ancient and important city in Bceotia, mention- 
ed by Homer, was situated on the road from 
Aulis to Thebes. In B.C. 413 some Thracian 
mercenaries in the pay of Athens surprised and 
sacked the town, and butchered the inhabitants. 
From this blow it never recovered, and was in 
ruins in the time of Pausanias. It possessed a 
celebrated temple of Ceres (Demeter), who was 
hence surnamed Mycalessia. 

Mycenae, sometimes Mycene (M.vkt]vcu, Mu- 
ktjvti : M.vK7ivalo<; : now Karvata), an ancient 
town in Argolis, about six miles northeast of 
Argos, is situated on a hill at the head of a nar- 
row valley, and is hence described by Homer 
as " in a recess {fivxv) of the Argive land :" 
hence the etymology of the name. Mycenae is 
said to have been founded by Perseus, and was 
subsequently the favorite residence of the Pe- 
lopidae. During the reign of Agamemnon it 
was regarded as the first city in all Greece, 
but after the conquest of Peloponnesus by the 
Dorians it ceased to be a place of importance. 
It still, however, continued an independent town 
till B.C. 468, when it was attacked by the Ar- 
rives, whose hatred the Mycenaeans are said to 
have incurred by the part they took in the Per- 
sian war in favor of the Greek cause. The 
massive walls of Mycenae resisted all the at- 
tacks of the Argives ; but the inhabitants were 
at length compelled by famine to abandon their 



town. They effected their escape without a 
surrender, and took refuge, some at Cleonae, 
some in Achaia, and others in Macedonia. My- 
cenae was now destroyed by the Argives and 
was never rebuilt ; but there are still numerous 
remains of the ancient city, which, on account 
of their antiquity and grandeur, are some of 
the most interesting in all Greece. Of these 
the most remarkable are the subterranean vault, 
commonly called the "Treasury of Atreus," but 
which was more probably a sepulchre, and the 
Gate of Lions, so called from two lions sculp- 
tured over the gate. 

Mycene (MvKr/vrj), daughter of Inachus and 
wife of Arestor, from whom the town of My- 
cenae was believed to have derived its name : 
the true etymology of the name is given above. 

Mycerinus or Meckerinus (Mvneplvoc, Me^e- 
pivoe), son of Cheops, king of Egypt, succeeded 
his uncle Chephren on the throne. His con- 
duct formed a strong contrast to that of his fa- 
ther and uncle, being as mild and just as theirs 
had been tyrannical. - On the death of his daugh- 
ter, he placed her corpse within the hollow body 
of a wooden cow, which was covered with gold. 
Herodotus tells us that it was still to be seen 
at Sal's in his time. We further hear of My- 
cerinus that, being warned by an oracle that he 
should die at the end of six years, because he 
had been a gentle ruler and had not wreaked 
the vengeance of the gods on Egypt, he gave 
himself up to revelry, and strove to double his 
allotted time by turning night into day. He 
began to build a pyramid, but died before it 
was finished. It was smaller than those of 
Cheops and Chephren, and, according to Herod- 
otus, was wrongly ascribed by some to the 
Greek hetaera Rhodopis. 

[Mychus (Mi^of), a harbor in the east of 
Phocis, on the Crissaean Gulf, probably the mod- 
ern Zalitza.'] 

[Myci (Kvkoi), a people of Asia, belonging to 
the fourteenth satrapy of the Persian empire.] 

Myconus (Mvnovog : Mu/cdwor : now Mycono), 
a small island in the iEgean Sea, one of the 
Cyclades, southeast of Tenos and east of Delos, 
never attained any importance in history, but is 
celebrated in mythology as one of the places 
where the giants were defeated by Hercules. 
The island was poor and unproductive, and its 
inhabitants were rapacious. It contained two 
towns, a promontory called Phorbia, and a 
mountain named Dimastus. The large num- 
ber of bald persons, in this island was consid- 
ered worthy of record by several ancient writ- 
ers. 

[Mydon (Mvtiuv). 1. Son of Atymnius, char- 
ioteer of Pylaemenes, a Trojan warrior, slain by 
Antilochus. — 2. Another Trojan warrior, slain 
by Achilles.] 

[Myecphorites Nomos (MveK(j>ophri( vo/j.6c), 
a tract of Lower Egypt, opposite the city of 
Bubastis, on an island, and probably so called 
from a city Myecphoris.] 

Mygdon (Mvyduv). 1. Son of Acmon, a Phryg- 
ian king, who fought with Otreus and Priam 
against the Amazons, and from whom some of 
the Phrygians are said to have been called Myg- 
donians. He had a son Corcebus, who is hence 
called Mygdonides.—^t. King of the Bebrycians, 
brother of Amycus, slain by Hercules when on 

531 



MYGDONIA. 



MYRINA. 



his expedition after the girdle of the Amazon 
Hippolyte.] 

Mygdonia (Mvydovta : Mvydovec). 1. A dis- 
trict in the east of Macedonia, bordering on the 
Thermaic Gulf and the Chalcidic peninsula. 
Its people were of Thracian origin. — 2. A dis- 
trict in the north of Asia Minor, between Mount 
Olympus and the coast, in the east of Mysia and 
the west of Bithynia, named after the Thracian 
people Mygdones, who formed a settlement 
here, but were afterward subdued by the Bi- 
thyni. — 3. The northeastern district of Mesopo- 
tamia, between Mount Masius and the Chabo- 
ras, which divided it from Osroene. From its 
great fertility, it was also called Anthemusia 
(' ' kvOefjiovo'ia). The name of Mygdonia was first 
introduced after the Macedonian conquests : in 
the passage of Xenophon (Anab., iv., 3), some- 
times cited to prove the contrary, the true read- 
ing is Mapdovwi, not Mvydovtoi. 

[MygdSnius (Mvydbvioc : now probably Jakh- 
jakhah), an eastern tributary of the Chaboras, 
flowing by the walls of Nisibis. Vid. Aborrhas.] 

Myia (Mvla), daughter of Pythagoras and 
Theano, and wife of Milo of Crotona. A let- 
ter, addressed to a certain Phyllis, is extant 
under her name. 

Myl^e (MvAai : Mvlaioc, MuAatr^r). 1. (Now 
Melazzo), a town on the eastern part of the 
northern coast of Sicily, situated on a promon- 
tory running out far into the sea, with a harbor 
and a citadel. It was founded by Zancle (Mes- 
sana), and continued subject to the latter city. 
It was off Mylae that Agrippa defeated the fleet 
of Sextus Pompeius, B.C. 36. — 2. A town of 
Thessaly, in Magnesia, of uncertain site. 

Mylasa or Mylassa [ra MvTiaaa, M.v\aaaa : 
WlvXacevc : now Melasso, ruins), a very ancient 
and flourishing inland city of Caria, lay eighty 
stadia (eight geographical miles) from the coast 
at the Gulf of Iassus, in a fertile plain, on and 
at the foot of an isolated rock of beautiful white 
marble, which furnished the material for the 
splendid temples and other public buildings of 
the city. The most important of these build- 
ings was the great national temple of Jupiter 
(Zeus) Carius or Osagon. Vid. Caria. Mylasa 
was the birth-place and capital of Hecatomnus. 
Under the Romans it was made a free city. In 
the civil wars it was taken and partly destroy- 
ed by Labienus. Its remains are very exten- 
sive, and the ruins of the temple of Jupiter 
(Zeus) are supposed to have been found on the 
rock which formed the Acropolis of the ancient 
city. 

Myndus (Mvvdoc : Mvvdioc : now probably 
Port Gumishlu, ruins), a Dorian colony on the 
coast of Caria, in Asia Minor, founded by set- 
tlers from Troezene, probably on the site of an 
old town of the Leleges, which continued to 
exist under the name of Paleemyndus. Myn- 
dus stood at the western extremity of the same 
peninsula on which Halicarnassus stood. It 
was not one of the cities of the Dorian Hexapo- 
lis, but never became a place of much import- 
ance. 

[Mynes (Mw!>7?c),son of Euenus of Lyrnessus, 
husband of Briseis, slain by Achilles, who car- 
ried off captive his beautiful widow, the occa- 
sion of the quarrel between him and Agamem- 
non] 

532 



Myon or MyonTa (Mvuv, Mvovca : Mvove^c), 
a town of the Locri Ozolae, situated on a con- 
siderable height thirty stadia from Amphissa, 
and in one of the passes which led from^Etolia 
into Phocis. 

Myonnesus (Mvovvtigoc : now Cape Hypsili), 
a promontory of Ionia, with a town and a little 
island of the same name, south of Teos and 
west of Lebedus, and forming the northern 
headland of the Gulf of Ephesus. Here the 
Romans, under the praetor L. JEmilius, gained 
a great naval victory over Antiochus the Great, 
B.C. 190. 

Myos Hormos (o Mvbc bpjioc, i.e., Mouse-port, 
or, as others render it, Muscle-port, for fiv( is 
also the Greek for muscle, and this shell-fish is 
very common on the western coast of the Red 
Sea), afterward Veneris Portos ('A^podiV^f 
opfioc), an important sea-port town of Upper 
Egypt, built by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus on a 
promontory of the same name, six or seven 
days' journey from Coptos. Some of the best 
modern geographers identify the port with Kos- 
seir (latitude 26° 10'), which is still an import- 
ant port of the Red Sea, and the place of em- 
barkation for the caravan to Mecca. Kosseir 
lies due east of Coptos, and is connected with 
it by a valley, which contains traces of an an- 
cient road, and which still forms the route of 
the Mecca caravan. At the village of Abu- 
Shaar, near Kosseir, are extensive ruins, which 
are supposed to be the remains of the town of 
Myos Hormos. Others, however, place it a 
degree further north, in latitude 27° 10', oppo- 
site the Jaffatine islands. 

Myra or Myron (ra and i] Mvpa, % Mvpuv : 
Mvpevc : now Myra, Grk., Dembre, Turk., ruins), 
one of the chief cities of Lycia, and, under the 
later Roman empire, the capital of the province, 
was built on a rock twenty stadia (two geo- 
graphical miles) from the sea, and had a p.irt 
called Andriaca CAvSpianri). St. Paul touched 
here on his voyage as a prisoner to Rome, and 
the passage where this is mentioned (Acts, 
xxvii., 5, 6) affords incidental proof that the 
place was then an important sea-port. There 
are still magnificent ruins of the city, in great 
part hewn out of the rock. 

[Myrcinus (Mvpntvoc), a small city and for- 
tress of Thrace, oh the Strymon, founded by 
the Milesian Histiasus, with the consent of Da- 
rius, as the capital of a small principality in 
these regions : it fell, however, into the hands 
of the Edoni, who made it their capital and the 
residence of their princes.] 

Myriandrus (Mvpiavd'poc), a Phoenician col- 
ony in Syria, on the eastern side of the Gulf 
of Jssus, a day's journey from the Cilician 
Gates. It probably stood a little south of Alex- 
andrea, at a spot where there are ruins. He- 
rodotus calls the Gulf of Is sus 6 hlapiavdiKof 
koIkoc, a name evidently derived from this 
place, with a slight variation of form. 

Myricus (Mvpucove), a city on the coast of 
Troas, opposite to Tenedos. 

Myrina (_>'/ MupiVa, or Mvptva, Mvpivva, Mv- 
pivT) : Mvpivaloc). 1. (Now Sa7idariik?), a very 
ancient and strongly fortified city on the west- 
ern coast of Mysia, founded, according to myth- 
ical tradition, by Myrinus or by the Amazon 
Myrina, and colonized by the ..Eolians, of whose 



MYRINA. 



MYRTIS. 



eoafederacy it formed a member. It was also 
called Smyrna, and r under the Roman empire, 
Sebastopolis : it was made by the Romans a 
civitas libera. It was destroyed by earthquakes 
under Tiberius and Trajan, but each time re- 
built. It was the birth-place of the epigram- 
matic poet Agathias. — 2. Vid. Lemnos. 

[Myrina QHvpLva), an Amazon, said to have 
given name to the city Myrina, No. 1 : she is 
mentioned in the Iliad (ii., 814).] 

Myrlea (MiipAeja : M.vpXeuv6c : ruins at Ama- 
poli, a little distance inland from Mudanieh), a 
city of Bithynia, not far from Prusa, founded by 
the Colophonians, and almost rebuilt by Prusias 
I., who called it Apamea after his wife. The 
Romans colonized it under Julius Caesar and 
Augustus. 

MyrmecIdes (Mvp/zrinidrjc), a sculptor and en- 
graver, of Miletus or Athens, is generally men- 
tioned in connection with Callicrates, like whom 
he was celebrated for the minuteness of his 
works. Vid. Callicrates. His works in ivory 
are so small that they could scarcely be seen 
without placing them on black hair. 

Myrmecium (MvpfijKiov), a Scythian or Cim- 
merian town of the Chersonesus Taurica, sit- 
uated on a promontory of the same name at the 
narrowest part of the Bosporus, opposite the 
Achilleum in Asia. 

Myrmidon (Mvpfw56v), son of Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Eurymedusa, daughter of Clitos, whom Ju- 
piter (Zeus) deceived in the disguise of an ant. 
Her son was for this reason called Myrmidon 
(from fivp/17/!;, an ant), and was regarded as the 
ancestor of the Myrmidons in Thessaly. He 
was married to Pisidice, by whom he became 
the father of Antiphus and Actor. 

MyrmIdones (Mvpfudovec), an Achaean race in 
Phthiotis in Thessaly, whom Achilles ruled over, 
and who accompanied this hero to Troy. They 
are said to have inhabited originally the island 
of ^Egina, and to have emigrated with Peleus 
into Thessaly ; but modern critics, on the con- 
trary, suppose that a colony of them emigrated 
from Thessaly into ^Egina. The Myrmidones 
disappear from history at a later period. The 
ancients derived their name either from a myth- 
ical ancestor Myrmidon, or from the ants (pvp- 
tirjKec) in ^Egina, which were fabled to have 
been metamorphosed into men in the time of 
jEacus. Vid. ^Eacus. 

[Myro (Mupci). Vid. Moero.] 

Myron (Mvpov). 1. Tyrant of Sicyon, the 
father of Aristonymus, and grandfather of Clis- 
thenes. He gained the victory at Olympia in 
the chariot-race in B.C. 648. — 2. One of the 
most celebrated of the Greek statuaries, and 
also a sculptor and engraver, was born at Eleu- 
therae, in Boeotia, about 480. He is also call- 
ed an Athenian, because Eleutherae had been 
admitted to the Athenian franchise. He was 
the disciple of Ageladas, the fellow-disciple of 
Polycletus, and a younger contemporary of 
Phidias. He flourished about 431, the time of 
the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. The 
chief characteristic of Myron seems to have 
been his power of expressing a great variety 
of forms. Not content with the human figure 
in its most difficult and momentary attitudes, 
he directed his art toward various other ani- 
mals, and he seems to have been the first great 



artist who did so. His great works were near- 
ly all in bronze. The most celebrated of his 
statues were his Discobolus and his Cow. Of 
his Discobolus there are several marble copies in 
existence. It is true that we can not prove by 
testimony that any of these alleged copies were 
really taken from Myron's work, or from imita- 
tions of it ; but the resemblance between them, 
the fame of the original, and the well-known 
frequency of the practice of making such mar- 
ble copies of celebrated bronzes, all concur to 
put the question beyond reasonable doubt. Of 
these copies we possess one in the Townley 
Gallery of the British Museum, which was 
found in the grounds of Hadrian's Tiburtine 
Villa in 1791. The Cow of Myron appears to 
have been a perfect work of its kind. It was 
celebrated in many popular verses, and the 
Greek Anthology still contains no less than 
thirty-six epigrams upon it. The Cow was rep- 
resented as lowing, and the statue was placed 
on a marble base, in the centre of the largest 
open place in Athens, where it still stood in the 
time of Cicero. In the time of Pausanias it 
was no longer there ; it must have been re- 
moved to Rome, where it was still to be seen 
in the temple of Peace in the time of Pro- 
copius. — 3. Of Priene, the author of an histor- 
ical account of the first Messenian war, proba- 
bly lived not earlier than the third century B.C. 

Myronides QiLvpovidrjc), a skillful and suc- 
cessful Athenian general. In B.C. 457 he de- 
feated the Corinthians who had invaded Me- 
garis, and in 456 he defeated the Boeotians at 
OSnophyta. 

Myrrha (M.vpp'a) or Smyrna, daughter of Ciiv 
yras and mother of Adonis. For details, vid 
Adonis. 

Myrrhinus (Mvpptvovg : Mvpfiivovotoc), a dc . 
mus on the eastern coast of Attica, belonging 
to the tribe Pandionis, a little south of the prom- 
ontory Cynosura. It is said to have been built 
by a hero Colaenus, and it contained a temple 
of Diana (Artemis) Colaenis. 

Myrsilus (MvpaiXoc). 1. Vid. Candaules.— 
2. A Greek historical writer of uncertain date, 
a native of Lesbos, from whom Dionysius of 
Halicarnassus borrowed a part of his account 
of the Pelasgians. 

Myrsinus. Vid. Myrtuntium. 

Myrtilis, a town of the Turdetani, on the 
Anas in Lusitania, possessing the Jus Latii. 

Myrtilus (Muprj'Aof), son of Mercury (Her- 
mes) by Cleobule, Clytia, Phaethusa, or Myrto. 
He was the charioteer of GEnomaus, king of 
Elis, whom he betrayed when Pelops contend- 
ed with his master in the chariot-race. He was 
afterward thrown into the sea by Pelops near 
Geraestus in Eubcea ; and that part of the 
^Egean is said to have thenceforth been called 
after him the Myrtoan Sea. Vid. GEnomaus, 
Pelops. At the moment he expired he pro- 
nounced a curse upon the house of Pelops, 
which was henceforward tormented by the 
Erinnyes. His father placed him among the 
stars as auriga. 

Myrtis (Mvpric), a lyric poetess, a native of 
Anthedon in Boeotia. She was reported to have 
been the instructress of Pindar, and to have 
contended with him for the palm of superiority. 
This is alluded to in an e\tant fragment of Co- 

533 



MYRTO. 



MYSTA. 



iinna. There were statues in honor of her in 
v.irious parts of 0'"?ce. 

[Myrto (Mupru). 1. Daughter of Aristides, 
the grandson of Aristides the Just, married, ac- 
cording to one account, hy Socrates while Xan- 
thippe was living. Boeokh thinks she was his 
first wife. — 2. Vid. Myrtoum Mare.] 

Myrtoum Mare (to Mvprwov ircAayof), the 
part of the ^Egean Sea south of Euboea, Atti- 
ca, and Argolis, which derived its name from 
the small island Myrtus, though others suppose 
it to come from Myrtilus, whom Pelops threw 
into this sea, or from the maiden Myrto. 

Myrtuntium (MvpTovvnov : MvpTovuwg), call- 
ed Myrsinos (Mvpatvog) in Homer, a town of the 
Epeans in Elis, on the road froaa Elis to Dyme. 

Myrtus. Vid. Myrtoum Mare. 

Mys (MOf), an artist in the toreutic depart- 
ment, engraved the battle of the Lapithae and 
the Centaurs and other figures on *he shield of 
Phidias's colossal bronze statue of Minerva 
(Athena) Promachos in the Acropolis of Ath- 
ens. He is mentioned as one of the most dis- 
tinguished engravers by several ancient writers. 

Myscelus (MiiCT/cfAof or MCcks /Uof), a native 
of Achaia, and, according to Ovid (Metam., xv., 
1), an Heraclid, and the son of an Argive named 
Alemon. He founded Croton in Italy, B.C. 710, 
in accordance with the Delphic oracle. The or- 
acle had commanded him to build a city where 
he should find rain with fine weather. For a 
long time he thought it impossible to fulfill the 
command of the oracle, till at length he found 
in Italy a beautiful woman in tears ; whereupon 
he perceived that the oracle was accomplished, 
and straightway founded Croton on the spot. 

Mysi (Mwoi), one of the Thracian tribes who 
seem to have crossed over from Europe into 
Asia Minor before recorded history begins. 
They appear to be the same people as the Moesi 
(in Greek also Mvooi), on the banks of the Dan- 
ube. Vid. Mgesia. They stand in close con- 
nection with the Teticri. These two communi- 
ties appear to have moved from the banks of 
the Strymon to the southeast of Thrace, forc- 
ing the Bithyni over the Thracian Bosporus 
into Asia, and then to have crossed over into 
Asia themselves, by way of the Thracian Bos- 
porus, and to have settled on the southeastern 
shore of the Propontis, as far west as the River 
Rhyndaeus (the rest of the Asiatic coast of the 
Propontis and the Hellespont being occupied by 
Phrygians), and also in the eastern and south- 
ern parts of the district afterward called Mysia, 
in the mountains called Olympus and Temnus, 
and on the southern side of Ida. The Teu- 
crians obtained a permanent footing also on the 
northern side of Ida, in the Troad. Being after- 
ward driven westward over the Rhyndaeus by 
the Bithynians, and hemmed in on the west and 
north by the ^Eolian colonies, the Mysians may 
be regarded as about shut up within the ranges 
of Ida and Olympus on the north and northeast, 
and Temnus on the south. They were a sim- 
ple pastoral people, low in the scale of civiliza- 
tion. Their language and religion bore a strong 
resemblance to those of their neighbors, the 
Phrygians and Lydians, who were of the same 
Thracian origin as themselves, and hence arose 
the error, which is found in Herodotus, of de- 
riving them directly from the Lydians. 
534 



Mysia (Jj Mvaia, poet. Mvaic ala : Mdctoc, My« 
sus and Mysius: now Chan Karasi, the north- 
western district of Anadoli), a district of Asia 
Minor, called, also, the Asiatic Mysia (Mvaia fi 
' Xciavri), in contradistinction to Moesia on the 
banks of the Danube. Originally it meant of 
course the territory of the Mysi, but in the 
usual division of Asia Minor, as settled under 
Augustus, it occupied the whole of the north- 
western corner of the peninsula, between the 
Hellespont on the northwest ; the Propontis on 
the north ; the River Rhyndaeus and Mount 
Olympus on the east, which divided it from By- 
thynia and Phrygia ; Mount Temnus, and an 
imaginary line drawn from Temnus to the 
southern side of the Elai'tic Gulf on the south, 
'vhere it bordered upon Lydia, and the ^Egean 
Sea on the west. It was subdivided into five 
parts : (1.) Mysia Minor (M. q fiinpu), along the 
northern coast. (2.) Mysia Major (M. 17 fie- 
yukri), the southeastern inland region, with a 
small portion of the coast between the Troad 
and the ^Eolic settlements about the Elai'tic 
Gulf. (3.) Troas (r) Tpuu'f), the northwestern 
angle, between the/Egean and Hellespont, and 
the southern coast along the foot of Ida. (4.) 
^Eolis or jEolia (r/ AioAZf or AtuAt'n), the south- 
ern part of the western coast, around the Ela- 
itic Gulf, where the chief cities of the ^Eolian 
confederacy were planted, but applied in a wider 
sense to the western coast in general. And (5.) 
Teuthrania (t; Tevdpavia), the southwestern an- 
gle between Temnus and the borders of Lydia, 
where, in very early times, Teuthras was said 
to have established a Mysia n kingdom, which 
was early subdued by the kings of Lydia ; this 
part was also called Pergamene, from the cel- 
ebrated city of Prrgamus, which stood in it. 
I This account applies to the time of the early 
I Roman empire ; the extent of Mysia, and its 
I subdivisions, varied greatly at other times. In 
the heroic ages we find the great Teucrian mon- 
j archy of Troy in the northwest of the country, 
! and the Phrygians along the Hellespont ; as to 
the Mysians, who appear as allies of the Tro- 
jans, it is not clear whether they are Europeans 
or Asiatics. The Mysia of the legends respect- 
ing Telephus is the Teuthranian kingdom in the 
south, only with a wider extent than the later 
I Teuthrania. Under the Persian empire, the 
' northwestern portion, which was still occupied 
in part by Phrygians, but chiefly by iEolian set- 
i tlements, was called Phrygia Minor, and by the 
Greeks Hellespontus. Mysia was the region 
south of the chain of Ida, and both formed, 
with Lydia, the second satrapy. In the division 
of the empire of Alexander the Great, Mysia 
fell, with Thrace, to the share of Lysiuiachns, 
B.C. 311, after whose defeat and death, in 281, 
' it became a part of the Greco-Syrian kingdom, 
I with the exception of the southwestern portion, 
where Philetsrus founded the kingdom of Per- 
J gamus (280), to which kingdom the whole of 
Mysia was assigned, together with Lydia, Phryg- 
ia, Caria, Lycia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia, after 
I the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the Ro- 
j mans in 190. With the rest of the kingdom of 
Pergamus, Mysia fell to the Romans in 133 by 
the bequest of Attalus III., and formed part of 
the province of Asia. Under the later empire 
Mysia formed a separate proconsular provinco 



MiTSIUS. 



NABAT.EI. 



ander.the name of Hellespontus. The country 
was for the most part mountainous, its chief 
chains being those of Ida, Olympus, and Tem- 
nus, which are terminal branches of the north- 
western part of the Taurus chain, and the union 
of which forms the elevated land of southeastern 
Mysia. Their prolongations into the sea form 
several important bays and capes ; namely, 
among the former, the great Gulf of Adramyt- 
tium s now Adramytti), which cuts off Lesbos 
from the continent, and the Sinus Ela'iticus 
(now Gulf of C/iandeli) ; and, among the latter, 
Sigeum (now Cape Yenicheri) and Lectum (now 
Cape Baba), at the northwestern and southwest- 
ern extremities of the Troad, and Cane (now 
Cape Culoni) and Hydria (now Fokia), the north- 
ern and southern headlands of the Ela'itic Gulf. 
Its rivers are numerous; some of them consider- 
able, in proportion to the size of the country, and 
some of first-rate importance in history and po- 
etry : the chief of them, beginning on the east, 
were Rhyndacus andMACESTUs,TARsius,^EsE- 
pus, Granicus, Rhomus, Simois, and Scaman- 
der, Satnois, Evenus, and Caicus. The tribes 
of the country, besides the general appellations 
mentioned above, were known by the following 
distinctive names : the Olympieni or Olympeni 
('Olvinrinvoi, 'OAvfnrrjvo't), in the district of Olym- 
pene, at the foot of Mount Olympus ; next to 
them, on the south and west, and occupying the 
greater part of Mysia Proper, the Abretteni. who 
had a native divinity called by the Greeks Zevc 
'ABper-nvoc ; the Trimenthurltae, the Penta- 
demltae, and the Mysomacedones, all in the re- 
gion of Mount Temnus. 

MysIus (now Bergama), a tributary of the 
River Ca'i'cus in Mysia, or rather the upper part 
of the Caicus itself, had its source in Mount 
Temnus. 

Myson (Mvuuv), of Chenae, a village either in 
Laconia or on Mount CEta, is enumerated by 
Plato as one of the seven sages, in place of 
Periander. 

Mystia, a town in the southeast of Bruttium, 
a little above the Promontorium Cocintum. 

MfTlI.ENE Or MlTYLENE (Murt/l^T?, McTvTiijw : 

the former is the ancient form, and the one usu- 
ally found on coins and inscriptions ; the latter 
is sometimes found on inscriptions, and is the 
commoner form in MSS : MvTtXnvaloc, Mityle- 
naeus : Mylilcne or Metelin), the chief city of 
Lesbos, stood on the eastern side of the island 
opposite the coast of Lesbos, upon a promontory 
which was once an island, and both sides of 
which formed excellent harbors. Its first foun- 
dation is ascribed to Carians and Pelasgians. 
It was early colonized by the ^Eolians. Vid. 
Lesbos. Important hints respecting its politi- 
cal history are furnished by the fragments of 
the poetry of Alcaeus, whence (and from other 
sources) it seems that, after the rule and over- 
throw of a series of tyrants, the city was nearly 
ruined by the bitter hatred and conflicts of the 
factions of the nobles and the people, till Pitta- 
cus was appointed to a sort of dictatorship, and 
the nobles were expelled. Vid. Alc^eus, Pit- 
tacus. Meanwhile, the city had grown to great 
importance as a naval power, and had founded 
colonies on the coasts of Mysia and Thrace. At 
the beginning of the seventh century B.C., the 
nossession of one of these colonies, Sigeum at 



the mouth of the Hellespont, was disputed in 
war between the Mytilenaeans and Athenians, 
and assigned to the latter by the award of Peri- 
ander, tyrant of Corinth. Among the other col 
onies of Mytilene were Achilleum, Assos, An- 
tandrus, &c. Mytilene submitted to the Per- 
sians after the conquest of Ionia and JEolis, and 
furnished contingents to the expeditions of 
Cambyses against Egypt and of Darius against 
Scythia. It was active in the Ionian revolt, 
after the failure of which it again became sub- 
ject to Persia, and took part in the expedition 
of Xerxes against Greece. After the Persian 
war it formed an alliance with Athens, and re- 
mained one of the most important members of 
the Athenian confederacy, retaining its inde- 
pendence till the fourth year of the Peloponne- 
sian war, B.C. 428, when it headed a revolt of 
the greater part of Lesbos, the progress and 
suppression of which forms one of the most in- 
teresting episodes in the history of the Pelopon- 
nesian war. (Vid. the Histories of Greece.) 
This event destroyed the power of Mytilene. 
Its subsequent fortunes can not be related in 
detail here. It fell under the power of the Ro- 
mans after the Mithradatic war. Respecting 
its important position in Greek literary history, 
vid. Lesbos. 

Myttistratum. Vid. Amestratus. 

Myus (Mvovc : Mvovoios : ruins at Palatia), 
the least city of the Ionian confederacy, stood 
in Caria, on the southern side of the Maeander, 
thirty stadia from its mouth, and very near Mi- 
letus. Its original site was probably at the 
mouth of the river ; but its site gradually be- 
came an unhealthy marsh ; and by the time of 
Augustus it was so deserted by its inhabitants 
that the few who remained were reckoned as 
citizens of Miletus. 

N. 

Naarda (Naapda), a town of Babylonia, 
chiefly inhabited by Jews, and with a Jewish 
academy. 

Naarmalcha or Nahrmalcha (Naap/zuA^af, 
Nap/LtuXxac i. e., the King's Canal: 6 fiaaikeiog 
KOTa/i6(,7i paai\iK7j (Siwpvf, flumen regium: Nahr- 
al-Malk or Ne Gruel Mclek), the greatest of the 
canals connecting the Euphrates and the Tigris, 
was situated near the northern limit of Babylo- 
nia, a little south of the Median Wall, in latitude 
33° 5' about. Its formation was ascribed to a 
governor named Gobares. It was repaired upon 
the building of Seleucia at its junction with the 
Tigris by Seleucus Nicator, and again under the 
Roman emperors Trajan, Severus, and Julian. 

NabalIa. Vid. Navalia. 

Nabarzanes (Na6npfuv7?f), a Persian, conspir- 
ed along with Bessus, against Darius, the last 
king of Persia. He was pardoned by Alex- 
ander. 

Nabat/ei, NabatHjE (NaBaraloi, NaSdrat. : in 
the Old Testament, Nebaioth), an Arabian peo- 
ple, descended from the eldest son of Ishmael, 
had their original abodes in the northwestern 
part of the Arabian peninsula, east and south- 
east of the Moabites and Edomites, who dwelt 
on the east of the Dead Sea and in the mount- 
ains reaching from it to the Persian Gulf. In 
the changes effected among the tribes of these 

535 



NABIS 



N.EVIUS. 



legions by the Babylonian conquest of Judaea, 
the Nabathaeans extended west into the Sina- 
itic peninsula and the territory of the Edomites, 
while the latter took possession of the south of 
Judaea (vid. Idum^i) ; and hence the Nabathae- 
ans of Greek and Roman history occupied near- 
ly the whole of Arabia Petraea, along the north- 
eastern coast of the Red Sea, on both sides of 
the ^Elanitic Gulf, and in the Idumaean Mount- 
ains (Mountains of Seir), where they had their 
celebrated rock-hewn capital, Petra. At first 
they were a roving pastoral people ; but, as their 
position gave them the command of the trade 
between Arabia and the west, they prosecuted 
that trade with great energy, establishing reg- 
ular caravans between Leuce Come, a port of 
the Red Sea, in the northwestern part of Ara- 
bia, and the port of Rhinocolura (now El-Arish) 
on the Mediterranean, upon the frontiers of Pal- 
estine and Egypt. Sustained by this traffic, a 
powerful monarchy grew up, which resisted all 
the attacks of the Greek kings of Syria, and 
which, sometimes at least, extended its power 
as far north as Syria. Thus, in the reign of 
Caligula, even after the Nabathaeans had nom- 
inally submitted to Rome, we find even Damas- 
cus in possession of an ethnarch of " Aretas the 
king," i. e., of the Nabathaean Arabs : the usual 
names of these kings were Aretas and Obodas. 
Under Augustus the Nabathaeans are found, as 
nominal subjects of the Roman empire, assist- 
ing ^Elius Gallus in his expedition into Arabia 
Felix, through which, and through the journey 
of Athenodorus to Petra, Strabo derived import- 
ant information. Under Trajan the Nabathae- 
ans were conquered by A. Cornelius Palma, and 
Arabia Petraa became a Roman province, A.D. 
105-107. In the fourth century it was consid- 
ered a part of Palestine, and formed the diocese 
of a metropolitan, whose see was at Petra. The 
Mohammedan conquest finally overthrew the 
power of the Nabathaeans, which had been long 
declining : their country soon became a haunt 
of the wandering Arabs of the Desert, and their 
very name disappeared. 

Nabis (Ndfof), succeeded in making himself 
tyrant of Lacedaemon on the death of Machani- 
das, B.C. 207. He carried the licence of tyran- 
ny to the furthest possible extent. All persons 
possessed of property were subjected to inces- 
sant exactions, and the most cruel tortures if 
they did not succeed in satisfying his rapacity. 
One of his engines of torture resembled the 
maiden of more recent times ; it was a figure 
resembling his wife Apega, so constructed as to 
clasp the victim and pierce him to death with 
the nails with which the arms and bosom of the 
figure were studded. The money which he got 
by these means and by the plunder of the tem- 
ples enabled him to raise a large body of mer- 
cenaries, whom he selected from among the 
most abandoned and reckless villains. With 
these forces he was able to extend his sway 
over a considerable part of Peloponnesus ; but 
his further progress was checked by Flamininus, 
who, after a short campaign, compelled him to 
sue for peace (195). The tyrant, however, was 
allowed to retain the sovereignty of Sparta, and 
soon after the departure of Flamininus from 
Greece he resumed hostilities. He was oppos- 
ed by Pliilopcemen, the g'neral of the Achaean 
536 



league ; and though Nabis met at first with 
some success, he was eventually defeated by 
Philopaemen, and was soon afterward assassin- 
ated by some ^Etolians who had been sent to 
his assistance (192). 

Nabonassar (Na6ovueapoc ), king of Babylon, 
whose accession to the throne was fixed upon 
by the Babylonian astronomers as the era from 
which they began their calculations. This era 
is called the Era of Nabonassar. It commenced 
on the twenty-sixth of February, B.C. 747. 

Nabrissa or Nebrissa (now Lebrija), sur- 
named Veneria, a town of the Turdetani in His- 
pania Baetica, near the mouth of the Baetis. 

Nacolia (Na/coAfia or -la, or NaK.62.eia : now 
Sidighasi), a town of Phrygia Epictetus, on the 
western bank of the River Thymbrius, between 
Dorylaeum and CotyEeum, was the place where 
the Emperor Valens defeated his rival Proco- 
pius, A.D. 366. 

[N^ebis or Nebis (Nij6ic_, now Neyva), a river 
on the western coast of Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, between the Durius and the Minius.] 

N^enIa, i. e., a dirge or lamentation, chanted 
at funerals, was personified at Rome and wor- 
shipped as a goddess. She had a chapel outside 
the walls of the city, near the porta Viminalis. 

NiEvIus, Cn., an ancient Roman poet, of 
whose life few particulars have been recorded. 
He was probably a native of Campania, and was 
born somewhere between B.C. 274 and 264. 
He appears to have come to Rome early, and 
he produced his first play in 235. He was at- 
tached to the plebeian party ; and, with the 
licence of the old Attic comedy, he made the 
stage a vehicle for his attacks upon tl e aristo- 
cracy. He attacked Scipio and the Metelli ; but 
he was indicted by Q. Metellus and thrown into 
prison, to which circumstance Plautus alludes 
in his Miles Gloriosus (ii., 2, 56). While in 
prison he composed two plays, the Hariolus and 
Leon, in which he recanted his previous imputa- 
tions, and thereby obtained his release through 
the tribunes of the people. His repentance, 
however, did not last long, and he was soon 
compelled to expiate a new offence by exile. 
He retired to Utica ; and it was here, probably, 
that he wrote his poem on the first Punic war ; 
and here it is certain that he died, either in 204 
or 202. Naevius was both an epic and a dra- 
matic poet. Of his epic poem on the first Pu- 
nic war a few fragments are still extant. It 
was written in the old Saturnian metre ; for 
Ennius, who introduced the hexameter among 
the Romans, was not brought to Rome till after 
the banishment of Naevius. The poem appears 
to have opened with the story of ^Eneas's flight 
from Troy, his visit to Carthage and amour with 
Dido, together with other legends connected 
with the early history both of Carthage and of 
Rome. It was extensively copied both by En- 
nius and Virgil. The latter author took many 
passages from it, particularly the description 
of the storm in the first /Eneld, the speech with 
which ^Eneas consoles his companions, and the 
address of Venus to Jupiter. His dramatic 
writings comprised both tragedies and come- 
dies, most of which were taken from the Greek. 
Even in the Augustan age Naevius was still a 
favorite with the admirers of the genuine old 
school of Roman poetry, and the lines of Hor- 



N/EVIUS SERTORIUS MACRO. 



NARMALCHA 



ace (Ep., ii., 1, 53) show that his works, if not 
so much read as formerly, were still fresh in 
the memories of men. The best edition of the 
fragments of Naevius is by Klussman, 8vo, Jena, 
1843. 

Njevius Sertokius Macro. Vid. Macro. 

[Nagara (Ndyapa), a city of the district of 
Goryaea in India intra Gangem, near the con- 
fluence of the Cophen and Choaspes ; the same, 
probably, as Nysa. Vid. Nysa, No. 1.] 

Naharvali, a tribe of the Lygii in Germany, 
probably dwelt on the banks of the Vistula. In 
their country was a grove sacred to the wor- 
ship of two divinities called Alces, whom Tac- 
itus compares with Castor and Pollux. 

Nahrmalcha. Vid. Naarmalcha. 

Naiades. Vid. Nymph^e. 

Nain (Naiv : now Nain), a city of Galilee, 
south of Mount Tabor. (Luke, vii., 11.) 

Naisus, Naissus, or N^esus (Naiouc, Na'iaaoc, 
Naiaaoc : now Nissa), an important town of 
Upper Mcesia, situated on an eastern tributary 
of the Margus, and celebrated as the birth-place 
of Constantine the Great. It was enlarged and 
beautified by Constantine, was destroyed by 
Attila, but was rebuilt and fortified by Justin- 
ian. 

[Namadus (Nu/m6oc or Nap-adqc, now the Ner- 
buddah), a considerable river of India intra Gan- 
gem, rising in Mons Vindius, and emptying into 
the Sinus Barygazenus.] 

Namnet^e or Namnetes, a people on the west- 
ern coast of Gallia Lugdunensis, on the north- 
ern bank of the Liger, which separated them 
from Aquitania. Their chief town was Condi- 
vincum, afterward Namnetes (now Nantes). 

Namusa, Aufidius, a Roman jurist, one of 
the numerous pupils of Servius Sulpicius. 

NantuaTjE or Nantuates,^ people in the 
southeast of Gallia Belgica, between the Rhoda- 
nus and the Rhenus, and at the eastern extrem- 
ity of the Lacus Lemanus. 

Nap^jje. Vid. Nymph^e. 

Naparis, a northern tributary of the Danube : 
its modern name is uncertain. 

Napata (Nairara : probably ruins at El-Kab, 
at the great bend of the Nile to the southwest, 
between the fourth and fifth cataracts), the cap- 
ital of an ^Ethiopian kingdom north of that of 
Meroe, was the southernmost point reached by 
Petronius, under Augustus. Its sovereigns 
were females, bearing the title of Candace ; 
and through a minister of one of them, Chris- 
tianity was introduced into ^Ethiopia in the 
apostolic age (Acts, viii., 27). This custom of 
female government has been continued to our 
own times in the neighboring kingdom of Shen- 
dy. In the reign of Nero, Napata was only a 
small town. 

Napoca or Napuca (Napocensis or Napucen- 
sis), a Roman colony in Dacia, on the high road 
leading through the country between Patavissa 
and Optatiana. 

Nar (now Neva), a river in central Italy, rises 
in Mount Fiscellus, on the frontiers of Umbria 
and Picenum, flows in a southwesterly direction, 
forming the boundary between Umbria and the 
land of the Sabini, and after receiving the Veli- 
nus (now Velino) and Tolenus (now Turano), 
and passing by Interamna and Narnia, falls into 
the Tiber not far from Ocriculum. It was cel- 



ebrated for its sulphureous waters and white 
color (sulphurca Nar albus aqua, Virg., JEn., vii., 
517). 

Naraggara (NapHyapa : ruins at the modern 
Kassir Jebir), one of the most important inland 
cities of Numidia, between Thagura and Sicca 
Veneria, was the scene of Scipio's celebrated 
interview with Hannibal before the battle of 
Zama. 

Nareo Martius, at a later time Narbona 
(Narbonensis : now Narbonne), a town in the 
south of Gaul, and the capital of the Roman 
province of Gallia Narbonensis, was situated 
on the River Atax (now Aude), also called Nar- 
bo, and at the head of the Lake Rubresus or 
Rubrensis (also called Narbonitis), which was 
connected with the sea by a canal. By this 
means the town, which was twelve miles from 
the coast, was made a sea-port. It was a very 
ancient place, and is supposed to have been 
originally called Atax. It was made a Roman 
colony by the consul Q. Marcius or Martius, 
B.C. 118, and hence received the surname Mar- 
tius ; and it was the first colony founded by the 
Romans in Gaul. Julius Caesar also settled 
here the veterans of the tenth legion, whence it 
received the name of Colonia Decumanorum. 
It was a handsome and populous town, the res- 
idence of the Roman governor of the province, 
and a place of great commercial importance. 
The coast was celebrated for its excellent oys- 
ters. There are scarcely any vestiges of the 
ancient town, but there are still remains of the 
canal. 

Narbonensis Gallia. Vid. Gallia. 

Narcissus (NdpKiaaog). 1. A beautiful youth, 
son of the river-god Cephisus and the nymph 
Liriope of Thespiee. He was wholly inaccess- 
ible to the feeling of love ; and the nymph 
Echo, who was enamored of him, died of grief. 
Vid. Echo. One of his rejected lovers, how- 
ever, prayed to Nemesis to punish him for his 
unfeeling heart. Nemesis accordingly caused 
Narcissus to see his own image reflected in a 
fountain, and to become enamored of it. But, 
as he could not approach this object, he grad 
ually pined away, and his corpse was meta 
morphosed into the flower which bears his 
name. — 2. A freedman and secretary of the 
Emperor Claudius, over whom he possessed un- 
bounded influence. He long connived at the 
irregularities of Messalina; but, fearing that 
the empress meditated his death, he betrayed 
to Claudius her marriage with C. Silius, and 
obtained the order for her execution, A.D. 48. 
After the murder of Claudius, Narcissus was 
put to death by command of Agrippina, 54. He 
had amassed an enormous fortune, amounting, 
it is said, to 400,000,000 sesterces, a little over 
$13,500,000 of our money.— 3. A celebrated ath- 
lete, who strangled the Emperor Commodus, 
192. He was afterward exposed to the lions 
by the Emperor Severus. 

Narisci, a small but brave people in the 
south of Germany, of the Suevic race, dwelt 
west of the Marcomanni and east of the Her 
munduri, and extended from the Sudeti Montes 
on the north to the Danube on the south, thus 
inhabiting part of the Upper TalatingJ-e and the 
country of the Fichtelgebirge. 

Narmalcha. Vid. N< armaloha. 

537 



NARNIA. 



NAUPACTUS. 



A'aknia (Narniensis : now Narni), a town in 
Umbn'a, situated on a lofty hill on thi southern 
bank of the River Nar, originally called Nequi- 
•vum, was made a Roman colony B.C 299, when 
: ts name was changed into Narnia, after the 
-iver. This town was strongly fortified by na- 
ure, being accessible only on the eastern and 
western sides. On the western side it could 
only be approached by a very lofty bridge which 
Augustus built over the river. 

Naro, sometimes Nar (now Narenta), a river 
>n Dalmatia, which rises in Mount Albius, and 
falls into the Adriatic Sea. 

Narona, a Roman colony in Dalmatia, situa- 
ted on the River Naro, some miles from the sea, 
and on the road to Dyrrhachium. 

Narses, king of Persia. Vid. Sassanid^e. 

Narses (Napaije), a celebrated general and 
statesman in the reign of Justinian, was a eu- 
nuch He put an end to the Gothic dominion 
in Italy by two brilliant campaigns, A.D. 552, 
553, and annexed Italy again to the Byzantine 
empire. He was rewarded by Justinian with 
the government of the country, which he held 
for many years. He was deprived of this office 
by Justin, the successor of Justinian, where- 
upon he invited the Langobards to invade Italy. 
His invitation was eagerly accepted by their 
king Alboin ; but it is said that Narses soon 
after repented of his conduct, and died of grief 
at Rome shortly after the Langobards had cross- 
ed the Alps (568). Narses was ninety-five years 
of age at the time of his death. 

Narthacicjm (NapduKiov), a town in Thessa- 
ly, on Mount Narthacius. southwest of Phar- 
salus. 

Naryx, also Narycus or Narycium (Napuf, 
Napu/cof, 'Napviaov : Napvtcioc_, NapvKatoc : now 
Talanda or Talanti), a town of the Locri Opun- 
lii on the Euboean Sea, the reputed birth-place 
of Ajax, son of Oileus, who is hence called Na- 
rycius heros. Since Locri Epizephyrii, in the 
south of Italy, claimed to be a colony from Na- 
ryx in Greece, we find the town of Locri called 
Narycia by the poets, and the pitch of Bruttium 
also named Narycia. 

Nasamones (Nacafitivec), a powerful but sav- 
age Libyan people, who dwelt originally on the 
shores of the Great Syrtis, but were driven in- 
land by the Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and aft- 
erward by the Romans. An interesting account 
of their manners and customs is given by Herod- 
otus (iv., 172), who also tells (ii.,32) a curious 
story respecting an expedition beyond the Lib- 
yan Desert, undertaken by five Nasamonian 
youths, the result of which was certain import- 
ant information concerning the interior of Af- 
rica. Vid Nigeir. 

Nasica, Scipio. Vid. Scipio. 

Nasidienus, a wealthy (beatus) Roman, who 
gave a supper to Maecenas, which Horace rid- 
icules in the eighth satire of his second book. 
It appears from v. 58 that Rufus was the cog- 
nomen of Nasidienus. 

Nasidius, Q. or L., was sent by Pompey, in 
B.C. 49, with a fleet of sixteen ships to relieve 
Massilia when it was besieged by D. Brutus. He 
was defeated by Brutus, and fled to Africa, where 
he had the command of the Pompeian fleet. He 
served in Sicily under Sextns Pompey, whom 
he deserted in 35. He joined Antony, and com- 
538 



manded part of his fleet in the war with Octa- 
vianus, 31. 

Naso, Ovidius. Vid. Ovidius. 

[Nastes (NdoTj?f), son of Nomion, leader of 
the Carians before Troy.] 

[Nasua, one of the leaders of the Suevi in 
their irruption into Gaul about the time of Cae 
sar's arrival in that country.] 

Nasus or Nesus. Vid. GEniaDjE. 
• [Natho (Nadu), a nomos of Lower Egypt, 
probably the same as the one called Neovr by 
Ptolemy, between the Busiritic and Bubastic 
mouths of the Nile.] 

Natiso (now Natisonc), a small river in Vene- 
tia, in the north of Italy, which flows by Aqui- 
leia, and falls into the Sinus Tergestinus. 

Natta or Nacca, "a fuller," the name of an 
ancient family of the Pinaria gens. The Natta 
satirized by Horace (Sai., i., 6, 124) for his dirty 
meanness was probably a member of the noble 
Pinarian family, and therefore attacked by the 
poet for such conduct. 

[Naubolus (Nav6o?^oc), king of Tanagra, one 
of the Argonauts, father of Iphitus, who is 
hence called Nav6o?atirjc in Homer.] 

[Nauclides (NavK?^iSr/c, Dor. -eidac). 1. A 
Plataean, the leader of the faction who invited 
and opened the gates for the Thebans who seized 
upon Platasae B.C. 431.— 2. One of the two Spar- 
tan ephors sent with the king Pausanias into 
Attica, B.C. 403, at the time when the Athe- 
nians were hard pressed by Lysander ; he cor- 
dially co-operated with Pausanias for defeating 
the designs of Lysander.] 

Naucrates (NavKpuTTis), of Erythrae, a Greek 
rhetorician, and a disciple of Isocrates, is men- 
tioned among the orators who competed (B.C. 
352) for the prize offered by Artemisia for the 
best funeral oration delivered over Mausolus. 

Naucratis (NavKparic : NavicpaTiTi/c : ruins 
at the modern Sa-el-Hadjar), a city in the Delta 
of Egypt, in the Nomus of Sai's, on the eastern 
bank of the Canopic branch of the Nile, which 
was hence called also Naucraticum Ostium. 
It was a colony of the Milesians, founded prob- 
ably in the reign of Amasis, about B.C. 550, and 
remained a pure Greek city. It was the only 
place in Egypt where Greeks were permitted to 
settle and trade. After the Greek and Roman 
conquests it continued a place of great prosper- 
ity and luxury, and was celebrated for its wor- 
ship of Aphrodite. It was the birth-place of 
Athenaeus, Lyceas, Phylarchus, Polycharmus. 
and Julius Pollux. 

Naucydes (NavKvdqc), an Argive statuary, 
son of Mothon, and brother and teacher of Pol- 
ycletus II. of Argos, flourished B.C. 420. 

Naulochus (NauAo,fof), that is, a place where 
ships can anchor. 1. A naval station on the 
eastern part of the northern coast of Sicily, be- 
tween Mylae and the promontory Pelorus : [it 
was between Myla; and Naulochus that Sextus 
Pompey was defeated by the fleet of Octavia- 
nus under Agrippa.] — 2. A small island off Crete, 
near the promontory Sammonium. — 3. A naval 
station belonging to Mesembria in Thrace. 

Naumachius (Navfidxioc), a Gnomic poet, of 
uncertain age, some of whose verses are pre- 
served by Stobasus. 

Naupactus (NowTaxrof : NavnaKTtac ■ now 
Lcpanto), an ancient and strongly-fortified town 



NAUPLIA. 



NAXOSs. 



of the Locri Ozola?, near the promontory Antir- 
rhium, possessing the largest and best harbor 
on the whole of the northern coast of the Co- 
rinthian Gulf. It is said to have derived its 
name from the Heraclida? having here built the 
fleet with which they crossed over to the Pel- 
oponnesus. After the Persian wars it fell into 
the power of the Athenians, who settled here 
the Messenians who had been compelled to 
leave their country at the end of the third Mes- 
senian war, B.C. 455 ; and during the Pelopon- 
nesian war it was the head-quarters of the 
Athenians in all their operations against the 
west of Greece. At the end of the Peloponne- 
sian war the Messenians were obliged to leave 
Naupactus, which passed into the hands first of 
the Locrians and afterward of the Achseans. 
It was given by Philip, with the greater part of 
the Locrian territory, to ^Etolia, but it was again 
assigned to Locris by the Romans. 

Naupua {Navnlta : NawrrXievc : now Nau- 
plia), the port of Argos, situated on the Saronic 
Gulf, was never a place of importance in an- 
tiquity, and was in ruins in the time of Pausa- 
nias. The inhabitants had been expelled by 
the Argives as early as the second Messenian 
war on suspicion of favoring the Spartans, who, 
in consequence, settled them at Methone in 
Messenia. At the present day Nauplia is one of 
the most important cities in Greece. 1 

Nauplius (NamXioc). 1. Of Argos, son of 
Neptune (Poseidon) and Amymone, a famous 
navigator, and the founder of the town of Nau- 
plia. — 2. Son of Clytoneus, was one of the Ar- 
gonauts, and a descendant of the preceding. — 3. 
King of Eubcea, and father of Palamedes, CEax, 
and Nausimedon, by Clymene. Catreus had 
given his daughter Clymene and her sister Ae- 
rope to Nauplius to be carried to a foreign land ; 
but Nauplius married Clymene, and gave Aerope 
to Plisthenes, who became by her the father of 
Agamemnon and Menelaus. His son Palamedes 
had been condemned to death by the Greeks 
during the siege of Troy ; and as Nauplius con- 
sidered his condemnation to be an act of in- 
justice, he watched for the return of the Greeks, 
and as they approached the coast of Eubcea he 
lighted torches on the dangerous promontory of 
Caphareus. The sailors, thus misguided, suf- 
fered shipwreck, and perished in the waves or 
by the sword of Nauplius. 

Nauportus (now Ober or Upper Laibach), an 
ancient and important commercial town of the 
Taurisci, situated on the River Nauportus (now 
Laibach), a tributary of the Savus, in Pannonia 
Superior. The town fell into decay after the 
foundation of JEmona (now Laibach), which was 
only fifteen miles from it. The name of Nau- 
portus is said to huve been derived from the 
Argonauts having sailed up the Danube and the 
Savus to this place, and here built the town ; 
and it is added that they afterward carried their 
ships across the Alps to the Adriatic Sea, where 
they again embarked. This legend, like many 
others, probably owes its origin to a piece of 
bad etymology. 

Nausicaa (NavaiKaa), daughter of Alcinous, 
king of the Pheeacians, and Arete, who con- 
ducted Ulysses to the court of her father when 
he was shipwrecked on the coast. 

[Nausicles {Navmnlrjg), one of the more in- 



fluential popular leaders of Athens in the time 
of Philip, leader of an arrny sent by the Athe- 
nians to aid the Phocians ; at first on friendly 
terms with ^Eschines, but afterward battling on 
the side of the patriots, and after the disaster 
of Chseronea, stepping into the place of Demos- 
thenes.] 

NausIthous (NavoWooc), son of Neptune (Po- 
seidon) and Peribcea, the daughter of Euryme- 
don, was the father of Alcinous and Rhexenor, 
and king of the Phaeacians, whom he led from 
Hyperia in Thrinacia to the island of Scheria, 
in order to escape from the Cyclopes. 

[Naustathmus (NavaTaOfcoc). 1. A port-town 
on the eastern coast of Sicily, north of Promon- 
torium Pachynum. — 2. A port-town on the 
Pontus Euxinus, or, rather, on a salt lake join- 
ed to the sea (now Hamamli Ghieul). — 3. A 
port in Cyrenai'ca, between Erythrum and Apol- 
lonia.] 

Nautaca (NavTaica : now Naksheb or Kesh), 
a city of Sogdiana, near the Oxus, toward the 
eastern part of its course. 

Nautes. Vid. Nadtia Gens. 

Nautia Gens, an ancient patrician gens, 
claimed to be descended from Nautes, one of 
the companions of iEneas, who was said to 
have brought with him the Palladium from 
Troy, which was placed under the care of the 
Nautii at Rome. The Nautii, all of whom were 
surnamed Rulili, frequently held the highest of- 
fices of state in the early times of the republic, 
but, like many of the other ancient gentes, they 
disappear from history about the time of the 
Samnite wars. 

Nava (now Nahe), a western tributary of the 
Rhine in Gaul, which falls into the Rhine at the 
modern Bingen. 

Navalia or Nabalia, a river on the northern 
coast of Germany, mentioned by Tacitus, prob- 
ably the eastern arm of the Rhine. 

Navius, Attus, a renowned augur in the time 
of Tarquinius Priscus. This king proposed te 
double the number of the equestrian centuries, 
and to name the three new ones after himself 
and two of his friends, but was opposed by Na- 
vius because Romulus had originally arranged 
the equites under the sanction of the auspices, 
and consequently no alteration could be made 
in them without the same sanction. The tale 
then goes on to say that Tarquinius thereupon 
commanded him to divine whether what he was 
thinking of in his mind could be done, and that 
when Navius, after consulting the heavens, de- 
clared that it could, the king held out a whet- 
stone and a razor to cut it with. Navius im- 
mediately cut it. His statue was placed in the 
comitium, on the steps of the senate-house, the 
place where the miracle had been wrought, and 
beside the statue the whetstone was preserved. 
Attus Navius seems to be the best orthography, 
making Attus an old preenomen, though we fre- 
quently find the name written Attius. 

Naxos (Nafof : NdfiOf). 1. (Now Naxia), an 
island in the ^Egean Sea, and the largest of the 
Cyclades, is situated nearly half way between 
ths coasts of Greece and Asia Minor. It is 
about eighteen miles in length and twelve in 
breadth. It was very fertile in antiquity, as it 
is in the present day, producing an abundance 
of corn, wine, oil, and fruit. It was especially 

539 



NAXUANA. 



NEAPOLIS. 



celebrated for its wine, and hence plays a prom- 
inent part in the legends about Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus). Here the god is said to have found 
Ariadne after she had been deserted by The- 
seus. The marble of the island was also much 
prized, and was considered equal to the Parian. 
Naxos is frequently called Dia (Aia) by the 
poets, which was one of its ancient names. It 
was likewise called Strongyle (Zrpoyyvhri) on 
account of its round shape, and Dionysias (A o- 
vvcmc) from its connection with the worship of 
Dionysus (Bacchus). It is said to have been 
originally inhabited by Thracians and then by 
Carians, and to have derived its name from a 
Carian chief, Naxos. In the historical age it 
was inhabited by Ionians, who had emigrated 
from Athens. Naxos was conquered by Pisis- 
tratus, who established Lygdamis as tyrant of 
the island about B.C. 540. The Persians in 
501 attempted, at the suggestion of Aristagoras, 
to subdue Naxos ; and upon the failure of their 
attempt, Aristagoras, fearing punishment, in- 
duced the Ionian cities to revolt from Persia. 
In 490 the Persians, under Datis and Artapher- 
nes, conquered Naxos, and reduced the inhabit- 
ants to slavery. The Naxians recovered their 
independence after the battle of Salamis (480). 
They were the first of the allied states whom 
the Athenians reduced to subjection (471), after 
which time they are rarely mentioned in his- 
tory. The chief town of the island was also 
calledNaxos; and we also have mention of the 
small towns of Tragaea and Lestadae. — 2. A 
Greek city on the eastern coast of Sicily, south 
of Mount Taurus, was'founded B.C. 735 by the 
Chalcidians of Euboea, and was the first Greek 
colony established in the island. It grew so 
rapidly in power that in only five or six years 
after its foundation it sent colonies to Catana 
and Leontini. It was for a time subject to 
Hieronymus, tyrant of Gela ; but it soon recov- 
ered its independence, carried on a successful 
war against Messana, and was subsequently 
an ally of the Athenians against Syracuse. In 
403 the town was taken by Dionysius of Syra- 
cuse and destroyed. Nearly fifty years after- 
ward (358) the remains of the Naxians scatter- 
ed over Sicily were collected by Andromachus, 
and a new city was founded on Mount Taurus, 
to which the name of Tauromenium was given. 
Vid. Tauromenium. 

Naxuana (Naljovava : now Nakshivari), a city 
of Armenia Major, on the Araxes, near the con- 
fines of Media. 

Nazareth, Nazara (Na&pdd, or -s'r, or -a : 
Nafrpaioc, Nafcpacoc, Nazarenus, Nazareus : 
now en-Nasirah), a city of Palestine, in Galilee, 
south of Cana, on a hill in the midst of the 
range of mountains north of the plain of Es- 
draelon. 

[Nazarius, a Latin rhetorician, who taught 
eloquence at Bordeaux in the first half of the 
fourth century A.D. He was author of a pane- 
gyric on Constantine, delivered before the Cae- 
sars Crispus and Constantine, which is pub- 
lished in the Panegyriei Vetercs.~\ 

Nazianzus (Nofiavfof : Na£iavlj]v6s), a city of 
Cappadocia, on the road from Archelai's to Ty- 
ana, celebrated as the diocese of the Father of 
the Church, Gregory Nazianzen. Its site is 
doubtful. 

£-40 



~N-EjEKx(N£aipa), the name of several nymphs, 
and also of several maidens mentioned by the 
poets. 

Nejethus (Neaidoc : now Nieto), a river in 
Bruttium, in the south of Italy, falling into the 
Tarentine Gulf a little north of Croton. Here 
the captive Trojan women are said to have 
burned the ships of the Greeks. 

[Nealces, a friend of Turnus, slew Salius 
in the wars between Turnus and iEneas in 
Italy.] 

Nealces (NedA/c^f), a painter who flourished 
in the time of Aratus, B.C. 245. 

NeandrIa {Neuvdpua : NeavSpeTc, pi.), a town 
of the Troad, upon the Hellespont, probably an 
^Eolian colony. By the time of Augustus it had 
disappeared. 

Neanthes (Neavdijc), of Cyzicus, lived about 
B.C. 241, and was a disciple of the Milesian Phi- 
liscus, who himself had been a disciple of Isoc- 
rates. He was a voluminous writer, principally 
of history. 

Neapolis (NeuttoTlic : NeaTToMrnc, Neapolita- 
nus). I. In Europe. 1. (Now Napoli or Naples), 
a city in Campania in Italy, on the western 
slope of Mount Vesuvius and on the River Se- 
bethus, was founded by the Chalcidians of Cu- 
mae, on the site of an ancient place called Paii- 
thenope {Xlapdevoirrj), after the Siren of that 
name. Hence we find the town called Parthen- 
ope by Virgil and Ovid. The year of the foun- 
dation of Neapolis is not recorded. It was call 
ed the "New Ci'-y." because it was regardec 
simply as a new quarter of the neighboring citj 
of Cumae. When the town is first mentioned 
in Roman history, it consisted of two parts, di- 
vided from each other by a wall, and called re- 
spectively Palaeopolis and Neapolis. This divi- 
sion probably arose after the capture of Curnsc 
by the Samnites, when a large number of the 
Cumaeans took refuge in the city they had 
founded ; whereupon the old quarter was called 
Palaeopolis, and the new quarter, built to accom- 
modate the new inhabitants, was named Neapo- 
lis. There has been a dispute respecting the 
site of these two quarters ; but it is probable 
that Palaeopolis was situated on the western 
side, near the harbor, and Neapolis on the east- 
ern side, near the River Sebethus. In B.C. 
327 the town was taken by the Samnites, and in 
290 it passed into the hands of the Romans, 
who allowed it, however, to retain its Greek 
constitution. At a later period it became a 
municipium, and finally a Roman colony. Under 
the Romans the two quarters of the city were 
united, and the name of Palaeopolis disappeared. 
It continued to be a prosperous and flourishing 
place till the time of the empire ; and its beau- 
tiful scenery, and the luxurious life of its Greek 
population, made it a favorite residence with 
many of the Romans. In the reign of Titus 
the city was destroyed by an earthquake, but 
was rebuilt by this emperor in the Roman style. 
The modern city of Naples does not stand on 
exactly the same site as Neapolis. The ancient 
city extended further east than the modern city, 
since the former was situated on the Sebethus, 
whereas the latter does not reach so far as the 
Fiume dclla Madalena ; but the modern city, on 
the other hand, extends further north and west 
than the ancient one, since the island of Mega- 



NEARCHUS. 



NECTANABIS. 



ns, on which the Castel del Ovo now stands, 
was situated in ancient times between Pausily- 
pum and Neapolis. In the neighborhood of 
Neapolis there were warm baths, the celebrated 
villa of Lucullus, and the villa Pausilypi or Pau- 
silypum, bequeathed by Vedius Pollio to Au- 
gustus, and which has given its name to the 
celebrated grotto of Posilippo between Naples 
and Puzzuoli, at the entrance of which the tomb 
af Virgil is still shown. — 2. A part of Syracuse. 
Vid. Syracuse. — 3. (Now Napoli), a town on 
the western coast of the island -of Sardinia, 
celebrated for its warm baths. — 4. (Now Ka- 
vallo), a sea-port town in Thrace, subsequently 
Macedonia adjecta, on the Strymonic Gulf, be- 
tween the Strymon and Nessus. — II. In Asia 
and Africa. 1. (Now Scala Nuova, or near it), 
a small Ionian city on the coast of Lydia, north 
of Mycale and southwest of Ephesus. The 
Ephesians, to whom it at first belonged, ex- 
changed it with the Samians for Marathesium. 
— 2, 3. Two towns of Caria, the one near Har- 
pasa, the other on the coast, perhaps the new 
town of Myndus. — 4. (Ruins at Tutinekl), in 
Pisidia, south of Antioch ; afterward reckoned 
to Galatia. — 5. In Palestine, the Sychem or 
Sychar of Scripture (Su^e^, Su^ap, 2j/«',ua, 
Toseph. : now Nablous), one of the most ancient 
cities of Samaria, stood in the narrow valley 
between Mounts Ebal and Gerizim, and was the 
religious capital of the Samaritans, whose tem- 
ple was built upon Mount Gerizim. This tem- 
ple was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, B.C. 129. 
Its full name, under the Romans, was Flavia 
Neapolis. It was the birth-place of Justin Mar- 
tyr. — 6. A small town of Babylonia, on the 
western bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the 
opening of the King's Canal.— 7. In Egypt. Vid. 
CiENE. — 8. In Northern Africa, on the western 
coast of the Great Syrtis, by some identified 
with Leptis Magna, by others with the modern 
Tripoli. — 9. (Now Nabal), a very ancient Phoe- 
nician colony, on the eastern coast of Zeugi- 
tana, near the northern extremity of the great 
gulf which was called after it Sinus Neapoli- 
tanus (now Gulf of Hammamet). Under the Ro- 
mans it was a libera civitas, and, according to 
Ptolemy, a colony. 

Nearchus (Neapxoc ). 1. A distinguished friend 
and officer of Alexander, was a native of Crete, 
but settled at Amphipolis. He appears to have 
occupied a prominent position at the court of 
Pbilip, by whom he was banished for participat- 
ing in the intrigues of Alexander. After the 
death of Philip he was recalled, and treated 
with the utmost distinction by Alexander. He 
accompanied the king to Asia ; and in B.C. 325, 
he was intrusted by Alexander with the com- 
mand of the fleet vhich he had caused to be 
constructed on the Hydaspes. Upon reaching 
the mouth of the Indus, Alexander resolved to 
send round his ships by sea from thence to the 
Persian Gulf, and he gladly accepted the offer 
of Nearchus to undertake the command of the 
fleet during this long and perilous navigation. 
Nearchus set out on the twenty-first of Sep- 
tember, 326, and arrived at Susa in safety in 
February, 325. He was rewarded with a crown 
of gold for his distinguished services, and, at 
the same time, obtained in marriage a daughter 
of the Rhodian Mentor and of Barsine, to whom 



Alexander himself had betn previously mar 
ried. In the division of the provinces after the 
death of Alexander, he received the govern- 
ment of Lycia and Pamphylia, which he held as 
subordinate to Antigonus. In 317 he accom- 
panied Antigonus in his march against Eume- 
nes, and in 314 he is mentioned again as one 
of the generals of Antigonus. Nearchus left a 
history of the voyage, the substance of which 
has been preserved to us by Arrian, who has 
derived from it the whole of the latter part of 
his " Indica." — [2. A Pythagorean philosophei 
of Tarentum ; he adhered to the Roman cause 
in the second Punic war, notwithstanding the 
defection of his countrymen, and was on friend- 
ly terms with Cato the censor, who lived in his 
house after the recapture of Tarentum by Fa- 
bius Maximus, B.C. 209 ] 

Nebo, a mountain of Palestine, on the east- 
ern side of the Jordan, opposite to Jericho, was • 
in the southern part of the range called Abarim. 
It was on a summit of this mountain, called 
Pisgah, that Moses died. 

[Nebrissa. Vid. Nabrissa.] 

Nebrodes Montes, the principal chain of 
mountains in Sicily, running through the whole 
of the island, and a continuation of the Apen- 
nines. 

Neco or Necho (Nskuc, Ne^wf, NeKavc, Ne- 
Xauc, Nexau), son of Psammetichus, whom he 
succeeded on the throne of Egypt in B.C. 617. 
His reign was marked by considerable energy 
and enterprise. He began to dig the canal in- 
tended to connect the Nile with the Arabian 
Gi-ulf ; but he desisted from the work, according 
to Herodotus, on being warne.d by an oracle that 
he was constructing it only for the use of the 
barbarian invader. But the greatest and most 
interesting enterprise with which his name ia 
connected is the circumnavigation of Africa by 
the Phoenicians in his service, who set sail 
from the Arabian Gulf, and, accomplishing the 
voyage in somewhat more than two years, en- 
tered the Mediterranean, and returned to Egypt 
through the Straits of Gibraltar. His military 
expeditions were distinguished at first by bril- 
liant success, which was followed, however, by 
the most rapid and signal reverses. On his 
march against the Babylonians andMedes, whose 
joint forces had recently destroyed Nineveh, he 
was met at Magdolus (Megiddo) by Josiah, king 
of Judah, who was a vassal of Babylon. In the 
battle which ensued, Josiah was defeated and 
mortally wounded, and Necho advanced to the 
Euphrates, where he conquered the Babylonians, 
and took Carchemish or Circesium, where he 
appears to have established a garrison. After 
the battle at Megiddo he took the town of Cad- 
ytis, probably Jerusalem. In 606 Nebuchad- 
nezzar attacked Carchemish, defeated Necho, 
and would appear also to have invaded Egypt 
itself. In 601 Necho died, after a reign of six- 
teen years, and was succeeded by his son Psam- 
mis or Psammuthis. 

Nectanabis, Nectanebus, or Nectanebes 
(NeKTavaCcc., NsktuveSoc, NeicravtCnc). 1. King 
of Egypt, the first of the three sovereigns of the 
Sebennite dynasty, succeeded Nepherites on the 
throne about B.C. 374, and in the following year 
successfully resisted the invasion of the Persian 
force under Phamabazus and Iphicrates. He 

Ml 



NEDA. 



NEMESIS. 



died after a reign of ten years, and was suc- 
ceeded by Tachos. — 2. The nephew of Tachos, 
deprived the latter of the sovereignty in 361, 
with the assistance of Agesilaus. For some 
time he defeated all the attempts of Artaxerxes 
III. (Ochus) to recover Egypt, but he was at 
length defeated himself, and, despairing of mak- 
ing any further resistance, he fled to ^Ethiopia, 
350. Nectanabis was the third king of the Se- 
bennite dynasty, and the last native s>vereign 
who ever ruled in Egypt. 

Neda (Ne'da : now Buzi), a river in Pelopon- 
nesus, rises in Arcadia in Mount Cerausion, a 
branch of Mount Lyceeus, and falls into the 
Ionian Sea after forming the boundary between 
Arcadia and Messenia, and between Messenia 
and Elis. 

Negra or Negrana (ra Neypava : now El- 
Nokra, north of Mareb), a city of Arabia Felix, 
destroyed by iElius Gallus. 

[Neium (Nf/lov). Vid. Ithaca.] 

Neleus (Nr/Xevc). 1. Son of Tyro, the daugh- 
ter of Salmoneus. Neptune (Poseidon) once 
visited Tyro in the form of the river-god Enip- 
eus, and she became by him the mother of Pelias 
and Neleus. To conceal her shame, she exposed 
the two boys, but they were found and reared by 
some countrymen. They subsequently learned 
their parentage; and after the death of Creth- 
eus, king of Iolcos, who had married their moth- 
er, they seized the throne of Iolcos, excluding 
/Eson, the son of Cretheus and Tyro ; but Pelias 
soon afterward expelled his brother, and thus 
became sole king : thereupon Neleus went with 
Melampus and Bias to Pylos, which his uncle 
Aphareus gave to.him, and of which he thus be- 
came king. Several towns of this name claim- 
ed the honor of being the city of Neleus or of his 
son Nestor, such as Pylos in Messenia, Pylos in 
Elis, and Pylos in Triphylia ; the last of which 
is probably the one mentioned by Homer in con- 
nection with Neleus and Nestor. Neleus was 
married to Chloris, a daughter of Amphion of 
Orchomenos, according to Homer, and a Theban 
woman according to others. By her he became 
the father of Nestor, Chromius, Periclymenus, 
and Pero, though he had in all twelve sons. 
When Hercules had killed Iphitus, he went to 
Neleus to be purified ; but Neleus, who was a 
friend of Eurytus, the father oflphitus, refused 
to grant the request of Hercules. In order to 
take vengeance, Hercules afterward marched 
against Pylos, and slew all the sons of Neleus, 
with the exception of Nestor: some later writ- 
ers add that Neleus himself was also killed. 
Neleus was now attacked, and his dominions 
plundered by Augeas, king of the Epeans ; but 
the attacks of the latter were repelled by Nes- 
tor. The descendants of Neleus, the Nelldae, 
were eventually expelled from their kingdom by 
the Heraclidae, and migrated for the most part 
to Athens. — 2. The younger son of Codrus, dis- 
puted the right of his elder brother Medon to the 
crown on account of his lameness, and when the 
Delphic oracle declared in favor of Medon, he 
placed himself at the head of the colonists who 
migrated to Ionia, and himself founded Miletus. 
His son iEpytus headed the colonists who set- 
tled in Priene. Another son headed a body of 
settlers who re-enforced the inhabitants of Ia- 
eus, after they had lost a great number of their 
542 



citizens in a war with the Carians. — 3. Of Scep- 
sis, the son of Coriscus, was a disciple of Aris- 
totle and Theophrastus, the latter of whom be- 
queathed to him his library, and appointed him 
one of his executors. The history of the writ- 
ings of Aristotle, as connected with Neleus and 
his heirs, is related elsewhere (p. 102, b). 

Nelides, NeleIades, and NeleTus (Nr/Xetdr/g, ( 
Nr/'Kr/laSnc, Nr/Zr/ioc), patronymics of Neleus, by j 
which either Nestor, the son of Neleus, or An- 
tilochus, his grandson, is designated. 

Nemausus (Nemausensis : now Nismes), one 
of the most important towns of Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, was the capital of the Arecomici and a 
Roman colony. It was situated inland east of 
the Rhone, on the high road from Italy to Spain, 
and on the southern slope of Mons Cevenna. It 1 
was celebrated as the place from which the fam- 
ily of the Antonines came. Though rarely men- 
tioned by ancient writers, the Roman remains 
at Nismes, which are some of the most perfect 
north of the Alps, prove that the ancient Ne- j 
mausus was a large and flourishing city. Of 
these remains the most important are the am- 
phitheatre, the Maison Carree, a name given to a 
beautiful Corinthian temple, and the magnificent 
aqueduct, now called Pont du Gard, consisting : 
of three rows of arches, raised one above the 
other, and one hundred and eighty feet in height. 

Nemea (Ne/c^a, Ion. Neper/), a valley in Argo- 
lis, between Cleonae and Phlius, celebrated in 
mythical story as the place where Hercules slew 
the Nemean lion. Vid. p. 356, b. In this val- 
ley there was a splendid temple of Jupiter (Zeus) 
Nemeus surrounded by a sacred grove, in which 
the Nemean games were celebrated every other I 
year. Vid. Diet. ofAntiq., art. Nemea. 

NemesIanus, M. Aoreiios Olympius, a Ro- 
man poet, probably a native of Africa, flourished i 
at the court of the Emperor Carus (A.D. 283), 
carried off the prize in all the poetical contests | 
of the day, and was esteemed second to the 
youthful prince Numerianus alone, who honored 
him so far as to permit him to dispute, and to 
yield to him the palm of verse. We are told that 
Nemesianus was the author of poems upon fish- 
ing, hunting, and aquatics, all of which have per- 
ished with the exception of a fragment of the i 
Cynegetica, extending to three hundred and ! 
twenty-five hexameter lines, which, in so far as 
neatness and purity of expression are concern- 
ed, in some degree justifies the admiration of 
his contemporaries. The best edition of this 
fragment is by Stern, published along with Gra- 
tius Faliscus, Hal. Sax., 1832. 

Nemesis (Ne/ieaic), a Greek goddess, is most 
commonly described as a daughter of Night, 
though some call her a daughter of Erebus or 
of Oceanus. She is a personification of the mor- 
al reverence for law, of the natural fear of com i 
mitting a culpable action, and hence of con- 
science. In later writers, as Herodotus and 
Pindar, Nemesis measures out happiness and 
unhappiness to mortals ; and he who is blessed 
with too many or too frequent gifts of fortune, 
is visited by her with losses and sufferings, in 
order that he may become humble. This notion 
arose from a belief that the gods were envious 
of excessive human happiness. Nemesis was 
thus a check upon extravagant favors conferred 
upon man by Tycbe or Fortune ; and from this 



NEMESIUS. 



NEOPTOLEMUS. 



idea lastly arose that of her being an avenging 
and punishing fate, who, like Justice (Dike) and 
the Erinn yes, sooner or later overtakes the reck- 
less sinner. She is frequently mentioned under 
the surnames ol Adrastia (vid. Adrastia, No. 2), 
and Rhamnusia or Rhamnusis, the latter of 
which she derived from the town of Rhamnus 
in Attica, where she had a celebrated sanctua- 
ry. She was usually represented in works of 
art as a virgin divinity : in the more ancient 
works she seems to have resembled Aphrodite 
(Venus), whereas in the later ones she was more 
grave and serious. But there is an allegorical 
tradition that Zeus (Jupiter) begot by Nemesis 
at Rhamnus an egg, which Leda found, and from 
which Helena and the Dioscuri sprang, whence 
Helena herself is called Rhamnusis. 

Nemesius (Nefiecrioc), the author of a Greek 
treatise On the Nature of Man, is called bishop 
of Emesa, in Syria, and probably lived at the end 
of the fourth or beginning of the fifth century 
after Christ. His treatise is an interesting phil- 
osophical work, which has generally been highly 
praised by all who have read it. Edited by Mat- 
thaei, Hala;, 8vo, 1802. 

Nemetacum. Vid. Nemetocenna. 

Nemetes or Nemetje, a people in Gallia Bel- 
gica, on the Rhine, whose chief town was No- 
viomagus, subsequently Nemetse (now Speycr or 
Spires). 

Nemetocenna or Nemetacum (now Arras), the 
chief town of the Atrebates in Gallia Belgica, 
subsequentlyAtrebati, whence its modern name. 

Nemorensis Lacus. Vid. Aricia. 

Nemossus. Vid. Arverni. 

Neobule. Vid. Archilochus. 

NEOc^ESAREA(Neo/ca£crapeia: NeoKaiaapevc,Ne- 
oceesariensis). 1. (Now Niks ar), the capital, un- 
der the Roman empire, of Pontus Polemonia- 
cus, in Asia Minor, stood on the River Lycus, 
sixty-three Roman miles east of Amasia. It 
was a splendid city, and is famous in ecclesi- 
astical history for the council held there in A.D. 
314. — 2. (Now Kulat-en-Nejur? ruins), a fortress 
established by Justinian, on the Euphrates, in 
the district of Syria called Chalybonitis. 

Neon (Ne'wf : Neuvwc, Neavaioc), an ancient 
town in Phocis at the eastern foot of Mount Ti- 
thorea, a branch of Mount Parnassus, was eighty 
stadia from Delphi across the mountains. Neon 
was destroyed by the Persians under Xerxes, but 
was subsequently rebuilt, and named Tithorea 
(Tidopsa: Tidopevc) after the mountain on which 
it was situated. The new town, however, was 
not on exactly the same site as the ancient one. 
Tithorea was situated at the modern Velitza, and 
Neon at Palea-Fiva, between four and five miles 
north of Velitza. Tithorea was destroyed in the 
Sacred war, and wa,« again rebuilt, but remained 
an unimportant, though fortified place. 

NeontIchos (Neov relxoc, i. e., New Wall). 1. 
(Now Ainadsjik), one of the twelve cities of 2Eo- 
lis, on the coast of Mysia, in Asia Minor, stood 
on the northern side of the Hermus, on the slope 
of Mount Sardene, thirty stadia inland from La- 
rissa. One tradition makes it older than Cyme ; 
but the more probable account is that it was built 
by the jEolians of Cyme as a fortress against the 
Pelasgians of Larissa. — 2. A fort on the coast of 
Thrace, near the Chersonesus. 

Neoptolemus (NeonToPie/ioc). I. Also called 



Pyrrhus, son of Achilles and Deidarma, the 
daughter of Lycomedes ; according to some, he 
was a son of Achilles and Iphigenia, and after 
the sacrifice of his mother was carried by his 
father to the island of Scyros. The name of 
Pyrrhus is said to have been given to him by 
Lycomedes because he had fair (nvpp'oc) hair, or 
because Achilles, while disguised as a girl, had 
borne the name of Pyrrha. He was called Ne- 
optolemus, that is, young or late warrior, either 
because he had fought in early youth, or be- 
cause he had come late to Troy. From his fa- 
ther he is sometimes called Achillidcs, and from 
his grandfather or great-grandfather, P 'elides and 
JEacides. Neoptolemus was brought up in Scy- 
ros in the palace of Lycomedes, and was fetched 
from thence by Ulysses to join the Greeks in the 
war against Troy, because it had been prophe- 
sied by Helenus that Neoptolemus and Philoc- 
tetes were necessary for the capture of Troy. 
At Troy Neoptolemus showed himself worthy 
of his great father. He was one of the heroes 
concealed in the wooden horse. At the capture 
of the city he killed Priam at the sacred hearth 
of Jupiter (Zeus), and sacrificed Polyxena to the 
spirit of his father. When the Trojan captives 
were distributed among the conquerors, An- 
dromache, the widow of Hector, was given to 
Neoptolemus, and by her he became the father 
of Molossus, Pielus, Pergamus, and Amphialus. 
Respecting his return from Troy and the subse- 
quent events of his life, the traditions differ. 
It is related that Neoptolemus returned home by 
land, because he had been forewarned by Hele- 
nus of the dangers which the Greeks would have 
to encounter at sea. According to Homer, Ne- 
optolemus lived in Phthia, the kingdom of his 
father, and here he married Hermione, whom 
her father Menelaus sent to him from Sparta. 
According to others, Neoptolemus himself went 
to Sparta to receive Hermione, because he had 
heard a report that she was betrothed to Ores- 
tes. Most writers relate that he abandoned his 
native kingdom of Phthia, and settled in Epirus, 
where he became the ancestor of the Molossian 
kings. Shortly after his marriage with Hermi- 
one, Neoptolemus went to Delphi, where he was 
murdered ; but the reason of his visiting Del- 
phi, as well as the person by whom he was slain, 
are differently related. Some say he went to 
plunder the temple of Apollo, others to present 
part of the Trojan booty as an offering to the 
god, and others, again, to consult the god about 
the means of obtaining children by Hermione. 
Some relate that he was slain at the instigation 
of Orestes, who was angry at being deprived of 
Hermione, and others, by the priest of the tem- 
ple, or by Machaereus, the son ofDeetas. His 
body was buried at Delphi, and he was wor- 
shipped there as a hero. — 2. I. King of Epirus, 
was son of Alcetas I . and father of Alexander 
I., and of Olympias, the mother of Alexander 
the Great. Neoptolemus reigned in conjunc- 
tion with his brother Arymbas or Arrybas till 
his death, aboutB.C. 360.— 3. II. King of Epirus, 
son of Alexander I., and grandson of the preced- 
ing. At his father's death in 326 he was prob- 
ably a mere infant, and his pretensions to the 
throne were passed over in favor of vEacides. 
It was not till 302 that the Epirots, taking ad- 
vantage of the absence of Pyrrhus, the son of 

543 



JNEPETE. 



NEREIS. 



tflacides, rose in insurrection against him, and 
set up Neoptolemus in his stead. The latter 
reigned for the space of six years, but was 
obliged to share the throne with Pyrrhus in 296. 
He was shortly afterward assassinated by Pyr- 
rhus.— 4. A Macedonian officer of Alexander the 
Great, after whose death he obtained the gov- 
ernment of Armenia. In 321 he revolted from 
Perdiccas, and joined Craterus, but he was de- 
feated by Eumenes, and was slain in battle by 
the hands of the latter.— 5. A general of Mith- 
radates, and brother of Archelaus. — 6. An Athe- 
nian tragedian, who performed at the games at 
which Philip of Macedon was slain, 336. — 7. Of 
Paros, a Greek grammarian of uncertain date, 
wrote several works quoted by Athenaeus and 
the scholiasts. 

.Nepete, Nepe or Nepet (Nepesinus : now 
Nepi), an ancient town of Etruria, but not one 
of the twelve cities, was situated near the saltus 
Ciminius, and was regarded as one of the keys 
and gates of Etruria (claustra porlaque Etruria, 
Liv.,vi.,9). It appears as an ally of the Ro- 
mans at an early period, soon after the capture 
of Rome by the Gauls, and was subsequently 
made a Roman colony. There are still remains 
at Nepi of the walls of the ancient city. 

Nephele (N£p£?i.77), wife of Athamas, and moth- 
er of Phrixus andHelle. Hence Helie is called 
Neplieleis by Ovid. For details, vid. Athamas. 

Nephelis (NefeX'ic ), a small town and promon- 
tory on the coast of Cilicia Aspera, between 
Anemurium and Antiochia. 

Nepheris (NcQepic), a fortified town in the 
immediate neighborhood of Carthage, on a rock 
near the coast. 

Nepos, Cornelius, the contemporary and 
friend of Cicero, Atticus, and Catullus, was 
probably a native of Verona, or of some neigh- 
boring village, and died during the reign of Au- 
gustus. No other particulars with regard to 
his personal history have been transmitted to 
us. He is known to have written the following 
pieces, all of which are now lost : 1. Chronica; 
an Epitome of Universal History, probably in 
three books, to which Catullus appears to allude 
in dedicating his poems to Cornelius Nepos. 
2. Excmplorum Libri, probably a collection of 
remarkable sayings and doings. 3. De Viris 
Illustrious, perhaps the same work as the pre- 
ceding, quoted under a different title. 4. Vita 
Ciccronis. 5. Epistola ad Ciceronem. 6. De 
Historicis. There is still extant a work entitled 
Vita Excellentium Imperatorum, containing biog- 
raphies of several distinguished commanders, 
which is supposed by many critics to have been 
the production of Cornelius Nepos. In all MSS., 
however, this work is ascribed to an unknown 
iEmilius Probus, living under Theodosius at 
the end of the fourth century of the Christian 
era, with the exception, however, of the life of 
Atticus, and the fragment of a life of Cato the 
Censor, which are expressly attributed to Cor- 
nelius Nepos. These two lives may safely be 
assigned to Cornelius Nepos ; but the Latinity 
of the other biographies is such that we can not 
Buppose them to have been written by a learned 
contemporary of Cicero. At the same time, 
their s„tyle presents a striking contrast to the 
meretricious finery of the later empire ; and 
hence it may be conjectured that Probus ab - idg- 
544 



ed the work of Nepos, and that the biographies, 
as they now exist, are in reality epitomes of 
lives actually written by Nepos. The most use- 
ful editions of these lives are by Van Staveren, 
8vo, Lugd. Bat., 1773 ; by Tzschucke, 8vo, Got- 
ting., 1804 ; by Bremi, 8vo, Zurich, 1820 ; and 
by Roth, Basil., 8vo, 1841. 

Nepos, Julius, last emperor but one of the 
West, A.D. 474-475, was raised to the throne 
by Leo, the emperor of the East. Nepos easily 
deposed Glycerius, who was regarded at Con- 
stantinople as a usurper (vid. Glycerius) ; but 
he was in his turn deposed in the next year by 
Orestes, who proclaimed his son Romulus. Ne- 
pos fled into Dalmatia, where he was killed in 
480. 

Nepotianus, Flavius Popii.ius, son of Eutro- 
pia, the half-sister of Constantine the Great, 
was proclaimed emperor at Rome in A.D. 350, 
but was slain by Marcellinus, the general of the 
usurper Magnentius, after a reign of twenty- 
eight days. 

Neptunus, called Poseidon by the Greeks. 
The Greek god is spoken of in a separate arti- 
cle. Vid. Poseidon. Neptunus was the chief 
marine divinity of the Romans. As the early 
Romans were not a maritime people, the marine 
divinities are rarely mentioned, and we scarcely 
know with certainty what day in the year was 
set apart as the festival of Neptunus, though it 
seems to have been the twenty-third of July 
(X Kal. Sext.). His temple stood in the Cam- 
pus Martius, not far from the septa. At his fes- 
tival the people formed tents {umbra) of thf 
branches of trees, in which they enjoyed them- 
selves in feasting and drinking. Vid. Diet, of 
Ant., art. Neptunalia. When a Roman com- 
mander set sail with a fleet, he first offered up 
a sacrifice to Neptunus, which was thrown into 
the sea. In the Roman poets Neptunus is com 
pletely identified with the Greek Poseidon, and 
accordingly, all the attributes of the latter are 
transferred by them to the former. 

[Nequinum, earlier name of Narnia. Vid. 
Narnia.] 

Neratius Priscus, a Roman jurist, who lived 
under Trajan and Hadrian. It is said that Tra- 
jan sometimes had the design of making Ne- 
ratius his successor in place of Hadrian. He 
enjoyed a high reputation under Hadrian, and 
was one of his consiliarii. His works are cited 
in the Digest. 

Nereis or Nereis (Nnpdc, in Horn. Nnpqic), 
a daughter of Nereus and Doris, and used espe- 
cially in the plural, Nereides (N7]peidec, N^p7?£- 
tScf), to indicate the fifty daughters of Nereus 
and Doris. The Nereides were the marine 
nymphs of the Mediterranean, in contradistinc- 
tion from the Naiades, or the nymphs of fresh 
water, and the Oceanidcs, or the nymphs of the 
great ocean. Their names are not the same in 
all writers ; one of the most celebrated was 
Thetis, the mother of Achilles. They are de- 
scribed as lovely divinities, dwelling with theii 
father at the bottom of the sea, and were be- 
lieved to be propitious to all sailors, and espe- 
cially to the Argonauts. They were worshipped 
in several parts of Greece, but more especially 
in sea-pott towns. The epithets given them by 
the poets refer partly to their beauty and partly 
to their place of abode. They ar6 frequently 



NEREIS. 



NERO. 



represented in works of art, and commonly as 
youthful, beautiful, and naked maidens ; and 
thej are often grouped with Tritons and other 
marine beings. Sometimes they appear on 
gems as half maidens and half fishes. 
" [Nereis (N?pj/i'f), daughter of Pyrrhus I., 
king of Epirus, and wife of Gelon of Syracuse, 
to whom she bore Hieronymus : she was the 
last surviving descendant of the royal house of 
the ^Eacidee.] 

Nereids, a name given by the poets to a 
descendant of Nereus, such as Phocus and 
Achilles. 

Neretum or Neritum (Neretinus : now Nar- 
bo), a town of the Salentini in Calabria, in the 
south of Italy. 

Nereus (Nnpevc), son of Oceanus (Pontus) 
and Terra (Gsea), and husband of Doris, by 
whom he became the father of the fifty Nerei- 
des. He is described as the wise and unerring 
old man of the sea, at the bottom of which he 
dwelt. His empire is the Mediterranean, or 
more particularly the iEgean Sea, whence he is 
sometimes called the iEgean. He was believ- 
ed, like other marine divinities, to have the 
power of prophesying the future and of appear- 
ing to mortals in different shapes ; and in the 
&tory of Hercules he acts a prominent part, just 
as Proteus in the story of Menelaus, and Glaucus 
in that of the Argonauts. Virgil {2En., ii., 418) 
mentions the trident as his attribute, and the 
epithets given him by the poets refer to his old 
age, his kindliness, and his trustworthy knowl- 
edge of the future. In works of art, Nereus, 
like other sea-gods, is represented with pointed 
sea- weeds taking the place of hair in the eye- 
brows, the chin, and the breast. 

Nericus. Vid. Leucas. 

Nerine, equivalent to Nereis, a daughter of 
Nereus. Vid. Nereis. 

Nerio, Neriene, or Nerienis. Vid. Mars. 

Neritum, a mountain in Ithaca. Vid. Ithaca. 

Neritus, a small rocky island near Ithaca, 
erroneously supposed by some to be Ithaca it- 
self. 

[Neritus (N^ptroc), a son of Pterelaus in 
Ithaca, from whom Mount Neritum was said to 
have derived its name.] 

Nerium, also called Celticum (now Cape Fin- 
isterre), a promontory in the northwest corner 
of Spain, and in the territory of the Nerii, a 
tribe of the Celtic Artabri, whence the promon- 
tory is also called Artabrum. 

Nero, Claudius. Nero is said to have sig- 
nified "brave" in the Sabine tongue. 1. Tib., 
one of the four sons of Appius Claudius Caecus, 
censor B.C. 312, from whom all the Claudii Ne- 
rones were descended. — 2. C, a celebrated gen- 
eral in the second Panic war. He was praetor 
212, and was sent into Spain to oppose Hasdru- 
bal, who eluded his attack, and he was succeed- 
ed by Scipio Africanus. Nero was consul in 
207 with M. Livius Salinator. Nero marched 
into the south of Italy against Hannibal, whom 
he defeated. He then marched into the north 
of Italy, effected a junction with his colleague 
M. Livius in Picenum, and proceeded to crush 
Hasdrubal before his brother Hannibal could 
come to his assistance. Hasdrubal was defeat- 
ed and slain on the River Metaurus. This great 
battle, which probably saved Rome, gave a lus- 
35 



tre to the name of Nero, and consecrated it 
among the recollections of the Romans. 

Quid debeas, o Roma, Neronibus, 
Testis Metaurum fiumen et Hasdrubal 
Devictus. Horat., Carm., iv., 4- 

Nero was censor 204, with M. Livius. — 3. Tib., 
praetor 204, with Sardinia for his province ; and 
consul 202, when he obtained Africa as his rror- 
ince, but his fleet suffered so much at sea that 
he was unable to join Scipio in Africa. — 4. Tib., 
served under Pompey in the war against the 
pirates, B.C. 67. He is probably the Tiberius 
Nero who recommended that the members of 
the conspiracy of Catiline, who had been seized, 
should be kept confined till Catiline was put 
down. — 5. Tib., father of the Emperor Tiberius, 
was probably the son of the last. He served as 
quaestor under Caesar (48) in the Alexandrine 
war. He sided with L. Antonius in the war of 
Perusia (41) ; and when this town surrendered, 
he passed over to Sextus Pompey in Sicily, ani^ 
subsequently to M. Antony in Achaea. On a 
reconciliation being effected between Antony 
and Octavianus at the close of the year (40), he 
returned with his wife to Rome. Livia, who 
possessed great beauty, excited the passion of 
Octavianus, to whom she was surrendered by 
her husband, being then six months gone with 
child of her second son Drusus. Nero died 
shortly after, and left Octavianus the tutor of 
his two sons. 

Nero. 1. Roman emperor A.D. 54-68, was 
the son of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and of 
Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus Caesar, and 
sister of Caligula. Nero's original name was 
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, but after the marriage 
of his mother with her uncle, the Emperor Clau- 
dius, he was adopted by Claudius (A.D. 50), and 
was called Nero Claudius Ccesar Drusus Ger- 
manicus. Nero was born at Antium on the fif- 
teenth of December, A.D. 37. Shortly after his 
adoption by Claudius, Nero, being then sixteen 
years of age, married Octavia, the daughter of 
Claudius and Messalina (53). Among his early 
instructors was Seneca. Nero had some tal- 
ent and taste. He was fond of the arts, and 
made verses ; but he was indolent and given to 
pleasure, and had no inclination for laborious 
studies. On the death of Claudius (54), Agrip- 
pina secured the succession for her son, to the 
exclusion of Britannicus, the son of Claudius. 
His mother wished to govern in the name of 
her son, and her ambition was the cause of 
Nero's first crime. Jealousy thus arose be- 
tween Nero and his mother, which soon broke 
out into a quarrel, and Agrippina threatened to 
join Britannicus and raise him to his father's 
place ; whereupon Nero caused Britannicus to 
be poisoned, at an entertainment where Agrip- 
pina and Octavia were present (55). During 
the early part of Nero's reign, the government 
of Rome was in the hands of Seneca, and of 
Burrhus, the praefect of the praetorians, who 
opposed the ambitious designs of Agrippina. 
Meantime the young emperor indulged his licen- 
tious inclinations without restraint. He neg- 
lected his wife for the beautiful but dissokte 
Poppaea Sabina, the wife of Otho. This aban- 
doned woman aspired to become the emperor's 
wife ; but since she had no hopes of succeeding 
in her design while Agrippina lived, she used 

545 



NERO. 



NERVA, COCCEIUS. 



all her arts to arge Nero to put his mother to 
death. Accordingly, in 59, Agrippina was as- 
sassinated by Nero's order, with the approba- 
tion at least of Seneca and Burrhus, who saw 
that the time was come for the destruction 
either of the mother or the son. Though Nero 
had no longer any one to oppose him, he felt 
the punishment of his guilty conscience, and 
said that he was haunted by his mother's spec- 
tre. He attempted to drown his reflections in 
fresh riot, in which he was encouraged by a 
band of flatterers. He did not, however, imme- 
diately marry Poppaea, being probably restrain- 
ed by fear of Burrhus and Seneca. But the 
death of Burrhus in 62, and the retirement of 
Seneca from public affairs, which immediately 
followed, left Nero more at liberty. Accord- 
ingly, he divorced his wife Octavia, and in eigh- 
teen days married Poppaea. Not satisfied with 
putting away his wife, he falsely charged her 
with adultery, and banished her to the island of 
Pandataria, where she was shortly after put to 
death. In 64 the great fire at Rome happened. 
Its origin is uncertain, for it is hardly credible 
that the city was fired by Nero's order, as some 
ancient writers assert. Out of the fourteen 
regiones into which Rome was divided, three 
were totally destroyed, and in seven others 
only a few half-burned houses remained. The 
emperor set about rebuilding the city on an 
improved plan, with wider streets. He found 
money for his purposes by acts of oppression 
and violence, and even temples were robbed of 
their wealth. With these means he began to 
erect his sumptuous golden palace, on a scale 
of magnitude and splendor which almost sur- 
passes belief. The vestibule contained a colos- 
sal statue of himself one hundred and twenty 
feet high. The odium of the conflagration, 
which the emperor could not remove from him- 
self, he tried to throw on the Christians, who 
were then numerous in Rome, and many of 
them were put to a cruel death. The tyranny 
of Nero at last (65) led to the organization of a 
formidable conspiracy against him, usually call- 
ed Piso's conspiracy, from the name of one of 
the principal accomplices. The plot was dis- 
covered, and many distinguished persons were 
put to death, among whom was Piso himself, 
the poet Lucan, and the philosopher Seneca, 
though the latter appears to have taken no part 
in the plot. In the same year, Poppaea died of 
a kick which her brutal husband gave her in a 
fit of passion when she was with child. Nero 
now married Statilia Messallina. The history of 
the remainder of Nero's reign is a catalogue of 
his crimes. Virtue in any form was the object 
of his fear ; and almost every month was mark- 
ed by the execution or banishment of some dis- 
tinguished man. Among his other victims were 
Thrasea Peetus and Barea Soranus, both men of 
high rank, but of spotless integrity. In 67 Nero 
paid a visit to Greece, and took part in the con- 
tests of both the Olympic and Pythian games. 
He commenced a canal across the Isthmus of 
Corinth, but the works were afterward sus- 
pended by his own orders. While in Greece he 
sent orders to put to death his faithful general 
Domitius Corbulo, which the old soldier antici- 
pated by stabbing himself. The Roman world 
had long been tired of its oppressor ; and the 
546 



storm at length broke out in Gaul, where Julius 
Vindex, the governor, openly raised the stand- 
ard of revolt. His example was followed by 
Galba, who was governor of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis. Galba was proclaimed emperor by 
his troops, but he only assumed the title of lega- 
tus of the senate and the Roman people. Soon 
after these news reached Rome, Sabinus, who 
was praefectus praetorio along with Tigellinus, 
persuaded the troops to proclaim Galba. Nere 
was immediately deserted. He escaped from 
the palace at night with a few freedmen, and 
made his way to a house about four miles from 
Rome, which belonged to his freedman Phaon. 
Here he gave himself a mortal wound when he 
heard the trampling of the horses on which his 
pursuers were mounted. The centurion, on en- 
tering, attempted to stop the flow of blood, but 
Nero saying, " It is too late. Is this your fidel- 
ity'!" expired with a horrid stare. Nero's prog- 
ress in crime is easily traced, and the lesson is 
worth reading. Without a good education, and 
with no talent for his high station, he was placed 
in a position of danger from the first. He was 
sensual, and fond of idle display, and then he 
became greedy of money to satisfy his expens- 
es ; he was timid, and, by consequence, he be- 
came cruel when he anticipated danger ; and, 
like other murderers, his first crime, the poi- 
soning of Britannicus, made him capable of an- 
other. But, contemptible and cruel as he was, 
there are many persons who, in the same situa- 
tion, might run the same guilty career. He was 
only in his thirty-first year when he died, and 
he had held the supreme power for eighteen 
years and eight months. He was the last of 
the descendants of Julia, the sister of the dic- 
tator Caesar. The most important external 
events in the reign of Nero were the conquest 
of Armenia by Domitius Corbulo (vid. Corbulo), 
and the insurrection of the Britons under Boa- 
dicea, which was quelled by Suetonius Pauli- 
nus. Vid. Paulinus. — 2. Eldest son of Ger- 
manicus and Agrippina, fell a victim to the am- 
bition of Sejanus, who resolved to get rid of the 
sons of Germanicus in order to obtain the im- 
perial throne for himself. Drusus, the brother 
of Nero, was persuaded to second the designs 
of Sejanus, in hopes that the death of his elder 
brother would secure him the succession to the 
throne. There was no difficulty in exciting the 
jealousy of Tiberius ; and, accordingly, in A.D. 
29, Nero was declared an enemy of the state, 
was removed to the island of Pontia, and was 
there either starved to death or perished by his 
own hands. 

Nertobriga. 1. (Now Valera la Vieja), a 
town in Hispania Bastica, with the surname 
Concordia Julia, probably the same place which 
Polybius calls (xxxv., 2) Ercobrica ('Epxoljpi- 
Ka ). — 2. (Now Almuna), a town of the Celtiberi 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from 
Emerita to Caesaraugusta. 

Nerulum, a fortified place in Lucania, on the 
Via Popilia. 

[Nerusii (Nepovotoi), a people among the Al- 
pes Maritimae in Gallia Narbonensis, on the 
coast : their capital was Vintium (Ovivtiov).] 

Nerva, Cocceius. 1. M., consul B.C. 36, 
brought about the reconciliation between M. 
Antonius and Octavianus, 40, and in the samo 



NERVH. 



NESTUS. 



as the Cocceius mentioned by Horace (Sat., i., 
5 ) 28). — 2. M., probably the son of the preced- 
ing, and grandfather of the Emperor Nerva. 
He was consul A.D. 22. In 33 he resolutely 
starved himself to death, notwithstanding the 
entreaties of Tiberius, whose constant compan- 
ion he was. He was a celebrated jurist, and 
is often mentioned in the Digest. — 3. M., the 
son of the last, and probably father of the em- 
peror, was also a celebrated jurist, and is often 
cited in the Digest under the name of Nerva 
Filius. — 4. M., Roman emperor A.D. 96-98, 
was born at Narnia, in Umbria, A.D. 32. He 
was consul with Vespasian 71, and with Domi- 
tian 90. On the assassination of Domitian in 
September, 96, Nerva, who had probably been 
privy to the conspiracy, was declared emperor 
at Rome by the people and the soldiers, and his 
administration at once restored tranquillity to 
the state. He stopped proceedings against those 
who had been accused of treason (majestas), 
and allowed many exiled persons to return to 
Rome. The class of informers were suppress- 
ed by penalties, and some were put to death. 
At the commencement of his reign, Nerva 
swore that he would put no senator to death ; 
and he kept his word, even when a conspiracy 
had been formed against his life by Calpurnius 
Crassus. Though Nerva was virtuous and hu- 
mane, he did not possess much energy and vig- 
or; and his feebleness was shown by a mutiny 
of the Praetorian soldiers. The soldiers de- 
manded the punishment of the assassins of Do- 
mitian, which the emperor refused. Though 
his body was feeble, his will was strong, and 
he offered them his own neck, and declared his 
readiness to die. However, it appears that the 
soldiers effected their purpose, and Nerva was 
obliged to put Petronius Secundus and Parthe- 
nius to death, or to permit them to be massa- 
cred by the soldiers. Nerva felt his weakness, 
but he showed his noble character and his good 
sense by appointing as his successor a man who 
possessed both vigor and ability to direct pub- 
lic affairs. He adopted as his son and success- 
or, without any regard to his own kin, M. Ul- 
pius Trajanus, who was then at the head of an 
army in Germany. Nerva died suddenly on the 
twenty-seventh of January, A.D. 98, at the age 
of sixty-five years. 

Nervii, a powerful and warlike people in 
Gallia Belgica, whose territory extended from 
the River Sabis (now Sambre) to the ocean, and 
part of which was covered by the wood Ardu- 
enna. They were divided into several smaller 
tribes, the Centrones, Grudii, Levaci, Pleu- 
moxii, and Geiduni. In B.C. 58 they were de- 
feated by Cassar with such slaughter that out 
of sixty thousand men capable of bearing arms 
only five hundred were left. 

Nesactium, a town in Istria, on the River 
Arsia, taken by the Romans B.C. 177. 

[Nestea (NrjoatT], Horn.), a Nereid, a com- 
panion of the nymph Cyrene.] 

Nesis (now Nisita), a small island off the 
coast of Campania, between Puteoli and Neapo- 
lis, and opposite Mount Pausilypus. This isl- 
and was a favorite residence of some of the Ro- 
man nobles. 

[Nesos (now Neso), a small city in the north- 
ern part of Euboea.] 



Nessonis (Neo-aww'f), a lake in Thessaly, a 
little south of the River Peneus, and northeast 
of Larissa, is in summer merely a swamp, but 
in winter is not only full of water, but even 
overflows its banks. Nessonis and the neigh- 
boring Lake Boebeis were regarded by the an- 
cients as remains of the vast lake which was 
supposed to have covered the whole of Thes- 
saly till an outlet was made for its waters 
through the rocks of Tempe. 

Nessus (Nectfof), a centaur, who carried De- 
ianira across the River Evenus, but, attempting 
to run away with her, was shot by Hercules 
with a poisoned arrow, which afterward be- 
came the cause of the death of Hercules. Vid. 
p. 359, a. 

[Nessus (NcVaof). Vid. Nestus.] 

Nestor (Ncorup), king of Pylos, son of Nel- 
eus and Chloris, husband of Eurydice, and father 
of Pisidice, Polycaste, Perseus, Stratius, Are- 
tus, Echephron, Pisistratus, Antilochus, and 
Thrasymedes. Some relate that, after the 
death of Eurydice, Nestor married Anaxibia, 
the daughter of Atreus, and sister of Agamem- 
non ; but this Anaxibia is elsewhere described 
as the wife of Strophius and the mother of Py- 
lades. When Hercules invaded the country of 
Neleus and slew his sons, Nestor alone was 
spared, either beca se he was absent from Py- 
los, or because he had taken no part in carrying 
off from Hercules the oxen of Geryones. In 
his youth and early manhood Nestor was a dis- 
tinguished warrior. He defeated both the Ar- 
cadians and Eleans. He took part in the fight 
of the Lapithae against the Centaurs, and he is 
mentioned among the Calydonian hunters and 
the Argonauts. Although far advanced in age, 
he sailed with the other Greek heroes against 
Troy. Having ruled over three generations of 
men, his advice and authority were deemed 
equal to that of the immortal gods, and he was 
renowned for his wisdom, his justice, and" his 
knowledge of war. After the fall of Troy he 
returned home, and arrived safely in Pylos, 
where Jupiter (Zeus) granted to him the full 
enjoyment of old age, surrounded by intelligent 
and brave sons. Various towns in Peloponne- 
sus, of the name of Pylos, laid claim to being 
the city of Nestor. On this point, vid. p. 542, a. 

[Nestor (Neorup), an academic philosopher, 
preceptor of Marcellus, son of Octavia.] 

Nestorides (NeoTopidrie), i. e., a son of Nes- 
tor, as Antilochus and Pisistratus. 

Nestorius, a celebrated Hasresiarch, was ap- 
pointed patriarch of Constantinople A.D. 428, 
but, in consequence of his heresy, was deposed 
at the council of Ephesus, 431. His great op- 
ponent was Cyril. Nestorius was subsequent- 
ly banished to one of the oases in Egypt, and 
he died in exile probably before 450. Nestorius 
carefully distinguished between the divine and 
human nature attributed to Christ, and refused 
to give to the Virgin Mary the title of Thcoto- 
cus (QeoToKog), or " Mother of God." The opin- 
ions of Nestorius are still maintained by the 
Nestorian Christians. 

Nestus, sometimes Nessus (Neorof : now 
called Mesto by the Greeks, Karasu by the 
Turks), a river in Thrace, which rises in Mount 
Rhodope, flows southeast, and falls into the 
iEgean Sea west of Abdera and opposite the 

547 



NESUS. 



NICANOR. 



isiand of Thasos. The Nestus fonnedthe east- 
ern boundary of Macedonia from the time of 
Philip and Alexander the Great. 

Nesus. Vid. CEniad^e. 

Netum (Netinus : now Noto Antiqua, near 
Nolo), a town in Sicily, southwest of Syracuse, 
and a dependency of the latter. 

Neuri (Nevpoi, Ncvpoi), a people of Sarmatia 
Europaea, whom Herodotus describes as not 
of Scythian race, though they followed Scyth- 
ian customs. Having been driven out from 
their earlier abodes by a plague of serpents, 
they settled to the northwest of the sources of 
the Tyras (now Dniester). They were esteem- 
ed skillful in enchantment. 

Nevirnum. Vid. Noviodunum, No. 2. 

Nic^ea (Ni/cai'a : NtKCuevc, NiKaevc, Nicaeen- 
sis, Nicensis). 1. (Ruins at Iznik), one of the 
most celebrated cities of Asia, stood on the 
eastern side of the Lake Ascania (now Iznik) 
in Bithynia. Its site appears to have been oc- 
cupied in very ancient times by a town called 
Attaea, and afterward by a settlement of the 
Bottiseans, called Ancore or Helicore, which 
was destroyed by the Mysians. Not long after 
the death of Alexander the Great, Antigonus 
built on the same spot a city which he named 
after himself, Antigonea ; but Lysimachus soon 
after changed the name into Nicsea, in honor of 
his wife. Under the kings of Bithynia it was 
often the royal residence, and it long disputed 
with Nicomedia the rank of capital of Bithynia. 
The Roman emperors bestowed upon it numer- 
ous honors and benefits, which are recorded on 
its coins. Its position at the junction of sev- 
eral of the chief roads leading through Asia Mi- 
nor to Constantinople made it the centre of a 
large traffic. It is very famous in ecclesiastical 
history as the seat of the great oecumenical 
council which Constantine convoked in A.D. 
325, chiefly for the decision of the Arian con- 
troversy, and which drew up the Nicene Creed; 
that is to say, the first part of the well-known 
creed so called, the latter part of which was 
added by the Council of Constantinople in the 
year 381. The Council of Nice (as we com- 
monly call it) also settled the time of keeping 
Easter. A second council, held here in 787, 
decided in favor of the worship of images. In 
the very year of the great council, Nicasa was 
overthrown by an earthquake, but it was re- 
stored by the Emperor Valens in 368. Under 
the later emperors of the East, Nicsea long 
served as the bulwark of Constantinople against 
the Arabs and Turks : it was taken by the Sel- 
juks in 1078, and became the capital of the Sul- 
tan Soliman ; it was retaken by the First Cru- 
saders in 1097. After the taking of Constan- 
tinople by the Venetians and the Franks, and 
the foundation of the Latin empire there in 
1204, the Greek emperor, Theodorus Lascaris, 
made Nicasa the capital of a separate kingdom, 
in which his followers maintained themselves 
with various success against the Latins of Con- 
stantinople on the one side, and the Seljuks of 
Iconium on the other, and in 1261 regained 
Constantinople. At length, in 1330, Nicaea was 
finally taken by Orchan, the son of the founder 
of the Ottoman empire, Othman. Isnik, the 
modern Nicaea, is a poor village of about one 
hundred houses ; but the double walls of the 
648 



ancient city still remain almost complete, ex. 
hibiting four large and two small gates. There 
are also the remains of the two moles which 
formed the harbor on the lake, of an aqueduct, 
of the theatre, and of the gymnasium ; in this 
last edifice, we are told, there was a point from 
which all the four gates were visible, so great 
was the regularity with which the city was 
built. — 2. (Now Nilab), a city of India, on the 
borders of the Paropamisadae, on the west of 
the River Cophen. — 3. (Now probably ruins at 
Darapoor), a city of India, on the River Hydas- 
pes (now Jelum), built by Alexander to com- 
memorate his victory over Porus. — 4. A fort- 
ress of the Epicnemidian Locrians on the sea, 
near the Pass of Thermopylae, which it com- 
manded. From its important position, it is 
often mentioned in the wars of Greece with 
Macedonia and with the Romans. In the for- 
mer, its betrayal to Philip by the Thracian dy- 
nast Phalaecus led to the termination of the Sa- 
cred war, B.C. 346 ; and after various changes, 
it is found, at the time of the wars with Rome, 
in the hands of the iEtolians. — 5. In Ulyria. 
Vid. Nicia. — 6. An ancient name of Mariana in 
Corsica. — 7. (Now Nizza, Nice), a city on the 
coast of Liguria, a little east of the River Var ; 
a colony of Massilia, and subject to that city ; 
hence it was considered as belonging to Gaul, 
though it was just beyond the frontier. It first 
became important as a stronghold of the Chris- 
tian religion, which was preached there by Na- 
zarius at an early period. 

Nicander (NUavdpoc). 1. King of Sparta, 
son of Charilaus, and father of TheopompuSj 
reigned about B.C. 809-770.— 2. A Greek poet, 
grammarian, and physician, was a native of 
Claros, near Colophon in Ionia, whence he is 
frequently called a Colophonian. He succeeded 
his father as one of the hereditary priests of 
Apollo Clarius. He appears to have flourished 
about B.C. 185-135. Of the numerous works 
of Nicander only two poems are extant, on* 
entitled Theriaca (Qrjpiaml), which consists of 
nearly one thousand hexameter lines, and treats 
of venomous animals and the wounds inflicted 
by them, and another entitled Alexipharmaca 
(AAefi^dp/io/ca), which consists of more than 
six hundred hexameter lines, and treats of poi- 
sons and their antidotes. Among the ancients, 
his authority in all matters relating to toxicol- 
ogy seems to have been considered high. His 
works are frequently quoted by Pliny, Galen, 
and other ancient writers. His style is harsh 
and obscure ; and his works are now scarcely 
ever read as poems, and are only consulted by 
those who are interested in points of zoological 
and medical antiquities. The best edition is by 
Schneider, who published the Alexipharmaca in 
1792, Halae, and the Theriaca in 1816, Lips. 

Nicanor (NtKui-up). 1. Son of Parmenion, a 
distinguished officer in the service of Alexan- 
der, died during the king's advance into Bac- 
tria, B.C. 330. — 2. A Macedonian officer, who, 
in the division of the provinces after the death 
of Perdiccas (321), obtained the government of 
Cappadocia. He attached himself to the party 
of Antigonus, who made him governor of Media 
and the adjoining provinces, which he continu- 
ed to hold until 312, when he was deprived of 
I them by Seleucus. — 3. A Macedonian office! 



NICARCHUS. 



NICIAS. 



under Cassander, by whom he wa3 secretly dis- 
patched, immediately on the death of Antipater, 
319, to take the command of the Macedoni- 
an garrison at Munychia. Nicanor arrived at 
Athens before the news of Antipater's death, 
and thus readily obtained possession of the 
fortress. Soon afterward he surprised the Pi- 
raeus also, and placed both fortresses in the 
hands of Cassander on the arrival of the latter 
in Attica in 318. Nicanor was afterward dis- 
patched by Cassander with a fleet to the Hel- 
lespont, where he gained a victory over the ad- 
miral of Polysperchon. On his return to Athens 
he incurred the suspicion of Cassander, and 
was put to death. — [4. Surnamed the Elephant, 
a general under Philip V. of Macedonia, who 
invaded Attica with an army just before the 
breaking out of the war between Philip and the 
Romans, B.C. 200 : he also commanded the rear- 
guard of Philip's army at the battle of Cynos- 
cephalae, B.C. 197.— 5. Son of Patroclus, sent 
by Lysias, the regent of Syria during the ab- 
sence of Antiochus IV., to reduce the revolted 
Jews. He was completely defeated and slain 
by Judas Maccabaeus, B.C. 165.— 6. Aristotle's 
adopted son, destined by the philosopher to be 
his son-in-law. — 7. A celebrated grammarian, 
lived during the reign of Hadrian, A.D. 127. 
His labors were chiefly devoted to punctuation, 
and hence he was nicknamed Sriy^auac.] 

Nicakchus (Ni/cap^of). [1. An Arcadian offi- 
cer in the Greek army of the younger Cyrus : 
after the defeat and death of Cyrus, he aban- 
doned the Greeks, and went over to the Per- 
sians with about twenty of his men.] — 2. The 
author of thirty-eight epigrams in the Greek 
Anthology, appears to have lived at Rome near 
ihe beginning of the second century of the 
Christian era. 

NicZtor, Seleucus. Vid. Seleucus. 

Nice (Nt'/c??), called Victoria by the Romans, 
the goddess of victory, is described as a daugh- 
ter of Pallas and Styx, and as a sister of Zelus 
(zeal), Cratos (strength), and Bia (force). When 
Jupiter (Zeus) commenced fighting against the 
Titans, and called upon the gods for assistance, 
Nice and her two sisters were the first who 
came forward, and Jupiter (Zeus) was so pleas- 
ed with their readiness, that he caused them 
ever after to live with him in Olympus. Nice 
had a celebrated temple on the acropolis of 
Athens, which is still extant and in excellent 
preservation. She is often seen represented in 
ancient works of art, especially with other di- 
vinities, such as Jupiter (Zeus) and Minerva 
(Athena), and with conquering heroes whose 
horses she guides. In her appearance she re- 
sembles Minerva (Athena), but has wings, and 
tarries a palm or a wreath, and is engaged in 
raising a trophy, or in inscribing the victory of 
the conqueror on a shield. 

Nicephorium (NiK7]<t>6ptov). 1. (Now Rakkah), 
a fortified town of Mesopotamia, on the Eu- 
phrates, near the mouth of the Jtiver Bilecha 
(now el Bdikh), and due south of Edessa, built 
by order of Alexander, and probably completed 
under Seleucus. It is doubtless the same place 
as the Callinicus of Callinicum (Ka/Um/coc 
or -ov), the fortifications of which were repaired 
by Justinian. Its name was again changed to 
Leontopolis, when it was adorned with fresh 



buildings by the Emperor Leo. — 2. A fortress 
on the Propontis, belonging to the territory of 
Pergamus. 

Nicephorius (N(/c^0op(of), a river of Armenia 
Major, on which Tigranes built his residence 
Tigranocerta. It was a tributary of the Up- 
per Tigris ; probably identical with the Cen- 
trites, or a small tributary of it. 

NlCEPHORUS (NlK7j$6pO£). 1. CaLLISTUS XaN- 

thopulus, the author of the Ecclesiastical His- 
tory, was born in the latter part of the thir- 
teenth century, and died about 1450. His Ec- 
clesiastical History was originally in twenty- 
three books, of which there are eighteen ex- 
tant, extending from the birth of Christ down 
to the death of the tyrant Phocas in 610. Al- 
though Nicephorus compiled from the works 
of his predecessors, he entirely remodelled his 
materials, and his style is vastly superior to 
that of his contemporaries. Edited by Ducaeus, 
Paris, 1630, 2 vols, folio. — 2. Gregoras. Vid. 
Gregoras. — 3. Patriarcha, originally the no- 
tary or chief secretary of state to the Emperor 
Constantine V. Copronymus, subsequently re- 
tired into a convent, and was raised to the pa- 
triarchate of Constantinople in 806. He was 
deposed in 815, and died in 828. Several of 
his works have come down to us, of which the 
most important is entitled Brcviarium Histori- 
cum, a Byzantine history, extending from 602 
to 770. This is one of the best works of the 
Byzantine period. Edited by Petavius, Paris, 
1616, [and by Bekker, Bonn, 1837]. 

Nicer (now Neckar), a river in Germany fall- 
ing into the Rhine at the modern Mannheim. 

Niceratus (NiKyparoc). 1. Father of Nicias, 
the celebrated Athenian general. — 2. Son of 
Nicias, put to death by the thirty tyrants, to 
whom his great wealth was no doubt a tempta- 
tion. — 3. A Greek writer on plants, one of the 
followers of Asclepiades of Bithynia. 

Nicetas (Nj/c^rac). 1. Acominatus, also call- 
ed Choniates, because he was a native of 
Chonae, formerly Colossae, in Phrygia, one of 
the most important Byzantine historians, lived 
in the latter, half of the twelfth and the former 
half of the thirteenth centuries. He held im- 
portant public offices at Constantinople, and 
was present at the capture of the city by the 
Latins in 1204, of which he has given us a faith- 
ful description. He escaped to Nicaea, where 
he died about 1216. The history of Nicetas 
consists of ten distinct works, each of which 
contains one or more books, of which there are 
twenty-one, giving the history of the emperors 
from 1118 to 1206. The best edition is by 
Bekker, Bonn, 1835. — 2. Eugenianus, lived 
probably toward the end of the twelfth cen- 
tury, and wrote " The History of the Lives of 
Drusilla and Charicles," which is the worst of 
all the Greek romances that have come down 
to us. It was published for the first time by 
Boissonade, Paris, 1819, 2 vols. 

Nicia (now Enza ?), a tributary of the Po in 
Gallia Cisalpina. 

[Nicia, a place on the borders of Macedonia 
and Illyria, between Lychnidus and Heraclea, 
the same as Nicaea, No. 5.] 

Nicias (N(/a'af). 1. A celebrated Athenian 
general during the Peloponnesian war, was the 
son of Niceratus, from whom he inherited a 

549 



NICIAS. 



NICOCLES. 



large fortune. His property was valued at one 
hundred talents. From this cause, combined 
with his unambitious character, and his aver- 
sion to all dangerous innovations, he was natu- 
rally brought into connection with the aristo- 
cratical portion of his fellow-citizens. He was 
several times associated with Pericles as strat- 
egic, and his great prudence and high charac- 
ter gained for him considerable influence. On 
the death of Pericles he came forward more 
openly as the opponent of Cleon, and the other 
demagogues of Atliens; but, from his military 
reputation, the mildness of his character, and 
the liberal use which he made of his great 
wealth, he was looked upon with respect by all 
classes of the citizens. His timidity led him 
to buy off the attacks of the sycophants. He 
was a man of strong religious feeling, and Ar- 
istophanes ridicules him in the Eguitcs for his 
timidity and superstition. His characteristic 
caution was the distinguishing feature of his 
military career; and his military operations 
were almost always successful. He frequently 
commanded the Athenian armies during the 
earlier years of the Peloponnesian war. After 
the death of Cleon (B.C. 422) he exerted all his 
influence to bring about a peace, which was 
concluded in the following year (421). For the 
next few years Nicias used all his efforts to in- 
duce the Athenians to preserve the peace, and 
was constantly opposed by Alcibiades, who had 
now become the leader of the popular party. 
In 415 the Athenians resolved on sending their 
great expedition to Sicily, and appointed Nicias 
with Alcibiades and Lamachus to the command. 
Nicias disapproved of the expedition altogeth- 
er, and did all that he could to divert the Atheni- 
ans from this course. But his representations 
produced no effect, and he set sail for Sicily 
with his colleagues. Alcibiades was soon aft- 
erward recalled (vid. Alcibiades), and the sole 
command was thus virtually left in the hands 
of Nicias. His early operations were attended 
with success. He defeated the Syracusans in 
the autumn, and employed the winter in se- 
curing the co-operation of several of the Greek 
cities, and of the Siculian tribes in the island. 
In the spring of next year he renewed his at- 
tacks upon Syracuse ; he succeeded in seizing 
on Epipolse, and commenced the circumvalla- 
tion of Syracuse. About this time Lamachus 
was slain in a skirmish under the walls. All 
the attempts of the Syracusans to stop the cir- 
cumvallation failed. The works were nearly 
completed, and the doom of Syracuse seemed 
sealed, when Gylippus, the Spartan, arrived in 
Sicily. Vid. Gylippus. The tide of success 
now turned, and Nicias found himself obliged 
to send to Athens for re-enforcements, and re- 
quested, at the same time, that another com- 
mander might be sent to supply his place, as 
his feeble health rendered him unequal to the 
discharge of his duties. The Athenians voted 
re-enforcements, which were placed under the 
command of Demosthenes and Eurymedon ; but 
they would not allow Nicias to resign his com- 
mand. Demosthenes, upon his arrival in Sicily 
(413), made a vigorous effort to recover Epipo- 
lae, which the Athenians had lost. He was 
nearly successful, but was finally driven back 
with severe loss. Demosthenes now deemed 
550 



| any further attempts against the city hopeless, 
and therefore proposed to abandon the siege 
and return to Athens. To this Nicias would 
not consent. He professed to stand in dread, 
of the Athenians at home ; but he appears to 
have had reasons for believing that a party 
among the Syracusans themselves were likely, 
in no long time, to facilitate the reduction of 
the city. But meantime fresh succors arrived 
for the Syracusans ; sickness was making rav- 
ages among the Athenian troops, and at length 
Nicias himself saw the necessity of retreating. 
Secret orders were given that every thing 
should be in readiness for departure, when an 
eclipse of the moon happened. The credulous 
superstition of Nicias led to the total destruc- 
tion of the Athenian armament. The sooth- 
sayers interpreted the event as an injunction 
from the gods that they should not retreat be- 
fore the next full moon, and Nicias resolutely 
determined to abide by their decision. The 
Syracusans resolved to bring the enemy to an 
engagement, and, in a decisive naval battle, 
defeated the Athenians. They were now mas- 
ters of the harbor, and the Athenians were re- 
duced to the necessity of making a desperate 
effort to escape. The Athenians were again 
decisively defeated ; and having thus lost their 
fleet, they were obliged to retreat by land. 
They were pursued by the enemy, and were 
finally compelled to surrender. Both Nicias 
and Demosthenes were put to death by the 
Syracusans.— 2. The physician of Pyrrhus, king 
of Epirus, who offered to the Roman consul to 
poison the king for a certain reward. Fabricias 
not only rejected his base offer with indigna- 
tion, but immediately sent him back to Pyrrhus 
with notice of his treachery. He is sometimes, 
but erroneously, called Cineas. — 3. A Coan 
grammarian, who lived at Rome in the time 
of Cicero, with whom he was intimate. — 4. A 
celebrated Athenian painter, flourished about 
B.C. 320. He was the most distinguished dis- 
ciple of Euphranor. His works seem to ha\ r 6 
been all painted in encaustic. One of his great- 
est paintings was a representation of the infer- 
nal regions as described by Homer. He refus- 
ed to sell this picture to Ptolemy, although the 
price offered for it was sixty talents. 

[Nicippe (N//a'jr7n7). 1. A daughter of Pelops, 
and the wife of Sthenelus. — 2. A daughter of 
Thespius, the mother of Antimachus by Her- 
cules.] 

[Nicippus (NtKLTnTog). 1. A native of Cos, 
who finally made himself tyrant of the island. — 
2. One of the ephors of the Messenians in B.C. 
220.] 

Nicoohares (NiKoxupTjc), an Athenian poet 
of the Old Comedy, the son of Philonides, was 
contemporary with Aristophanes. [The frag- 
ments of his comedies are collected in Meineke's 
Fragm. Comitf. Grmc, vol. i., p. 465-468, edit, 
minor.] 

Nicocles (^iKOK^rjc). 1. King of Salamis in 
Cyprus, son of Evagoras, whom he succeeded 
B.C. 374. Isocrates addressed him a long pan 
egyric upon his father's virtues, for which Nic- 
ocles rewarded the orator with the magnificent 
present of twenty talents. Scarcely any par- 
ticulars are known of the reign of Nicocles. 
He is said to have perished by a violent death. 



NICOCRATES. 



NICOMEDES. 



but neither the period nor circumstances of this 
event are recorded. — 2. Prince or ruler of Pa- 
phos, in Cyprus, during the period which fol- 
lowed tbe death of Alexander. He was at first 
one of those who took part with Ptolemy against 
Antigonus ; but, having subsequently entered 
into secret negotiations with Antigonus, he was 
compelled by Ptolemy to put an end to his own 
life, B.C. 310.— 3. Tyrant of Sicyon, was de- 
posed by Aratus, after a reign of only four 
months, B.C. 251. — [4. Of Soli, an officer in the 
army of Alexander the Great. — 5. An Athenian, 
put to death with his friend Phocion, B.C. 318. 
As he had always been a warm friend to him, 
he begged of Phocion, as a last favor, to be al- 
lowed 10 drink the poison before his illustrious 
friend, a request which Phocion unwillingly 
conceded.] 

[Nicocrates (NiKOKparTjc). 1. A native of 
Cyprus, collected an extensive library at a very 
early period. — 2. Archon of Athens, B.C. 333.] 

Nicocreon (NiKOKpiav), king of Salamis, in 
Cyprus, at the time of Alexander's expedition 
into Asia. After the death of Alexander he 
took part with Ptolemy against Antigonus, and 
was intrusted by Ptolemy with the chief com- 
mand aver the whole island. Nicocreon is said 
to have ordered the philosopher Anaxarchus to 
be pounded to death in a stone mortar, in re- 
venge for an insult which the latter had offered 
the king when he visited Alexander at Tyre. 

Nic-olaos Chalcocondyles. Vid. Chalco- 

CONDYLES. 

Nicolaus Damascenus, a Greek historian, and 
an intimate friend both of Herod the Great and 
of Augustus. He was, as his name indicates, a 
native of Damascus, and a son of Antipater and 
Stratonice. He received an excellent educa- 
tion, and he carried on his philosophical studies 
in common with Herod, at whose court he re- 
sided. In B.C. 13 he accompanied Herod on a 
visit to Augustus at Rome, on which occasion 
Augustus made Nicolaus a present of the finest 
fruit of the palm-tree, which the emperor called 
Nicolai — a name by which it continued to be 
known down to the Middle Ages. Nicolaus rose 
so high in the favor of Augustus that he was 
on more than one occasion of great service to 
Herod, when the emperor was incensed against 
the latter. Nicolaus wrote a large number of 
works, of which the most important were, 1. A 
life of himself, of which a considerable portion 
is still extant. 2. A universal history, which 
consisted of one hundred and forty-four books, 
of which we have only a few fragments. 3. A life 
of Augustus, from which we have some extracts 
made by command of ConslantinePorphyrogen- 
itus. He also wrote commentaries on Aris- 
totle, and other philosophical works, and was 
the author of several tragedies and comedies : 
Stobaeus has preserved a fragment of one of his 
comedies, extending to forty-four lines. The 
best edition of his fragments is by Orelli, Lips., 
1804. 

Nicomachus C^LKojxaxo^). 1. Father of Aris- 
totle. Vid. p. 100, a.— 2. Son of Aristotle by the 
slave Herpyllis. He was himself a philosopher, 
and wrote some philosophical works. A portion 
of Aristotle's writings bears the name of Nico- 
machean Ethics, but why we can not tell ; wheth- 
er the father so named them, as a memorial of 



his affection for his young son, or whether they 
derived their title from being afterward edited 
and commented on by Nicomachus. — 3. Called 
Gerasenvs, from his native place, Gerasa in 
Arabia, was a Pythagorean, and the writer of a 
life of Pythagoras, now lost. His date is infer- 
red from his mention of Thrasyllus, who lived 
under Tiberius. He wrote on arithmetic and 
music ; and two of his works on these subjects 
are still extant. The work on arithmetic was 
printed by Wechel, Paris, 1538 ; also, after the 
Theologumena Arithmetics., attributed to Iambli- 
chus, Lips., 1817. The work on music was 
printed by Meursius, in his collection, Lugd. Bat., 
1616, and in the collection of Meibomius, Amst, 
1652. — 4. Of Thebes, a celebrated painter, was 
the elder brother and teacher of the great painter 
Aristides. He flourished B.C. 360, and onward 
He was an elder contemporary of Apelles and 
Protogenes. He is frequently mentioned by the 
ancient writers in terms of the highest praise. 
Cicero says that in his works, as well as in 
those ofEchion, Protogenes, and Apelles, every 
thing was already perfect. (Brutus, 18.) 

Nicomedes (NtKoft^dijc). 1. 1. King of Bithyn- 
ia, was the eldest son of Zipcetes, whom he 
succeeded, B.C. 278. With the assistance of 
the Gauls, whom he invited into Asia, he de- 
feated and put to death his brother Zipcetes, who 
had for some time held the independent sover- 
eignty of a considerable part of Bithynia. The 
rest of his reign appears to have been undis- 
turbed, and under his sway Bithynia rose to a 
high degree of power and prosperity. He found- 
ed the city of Nicomedia, which he made the 
capital of his kingdom. The length ofhis reign 
is uncertain, but he probably died about 250. 
He was succeeded by his son Zielas. — 2. II. 
Surnamed Epiphanes, king of Bithynia, reigned 
B.C. 149-91. He was the son and successor of 
Prusias II., and fourth in descent from the pre- 
ceding. He was brought up at Rome, where ho 
succeeded in gaining the favor of the senate. 
Prusias, in consequence, became jealous of his 
son, and sent secret instructions for his assas- 
sination. The plot was revealed to Nicomedes, 
who thereupon returned to Asia, and declared 
open war against his father. Prusias was de- 
serted by his subjects, and was put to death by 
order ofhis son, 149. Of the long and tranquil 
reign of Nicomedes, few events have been trans- 
mitted to us. He courted the friendship of the 
Romans, whom he assisted in the war against 
Aristonicus, 131. He subsequently obtained 
possession of Paphlagonia, and attempted to 
gain Cappadocia, by marrying Laodice, the wid- 
ow of Ariarathes VI. He was, however, ex- 
pelled from Cappadocia by Mithradates ; and he 
was also compelled by the Romans to abandon 
Paphlagonia, when they deprived Mithradates 
of Cappadocia. — 3. III. Surnamed Philopator, 
king of Bithynia (91-74), son and successor of 
Nicomedes II. Immediately after his accession 
he was expelled by Mithradates, who set up 
against him his brother Socrates ; but he was 
restored by the Romans in the following year 
(90). At the instigation of the Romans, Nico- 
medes now proceeded to attack the dominions 
of Mithradates, who expelled him a second time 
from his kingdom (88). This was the immedi- 
ate occasion of the first Mithradatic war; at the 

551 



NICOMEDIA. 



NIGIER. 



conclusion of which (84) Nicomades was again 
reinstated in his kingdom. He reigned nearly 
ten years after this second restoration. He died 
at the beginning of 74, and having no children, 
by his will bequeathed his kingdom to the Ro- 
man people. 

Nicomedia (NiKoiMfi&eia : NiKOfirjdtvc, fem. Ni- 
nofj.f/6iaaa : now ruins at Izmid or Iznikmid), a 
celebrated city of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, built 
by King Nicomedes I. (B.C. 264), at the north- 
eastern corner of the Sinus Astacenus (now 
Gulf of Izmid : compare Astacus). It was the 
chief residence of the kings of Bithynia, and it 
soon became one of the most splendid cities of 
the then known world. Under the Romans it 
was a colony, and a favorite residence of sev- 
eral of the later emperors, especially of Diocle- 
tian and Constantine the Great. Though re- 
peatedly injured by earthquakes, it was always 
restored by the munificence of the emperors. 
Like its neighbor and rival, Nic^a, it occupies 
an important place in the wars against the 
Turks ; but it is still more memorable in his- 
tory as the scene of Hannibal's death. It was 
the birth-place of the historian Arrian. 

[Nicon (Ni'/cwv). 1. A Tarentine, who be- 
trayed his native city to Hannibal during the 
second Punic war, B.C. 212. The Romans hav- 
ing subsequently taken Tarentum by surprise, 
Nicon fell bravely fighting in defence of the 
city. — 2. A leader of the Cilician pirates, who 
was taken prisoner by P. Servilius Isauricus. — 
3. A comic poet, probably of the new comedy : 
a fragment of one of his comedies is given by 
Meineke, Fragm. Comic. Grmc, vol. ii., p. 1176, 
edit, minor. — 4. An architect and geometri- 
cian of Pergamus in Mysia, the father of the 
physician Galen : he was a learned and accom- 
plished man, and superintended in person the 
education of his distinguished son.] 

Niconia or Niconium, a town in Scythia, on 
the right bank of the Tyras (now Dniester). 

Nicophon and NIcophron (Niko^uv, Nt/cd- 
(ppov), an Athenian comic poet, son of Theron, 
and a contemporary of Aristophanes at the close 
of his career. [The fragments of his comedies 
are collected by Meineke, Fragm. Comic. Graze, 
vol. i., p. 468-472, edit, minor.] 

Nicop5lis (NlkottoThc : N;/co7roAi'n?f, Nicopo- 
litanus). 1. (Ruins at Palcoprcvyza), a city at 
the southwestern extremity of Epirus, on the 
point of land which forms the northern side of 
the entrance to the Gulf of Ambracia, opposite 
to Actium. It was built by Augustus in memory 
of the battle of Actium, and was peopled from 
Ambracia, Anactorium, and other neighboring 
cities, and also with settlers from iEtolia. Au- 
gustus also built a temple of Apollo on a neigh- 
boring hill, and founded games in honor of the 
god, which were held every fifth year. The 
city was received into the Amphictyonic league 
in place of the Dolopes. It is spoken of both as 
a libera civitas and as a colony. It had a con- 
siderable commerce and extensive fisheries. It 
was made the capital of Epirus by Constantine, 
and its buildings were restored both by Julian 
and by Justinian. — 2. (Now Nicopoli), a city of 
Moesia Inferior, on the Danube, built by Trajan 
in memory of a victory over the Dacians, and 
celebrated as the scene of the great defeat of the 
Hungarians and Franks by the Sultan Bajazet, 
552 



on the 28th of September, 1396 —3 (Now En* . 
derez, or Devrigni ?), a city of Armenia Minor, 
on or near the Lycus, and not far from the 
sources of the Halys, founded by Pompey on the 
spot where he gained his first victory over Mith- 
radates : a flourishing place in the time of Au- 
gustus : restored by Justinian. — 4. A city in the 
northeastern corner of Cilicia, near the junction 
of the Taurus and Amanus. — [5. Or Emmaus, 
a city of Palestine. Vid. Emmaus.] — 6. (Now 
Kars, Kiassera, or Casar's Caslle, ruins), a city 
of Lower Egypt, about two or three miles east 
of Alexandrea, on the canal between Alexan- 
drea and Canopus, was built by Augustus in 
memory of his last victory over Antonius. 
Here also, as at Nicopolis opposite to Actium, 
Augustus founded a temple of Apollo, with 
games every fifth year. Not being mentioned 
after the time of the first Csesars, it would seem 
to have become a mere suburb of Alexandrea. 

[Nicostkate (NiKoorpdrri). Vid. Camen^e.] 

[Nicostratus (NtKoarpaToc). 1. An Athenian 
general, son of Diitrephes, was a colleague of 
Nicias at the capture of Cythera ; fell in battle 
against Agis near Mantinea. — 2. An Argive, 
possessed extraordinary strength of body, and 
was distinguished also for prudence in council ; 
was sent by the Argives with a body of three 
thousand men to aid the Persian king Darius 
Ochus against Egypt.] 

Nicostratus (NiKoarparoc). 1. The youngest 
of the three sons of Aristophanes, was himself 
a comic poet. His plays belonged both to the 
middle and the new comedy. [The fragments 
of his comedies are collected by Meineke, Fragm. 
Comic. Grcec, vol. i., p. 632-640, edit, minor. — 
2. A tragic actor, flourished before B.C. 420.] 

[Nicotera, a city of Bruttium, on a mountain 
not far from the sea, on the road leading from 
Capua to the Fretum Siculum, between Vibo and 
Malliae.] 

Nigeir, Nigir, or Nigris (Niyetp, Ntyip, a 
compounded form of the word Gcir or Gir, which 
seems to be a native African term for a river in 
general), changed, by a confusion which was the 
more easily made on account of the color of the 
people of the region, into the Latin word Niger, 
a great river of .Ethiopia Interior, which mod- 
ern usage has identified with the river called 
Joli-ba (i. e., Great River) and Quorra (or, rather, 
Kowara), in Western Africa. As early as the 
time of Herodotus, we find an authentic state- 
ment concerning a river of the interior of Libya, 
which is evidently identical both with the Nigeir 
of most of the ancient geographers, and with 
the Quorra. He tells us (ii., 32) that five young 
men of the Nasamones, a Libyan people on the 
Great Syrtis, on the northern coast of Africa, 
started to explore the desert parts of Libya ; 
that, after crossing the inhabited part, and the 
region of the wild beasts, they journeyed many 
days through the Desert toward the west, till 
they came to a plain where fruit-trees grew; 
and as they ate the fruit, they were seized by 
some little black men, whose language they 
could not understand, who led them through 
areat marshes to a city, inhabited by the same 
sort of littleblack men, who were all enchanters; 
and a great river flowed by the city from west 
to east, and in it there were crocodiles. He- 
rodotus, like his informants, inferred fiom the 



NIGER, C. PESCENNIUS. 



NILUS. 



course of the river, and from the crocodiles in I 
it, that it was the Nile ; but it can hardly be 
any river but the Quorra ; and that the city was | 
Tirnbuctoo is far more probable than not. The 
opinion that the Niger was a western branch 
of the Nile prevailed very generally in ancient 
times, but by no means universally. Pliny gives 
the same account in a very confused manner, 
and makes the Nigris (as he calls it) the bound- 
ary between Northern Africa and ^Ethiopia. 
Ptolemy, however, who evidently had new 
sources of information respecting the interior of 
Africa, makes the Nigeir rise not far from its 
real source (allowing for the imperfect observa- 
tions on which his numerical latitudes and longi- 
tudes are founded), and follow a direction not 
very different from what that of the Joli-ba and 
Quorra would be, if we suppose that the Zirmi, 
Koji, and Yeo form an unbroken communication 
between the Quorra and the hake'Tchad. But 
Ptolemy adds, what the most recent discoveries 
render a very remarkable statement, that a 
branch of the Nigeir communicates with the 
Lake Libya (At6vij), which he places in 16° 30' 
north latitude, and 35° east longitude {i. e., from 
the Fortunate Islands == 17° from Greenwich). 
This is almost exactly the position ofLake Tchad; 
and, if the Tchadda really flows out of this lake, 
it will represent the branch of the Nigeir spoken 
of by Ptolemy, whose informants, however, seem 
to have inverted the direction of its stream. It 
is further remarkable that Ptolemy places on the 
Nigeir a city named Thamondocana in the exact 
position of Tirnbuctoo, and that the length of the 
river, computed from his position, agrees very 
nearly with its real length. The error of con- 
necting the Niger and the Nile revived after 
the time of Ptolemy, and has only been ex- 
ploded by very recent discoveries. 

Niger, C. Pescennicjs, was governor of Syria 
during the latter part of the reign of Commodus, 
on whose death he was saluted emperor by the 
legions in the East, A. D. 193 ; but in the follow- 
ing year he was defeated and put to death by 
Septimius Severus. Many anecdotes have been 
preserved of the firmness with which Niger 
enforced the most rigid discipline among his 
troops ; but he preserved his popularity by the 
impartiality which he displayed, and by the ex- 
ample of frugality, temperance, and hardy en- 
durance of toil which he exhibited in his own 
person. 

Niqira (Nlyeipa, Ptol. : now Jenneh ?), a city 
on the northern side of the River Nigeir, and the 
capital of the Nigritje. 

NiqriTjE or-ETES (NiyplTai, NiypcraL PuBionec, 
NiypTjTec), the northernmost of the ^Ethiopian 
(i. e., Negro) communities of Central Africa, 
dwelt about the Nigeir, in the great plain of 
Soudan. 

Nigritis Lacus (Niypiric Mfivn], a lake in the 
interior of Africa, out of which Ptolemy repre- 
sents the River Nigeir as flowing. He places it 
about at the true source of the Nigeir (i. e., the 
Joli-ba) ; but it is not yet discovered whether 
the river has its source in a lake. Some mod- 
ern geographers identify it with the Lake Debo, 
southwest of Tirnbuctoo. 

Nilupolis or Nilus (Neilov troTuc, NelXoc), a 
city of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, in the 
Nomos Heracleopolites, was built on an island 



in the Nile, twenty geographical miles northeast 
of Heracleopolis. There was a temple here in 
which, as throughout Egypt, the River Nile was 
worshipped as a god. 

Nilus (d NetAof, derived probably from a word 
which still exists in the old dialects of India, 
Nilas, i. e., black, and sometimes called MeXac 
by the Greeks : Nelloc occurs first in Hesiod ; 
Homer calls the river Myvirroc: now Nile, 
Arab. Bahr-Nil, or simply Bahr, i. e., the River : 
the modern names of its upper course, in Nubia 
and Abyssinia, are various). This river, one 
of the most important in the world, flows through 
a channel which forms a sort of cleft extending 
north and south through the high rocky and 
sandy land of Northeastern Africa. Its west- 
ern or main branch has not yet been traced to 
its source, but it has been followed up to a point 
in 4° 42' north latitude, and 30° 58' east longi- 
tude, where it is a rapid mountain stream, run- 
ning at the rate of six knots an hour over a 
rocky bed, free from alluvial soil. After a course 
in the general direction of north-northeast as 
far as a place called Khartum, in 15° 34/ north 
latitude, and 32° 30' east longitude, this river, 
which is called the Bahr-el-Abiad, i. e., White 
River, receives another large river, the Bahr- 
el-Azrek, i. e., Blue River, the sources of which 
are in the highlands of Abyssinia, about 11° 
north latitude, and 37° east longitude : this is 
the middle branch of the Nile system, the As- 
tapus of the ancients. The third, or eastern 
branch, called Tacazze, the Astaboras of the 
ancients, rises also in the highlands of Abys- 
sinia, in about 11° 40' north latitude, and 39° 
40' east longitude, and joins the Nile (i. e., the 
main stream formed by the union of the Abiad 
and the Azrek), in 17° 45' north latitude, and 
about 34° 5' east longitude : the point of junc- 
tion was the apex of the island of Meroe. Here 
the united river is about two miles broad. 
Hence it flows through Nubia, in a magnificent 
rocky valley, falling over six cataracts, the 
northernmost of which, called the First cataract 
(i. e., to a person going up the river), is and has 
always been the southern boundary of Egypt. 
Of its course from this point to its junction 
with the Mediterranean, a sufficient general de- 
scription has been given under ^Egyptus (p. 
17, a.). The branches into which it parted at the 
southern point of the Delta were, in ancient 
times, three in number, and these again parted 
into seven, of which, Herodotus tells us, five 
were natural and two artificial. These seven 
mouths were nearly all named from cities which 
stood upon them : they were called, proceeding 
from east to west, the Pelusiac, the Tanitic or 
Sai'tic, the Mendesian, the Phatnitic, or Path- 
metic, or Bucolic, the Sebennytic, the Bolbitic or 
Bolbitine, and the Canobic or Canopic. Through 
the alterations caused by the alluvial deposits 
of the river, they have now all shifted their po- 
sitions, or dwindled into little channels, except 
two, and these are much diminished ; namely, 
the Damiat mouth on the east, and the Rosetta 
mouth on the west. Of the canals connected 
with the Nile in the Delta, the most celebrated 
were the Canobic, which connected the Canobic 
mouth with the Lake Mareotis and with Alex- 
andra, and that of Ptolemy afterward called 
that of Trajan), which connected the Nile at the 

553 



NILUS. 



NINJS. 



beginning of the Delta with the Bay of Hero- 
opolis at the head of the Red Sea : the forma- 
tion of the latter is ascribed to KingNecho, and 
its repair and improvement successively to Da- 
rius the son of Hystaspes, Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, and Trajan. That the Delta, and, indeed, 
the whole alluvial soil of Egypt has been creat- 
ed by the Nile, can not be doubted ; but the 
present small rate of deposit proves that the 
formation must have been made long before the 
historical period. The periodical rise of the 
river has been spoken of under ^Bgyptus. It 
is caused by the tropical rains on the highlands 
in which it rises. The best ancient accounts, 
preserved by Ptolemy, place its source in a 
range of mountains in Central Africa, called 
the Mountains of the Moon ; and the most re- 
cent information points to a range of mount- 
ains a little north of the equator, called Jebel- 
el-Kumri, or the Blue Mountain, as containing 
the probable sources of the Bahr Abiad. The 
ancient Egyptians deified the Nile, and took the 
utmost care to preserve its water from pollu- 
tion. 

[Nilus (Net/lof), the god of the River Nile 
in Egypt, said to have been a son of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and father of Memphis and Chione. 
Pindar calls him a son of Saturn (Cronus).] 

Ninus, the reputed founder of the city of 
Ninus or Nineveh. An account of his exploits 
is given under Semiramis, his wife, whose name 
was more celebrated. Vid. Semiramis. 

Ninus, Ninive (Nivoc , less correctly Nivof : 
in the Old Testament, Nineveh, LXX, Nivevti, 
Ntvfut : NiViof, Ninivitas, pi.), the capital of the 
great Assyrian monarchy, and one of the most 
ancient cities in the world, stood on the east- 
ern side of the Tigris, at the upper part of its 
course, in the district of Aturia. The accounts 
of its foundation and history are as various as 
those respecting the Assyrian monarchy in gen- 
eral. Vid. Assyria. The Greek and Roman 
writers ascribe its foundation to Ninus ; but in 
the book of Genesis (x., 11) we are told, imme- 
diately after the 'mention of the kingdom of 
Nimrod and his foundation of Babel and other 
cities in Shinar (i. e., Babylon), that " out of 
that land went forth Asshur" (or otherwise, 
" he — i. e., Nimrod — went forth into Assyria"), 
" and builded Nineveh." There is no further 
mention of Nineveh in Scripture till the reign 
of Jeroboam II., about B.C. 825, when the proph- 
et Jonah was commissioned to preach repent- 
ance to its inhabitants. It is then described as 
" an exceeding great city, of three days' jour- 
ney," and as containing " more than one hund- 
red and twenty thousand persons that can not 
discern between their right hand and their left 
hand," which, if this phrase refers to children, 
would represent a population of six hundred 
thousand souls. The other passages, in which 
the Hebrew prophets denounce ruin against it, 
bear witness to its size, wealth, and luxury, and 
the latest of them (Zcph., ii., 13) is dated only 
a few years before the final destruction of the 
city, which was effected by the Medes and 
Babylonians about B.C. 606. It is said by 
Strabo to have been larger than Babylon, and 
Diodorus describes it as an oblong quadrangle 
of one hundred and fifty stadia by ninety, mak- 
ing the circuit of the walls four hundred and 
554 



eighty stadia (more than fifty-five statute miles) 
if so, the city was twice as large as London to- 
gether with its suburbs. In judging of these 
statements, not only must allowance be made 
for the immense space occupied by palaces and 
temples, but also for the Oriental mode of build- 
ing a city, so as to include large gardens and 
other open spaces within the walls. The walls 
of Nineveh are described as one hundred feet 
high, and thick enough to allow three chariots i 
to pass each other on them ; with fifteen hund 
red towers, two hundred feet in height. The . 
city is said to have been entirely destroyed by 
fire when it was taken by the Medes and Baby- 
lonians, about B.C. 606 ; and frequent allusions 
occur to its desolate state. Under the Roman 
empire, however, we again meet with a city 
Nineve, in the district of Adiabene, mentioned | 
by Tacitus, and again by Ammianns Marcel- 
linus, and a mediaeval historian of the thirteenth [ 
century mentions a fort of the same name ; but 
statements like these must refer to some later j 
place built among or near the ruins of the an- 
cient Nineveh. Thus, of all the great cities of ' 
the world, none was thought to have been more 
utterly lost than the capital of the most ancient 
of the great monarchies. Tradition pointed out 
a few shapeless mounds opposite Mositl, on the 
Upper Tigris, as all that remained of Nineveh ; 
and a few fragments of masonry were occasion- 
ally dug up there, and elsewhere in Assyria, i 
bearing inscriptions in an almost unknown char- 
acter, called, from its shape, cuneiform or ar- ! 
row-headed. Within the last ten years, how- 
ever, those shapeless mounds have been shown 
to contain the remains of great palaces, on the 
walls of which the scenes of Assyrian life and 
the records of Assyrian conquests are sculp- I 
tured ; while the efforts which had long beec | 
made to decipher the cuneiform inscriptions 
found in Persia and Babylonia, as well as As- 
syria, have been so far successful as to make it 
probable that we may soon read the records of 
Assyrian history from her own monuments. It 
is as yet premature to form definite conclusions i 
to any great extent. The results of Major J 
Rawlinson's study of the cuneiform inscriptions , 
of Assyria are only in process of publication. 
The excavations conducted by Dr. Layard and 
M. Botta have brought to light the sculptured , 
remains of immense palaces, not only at the 
traditional site of Nineveh, namely, Komjunjik 
and Nebbi-Yunus, opposite to Mosul, and at 
Khorsabad, about ten miles to the north-north- 
east, but also in a mound eighteen miles lower j 
down the river, in the tongue of land between j 
the Tigris and the Great Zab, which still bears 
the name of Nimroud ; and it is clear that then 
remains belong to different periods, embracing : 
the records of two distinct dynasties, extending 
over several generations, none of which can be 
later than B.C. 606, while some of them prob- i 
ably belong to a period at least as ancient as 
the thirteenth, and perhaps even the fifteenth 
century B.C. There are other mounds of ruins 
as yet unexplored. Which of these ruins cor- 
respond to the true site of Nineveh, or whether 
(as Dr. Layard suggests) that vast city may 
have extended all the way along the Tigris from 
Kouyunjik to Nimroud, and to a corresponding j 
breadth northeast of the river, as far as Khor- 



NINYAS 



NISUS. 



sabad, are questions still undev discussion. 
Meanwhile, the study of the monuments and 
inscriptions thus discovered must soon throw 
fresh light on thje whole subject. Some splen- 
did fragments of sculpture, obtained by Dr. Lay- 
ard from Nimroud, are now to be seen in the 
British Museum. 

Ninyas (Nfvtfaj-), son of Ninus and Semira- 
mis. Vid. Semiramis. 

NIode (Nc66rj). 1. Daughter of Phoroneus, 
and by Zeus the mother of Argus and Pelasgus. 
— 2. Daughter of Tantalus by the Pleiad Tay- 
gete or the Hyad Dione. She was the sister 
of Pelops, and the wife of Amphion, king of 
Thebes, by whom she became the mother of 
six sons and six daughters. Being proud of the 
number of her children, she deemed herself su- 
perior to Latona (Leto), who had given birth to 
only two children. Apollo and Diana (Arte- 
mis), indignant at su'ch presumption, slew all 
her children with their arrows. For nine days 
their bodies lay in their blood without any one 
burying them, for Jupiter (Zeus) had changed 
the people into stones ; but on the tenth day 
the gods themselves buried them. Niobe her- 
self, who had gone to Mount Sipylus, was met- 
amorphosed into stone, and even thus contin- 
ued to feel the misfortune with which the gods 
had visited her. This is the Homeric story, 
which later writers have greatly modified and 
enlarged. The number and names of the chil- 
dren of Niobe vary very much in the different 
accounts ; for while Homer states that their 
number was twelve, Hesiod and others men- 
tioned twenty, Alcman only six, Sappho eight- 
een, and Herodotus four ; but the most common- 
ly received number in later times appears to have 
been fourteen, namely, seven sons and seven 
daughters. According to Homer, all the chil- 
dren of Niobe fell by the arrows of Apollo and 
Diana (Artemis) ; but later writers state that 
one of her sons, Amphion or Amyclas, and one 
of her daughters, Meliboea, were saved, but that 
Meliboea, having turned pale with terror at the 
sight of her dying brothers and sisters, was 
afterward called Chloris. The time and place 
at which the children of Niobe were destroyed 
are likewise stated differently. According to 
Homer, they perished in their mother's house. 
According to Ovid, the sons were slain while 
they were engaged in gymnastic exercises in a 
plain near Thebes, and the daughters during the 
funeral of their brothers. Others, again, trans- 
fer the scene to Lydia, or make Niobe, after the 
death of her children, go from Thebes to Lydia, 
to her father Tantalus on Mount Sipylus, where 
Jupiter (Zeus), at her own request, metamorph- 
osed her into a stone, which during the sum- 
mer always shed tears. In the time of Pau- 
sanias people still fancied they could see the 
petrified figure of Niobe on Mount Sipylus. The 
tomb of the children of Niobe, however, was 
shown at Thebes. The story of Niobe and her 
children was frequently taken as a subject by 
ancient artists. One of the most celebrated of 
the ancient works of art still extant is the group 
of Niobe and her children, which filled the pedi- 
ment of the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome, 
and which was discovered at Rome in the year 
1583. This group is now at Florence, and con- 
sists of the mother, who holds her youngest 



daughter on her knees, and thirteen statues 
of her sons and daughters, besides a figure 
usually called the pajdagogus of the children. 
The Romans themselves were uncertain wheth- 
er the group was the work of Scopas or Praxit- 
eles. 

Niphates (6 Ni^ar^f, i. e., Snow-mountain. 
now Balan), a mountain chain of Armenia, form- 
ing an eastern prolongation of the Taurus from 
where it is crossed by the Euphrates toward 
the Lake of Van, before reaching which it turns 
to the south, and approaches the Tigris below 
Tigranocerta ; thus surrounding on the north 
and east the basin of the highest course of the 
Tigris (which is inclosed on the south and 
southwest by Mount Masius), and dividing it 
from the valley of the Arsanias (now Murad) or 
southern branch of the Euphrates. The con 
tinuation of Mount Niphates Co the southeast; 
along the eastern margin of the Tigris valley, 
is formed by the mountains of the Carduchi 
(now Mountains of Kurdistan). 

[Niphates (NcipuTnc), one of the Persian gen- 
erals at the battle of the Granicus.] 

Nireus (Nipevc), son of Charopus and Aglaia, 
was, next to Achilles, the handsomest among 
the Greeks at Troy. He came from the island 
of Syme (between Rhodes and Cnidus). Later 
writers relate that he was slain by Eurypylus 
or iEneas. 

[Nisa or Nissa. Vid. Nysa.] 

NisjEa. Vid. Megara. 

Nisvea, Nis^ei, Nis^eus Campus (NiVata, Ni- 
oaloi, to Niaaiov nediov), these names are found 
in the Greek and Roman writers used for vari- 
ous places on the south and southeast of the 
Caspian : thus one writer mentions a city Niseea 
in Margiana, and another a people Nissei in 
the north of Aria ; but most apply the term Ni- 
ssean Plain to a plain in the north of Great Me- 
dia, near Rhagse, the pasture ground of a great 
number of horses of the finest breed, which sup- 
plied the studs of the king and nobles of Persia. 
It seems not unlikely that this breed of horses 
was called Nisaean from their original home in 
Margiana (a district famous for its horses), and 
that the Nisaean plain received its name from 
the horses kept in it. 

Nisibis (NiclSis : Niai6nv6^). 1. Also Antio- 
chia Mygdoni^e (in the Old Testament, Aram 
Zoba 1 ruins near Nisibin), a celebrated city of 
Mesopotamia, and the capital of the district of 
Mygdonia, stood on the River Mygdonius (now 
Nahr-al-Huali), thirty-seven Roman miles south- 
west of Tigranocerta, in a very fertile district. 
It was the centre of a considerable trade, and 
was of great importance as a military post. In 
the successive wars between the Romans and 
Tigranes, the Parthians, and the Persians, it 
was several times taken and retaken, until at 
last it fell into the hands of the Persians in the 
reign of Jovian. — 2. A city of Aria, at the foot 
of Mount Paropamisus. 

Nlsus (Nitroc). 1. King of Megara, was son 
of Pandion and Pylia, brother of ^Egeus, Pallas, 
and Lycus, and husband of Abrote, by whom he 
became the father of Scylla. When Megara 
was besieged by Minos, Scylla, who had fallen 
in love with Minos, pulled out the purple or 
golden hair which grew on the top of her fa- 
ther's head, and on which his life depended. 

555 



NISYRUS. 



NOBILIOR, FULVIUS. 



Nisus thereupon died, and Minos obtained pos- 
session of the city. Minos, however, was so 
horrified at the conduct of the unnatural daugh- 
ter, that he ordered Scylla to be fastened to the 
poop of his ship, and afterward drowned her in 
the Saronic Gulf. According to others, Minos 
left Megara in disgust ; Scylla leaped into the 
sea, and swam after his ship ; but her father, 
who had been changed into a sea-eagle (halia- 
etus), pounced down upon her, whereupon she 
was metamorphosed into either a fish or a bird 
called Ciris. Scylla, the daughter of Nisus, is 
sometimes confounded by the poets with Scylla, 
the daughter ofPhorcus. Hence the latter is 
sometimes erroneously called Niseia Virgo, and 
Niseis. Vid. Scylla. Nisaea, the port town 
of Megara, is supposed to have derived its name 
from Nisus, and the promontory of Scyllasum 
from his daughter. — 2. Son of Hyrtacus, and a 
friend of Euryalus. The two friends accom- 
panied ..■Eneas to Italy, and perished in a night 
attack against the Rutulian camp. — [3. A noble 
Dulichian, son of Aretus, and one of the suitors 
of Penelope.] 

Nisyrus (Niavpoc : now Nikero), a small isl- 
and in the Carpathian Sea, a little distance off 
the promontory of Caria called Triopium, of a 
round form, eighty stadia (eight geographical 
miles) in circuit, and composed of lofty rocks, 
the highest being two hundred and twenty-seven 
feet high. Its volcanic nature gave rise to the 
fable respecting its origin, that Neptune (Posei- 
don) tore it off the neighboring island of Cos to 
hurl it upon the giant Polybotes. It was cele- 
brated for its warm springs, wine, and mill- 
stones. Its capital, of the same name, stood on 
the northwest of the island, where considerable 
ruins of its Acropolis remain. Its first inhabit- 
ants are said to have been Carians ; but already 
in the heroic age it had received a Dorian popu- 
lation, like other islands near it, with which it is 
mentioned by Homer as sending troops to the 
Greeks. It received other Dorian settlements 
in the historical age. At the time of the Per- 
sian war, it belonged to the Carian queen Arte- 
misia ; it next became a tributary ally of Athens : 
though transferred to the Spartan alliance by the 
issue of the Peloponnesian war, it was recovered 
for Athens by the victory at Cnidus, B.C. 394. 
After the victory of the Romans over Antiochus 
the Great, it was assigned to Rhodes, and, with 
the rest of the Rhodian republic, was united to 
the Roman empire about B.C. 70. 

[Nitetis (NtTijTie), a daughter of Apries, the 
Egyptian king, who was driven from his throne 
by Amasis ; Cambyses having demanded of 
Amasis his daughter in marriage, the latter sent 
to him Nitetis, having passed her off as his own 
daughter. Another account, referred to by 
Herodotus as incorrect, makes Cyrus to have 
sought Nitetis in marriage, and to have been by 
her the father of Cambyses.] 

Nitiobriges, a Celtic people in Gallia Aqui- 
tanica, between the Garumna and the Liger, 
whose fighting force consisted of five thousand 
men. Their chief town was Aginnum (now 
Agen). 

Nitocris (NCruicpic). 1. A queen of Babylon, 
mentioned by Herodotus, who ascribes to her 
many important works at Babylon and its vicin- 
ity. It is supposed by most modern writers 
556 



that she was the wife of Nebuchadnezzar, and 
the mother or grandmother of Labynetus orBel- 
shazzar, the last king of Babylon. — 2. A queen 
of Egypt, was elected to the sovereignty in place 
of her brother, whom the Egyptians had killed 
In order to take revenge upon the murderers of 
her brother, she built a very long chamber under 
ground, and when it was finished invited to a 
banquet in it those of the Egyptians who had 
had a principal share in the murder. While 
they were engaged in the banquet, she let in 
upon them the waters of the Nile by means of 
a large concealed pipe, and drowned them all, 
and then, in order to escape punishment, threw 
herself into a chamber full of ashes. This is 
the account of Herodotus. We learn from other 
authorities that she was a celebrated personage 
in Egyptian legends. She is said to have built 
the third pyramid, by which we are to under- 
stand that she finished the third pyramid, which 
had been commenced by Mycerinus. Modern 
writers make her the last sovereign of the sixth 
dynasty, and state that she reigned six years in 
place of her murdered husband (not her brother, 
as Herodotus states), whose name was Menthu- 
ophis. The latter is supposed to be the son or 
grandson of the Mceris of the Greeks and Ro- 
mans. 

Nitric, Nitrari^e (Nirpcai, Nirpia, Nlrpaiai: 
now Birket-el-Duarah), the celebrated natron 
lakes in Lower Egypt, which lay in a valley on 
the southwestern margin of the Delta, and gave 
to the surrounding district the name of 'Ni-piu-n 
or the No/idf Nirpiurnc, and to the inhabitants, 
whose chief occupation was the extraction of 
the natron from the lakes, the name of Nirpcurai. 
This district was the chief seat of the worship 
of Serapis, and the only place in Egypt where 
sheep were sacrificed. 

[Nivaria (i. e., Snow Island, now probably 
Teneriffe), one of the Fortunatee Insula?, q. v.] 

Nixi Dn, a general term, applied by the Ro- 
mans to those divinities who were believed to 
assist women in child-birth. 

[Noas. Vid. Noes.] 

Nobilior, Fclvius, plebeians. This family 
was originally called P^etinds, and the name of 
Nobilior was first assumed by No. 1, to indicate 
that he was more noble than any others of this 
name. 1. Ser., consul B.C. 255, with M. 2Em\]- 
ius Paulus, about the middle of the first Punic 
war. The two consuls were sent to Africa, to 
bring off the survivors of the army of Regulus. 
On their way to Africa they gained a naval vic- 
tory over the Carthaginians ; but on their re- 
turn to Italy they were wrecked off the coast 
of Sicily, and most of their ships were destroy- 
ed. — 2. M., grandson of the preceding, curule 
asdile 195, praetor 193, when he defeated the 
Celtiberi in Spain, and took the town of Tole- 
lum ; and consul 189, when he received the con- 
duct of the war against the iEtolians. He took 
the town of Ambracia, and compelled the JEto- 
lians to sue for peace. On his return to Home 
in 187, he celebrated a most splendid triumph. 
In 179 he was censor with M. ^Emilius Lepidus, 
the pontifex maximus. FuJvius Nobilior had a 
taste for literature and art ; he was a patron of 
the poet Ennius, who accompanied him in his 
yEtolian campaign ; and he belonged to that 
party among the Roman nobles who were intro 



NCEGA. 



NORBA. 



ducing into the city a taste for Greek literature 
and refinement. He was, therefore, attacked by 
Cato the censor, who made merry with his name, 
calling him mobilior instead of nobilior. Fulvi- 
as, in his censorship, erected a temple to Her- 
cules and the Muses in the Circus Flaminius, as 
an indication that the state ought to cultivate 
the liberal arts ; and he adorned it with the 
paintings and statues which he had brought 
from Greece upon his conquest of ^Etolia. — 

3. M., son of No. 2, tribune of the plebs 171 ; 
surule aedib 166, the year in which the Andria 
of Terence was performed ; and consul 159. — 

4. Q., also son of No. 2, consul 153, when he had 
the conduct of the war against the Celtiberi in 
Spain, by whom he was defeated with great loss. 
He was censor in 136. He inherited his father's 
love for literature : he presented the poet En- 
nius with the Roman franchise when he was a 
triumvir for founding a colony. 

[Ncega (Noiya), a maritime city of the 
Astures in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the 
River Melsus, and on the borders of the Can- 
tabri.] 

[Noemon. 1 . A Lycian warrior, slain by Ulys- 
ses before Troy. — 2. Son of Phronius, anlthacan, 
who gave his vessel to Telemachus for his in- 
tended voyage in search of Ulysses. — 3. A Tro- 
jan warrior, companion of ^Eneas in Italy, slain 
by Turnus.] 

[Noes (Ndiff, Hdt.), or Noas (Val. Flacc), a 
southern tributary of the Ister in Thrace.] 

Nola (Nolanus : now Nolo), one of the most 
ancient towns in Campania, twenty-one Roman 
miles southeast of Capua, on the road from that 
place to Nuceria, was founded by the Ausoni- 
ans, but afterward fell into the hands of the 
Tyrrheni (Etruscans), whence some writers call 
it an Etruscan city. In B.C. 327, Nola was suf- 
ficiently powerful to send two thousand soldiers 
to the assistance of Neapolis. In 313 the town 
was taken by the Romans. It remained faith- 
ful to the Romans even after the battle of Can- 
nae, when the other Campanian towns revolted 
to Hannibal ; and it was allowed, in consequence, 
to retain its own constitution as an ally of the 
Romans. In the Social war it fell into the 
hands of the confederates, and when taken by 
Sulla it was burned to the ground by the Sam- 
nite garrison. It was afterward rebuilt, and 
was made a Roman colony by Vespasian. The 
Emperor Augustus died at Nola. In the neigh- 
borhood of the town some of the most beautiful 
Campanian vases have been found in modern 
times. According to an ecclesiastical tradition, 
church bells were invented at Nola, and were 
hence called Carnpance. 

[NoMADES. Vid. NUMIDIA.] 

Nomentanu s, mentioned by Horace as pro- 
verbially noted for extravagance and a riotous 
mode of living. The scholiasts tell us that his 
full name was L. Cassius Nomentanus. 

Nomentum (Nomentanus: now La Mmtana), 
originally a Latin town founded by Alba, but 
subsequently a Sabine town, fourteen (Roman) 
miles from Rome, from which the ViaNomen- 
ta.no, (more anciently Via Ficulensis) and the 
Porta Nomentana at Rome derived their name. 
The neighborhood of the town was celebrated 
for its wine. 

Nomia (rd Nd/ua), a mountain in Arcadia, on 



the frontiers of Laconia, is said to have derived 
its name from a nymph Nomia. 

[Nomion (NofiU>v), of Caria, father of Amphi- 
machus and Nastes, who led the Carians to the 
Trojan war.] 

Nonius (NojUiof), a surname of divinities pro- 
tecting the pastures and shepherds, such as 
Apollo, Pan, Mercury (Hermes), and Aristaeus. 

Nonacris (NovaKpis : NuvaapiuTrig, Noi>a/cpi- 
ev(), a town in the north of Arcadia, northwest 
of Pheneus, was surrounded by lofty mountains, 
in which the River Styx took its origin. The 
town is said to have derived its name from No- 
nacris, the wife of Lycaon. From this town 
Mercury (Hermes) is called Nonacriates, Evan- 
der Nonacrius, Atalanta Nonacria, and Callisto 
Nonacrina Virgo, in the general sense of Ar- 
cadian. 

Nonius Marcellus. Vid. Marcellus. 

Nonius Sufenas. Vid. Sufenas. 

[Nonnosus (Ndvvoaoc), a Byzantine historian 
and ambassador, sent on an embassy to the 
^Ethiopians, Saracens, &c. , by the Emperor Jus- 
tinian I. ; on his return he wrote an account of 
his embassy, of which an abridgment was made 
by Photius, and still exists ; edited by Niebuhr 
and Bekker, with Dexippus, Eunapius, &c., 
Bonn, 1829.] 

Nonnus (Ndwof). 1. A Greek poet, was a 
native of Panopolis in Egypt, and lived in the 
sixth century of the Christian era. Respecting 
his life nothing is known, except that he was a 
Christian. He is the author of an enormous 
epic poem, which has come down to us under 
the name of Dionysiaca or Bassarica (AiovvaiaKa 
or Baaoaputa), and which consists of forty-eight 
books. The work has no literary merit ; thr 
style is bombastic and inflated ; and the inci- 
dents are patched together with little or no co 
herence. Edited by Grsefe, Lips., 1819-1826, 
2 vols. 8vo. Nonnus also made a paraphrase 
of the gospel of St. John in hexameter verse, 
which is likewise extant. Edited by Heinsius, 
Lugd. Bat., 1627 : [and by Passow, Leipzig, 
1834.] — 2. Theophanes Nonnus, a Greek med- 
ical writer who lived in the tenth century after 
Christ. His work is entitled a " Compendium 
of the whole Medical art," and is compiled from 
previous writers. Edited by Bernard, Gothae et 
Amstel., 1794, 1795, 2 vols. 

NoRA(rdNupa: Nupnvof,Norensis). l.(Now 
Torre Forcadizo), one of the oldest cities of Sar- 
dinia, founded by Iberian settlers under Norax, 
stood on the coast of the Sinus Caralitanus, 
thirty-two Roman miles southwest of Caralis. — 
2. A mountain fortress of Cappadocia, on the 
borders of Lycaonia, on the northern side of the 
Taurus, noted for the siege sustained in it by 
Eumenes against Antigonus for a whole winter. 
In the time of Strabo, who calls it Nriponaooc, it 
was the treasury of Sisinas, a pretender to the 
throne of Cappadocia. 

[Norax (Nupaf), son of Mercury (Hermes) 
and Eurythea. Vid. Nora.] 

Norba (Norbanensis, Norbanus). 1. (Now 
Norma), a strongly fortified town in Latiurn, on 
the slope of the Volscian Mountains, and near 
the sources of the Nymphaeus, originally be- 
longed to the Latin and subsequently to tha 
Volscian league. As early as B.C. 492 the Ro- 
mans founded a colony at Norba. It espoused 

557 



KORBANUS. 

the cause of Marius in the civil war, and was 
destroyed by fire by its own inhabitants, when 
it was taken by one of Sulla's generals. There 
are still remains of polygonal walls, and a sub- 
terraneous passage at Norma. — 2. Surnamed 
C^ssakea (now Alcantara), a Roman colony in 
Lusitania, on the left bank of theTagus, north- 
west of Augusta Emerita. The bridge built by 
Drder of Trajan over the Tagus at this place is 
still extant. It is six hundred feet long by 
twenty-eight wide, and contains six arches. 

Norbanus, C, tribune of the plebs B.C. 95, 
when he accused Q. Servilius Caepio of majes- 
tas, but was himself accused of the same crime 
in the following year, on account of disturbances 
which took place at the trialof Caepio. In 90 
or 89, Norbanus was praetor in Sicily during the 
Marsic war ; and in the civil wars he espoused 
the Marian party. He was consul in 83, when he 
was defeated by Sulla near Capua. In the fol- 
lowing year, 82, he joined the consul Carbo in 
Cisalpine Gaul, but their united forces were en- 
tirely defeated by Metellus Pius. Norbanus es- 
caped from Italy and fled to Rhodes, where he 
put an end to his life, when his person was de- 
manded by Sulla. 

Norbanus Flaccus. Vid. Flaccus. 

Norma (Napr/eia : now Neumarkt in Styria), 
the ancient capital of the Taurisci or Norici in 
Noricum, from which the whole country proba- 
bly derived its name. It was situated in the 
centre of Noricum, a little south of the River 
Murius, and on the road from Virunum to Ovila- 
ba. It is celebrated as the place where Carbo 
was defeated by the Cimbri, B.C. 113. It was 
besieged by the Boii in the time of Julius Caesar. 
(Cass., B. G., i., 5.) 

Noricum, a Roman province south of the 
Danube, which probably derived its name from 
the town of Noreia, was bounded on the north 
by the Danube, on the west by Raetia and Vin- 
delicia, on the east by Pannonia, and on the 
south by Pannonia and Italy. It was separated 
from Raetia and Vindelicia by the River iEnus 
(now Inn), from Pannonia on the east by Mons 
Cetius, and from Pannonia and Italy on the 
south by the River Savus, the Alpes Carnicae, 
and Mons Ocra. It thus corresponds to the 
greater part of Styria and Carinthia, and a part 
of Austria, Bavaria, and Salzburg. Noricum 
was a mountainous country, for it was not only 
surrounded on the south and east by mount- 
ains, but one of the main branches of the Alps, 
the Alpes Noricje (in the neighborhood of Salz- 
burg), ran right through the province. In those 
mountains a large quantity of excellent iron 
was found ; and the Noric swords were cele- 
brated in antiquity. Gold also is said to have 
been found in the mountains in ancient times. 
The inhabitants of the country were Celts, di- 
vided into several tribes, of which the Taurisci, 
also called Norici, after their capital Noreia, 
were the most important. They were conquer- 
ed by the Romans toward the end of the reign 
of Augustus, after the subjugation of Raetia by 
Tiberius and Drusus, and their country was 
formed into a Roman province. In the later 
division of the Roman empire into smaller prov- 
inces, Noricum was formed into two provinces, 
Noricum. Ripense, along the bank of the Danube, 
and Noricum Mediterraneum, separated from the 
553 



NOVIODUNUM. 

former by the mountains which divide Austria 
and Styria : they both belonged to the diocese 
of Ulyricum and the prefecture of Italy. 

Nortia or Nurtia, an Etruscan divinity, 
worshipped at Volsinii, where a nail was driven 
every year into the wall of her temple, for the 
purpose of marking the number of years. 

Nossis, a Greek poetess, of Locri in Italy, I 
lived about B.C. 310, and is the author of twelve ! 
epigrams of considerable beauty in the Greek j 
Anthology. 

[Notium (Notiov). 1. The port of Colophon. 
Vid. Colophon. — 2. A city in the island Ca- 
lydna, which lay near Rhodes. — 3. (Now Misscn < 
Head), a promontory of Hibernia, the southwest 
point of the island.] 

Notus. Vid. Auster. 

Novaria (Novarensis : now Novara), a town 
in Gallia Transpadana, situated on a river of 
the same name (now Gogna), and on the road 
from Mediolanum to Vercellae, subsequently a 
Roman municipium. 

Novatianus, a heretic, who insisted upon the 
perpetual exclusion from the Church of all I 
Christians who had fallen away from the faith 
under the terrors of persecution. On the elec- 
tion of Cornelius to the see of Rome, A. D. 251, 
Novatianus was consecrated bishop of a rival 
party, but was condemned by the council held 
in the autumn of the same year. After a vain 
struggle to maintain his position, he was obliged 
to give way, and became the founder of a new 
sect, who from him derived the name of Nova- 
tians. It should be observed that the individual I 
who first proclaimed these doctrines was not 
Novatianus, but an African presbyter under 
Cyprian, named Novatus. Hence much con- 
fusion has arisen between Novatus and Novati- 
anus, who ought, however, to be carefully dis- 
tinguished. A few of the works of Novatianus 
are extant. The best edition of them is by 
Jackson, Lond., 1728. 

Novatus. Vid. Novatianus. 

Novensiles or Novensides Dn, Roman gods 
whose name is probably composed of nove and 
insides, and therefore signifies the new gods in 
opposition to the Indigctcs, or old native divin- ' 
ities. It was customary among the Romans, 
after the conquest of a neighboring town, to 
carry its gods to Rome, and there establish their 
worship. 

Novesium (now Neuss), a fortified town of 
the Ubii on the Rhine, and on the road leading 
from Colonia Agrippina (now Cologne) to Caa 
tra Vetera (now Xantcn). The fortifications of 
this place were restored by Julian in A.D. 359. 

Noviodunum, a name given to many Celtic 
places from their being situated on a hill {dun). 
1. (Now Nouan), a town of the Bituriges Cubi 
in Gallia Aquitanica, east of their capital Avar- 
icum. — 2. (Now Nc ve rs), a town of the Md\i\ 
in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the road from Au- 
gustodunum to Lutetia, and at the confluence 
of the Niveris and the Liger, whence it wus 
subsequently called Nevirnum, and thus ac- 
quired its modern name. — 3. A town of the 
Suessones in Gallia Belgica, probably the same 
as Augusta Suessonum. Vid. Augusta, No. 
6. — 4. (Now Nion), a town of the Helvetii in 
Gallia Belgica, on the northern bank of the 
Lacus Lemanus, was made a Roman colony bj 



NOVIOMAGUS. 



NUMENIUS. 



Julius Caesar, B.C. 45, under the name of Celo- 
nia Equestris. — 5. (Now Isaczi), a fortress in 
Mcesia Inferior, on the Danube, near which Va- 
lens built his bridge of boats across the Danube 
in his campaign against the Goths. 

Noviomagus or Nceomagus. 1. (Now Cas- 
telnan de Mcdoc), a town of the Bituriges Vi- 
visci in Gallia Aquitanica, northwest of Burdi- 
gala. — 2. A town of the Tricastini in Gallia 
Narbonensis, probably the modern Nions, though 
some suppose it to be the same place as Au- 
gusta Tricastinorum (now Aouste). — 3. (Now 
Spires), the capital of the Nemetes. Vid. Nem- 
etes. — 4. (Now Neumagen), a town of the Tre- 
viri in Gallia Belgica, on the Mosella. — 5. (Now 
Nimwegen), a town of the Batavi. — [6. (Ruins 
near Lisieux), a port of the Lexovii or Lexubii, 
a small community belonging to the Arecomici 
in Gallia Lugdunensis, between the Liger (now 
Loire) and Sequana (now Seine).} 

Novlus, Q., a celebrated writer of Atellane 
p^ys, a contemporary of the dictator Sulla. 

Novum Comum. Vid. Comum. 

[Nox. Vid. Nyx.] 

Nuba Palus (NpiSa 7ii/j.vn : now probably L. 
Fitlrek, in Bar Zaleh), a lake in Central Africa, 
receiving the great river Gir, according to Ptol- 
emy, who places it in 15° north latitude, and 
40° east longitude (=22° from Greenwich). 

Nub-s), Nub^ei (NovSai, NovSaiai.), an African 
people, who are found in two places, namely, 
about the Lake Nuba, and also on the banks of 
the Nile north of Meroe, that is, in the north 
central part of Nubia : the latter were govern- 
ed by princes of their own, independent of 
Meroe. By the reign of Diocletian they had 
advanced northward as far as the frontier of 
Egypt. 

Nuoeria (NUcerlnus). 1. Surnamed Alfa- 
terna (now Nocera), a town in Campania, on 
the Sarnus (now Samo), and on the Via Appia, 
southeast of Nola, and nine (Roman) miles from 
the coast, was taken by the Romans in the Sam- 
nite wars, and was again taken by Hannibal 
after the battle of Cannae, when it was burned 
to the ground. It was subsequently rebuilt, and 
both Augustus and Nero planted here colonies 
of veterans. Pompeii was used as the harbor 
of Nuceria. — 2. Surnamed Camellaria (now 
Nocera), a town in the interior of Umbria, on the 
"Via Flaminia. — 3. (Now Luzzara), a smalltown 
in Gallia Cispadana, on the Po, northeast of 
Brixellum. — 4. A town in Apulia, more correctly- 
called Luceria. 

[Nudium (Nova'wv), a settlement of the Minyae 
in Elis, early destroyed by the Eleans.] 

Nuithones, a people of Germany, dwelling 
on the right bank of the Albis (now Elbe), south- 
west of the Saxones, and north of the Lango- 
bardi, in the southeastern part of the modern 
Mecklenburg. 

Noma Marcius. 1. An intimate friend of 
Numa Pompilius, whom he is said to have ac- 
companied to Rome, where Numa made him 
the first pontifex maximus. Marcius aspired 
to the kingly dignity on the death of Pompilius, 
and he starved himself to death on the election 
of Tullus Hostilius.— 2. Son of the preceding, 
is said to have married Pompilia, the daughter 
of Numa Pompilius, and to have become by her 
the father of Ancus Marcius. Numa Marcius 



was appointed by Tullus Hostilius prafectus 
urbi. 

Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, 
who belongs to legend and not to history. He 
was a native of Cures in the Sabine country, 
and was elected king one year after the death 
of Romulus, when the people became tired of 
the interregnum of the senate. He was re- 
nowned for his wisdom and his piety ; and it 
was generally believed that he had derived his 
knowledge from Pythagoras. His reign was 
long and peaceful, and he devoted his chief care 
to the establishment of religion among his rude 
subjects. He was instructed by the Camena 
Egeria, who visited him in a grove near Rome, 
and who honored him with her love. He was 
revered by the Romans as the author of their 
whole religious worship. It was he who first 
appointed the pontiffs, the augurs, the fiamens, 
the virgins of Vesta, and the Salii. He found- 
ed the temple of Janus, which remained always 
shut during his reign. The length of his reign 
is stated differently. Livy makes it forty-three 
years ; Polybius and Cicero thirty-nine years. 
The sacred books of Numa, in which he pre- 
scribed all the religious rites and ceremonies, 
were said to have been buried near him in a 
separate tomb, and to have been discovered by 
accident five hundred years afterward, in B.C. 
181. They were carried to the city praetor 
Petilius, and were found to consist of twelve 
or seven books in Latin on ecclesiastical law, 
and the same number of books in Greek on 
philosophy : the latter were burned on the com- 
mand of the senate, but the former were care- 
fully preserved. The story of the discovery 
of these books is evidently a forgery ; and the 
books, which were ascribed to Numa, and which 
were#extant at a later time, were evidently 
nothing more than works containing an account 
of the ceremonial of the Roman religion. 

Numana (now TJmana Dislrutta), a town in 
Picenum, on the road leading from Ancona to 
Aternum, along the coast, was founded by the 
Siculi, and was subsequently a municipium. 

Nomantia (Numantlnus : ruins near Puente 
de Don Guarray), the capital of the Arevacae or 
Arevaci in Hispania Tarraeonensis, and the 
most important town in all Celtiberia, was sit- 
uated near the sources of the Durius, on a small 
tributary of this river, and on the road leading 
from Asturica to Caesaraugusta. It was strong- 
ly fortified by nature, being built on a steep and 
precipitous, though not lofty hill, and accessible 
by only one path, which was defended by ditches 
and palisades. It was twenty-four stadia in 
circumference, but was not surrounded by reg- 
ular walls, which the natural strength of its 
position rendered unnecessary. It was long 
the head-quarters of the Celtiberians in their 
wars with the Romans ; and its protracted siege 
and final destruction by Scipio Africanus the 
younger (B.C. 133) is one of the most memor- 
able events in the early history of Spain. 

[NumanusRemulus, a Rutulian warrior, broth- 
er-in-law of Turnus, slain by Ascanius.] 

Numenius (Novfijjvioc), of Apamea in Syria, 
a Pythagoreo- Platonic philosopher, who was 
highly esteemed by Plotinus and his school, as 
well as by Origen. He probably belongs to the 
age of the Antonines. His object was to trace 

559 



NUMERIANUS. 

Mie doctrines of Plato up to Pythagoras, and, at 
Jhe same time, to show that they were not at 
variance with the dogmas and mysteries of the 
Brahmins, Jews, Magi, and Egyptians. Con- 
siderable fragments of his works have been 
preserved by Eusebius, in his Praparatio Evan- 
gelica. 

Numerianus, M. Aurelius, the younger of 
the two sons of the Emperor Carus, who ac- 
companied his father in the expedition against 
tne Persians, A.D. 283. After the death of his 
father, which happened in the same year, Nu- 
merianus was acknowledged as joint emperor 
with his brother Carinus. The army, alarmed 
by the fate of Carus, who was struck dead by 
lightning, compelled Numerianus to retreat to- 
ward Europe. During the greater part of the 
march, which lasted for eight months, he was 
confined to his litter by an affection of the eyes ; 
6ut the suspicions of the soldiers having become 
excited, they at length forced their way into the 
imperial tent, and discovered the dead body of 
their prince. Arrius Aper, praefect of the prae- 
torians, and father-in-law of the deceased, was 
arraigned of the murder in a military council, 
held at Chalcedon, and, without being permit- 
ted to speak in his own defence, was stabbed 
to the heart by Diocletian, whom the troops had 
already proclaimed emperor. Vid. Diocleti- 

ANUS. 

Numicius or Numicus (now Numico), a small 
river in Latium, flowing into the Tyrrhene Sea 
near Ardea, on the banks of which was the 
tomb of ^Eneas, whom the inhabitants called 
Jupiter Indiges. 

[Numicius, Tib. 1. Tribune of the plebs B.C. 
320, was, with his colleague Q. Maelius, given 
over to the Samnites when the Romans resolv- 
ed not to adhere to the peace made at Caaskum. 
3>s colleague of Maelius is called by Livy I* 
Julius, and not Numicius. — 2. A person to 
whom Horace addresses the sixth epistle of his 
first book : otherwise unknown.] 

[Numida Plotius, a friend of Horace, who 
addresses to him one of his odes (bk. i., 36), 
to celebrate his safe arrival in Italy, after a 
campaign against the Cantabri in Spain.] 

Numidia (Novfitdia, }) No/iadta and Nofj.adtKrj : 
Nojudf, Nfimlda, pi. 'Nojiddsc; or No/xddec At6ve<:, 
NQmidae : now Algier), a country of Northern 
Africa, which, in its original extent, was divid- 
ed from Mauretania on the west by the River 
Malva or Mulucha, and on the east from the 
territory of Carthage (afterward the Roman 
province of Africa) by the River Tusca: its 
northern boundary was the Mediterranean, and 
on the south it extended indefinitely toward the 
chain of the Great Atlas and the country of the 
Gaetuli. Intersected by the chain of the Less- 
er Atlas, and watered by the streams running 
down from it, it abounded in fine pastures, which 
were early taken possession of by wandering 
tubes of Asiatic origin, who, from their occu- 
pation as herdsmen, were called by the Greeks, 
here as elsewhere, No/iddec, and this name was 
perpetuated in that of the country. A sufficient 
account of these tribes, and of their connection 
with their neighbors on the west, is given un- 
der Mauretania. The fertility of the country, 
inviting to agriculture, gradually gave a some- 
what more settled character to the people ; and, 
560 



NUMITOR. | 

at their first appearance in Roman history, we 
find their two great tribes, the Massylians and i 
the Massaesylians, forming two monarchies, 
which were united into one under Masinissa, : 
B.C. 201. For the historical details, vid. Mas- 
inissa. On Masinissa's death in 148, his king- t 
dom was divided, by his dying directions, be- 
tween his three sons, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and 
Gulussa ; but it was soon reunited under Mi- 
cipsa, in consequence of the death of both his 
brothers. His death in 118 was speedily fol- 1 
lowed by the usurpation of Jugurtha, an ac- 
count of which and of the ensuing war with the 
Romans is given under Jugurtha. On the de 
feat of Jugurtha in 106, the country became 
virtually subject to the Romans, but they per- 
mitted the family of Masinissa to govern it, with 
the royal title (vid. Hiempsal, No. 2 ; Juba, No. 
1), until B.C. 46, when Juba, who had espoused 
the cause of Pompey in the civil wars, was de- 
feated and dethroned by Julius Ctesar, and 
Numidia was made a Roman province. It | 
seems to have been about the same time or a 
little later, under.. Augustus, that the western I 
part of the country was taken from Numidia 
and added to Mauretania, as far east as Said®. 
In B.C. 30 Augustus restored Juba II. to his 
father's kingdom of Numidia; but in B.C. 25 
he exchanged it for Mauretania, and Numidia, 
that is, the country between Saldae on the west 
and the Tusca on the east, became a Roman | 
province. It was again diminished by near a 
half under Claudius (vid. Mauretania) ; and ' 
henceforth, until the Arab conquest, the sena- ' 
torial province of Numidia denotes the district 
between the River Ampsaga on the west and 1 
the Tusca on the east; its capital was'Cirta 
(now Constantineh). The country, in its later 
restricted limits, is often distinguished by the | 
name of New Numidia or Numidia Proper. The 
Numidians are celebrated in military history as 
furnishing the best light cavalry to the armies, 
first of Carthage, and afterward of Rome. 
• [Numidicus, the agnomen of Q.Metellus for his { 
success in Numidia. Vid. Metellus, No. 10.] 
Numidicus Sinus CNovfiiSiKog koXttoc. : now 
Bay of Storak), the great gulf east of Promon- 
torium Tretum (now Seven Capes), on the north 
of Numidia. 

[NumisiInus (Novfiiaiavoc), an eminent phy- 
sician at Corinth, whose lectures Galen attended 
about A.D. 150, having gone to Corinth for that 
purpose. He was, according to Galen, the most 
celebrated of all the pupils of Quintus, and dis- 
tinguished himself especially by his anatomical 
knowledge.] 

[Numisius, P. 1. One of the two chief magis- 
trates of the Latins, B.C. 340, and principal com- 
mander in the Latin war. — 2. C, praetor B.C. 
177, obtained Sicily as his province. — 3. T., of 
Tarquinii, was one of the ten commissioners 
sent into Macedonia B.C. 167, to regulate its 
affairs after its conquest by PaullusiEmilius. — 
4. N Tiro, is branded by Cicero as one of the 
cut-throats employed by M. Antonius the tri- 
umvir.] 

Numistro (Numistranus), a town inLucania, 
near the frontiers of Apulia. 

Numitor. Vid. Romulus. 

[Numitor, son of Phorcus, a warrior in the 
army of Turnus, wounded Achates.] 



NUMITORIUS. 



JMYMPH^EUM. 



rNSMiTORius, L. 1. One of the five tribunes 
ft st elected in the comitia tributa, B.C. 472. — 
2. P., the maternal uncle of Virginia, attempted 
to resist the iniquitous sentence of the decem- 
vir Appius Claudius, and was elected tribune of 
the plebs upon the expulsion of the decemvir, 
B.C. 449- — 3. Q- Numitorius Pullus, of Fregel- 
la?, betrayed his native town to the Roman prae- 
tor L. Opimius, B.C. 125, when it rose in revolt 
to obtain the Roman franchise. — 4. C, was a 
distinguished man of the aristocratical party, 
who was put to death by Marius and Cinna 
when they entered Rome at the close of B.C. 
88.] 

NursIa (Nurslnus : now Norcia), a town in the 
north of the land of the Sabines, situated near 
the sources of the Nar and amid the Apennines, 
whence it is called by Virgil (Mn., vii., 716) 
frigida Nursia. It was the birth-place of Ser- 
torfus and of the mother of Vespasian. 

Nycteis (NvxTnic), that is, Antiope, daughter 
of Nycteus, and mother of Amphion and Zethus. 
Vid. Antiope, Nycteus. 

Nycteus (Wvurtic), son of Hyrieus by the 
nymph Clonia, and husband ofPolyxo, by whom 
he became the father of Antiope; though, ac- 
cording to others, Antiope was the daughter of 
the river T god Asopus. Antiope was carried off 
byEpopeus.kingofSicyon ; whereupon Nycteus, 
who governed Thebes, as the guardian of Lab- 
dacus, invaded Sicyon with a Theban army. 
Nycteus was defeated, and being severely 
wounded, he was carried back to Thebes, where, 
previous to his death, he appointed his brother 
Lycus guardian of Labdacus, and at the same 
time required him to take vengeance on Epo- 
peus. Vid. Lycus. 

Nyctimene, daughter of Epopeus, king of Les- 
bos, or, according to others, of Nycteus. Pur- 
sued and dishonored by her amorous father, she 
concealed herself in the shade of forests, where 
she was metamorphosed by Minerva (Athena) 
into an owl. 

Nymphs (Nvufai), the name of a numerous 
class of female divinities of a lower rank, though 
they are designated by the title of Olympian, are 
called to the meetings of the gods in Olympus, 
and are described as the daughters of Jupiter 
(Zeus). They may be divided into two great 
classes. The first class embraces those who 
were recognized in the worship of nature. The 
early Greeks saw in all the phenomena of or- 
dinary nature some manifestation of the deity : 
springs, rivers, grottoes, trees, and mountains, 
all seemed to them fraught with life, and all 
were only the visible embodiments of so many 
divine agents. The salutary and beneficent 
powers of nature were thus personified, and re- 
garded as so many div; nities. The second class 
of nymphs are personifications of tribes, races, 
and states, such as Cyrene, and many others. 
I. The nymphs of the "first class must again be 
subdivided into various species, according to the 
different parts of nature of which they are the 
representatives. 1. Nymphs of the watery cle- 
ment. To these belong, first, the nymphs of the 
ocean, Oceanides (JQ.neavivai, 'ilxeavidec, vv/ifai 
aKiai), who were regarded as the daughters of 
Oceanus ; and, next, the nymphs of the Mediter- 
ranean or inner sea, who were regarded as the 
daughters of Nereus, and hence were called 
36 



Nereides (N^peMef). The rivers were repre- 
sented by the Potameides {UoTaiirjiSec), who, as 
local divinities, were named after their rivers 
as Acheloides, Anigrides, Ismenides, Amnisia- 
des, Pactolides. The nymphs of fresh water, 
whether of rivers, lakes, brooks, or springs, 
were also designated by the general name 
Naiades (Nqldec), though they had, in addition, 
specific names (Kpnvaiat, T\nyalai, 'E?.eiovofiot, 
Aifjyaridec, or AL/xvadec). Even the rivers of 
the lower regions were described as having 
their nymphs ; hence we read of Nxjmphct in- 
fernal paludis and Avcrnales. Many of these 
nymphs preside over waters or springs which 
were believed to inspire those who drank ot 
them. The nymphs themselves were, there- 
fore, thought to be endowed with prophetic 
power, and to inspire men with the same, and 
to confer upon them the gift of poetry. Hence 
all persons in a state of rapture, such as seers, 
poets, madmen, &c, were said to be caught by 
the nymphs (vvfi^olnnTOL, in Lat. lympha.ti, lym- 
phatici). As water is necessary to feed all veg- 
etation as well as all living beings, the water- 
nymphs frequently appear in connection with 
higher divinities, as, for example, with Apollo, 
the prophetic god and the protector of herds and 
flocks ; with Diana (Artemis), the huntress and 
the protectress of game, who was herself orig- 
inally an Arcadian nymph ; with Mercury (Her- 
mes), the fructifying god of flocks ; with Bac- 
chus (Dionysus) ; and with Pan, the Sileni and 
Satyrs, whom they join in their Bacehic rev- 
els and dances. — 2. Nymphs of mountains and 
grottoes, called Oreades ('Opeiddec, 'OpoSe/ividdei;), 
but sometimes also by names derived from 
the particular mountains they inhabited (e. g., 
Kidaipovcdec, YlnfiidSec, Kopvictai). — 3. Nymphs 
of forests, groves, and glens, were believed some 
times to appear to and frighten solitary travel- 
lers. They are designated by the names 'Aa- 
an'tdec, 'T2nupoc, Ai2.uvia.6ec, and Ncnraiai. — 
4. Nymphs of trees were believed to die together 
with the trees which had been their abode, and 
with which they had come into existence. They 
were called Dryades and Hamadryades {Apvddec, 
'A/iiadpvudec or 'ASpvddec), from dpvc, which sig- 
nifies not only an oak, but any wild-growing 
lofty tree ; for the nymphs of fruit-trees were 
called Melides {MnXidec, also Mri2.id<hc, ^■KifiyKU 
6ec, or 'Afxap.ri2.iSec). They seem to be of Ar- 
cadian origin, and never appear together with 
any of the great gods. II. The second class of 
nymphs, who were connected with certain races 
or localities (Nvfityai x8°viat), usually have a 
name derived from the places with which they 
are associated, as Nysiades, Dodonides, Lem- 
nia?. The sacrifices offered to nymphs usually 
consisted of goats, lambs, milk, and oil, but 
never of wine. They were worshipped in many 
parts of Greece, especially near springs, groves, 
and grottoes. They are represented in works 
of art as beautiful maidens, either quite naked 
or only half covered. Later poets sometimes 
describe them as having sea-colored hair. 
NympHjEum (Nv/ujiaiov, i. e., Nymph's abode). 

1. A mountain, with perhaps a village, by the 
River Aous, near Apollonia, in Illyricum. — 

2. A port and promontory on the coast of Illyri- 
cum, three Roman miles from Lissus. — 3. (Now 
Cape Ghiorgi), the southwestern promontory ol 

561 



NYMPH^EUS. 



OASIS. 



Acte ot Athos, in Chalcidice. — 4. A sea-port 
town of the Chersonesus Taurica (now Crimea), 
on the Cimmerian Bosporus, twenty-five stadia 
(two and a half geographical miles) from Panti- 
capaaum. — 5. A place on the coast of Bithynia, 
thirty stadia (three geographical miles) west of 
the mouth of the River Oxines. — 6. A place in 
Cilicia, between Celenderis and Solog. 

Nymph^os (Nv^<j>aioc). 1. (Now Ninfa or 
Nmipa), a small river of Latium, falling into ihe 
sea above Astura ; of some note as contributing 
to the formation of the Pomptine Marshes. It 
now no longer reaches the sea, but falls into a 
little lake, called Lago di Monad. — 2. A harbor 
on the western side of the island of Sardinia, 
between the Promontorium Mercurii and the 
town of Tillium. — 3. Also called Nymphius (now 
Basilimfay, a small river of Sophene in Armenia, 
a tributary of the Upper Tigris, flowing from 
north to south past Martyropolis, in the valley 
between Mons Niphates and Mons Masius. 

Nymphidius Sabinus, commander of the prae- 
torian troops, together with Tigellinus, toward 
the latter end of Nero's reign. On the death of 
Nero, A.D. 68, he attempted to seize the throne, 
but was murdered by the friends of Galba. 

Nymphis (Nv/x(j>ic), son of Xenagoras, a native 
of the Pontic Heraclea, lived about B.C. 250. 
He was a person of distinction in his' native 
land, as well as a historical writer of some note. 
He wrote a work on Alexander and his suc- 
cessors in twenty-four books, and also a history 
of Herachea in thirteen books. [The fragments 
of Nymphis are collected by J. C. Orelli in his 
edition of Memnon, Leipzig, 1816, p. 95-102, 
and by C. Miiller, Fragm. Grac. Hist., vol. hi., 
p. 12-16.] 

Nymphodorus (Nv/ityodopoc). 1. A Greek his- 
orian of Arnphipolis, of uncertain date, the au- 
nor of a work on the Laws or Customs of Asia 
(No/iiua 'Aacac), vid. at end of No. 2. — 2. Of 
Syracuse, likewise a historian, seems to have 
lived about the time of Philip and Alexander the 
Great. He wrote a Periplus of Asia, and a work 
on Sicily. [The fragments of these works are 
given by Miiller, Fragm. Grac. Hist., vol. ii., p. 
375-381 ; Miiller considers the existence of 
No. 1 doubtful, and adduces some arguments to 
show that these works are by one and the same 
author, viz., the Nymphodorus of Syracuse.] 

[Nymphodorus (Nvfnj>66upoc), a citizen of Ab- 
dera, whose sister married Sitalces, king of 
Thrace. The Athenians, who had previously 
regarded Nymphodorus as their enemy, made 
him their proxenus in B.C. 431, and, through 
his mediation, obtained the alliance of Sitalces. 
He also subsequently testified his friendship for 
the Athenians by several other acts of kindness, 
and thus did them good service.] 

[Nysa or Nyssa (Nvaa or Nvcco). 1. A queen 
of Bithynia, wife of Nicomedes II., and mother 
ofNicomedes III. — 2. A sister of Mithradates 
the Great, who was taken prisoner by Lucullus 
at Cabira, and thus escaped the fate of the other 
sisters and wives of the king, who were put to 
death shortly after at Pharnacia. — 3. A daughter 
of Mithradates the Great, who had been betrothed 
to the King of Cyprus, but accompanied her fa- 
ther in his flight to the kingdom of Bosporus, 
where she ultimately shared his fate, putting an 
end to her life by poison, B.C. 63.] 
563 



Nysa or Nyssa (Nvan, NiWa), was the le- 
gendary scene of the nurture of Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus), whence the name was applied to sev- 
eral places which were sacred to that god. 
1. In India, in the district of Goryeea, at the 
northwestern corner of the Punjab, near the 
confluence of the Rivers Cophen and Choaspes, 
probably the same place as Nagara orDionyso- 
polis (now Nagar or Naggar). Near it was a 
mountain of like name. — 2. A city or mountain 
in ^Ethiopia.— 3. (Now Sultan-Hisar, ruins a lit- 
tle west of Nazeli), a city of Caria, on the south- 
ern slope of Mount Messogis, built on both sides 
of the ravine of the brook Eudon, which falls 
into the Maeander. It was said to have been 
named after the queen of one of the Antiochi, 
having been previously called Athymbra and 
Pythopolis.— 4. A city of Cappadocia, near the 
Halys, on the road from Caesarea to Ancyra : 

the bishopric of St. Gregory of Nyssa. 5. A 

town in Thrace, between the Rivers Nestus and 
Strymon. — 6. A town in Boeotia, near Mount 
Helicon. 

Nys^eus, Nysibs, Nyseus, or Nysigexa, a 
surname of Bacchus (Dionysus), derived from 
Nysa, a mountain or city (see above), where the 
god was said to have been brought up by nymphs. 

Nyseides or Nysiades, the nymphs of Nysa, 
who are said to have reared Bacchus (Dionysus), 
and whose names are Cissei's, Nysa, Erato, Eri- 
phia, Bromia, and Polyhymno. 

Nyi (Nvf), called Nox by the Romans, was a 
personification of Night. Homer calls her the 
subduer of gods and men, and relates that Jupi- 
ter (Zeus) himself stood in awe of her. In the 
ancient cosmogonies Night is one of the very 
first created beings, for she is described as the 
daughter of Chaos, and the sister of Erebus, by 
whom she became the mother of ^Ether and 
Hemera. She is further said to ha ve given birth, 
without a husband, to Moros, the Keres, Thana- 
tos, Hypnos, Dreams, Momus, Oizys, the Hes- 
perides, Moerae, Nemesis, and similar beings. 
In later poets, with whom she is merely the per- 
sonification of the darkness of night, she is 
sometimes described as a winged goddess, and 
sometimes as riding in a chariot, covered with 
a dark garment, and accompanied by the stars 
in her course. Her residence was in the dark- 
ness of Hades. 

0. 

Oanus ("flavor : now Frascolari), a small river 
on the southern coast of Sicily, near Camarina. 

[Oaracta ('OdpanTa, 'OopuxBa, or OiopoxOa : 
now Dsjisme or Khishme, also Drokht), a large 
and fertile island lying off the coast of Carma- 
nia, in the Persian Gulf; in it was found the 
tomb of Erythras, from whom the Erythraean 
Sea was fabled to have been named.] 

Oarus ("Oapoc), a considerable river men- 
tioned by Herodotus as rising in the country of 
the Thyssagetas, and falling into the Palus Msso- 
tis (now Sea of Azov) east of the Tanai's (now 
Don). As there is no river which very well an- 
swers this description, Herodotus is supposed 
to refer to one of the eastern tributaries of the 
Don, such as the Sal or the Manytch. 

Oasis ('Oaoic, Avaaic, and in later writers 
'Qaatc) is the Greek form of an Egyptian word 



OASIS. 



OCCIA. 



\\n Coptic ouahe, an inhabited place), which was 
used to denote an island, in the sea of sand of the 
great Libyan Desert: the word haNs been adopted 
into our language. The Oases are depressions 
in the great table-land of Libya, preserved from 
the inroad of the shifting sands by steep hills of 
limestone round them, and watered by springs, 
which make them fertile and habitable. With 
the substitution of these springs for the Nile, 
they closely resemble that greater depression in 
the Libyan table-land, the Valley of Egypt. The 
chief specific applications of the word by the 
ancient writers are to the two Oases on the 
west of Egypt, which were taken possession of 
by the Egyptians at an early period. 1. Oasis 
Minor, the Lesser or Second Oasis {"Oaoic 
MtKpa, or i] Sevrepa : now Wah-el-Bahryeh or 
Wah-el-Behnesa), lay west of Oxyrynchus, and 
a good day's journey from the southwestern end 
of the Lake Moeris. It was reckoned as belong- 
ing to the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, and 
formed a separate Nomos. — 2. Oasis Major, the 
Greater, Upper, or First Oasis ("O. neyaln, t) 
npwrri, ij uva'O., and, in Herodotus, rrdXic 'Oac-tc 
and vrjaoc Mampuv, now W 'ah- el- Khar g eh), is de- 
scribed by Strabo as seven days' journey west 
of Abydbs, which applies to its northern end, as 
it extends over more than lj° of latitude. It 
belonged to Upper Egypt, and, like the other, 
formed a distinct nome : these two nomes are 
mentioned together as "duo Oasita?" (ol Svo 
'Oaalrai). When the ancient writers use the 
word Oasis alone, the Greater Oasis must gen- 
erally be understood. The Greater Oasis con- 
tains considerable ruins of the ancient Egyp- 
tian and Roman periods. Between and near 
these were other Oases, about which we learn 
little or nothing from the ancient writers, 
though in one of them, the Wah-el-Gharbee or 
Wah-el-Dakhleh, three days west of the Greater 
Oasis, there are the ruins of a Roman tem- 
ple, inscribed with the names of Nero and of 
Titus. The Greater Oasis is about level with 
the valley of the Nile, the Lesser is about two 
hundred feet higher than the Nile, in nearly 
the same latitude. — 3. A still more celebrated 
Oasis than either of these was that called Am- 
mon, Hammon, Ammonium, Hammonis Oracu- 
lum, from its being a chief seat of the worship 
and oracle of the god Ammon. It was called 
by the Arabs in the Middle Ages Santariah, and 
now Siwah. It is about fifteen geographical 
miles long, and twelve wide : its chief town, 
Siwah, is in 29° 12' north latitude, and 26° 17' 
east longitude : its distance from Cairo is twelve 
days, and from the northern coast about one 
hundred and sixty statute miles : the ancients 
reckoned it twelve days from Memphis, and five 
days from Paraetonium on the northern coast. 
It was inhabited by various Libyan tribes, but 
the ruling people were a race kindred to the 
^Ethiopians above Egypt, who, at a period of 
unknown antiquity, had introduced, probably 
from Meroe, the worship of Ammon : the gov- 
ernment was monarchical. The Ammonians 
do not appear to have been subject to the old 
Egyptian monarchy. Cambyses, after conquer- 
ing Egypt in B.C. 525, sent an army against 
them, which was overwhelmed by the sands of 
the Desert. In B.C. 331, Alexander the Great 
visited the oracle, which hailed him as the son 



of Jupiter (Zeus) Ammon. The oracle was also 
visited by Cato of Utica. Under the Ptolemies 
and the Romans it was subject to Egypt, and 
formed part of the Nomos Libya. The most re- 
markable objects in the Oasis, besides the tem- 
ple of Ammon, were the palace of the ancient 
kings, abundant springs of salt water (as well 
as fresh) from which salt was made, and a well, 
called Fons Solis, the water of which was cold 
at noon, and warm in the morning and evening. 
Considerable ruins of the temple of Ammon are 
still standing at the town of Siwah. In ancient 
times the Oasis had no town, but the inhabit- 
ants dwelt in scattered villages. — 4. In other 
parts of the Libyan Desert there were oases 
of which the ancients had some knowledge, but 
which they do not mention by the name of 
Oases, but by their specific names, such as 
Augila, Phazania, and others. 
Oaxes. Vid. Oaxus. 

Oaxus ("OaSjoc : 'Oaf(of), called Axus ("Afof) 
by Herodotus, a town in the interior of Crete, 
on the River Oaxes, and near Eleutherna, is 
said to have derived its name from Oaxes 01 
Oaxus, who was, according to some accounts, 
a son 01 Acacallis, the daughter of Minos, and, 
according to others, a son of Apollo by An- 
chiale. 

Obil a ( now Avila), a town of the Vettones, in 
Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Oblivionis Flumen. Vid. Lim^ia. 

Obrimas (now Koja-Chai or Sandukli-Chai), 
an eastern tributary of the Maeander, in Phrygia. 

Obringa (now Aar), a western tributary of 
the Rhine, forming the boundary between Ger- 
mania Superior and Inferior. 

Obsequens, Julius, the name prefixed to a 
fragment entitled De Prodigiis or Prodigiorum 
Libellus, containing a record of the phenomena 
classed by the Romans under the general desig- 
nation of Prodigia or Ostenta. The series ex- 
tends in chronological order from the consul- 
ship of Scipio and Laalius, B.C. 190, to the con- 
sulship of Fabius and ^Elius, B.C. 11. The 
materials are derived in a great measure from 
Livy, whose very words are frequently employ- 
ed. With regard to the compiler we know 
nothing. The style is tolerably pure, but does 
not belong to the Augustan age. The best edi- 
tions are by Scheffer, Amst., 1679 ; by Ouden- 
dorp, Lugd. Bat., 1720; [and by Kapp, Curias 
Regn., 1772.] 

Obucola, ObucGla, or Obulcula (now Mon- 
clova), a town in Hispania Baetica, on the road 
from Hispalis to Emerita and Corduba. 

Obulco (now Porcuna), surnamed Pontifi- 
cense, a Roman municipium in Hispania Bae- 
tica, three hundred stadia from Corduba. 

Ocalea ('Q.na'kea, 'SluaXer], also 'QKaXua, 'Slna- 
"kiai : 'QitaXevc), an ancient town in Boeotia, be- 
tween Haliartus and Alalcomenae, situated on 
a river of the same name falling into the Lake 
Copais, and at the foot of the mountain Tilphu- 
sion. 

[Ocalea ('Qt<d?.eia), daughter of Mantineus, 
wife of Abas, and mother of Acrisius and Prce- 
tus.] 

[Occia, a vestal virgin, who died in the reign 
of Tiberius, A. D. 19, after discharging the duties 
of her priesthood for the long period of fifty- 
seven years.] , 

563 



0CEAN1DES. 



OCTAVIA. 



Oceanides. Vid. Nymphs. 

Oceanos ('Queavoc), in the oldest Greek poets, ] 
is the god of the water which was believed to I 
surround the whole earth, and which was sup- ' 
posed to be the source of all the rivers and j 
other waters of the world. This water-god, in 
the Thcogony of Hesiod, is the son of Heaven 
and Earth (Ovpavoc and Tala), the husband of i 
Tethys, and the father of all the river-gods and 
water-nymphs of the whole earth. He is in- 
troduced in person in the Prometheus of JEs- 
chylus. As to the physical idea attached by the 
early Greeks to the word, it seems that they 
regarded the earth as a flat circle, which was en- 
compassed by a river perpetually flowing round 
it. and this river was Oceanus. (This notion 
<s ridiculed by Herodotus.) Out of and into 
this river the sun and the stars were supposed 
to rise and set ; and on its banks were the 
abodes of the dead. From this notion it natu- 
rally resulted that, as geographical knowledge 
advanced, the name was applied to the great 
outer waters of the earth, in contradistinction 
to the inner seas, and especially to the Atlantic, 
or the sea without the Pillars of Hercules {ji 
efu &aka.TTa, Mare Exterius), as distinguished 
from the Mediterranean, or the sea within that 
limit (fi tvrbc ddXarra, Mare Internum) ; and 
thus the Atlantic is often called simply Ocea- 
nus. The epithet Atlantic (r) 'ArAaim/t^ d-a- 
laaaa, Herod., 6 'A. irovroc, Eurip. ; Atlanti- 
cum Mare) was applied to it from the mythical 
position of Atlas being on its shores. The 
other great waters which were denoted by the 
same term are described under their specific 
names. 

Ocelis ("Onri'kte : now GheL:), a celebrated 
harbor and emporium at the southwestern point 
of Arabia Felix, just at the entrance to the Red 
Sea. 

Ocellus Lucanus, a Pythagorean philoso- 
pher, was a native of some Greek city in Lu- 
cania, but we have no particulars of his work. 
We have still extant under his name a consid- 
erable fragment of a work, entitled, " On the 
Nature of the Whole" (rcepl rr}c too ivavrbc 
<f>vcioc), written in the Ionic dialect ; but it is 
much disputed whether it is a genuine work. 
In this work the author maintains that the 
whole (to Tvav, or 6 Koofioc) had no beginning, 
and will have no end. Edited by Rudolphi, 
Lips., 1801-8 ; [and by Mullach, in the volume 
entitled Aristotelis de Melisso, Xenophane et 
Gorgia Disputationes, &c, et Ocelli Lucani, qui 
fertur, de universa natura libello, Berlin, 1846.] 

Ocelum. 1. A town in the northeast of Lu- 
sitania, between the Tagus and the Durius, 
whose inhabitants, the Ocelenses, also bore the 
name of Lancienses. — 2. (Now Ucello or Uxeau), 
a town in the Cottian Alps, was the last place 
in Cisalpine Gaul before entering the territories 
of King Cottius. 

Ocha ("0^??), the highest mountain in Eubcea, 
was in the south of the island, near Carystus, 
running out into the promontory Caphareus. 

[Ochesius ('0^'!j(j£Of), an -Etolian prince, fa- 
ther of Periphas, who was slain in the Trojan 
war.] 

Ochus. Vid. Artaxerxes III. 
Ochus ("O^of, 'Qx°c), a great river of Central 
Asia, flowing from the northern side of the Par- 
564 * 



opamisus (now Hindoo Koosh), accoiding to 
Strabo, through Hyrcania, into the Caspian • 
according to Pliny and Ptolemy, through Bac- 
tria, into the Oxus. Some suppose it to be 
only another name for the Oxus. In the Pehlvi 
dialect the word denotes a river in general. 

[Ocnus, a son of Tibc-ris and Manto, and the 
reputed founder of Mantua, which he is said to 
haye named after his mother.] 

[Ocra ("0/tpo), a branch of the Alps in Nori- 
cum ; according to Strabo, the lowest part of the 
Carnic Alps, between Aquileia and Nauportus, 
over which a commercial road passed from Italy 
to the north.] 

OcricOlum (Ocriculanus : ruins near Otricoli), 
an important municipium in Umbria, situated on 
the Tiber, near its confluence with the Nar, and 
on the Via Flaminia, leading from Rome to 
Narnia, &c. There are ruins of an aqueduct, 
an amphitheatre and temples near the modern 
Otricoli. 

[OcrInum Promontorium (now Cape Lizard). 
Vid. Damnonii.] 

Ocrisia or Oclisia, mother of Servius Tul 
lius. For details, vid. Tullius. 

[Octacilius. Vid. Otacilius.] 

Oct! via. 1 . Sister of the Emperor Aegustus, 
was married first to CMarcellus, consul, B.C. 
50, and subsequently, upon the death of the 
latter, to Antony, the triumvir, in 40. This 1 
marriage was regarded as the harbinger of a 
lasting peace. Augustus was warmly attached 
to his sister, and she possessed all the charms 
and virtues likely to secure a lasting influence 
over the mind of a husband. Her beauty was \ 
universally allowed to be superior to that of 
Cleopatra, and her virtue was such as to excite 
admiration in an age of growing licentiousness 
and corruption. For a time Antony seemed to 
forget Cleopatra ; but he soon became tired of 
his virtuous wife, and upon his return to the 
East he forbade her to follow hjm. When at 
length the war broke out between Antony and 
Augustus, Octavia was divorced by her hus- 
band ; but, instead of resenting the insults she 
had received from him, she brought up with 
care his children by Fulvia and Cleopatra. She 
died B.C. 11. Octavia had five children, three 
by Marcellus, a son and two daughters, and two 1 
by Antony, both daughters. Her son, M. Mar- 
cellus, was adopted by Augustus, and was des- 
tined to be his successor, but died in 23. Vid. 
Marcellus, No. 9. The descendants of her 
two daughters by Antonius successively ruled 
the Roman world. The elder of them marri- 
ed L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and became the 
grandmother of the Emperor Nero ; the young- 
er of them married Drusus, the brother of the 
Emperor Tiberius, and became the mother of 
the Emperor Claudius, and the grandmother of 
the Emperor Caligula. Vid. Antonia. — 2. The 
daughter of the Emperor Claudius, by his third 
wife, Valeria Messalina, was born about A.D. 
42. She was at first betrothed by Claudius to 
L. Silanus, who put an end to his life, as Agrip- 
pina had destined Octavia to be the wife of her 
son, afterward the Emperor Nero. She was 
married to Nero in A.D. 53, but was soon de- 
serted by her young and profligate husband for 
Poppa;a Sabina. After living with the latter as 
his mistress for come time, he resolved to re- 



OCTAVIANUS. 



ODOACER. 



cognize her as his legal wife ; and accordingly, 
he divorced Octavia on the alleged ground of 
sterility, and then married Poppaaa, A.D. 62. 
Shortly afterward, Octavia was falsely accused 
of adultery, and was banished to the little isl- 
and of Pandataria^ where she was put to death. 
Her untimely end excited general commisera- 
tion. Octavia is the heroine of a tragedy 
found among the works of Seneca, but the au- 
thor of which was more probably Curiatius Ma- 
tern us. 

Octavianus. Vid. Augustus. 

Octavius. 1. Cn., surnamed Rufus, quaes- 
tor about B.C. 230, may be regarded as the 
founder of the family. The Octavii originally 
came from the Volscian town of Velitree, where 
a street and an altar bore the name of Octavius. 
— 2. Cn., son of No. 1, plebeian ajdile 206, and 
praetor 205, when he obtained Sardinia as his 
province. He was actively employed during 
the remainder of the second Punic war, and he 
was present at the battle of Zama. — 3. Cn., son 
of No. 2, was praetor 168, and had the command 
of the fleet in the war against Perseus. He 
was consul 165. In 162 he was one of three 
ambassadors sent into Syria, but was assassin- 
ated at Laodicea by a Greek of the name of 
Leptines, at the instigation, as was supposed, 
of Lysias, the guardian of the young king An- 
tiochus V. A statue of Octavius was placed 
on the rostra at Rome, where it was in the time 
of Cicero. — 4. Cn., son of No. 3, consul 128. — 
5. M., perhaps younger son of No. 3, was the 
colleague of Tib. Gracchus in the tribunate of 
the plebs, 133, when he opposed his tribunitian 
veto to the passing of the agrarian law. He 
was, in consequence, deposed from his office 
by Tib. Gracchus. — 6. Cn., a supporter of the 
aristocratical party, was consul 87 with L. 
Cornelius Cinna. After Sulla's departure from 
Italy, in order to carry on the war against Mith- 
radates, a vehement contest arose between the 
two consuls, which ended in the expulsion of 
Cinna from the city, and his being deprived of 
the consulship. Cinna soon afterward returned 
at the head of a powerful army, and accompa- 
nied by Marius. Rome was compelled to sur- 
render, and Octavius was one of the first vic- 
tims in the massacres that followed. His head 
was cut off and suspended on the rostra. — 7. 
L., son of No. 6, consul 75, died in 74, as pro- 
consul of Cilicia, and was succeeded in the com- 
mand of the province by L. Lucullus. — 8. Cn., 
grandson of No. 4, consul 76. — 9. M., son of No. 
8, was curule aedile 50, along with M. Caelius. 
On the breaking out of the civil war in 49, Oc- 
tavius espoused the aristocratical party, and 
served as legate to M. Bibulus, who had the 
supreme command of thePompeian fleet. After 
the battle of Pharsalia, Octavius sailed to Illy ri- 
cum ; but, having been driven out of this coun- 
try (47) by Caesar's legates, he fled to Africa. 
He was present at the battle of Actium (31), 
when he commanded part of Antony's fleet. — 
10. O, younger son of No. 1, and the ancestor 
of Augustus, remained a simple Roman eques, 
without attempting to rise any higher in the 
state. — 11. C, son of No. 10, and great-grand- 
father of Augustus, lived in the time of the sec- 
ond Purnc war, in which he served as tribune 
of the soldiers He was present at the battle 



of Cannae (216), and was one of the few who 
survived the engagement. — 12. C, son of No. 
11, and grandfather of Augustus, lived quietly 
at his villa at Velitrae, without aspiring to the 
dignities of the Roman state. — 13. C, son of 
No. 12, and father of Augustus, was praetor 61, 
and in the following year succeeded C. Anto- 
nius in the government of Macedonia, which he 
administered with equal integrity and energy. 
He returned to Italy in 59, died the following 
year, 58, at Nola, in Campania, in the very 
same room in which Augustus afterward breath- 
ed his last. By his second wife Atia, Octavius 
had a daughter and a son, the latter of whom 
was subsequently the Emperor Augustus. Vid. 
Augustus. — 14. L., a legate of Pompey in the 
war against the pirates, 67, was sent by Pom- 
pey into Crete to supersede Q. Metellus in the 
command of the island ; but Metellus refused 
to surrender the command to him. Vid. Me- 
tellus, No. 16. 

Octavius Balbus. Vid. Balbus. 

Octoduhus (Octodurensis : now Martigny), a 
town of the Veragri in the country of the Hel- 
vetii, is situated in a valley surrounded by lofty 
mountains, and on the River Brance, near the 
spot where it flows into the Rhone. The an- 
cient town, like the modern one, was divided 
by the Drance into two parts. The inhabitants 
had the Jus Latii. 

Octogesa, a town of the Ilergetes in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, near the Iberus, probably 
south of the Sicoris. 

Octolophus, a place of uncertain site, in the 
north of Thessaly or the south of Macedonia. 

Ocypete. Vid. Harpyi^e. 

Ocyroe CSlnvpoT]). 1. One of the daughters 
of Oceanus and Tethys. — 2. Daughter of the 
centaur Chiron, possessed the gift of prophecy, 
and is said to have been changed into a mare. 

Odenathus, the ruler of Palmyra, checked the 
victorious career of the Persians after the de- 
feat and capture of Valerian, A.D. 260, and drove 
Sapor out of Syria. In return for these serv- 
ices, Gallienus bestowed upon Odenathus the 
title of Augustus. Odenathus was soon after- 
ward murdered by some of his relations, not 
without the consent, it is said, of his wife Ze- 
nobia, 266. He was succeeded by Zenobia. 

Odessus ('OdTjaaog: 'OS7jactT7]c,'06j]ac!£{'(). 1. 
(Now Varna), also palled Odyssus and Odissus 
at a later time, a Greek town in Thracia (in the 
later Moesia Inferior), on the Pontus Euxinus, 
nearly due east of Marcianopolis, was founded 
by the Milesians in the territory of the Crobyzi 
in the reign of Astyages, king of Media (B.C. 
594-559). The town possessed a good harbor, 
and carried on an extensive commerce. — 2. A 
sea-port in Sarmatia Europaea, on the north of 
the Pontus Euxinus and on the River Sangari- 
us, west, of Olbia and the mouth of the Borys- 
thenes. It was some distance northeast of the 
modern Odessa. 

[Odites. 1. A centaur, slain byMopsus. — 2. 
An ^Ethiopian, slain by Clymenus at the nup- 
tials of Perseus.] 

[Odius ("O&of). 1. The leader of the Hali- 
zones, who were in alliance with the Trojans, 
was slain by Agamemnon before Troy. — 2. A 
herald in the camp of the Greeks before Troy.] 

Odoacer, usually called king of the Heruli, 
565 



ODOMANTICE. 



CEDIPUS. 



was the leader of the barbarians who overthrew 
the Western empire, A.D. 476. He took the 
title of king of Italy, and reigned till his power 
was overthrown by Theodoric, king of the Goths. 
Odoacer was defeated in three decisive battles 
by Theodoric (489-490), and then took refuge in 
Ravenna, where he was besieged for three years. 
He at last capitulated on condition that he and 
Theodoric should be joint kings of Italy ; but 
Odoacer was soon afterward murdered by his 
rival. 

Odomantice ('OdofiavTiKr/), a district in the 
northeast of Macedonia, between the Strymon 
and the Nestus, inhabited by theThracian tribe 
of the Odomanti or Odomantes. 

Odrys^ ('O6pvoai), the most powerful people 
in Thrace, dwelt, according to Herodotus, on 
both sides of the River Artiscus, a tributary of 
the Hebrus, but also spread further west over 
the whole plain of the Hebrus. Soon after the 
Persian wars, Teres, king of the Odrysae, ob- 
tained the sovereignty over several of the other 
Thracian tribes, and extended his dominions as 
far as the Black Sea. He was succeeded by 
his son Sitalces, who became the master of al- 
most the whole of Thrace. His empire com- 
prised all the territory from Abdera to the 
mouths of the Danube, and from Byzantium to 
the sources of the Strymon ; and it is describ- 
ed by Thucydides as the greatest of all the 
kingdoms between the Ionian Gulf and the 
Euxine, both in revenue and opulence. Sital- 
ces assisted the Athenians in the Peloponne- 
sian war against Perdiccas, king of Macedonia. 
Vid. Sitalces. He died B.C. 424, and was suc- 
ceeded by his nephew Seuthes I. On the death 
of the latter, about the end of the Peloponnesian 
war, the power of the Odrysae declined. For 
the subsequent history of the Odrysse, vid. Thra- 

CIA. 

[Odrysses CO.Spva<jt](;), a tributary of the 
Rhyndacus, in Mysia.] 

Odyssea ('OivcaEia), a town of Hispania Bae- 
tica, situated north of Abdera, amid the mount- 
ains of Turdetania, with a temple of Minerva 
(Athena), said to have been built by Odysseus 
(Ulysses). Its position is quite uncertain. Some 
of the ancients supposed it to be the same as 
Olisipo. 

Odysseus. Vid. Ulysses. 

CEa ('Eua, Ptol. : OEensis : ruins at Tripoli?), 
a city on the northern coast of Africa, in the 
Rogio Syrtica (i. c, between the Syrtes), was 
one of the three cities of the African Tripolis, 
and, under the Romans, a colony by the name 
of iElia Augusta Felix. It had a mixed popu- 
lation of Libyans and Sicilians. 

03a (Ola), a town in the island of ^Egina, 
twenty stadia from the capital. 

OEagrus orO^AOER (Olaypoc), king of Thrace, 
was the father, by the muse Calliope, of Or- 
pheus and Linus. Hence the sisters of Orpheus 
are called (Eagrides, in the sense of the Muses. 
The adjective CEagrius is also used by the poets 
as equivalent to Thracian. Hence CEagrius 
Hcemus, CEagrius Hebrus, &C. 

CEanthe or OSanthia (Oiavdrj, Oidvdeta : Oiav- 
tievc '■ now Galaxidhi), a town of the Locri Ozolae 
on the coast, near the entrance of the Crissaean 
Gulf. 

G2aso or CEasso (now Oyarzun), a town of 
566 



the Vascones, on the northern coast of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, situated on a promontory of the 
same name, and on the River Magrada. 

03ax (Oiaf), son ofNauplius and Clymene,< ; 
and brother of Palamedes and Nausimedon. 

[03balides, CEbalis. Vid. CEbalus.] 

OEbalus (OUjaloc). 1. Son of Cynortas, hus- 
band of Gorgophone, and father ofTyndareus, 
Pirene, and Arene, was king of Sparta, where he 
was afterward honored with a heroum. Ac- 
cording to others, he was son of Perieres and 
grandson of Cynortas, and was married to the 
nymph Batea, by whom he had several children. 
The patronymic (Ebalides is not only applied to 
his descendants, but to the Spartans generally, 
as Hyacinthus, Castor, Pollux, &c. The femi- 
nine patronymic CEbalis and the adjective CEba- 
lius are applied in the same way. Hence Helen 
is called by the poets CEbalis and (Ebalia pcllex; 
the city of Tarentum is termed (Ebalia an; be- 
cause it was founded by the Lacedaemonians ; 
and since the Sabines were, according to one 
tradition, a Lacedaemonian colony, we find the 
Sabine king Titus Tatius named (Ebalius Titus, 
and the Sabine women CEbalides matres. (Ov., 
Fast., i., 260 ; iii., 2:30.)— 2. Son of Telon, by a 
nymph of the stream Sebethus, near Naples, 
ruled in Campania. 

[GEbares (Oc6dpj]c). 1. A groom of Darius 
Hystaspis, who by a stratagem secured the Per- 
sian throne for his master, after the assassina- 
tion of Smerdis. — 2. Son of Megabazus, was 
viceroy of Dascyleum, in Bithynia, in the reign 
of Darius Hystaspis.] 

CEciiaua (OlxaXla : OixaTiitvg, Oi^aAiwr^c)- 
1. A town in Thessaly, on the Peneus, neai 
Tricca. — 2. A town in Thessaly, belonging to 
the territory of Trachis. — 3. A town in Messenia, 
on the frontier of Arcadia, identified by Pau 
sanias with Carnasium, by Strabo with Anda 
nia. — 4. A town of Euboea, in the district Ere 
tria. The ancients were divided in opinion 
which of these places was the residence of Eu- 
rytus, whom Hercules defeated and slew. The 
original legend probably belonged to the Thes- 
salian GEchalia, and was thence transferred to 
the other towns. 

OEcumenIus (0'iKovfievtoc), bishop of Tricca, 
in Thessaly, a Greek commentator on various 
parts of the New Testament, probably flourished 
about A.D. 950. He has the reputation of a 
judicious commentator, careful in compilation, 
modest in offering his own judgment, and neat 
in expression. Most of his commentaries were 
published at Paris, 1631. 

CEdipus (Oldinovc), son of Laius and Jocasif 
of Thebes. The tragic fate of this hero is moro 
celebrated than that of any other legendary per- 
sonage, on account of the frequent use which 
the tragic poets have made of it. In their hands 
it underwent various changes and embellish- 
ments, but the common story ran as follows : 
Laius, son of Labdacus, was king of Thebes, 
and husband of Jocaste, a daughter of Menre- 
ceus, and sister of Creon. An oracle had in- 
formed Laius that he was destined to perish by 
the hands of his own son. Accordingly, when 
Jocaste gave birth to a son, they pierced his 
feet, bound them together, and exposed the 
child on Mount Cithaeron. There he was found 
by a shepherd of King Polybus of Corinth, and 



CEDIPUS. 



CENIDES. 



was called from his swollen feetCEdipus Hav- 
ing been carried to the palace, the king and his 
wffe Me rope (or Periboea) brought him up as 
their own child. Once, however, CEdipus was 
taunted by a Corinthian with not being the 
/uncr"s son, whereupon he proceeded to Delphi 
to consult the oracle. The oracle replied that 
he was destined to slay his father and commit 
incest with his mother. Thinking that Polybus 
was his father, he resolved not to return to 
Corinth ; but on his road between Delphi and 
Daulis he met his real father Laius. Poly- 
phontes, the charioteer of Laius, bade CEdipus 
make way for them, whereupon a scuffle en- 
sued, in which CEdipus slew both Laius and his 
eharioteer. In the mean time, the celebrated 
Sphinx had appeared in the neighborhood of 
Thebes. Seated on a rock, she put a riddle to 
every Theban that passed by, and whoever was 
unable to solve it was killed by the monster. 
This calamity induced the Thebans to proclaim 
that whoever should deliver the country of the 
Sphinx should be made king, and should re- 
ceive Jocaste as his wife. CEdipus came for- 
ward, and when he approached the Sphinx she 
gave the riddle as follows : " A being with four 
feet has two feet and three feet, and only one 
voice ; but its feet vary, and when it has most 
it is weakest." CEdipus solved the riddle by 
saying that it was man, who in infancy crawls 
upon all fours, in manhood stands erect upon 
two feet, and in old age supports his tottering 
legs with a staff. The Sphinx, enraged at the 
solution of the riddle, thereupon threw herself 
down from the rock. CEdipus now obtained the 
kingdom of Thebes, and married his mother, by 
whom he became the father of Eteocles, Poly- 
nices, Antigone, and Ismene. In consequence 
of this incestuous alliance, of which no one was 
aware, the country o£ Thebes was visited by a 
plague. The oracle, on being consulted, or- 
dered that the murderer of Laius should be ex- 
pelled. CEdipus accordingly pronounced a sol- 
emn curse upon the unknown murderer, and 
declared him an exile ; but when he endeavored 
to discover him, he was informed by the seer 
Tiresias that he himself was both the parricide 
and the husband of his mother. Jocaste now 
hung herself, and CEdipus put out his own eyes. 
From this point traditions differ ; for, according 
to some, CEdipus in his blindness was expelled 
from Thebes by his sons and brother-in-law, Cre- 
on, who undertook the government, and he was 
accompanied by Antigone in his exile to Attica ; 
while, according to others, he was imprisoned by 
his sons at Thebes, in order that his disgrace 
might remain concealed from the eyes of the 
world. The father now cursed his sons, who 
agreed to rule over Thebes alternately, but be- 
came involved in a dispute, in consequence of 
which they fought in single combat, and slew 
each other. Hereupon Creon succeeded to the 
throne, and expelled CEdipus. After long wan- 
derings, CEdipus arrived in the grove of the Eu- 
menides, near Colonus, in Attica ; he was there 
honored by Theseus in his misfortune, and, ac- 
cording to an oracle, the Eumenides removed 
him from the earth, and no one was allowed to 
approach his tomb. According to Homer, CEdi- 
pus, tormented by the Erinnyes of his mother, 
continued to reign at Thebes after her death ; 



he fel. in battle, and was honored at Thebes 
with funeral solemnities. 

[CEnanthe (Oivavdij), mother of Agathocles, 
the infamous minister of Ptolemy Philopator, 
and of Agathoclea, through whom she possessed 
great influence with the king. After the ac- 
cession of Epiphanes, she, with her family, was 
given up to the multitude, and by them torn to 
pieces.] 

(Eneon (OIveuv : Oiveavevc;), a sea-port town 
of the Locri Ozola;, east of Naupactus. 

CEneus (Olvevg), son of Portheus, husband of 
Althaea, by whom he became the father of Ty- 
deus and Meleager, and was thus the grandfa- 
ther of Diomedes. He was king of Pleuron and 
Calydon in ^Etolia. This is Homer's account; 
but, according to later authorities, he was the 
son of Porthaon and Euryte, and the father of 
Toxeus, whom he himself killed, Thyreus (Phe- 
reus), Clymenus, Periphas, Agelaus, Meleager, 
Gorge, Eurymede, Melanippe, Mothone, and 
Deianira. His second wife was Melanippe, the 
daughter of Hipponous, by whom he hadTydeus, 
according to some accounts ; though, according 
to others, Tydeus was his son by his own daugh- 
ter Gorge. He is said to have been deprived 
of his kingdom by the sons of his brother Agri- 
us, who imprisoned and ill used him. He was 
subsequently avenged by Diomedes, who slew 
Agrius and his sons, and restored the kingdom 
either to CEneus himself, or to his son-in-law 
Andraemon, as CEneus was too old. Diomedes 
took his grandfather with him to Peloponnesus, 
but some of the sons, who lay in ambush, slew 
the old man near the altar of Telephus in Ar- 
cadia. Diomedes buried his body at Argos, and 
named the town of CEnoe after him. According 
to others, CEneus lived to extreme old age with 
Diomedes at Argos, and died a natural death. 
Homer knows nothing of all this ; he merely re- 
lates that CEneus once neglected to sacrifice to 
Diana (Artemis), in consequence of which she 
sent a monstrous boar into the territory of Ca- 
lydon, which was hunted by Meleager. The 
hero Bellerophon was hospitably entertained by 
CEneus, and received from him a costly girdle 
as a present. 

CEniaDjE {Oiviadai : now Trigardon or Trikh- 
ardo), an ancient town of Acarnania, situated 
on the Achelous, near its mouth, and surrounded 
by marshes caused by the overflowing of the 
river, which thus protected it from hostile at- 
tacks. It was called in ancient times Erysiche 
('Epilog), and its inhabitants Erysich^ei ('Epn- 
aixaioi) ; and it probably derived its-later name 
from the mythical CEneus, the grandfather of 
Diomedes. Unlike the other cities of Acar- 
nania, CEniadae espoused the cause of the Spar- 
tans in the Peloponnesian war. At the time 
of Alexander the Great, the town was taken by 
the .<Etolians, who expelled the inhabitants ; but 
the Aetolians were expelled in their turn by 
Philip V., king of Macedonia, who surrounded 
the place with strong fortifications. The Ro- 
mans restored the town to the Acarnanians. 
The fortress Nesus or Nasus, belonging to the 
territory of CEniadae, was situated in a small 
lake near CEniadae. 

CEnides, a patronymic from CEneus, and hence 
given to Meleager, the son of CEneus, and Dio- 
medes, the grandson of CEneus. 

567 



CENO. 



CENUSSA. 



[CEno (Olvu).' Vid. Anics.] 

CEnoanda orCENEANDA,a town ofAsiaMinor, 
in the northwest of Pisidia, or the district of 
Cabalia, subject to Cibyra. 

[CEnoatis (O'lvuuTie), a surname of Diana (Ar- 
temis), who was worshipped in Argolic CEnoe, 
where a temple was said to have been built to 
her by Prcetus.] 

CEnobaras (Oivo6dpac), a tributary of the 
Orontes, flowing through the plain of Antioch, 
in Syria. 

CEnoe {Olvorj : Olvoaiof). 1. Ademus ofAttica, 
belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, near Eleu- 
therae, on the frontiers of Bceotia, frequently 
mentioned in the Peloponnesian war. — 2. A de- 
mus of Attica, near Marathon, belonging to the 
tribe Aiantis, and also to the Tetrapolis. — 3. A 
fortress of the Corinthians, on the Corinthian 
Gulf, between the promontory Olmiae and the 
frontier of Megaris. — 4. A town in Argolis, on 
the Arcadian frontier, at the foot of Mount Ar- 
temisium. — 5. A town in Elis, near the mouth 
of the Selleis.— 6. A town in the island Icarus 
or Icaria. 

CEnomaus (Oivo/iaoc). 1. King of Pisa in 
Elis, was son of Mars (Ares) and Harpinna, the 
daughter of Asopus, and husband of the Pleiad 
Sterope, by whom he became the father of Hip- 
podamia. According to others, he was a son 
of Mars (Ares) and Sterope, or a son of Alxion. 
An oracle had declared that he should perish by 
the hands of his son-in-law ; and as his horses 
were swifter than those of any other mortal, he 
declared that all who came forward as suitors 
for Hippodamia's hand should contend with him 
in the chariot-race ; that whoever conquered 
should receive her ; and that whoever was con- 
quered should suffer death. The race-course 
extended from Pisa to the altar of Neptune (Po- 
seidon), on the Corinthian Isthmus. The suitor 
started with Hippodamia in a chariot, and CEno- 
maus then hastened with his swift horses after 
the lovers. He had overtaken and slain many 
a suitor, when Pelops, the son of Tantalus, came 
to Pisa. Pelops bribed Myrtilus, the charioteer 
of CEnomaus, to take out the linch-pins from 
the wheels of his master's chariot, and he re- 
ceived from Neptune (Poseidon) a golden char- 
iot and most rapid horses. In the race which 
followed, the chariot of CEnomaus broke down, 
and he fell out and was killed. Thus Pelops 
obtained Hippodamia and the kingdom of Pisa. 
There are some variations in this story, such 
as that CEnomaus was himself in love with 
his daughter, and for this reason slew her lov- 
ers. Myrtilus also is said to have loved Hip- 
podamia, and, as she favored the suit of Pe- 
lops, she persuaded Myrtilus to take the linch- 
pins out of the wheels of her father's chariot. 
As CEnomaus was breathing his last, he pro- 
nounced a curse upoi. Myrtilus. This curse 
had its desired effect ; for, as Pelops refused to 
give to Myrtilus the reward he had promised, 
or as Myrtilus had attempted to dishonor Hip- 
podamia, Pelops thrust him down from Cape 
Geraestus. Myrtilus, while dying, likewise pro- 
nounced a curse upon Pelops, which was the 
cause of all the calamities that afterward befell 
his house. The tomb of CEnomaus was shown 
on the River Cladeus in Elis. His house was 
destroyed by lightning, and only one pillar of it 
568 



remained standing. — [2. A Trojan hero, slain by 
Idomeneus before Troy. — 3. A Grecian hero, 
slain by Hector.] — 4. pf Gadara, a Cynic philos- 
opher, who flourished in the reign of Hadrian 
or somewhat later, but before Porphyry. He 
wrote a work to expose the oracles, of which 
considerable fragments are preserved by Euse- 
bius. — 5. A tragic poet. Vid. Diogenes, No. 5. 

CEnone (Oivuvjj), daughter of the river-god 
Cebren, and wife of Paris, before he carried 
off Helen. Vid. Paris. 

CEnone or CEnopia, the ancient name of 
^Egina. 

CEnophyta (ru OivofivTa: now Inia), a town 
in Boeotia, on the left bank of the Asopus, and 
on the road from Tanagra to Oropus, memor- 
able for the victory gained here by the Atheni- 
ans over the Boeotians, B.C. 456. 

CEnopides {Olvoitidrft ), of Chios, a distinguish- 
ed astronomer and mathematician, perhaps a 
contemporary of Anaxagoras. CEnopides de- 
rived most of his astronomical knowledge from 
the priests and astronomers of Egypt, with 
whom he lived for some time. He obtained 
from this source his knowledge of the obliquity 
of the ecliptic, the discovery of which he is said 
to have claimed. The length of the solar year 
was fixed by CEnopides at three hundred and 
sixty-five days, and somewhat less than nine 
hours. He is said to have discovered the 
twelfth and twenty-third propositions of the 
first book of Euclid, and the quadrature of the 
meniscus. 

[CEnopia, ancient name of iEgina. Vid. 
^Egina.] 

CEnopion (OivoTviuv), son of Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus) and husband of the nymph Helice, by 
whom he became the father of Thalus, Euan- 
thes, Melas, Salagus, Athamas, and Merope, 
Aerope or Haero. Some writers call CEnopion 
a son of Rhadamanthys* by Ariadne, and a 
brother of Staphylus. From Crete he migrated 
with his sons to Chios, which Rhadamanthys 
had assigned to him as his habitation. When 
king of Chios, the giant Orion sued for the 
hand of his daughter Merope. As CEnopion re-, 
fused to give her to Orion, the latter violated 
Merope, whereupon CEnopion put out his eyes, 
and expelled him from the island. Orion went 
to Lemnos ; he was afterward cured of his 
blindness, and returned to Chios to take ven- 
geance on CEnopion. But the latter was not 
to be found in Chios, for his friends had con- 
cealed him in the earth, so that Orion, unable 
to discover him, went to Crete. 

CEnotri, CEnotria. Vid. Italia. 

CEnotrIdes, two small islands in the Tyr- 
rhene Sea, off the coast of Lucania, and oppo- 
site the town of Elea or Velia and the mouth 
of the Helos. 

CEnotrop^e. Vid. Anius. 

CEnotrus (OlvuTpoc), youngest son of Ly- 
caon, emigrated with a colony from Arcadia to 
Italy, and gave the name of CEnotria to the 
district in which he settled. 

CEnOs (Oii/ot'f : now Kclcsina), a river in La- 
conia, rising on the frontier of Arcadia, and 
flowing into the Eurotas north of Sparta. 
There was a town of the same name upon this 
river, celebrated for its wine. 

CEnus»je {Oivovcoai, Olvoioat.). 1. A group 



(EOBAZUS. 

of islands lying off the southern point of Mes- 
senia, opposite to the port of Phoenicus : the 
two largest of them are now called Sapicnza 
and Cabrera. — 2. (Now Spalmadori or Egonuses), 
a group of five islands between Chios and the 
coast of Asia Minor. 

[CEobazus (O'wSafa). 1. A Persian, who, 
when Darius Hystaspis was on the point of 
marching from Susa on his Scythian expedi- 
tion, besought him to leave him one of his three 
sons, all of whom were in the army. Darius 
ordered them all three to be put to death. — 2. 
Father of Siromitres, who led the Paricanians 
in the Greek expedition of Xerxes. — 3. A noble 
Persian, who, when the Greek fleet appeared 
in the Hellespont after the battle of Mycale, 
fled from Cardia to Sestus ; he afterward fell 
into the hands of the Thracians, and was by 
them sacrified to their god Pleistorus.] 

[CEolycus (O'toTivicos), a son of Theras of 
Sparta, and brother of jfigeus, was honored at 
Sparta with a heroum.] 

CEonus (Oiuvoc), son of Licymnius of Midea 
in Argolis, first victor at Olympia in the foot- 
race. He is said to have been killed at Sparta 
by the sons of Hippocoon, but was avenged by 
Hercules, whose kinsman he was, and was hon- 
ored with a monument near the temple of Her- 
cules. 

Oeroe CQepori), an island in Bceotia, formed 
by the River Asopus, and opposite Plataeae. 

[GEsalces, brother of Gala, king of the Nu- 
midian tribe of the Massylians, whom he suc- 
ceeded on the throne, according to the Numid- 
ian law of inheritance.] 

(Escus (now Isker or Esker), called Oscius 
('Oaxioc) by Thucydides, and Scius (2/dof) by 
Herodotus, a river in Moesia, which rises in 
Mount Scomius according to Thucydides, or in 
Mount Rhodope according to Pliny, but in real- 
ity on the western slope of Mount Haemus, and 
flows into the Danube near a town of the same 
name (now Oreszovitz). 

[OEstrymnides Insula, a group of islands 
rich in tin and copper, in the Sinus CEstrymni- 
cus ; probably the same with the'CAs site rides 
(y. v.) on the coast of Britannia.] 

CEsyma (Oiavfin : Olavfialog ), called ^Esyma 
-\lavjxri) by Homer {II., viii., 304), an ancient 
town in Thrace, between the Strymon and the 
Nestus, a colony of the Thasians. 

OEta (Oirn, to. Qlraiov ovpea : now Kata- 
vothra), a rugged pile of mountains in the south 
of Thessaly, an eastern branch of Mount Pin- 
dus, extended south of Mount Othrys along the 
southern bank of the Sperchius to the Maliac 
Gulf at Thermopylae, thus forming the northern 
barrier of Greece. Strabo and Livy give the 
name of Callidromus to the eastern part of 
CEta, an appellation which does not occur in 
Herodotus and the earlier writers. Respecting 
the pass of Mount (Eta, vid. Thermopylae. 
CEta was celebrated in mythology as the mount- 
ain on which Hercules burned himself to death. 
From this mountain the south of Thessaly bor- 
dering on Phocis was called CEt^ea (Oiraia), 
and its inhabitants CEtjei (Oiraioi). 

CEtylus (OZruAof: OirvXioc : now Vitylo), 
also called Tylus (Tv"koc), an ancient town in 
Laconia, on the Messenian Gulf, south of Thal- 
ama, called after an Argive hero of this name. 



OICLES. 

[CEitm (Olov), a mountain fortress in eastern 
Locris, lying above Opus, destroyed by an 
earthquake.] 

Ofella, a man of sound sense and of a 
straightforward character, whom Horace con- 
trasts with the Stoic quacks of his time. 

Ofella, Q. Lucretius, orignally belonged to 
the Marian party, but deserted to Sulla, who 
appointed him to the command of the army 
employed in the blockade of Praeneste, B.C. 82 
Ofella became a candidate for the consulship 
in the following year, although he had not yet 
been either quaestor or praetor, thus acting in 
defiance of one of Sulla's laws. He was, in 
consequence, put to death by Sulla's orders. 

Ofilius, a distinguished Roman jurist, was 
one of the pupils of Servius Sulpicius, and a 
friend of Cicero and Caesar. His works are 
often cited in the Digest. 

Oglasa (now Monte Christo), a small island 
off the coast of Etruria. 

Ooulnii, Q. and Cn., two brothers, tribunes 
of the plebs B.C. 300, carried a law by which 
the number of the pontiffs was increased from 
four to eight, and that of the augurs from four 
to nine, and which enacted that four of the 
pontiffs and five of the augurs should be taken 
from the plebs. Besides these eight pontiffs 
there was the pontifex maximus, who is gen- 
erally not included when the number of pontiffs 
is spoken of. 

Ogygia ('ilyvyia). 1. The mythical island of 
Calypso is placed by Homer in the navel or cen- 
tral point of the sea, far away from all lands. 
Later writers pretended to find it in the Ionian 
Sea, near the promontory Lacinium, in Brut- 
tium. — [2. Vid. Ogygus.] 

Ogygus or Ogyges ("Slyvyoc), sometimes call- 
ed a Boeotian autochthon, and sometimes sod 
of* Boeotus, and king of the Hectenes, is saio 
to have been the first ruler of the territory of 
Thebes, which was called after him Ogygia. 
In his reign the waters of Lake Copais rose 
above its banks, and inundated the whole val- 
ley of Boeotia. This flood is usually called 
after him the Ogygian. The name of Ogygus 
is also connected with Attic story, for in Attica 
an Ogygian flood is likewise mentioned, and he 
is described as the father of the Attic hero 
Eleusis, and as the father of Daira, the daugh- 
ter of Oceanus. In the Boeotian tradition he 
was the father of Alalcomenia, Thelxincea, and 
Aulis. Bacchus is called Ogygius deus because 
he is said to have been born at Thebes. 

Ogyris ("Qyvpic), an island of the Erythraean 
Sea (now Indian Ocean), off the coast of Car- 
mania, at a distance of two thousand stadia 
(two hundred geographical miles), noted as the 
alleged burial-place of the ancient king Ery- 
thras ; but vid. Oaracta. 

Oicles or Oicleus {'O'lkTl^c, 'Olnhevc), son oi 
Antiphates, grandson of Melampus, and father 
of Amphiaraus, of Argos. He is also called a 
son of Amphiaraus, or a son of Mantius, the 
brother of Antiphates. Oicles accompanied 
Hercules on his expedition against Laomedon 
of Troy, and was there slain in battle. Ac- 
cording to other traditions, he returned home 
from the expedition, and dwelt in Arcadia, 
where he was visited by his grandson Alcmae- 
on and where his tomb was shown. 

569 



OILEUS. 

Uileus ('OiAf vc ), son of Hodoedocus and Lao- 
nome, grandson of Cynns, and great-grandson 
of Opus, was a king of the Locrians, and mar- 
ried to Eriopis, by whom he became the father 
of Ajax, who is hence called O'dides, Oiliades, 
and Ajax Ollei. Oi'leus was also the father of 
Medon by Rhene. He is mentioned among the 
Argonauts. 

[Olarion or Olakionensis Insula (now 016- 
ron), an island in the Sinus Aquitanicus, on the 
west coast of Gallia.] 

Olba or Olbe ('OlBn), an ancient inland city 
of Cilicia, in the mountains above Soloe, and 
between the Rivers Lamus and Cydnus. Its 
foundation was ascribed by mythical tradition 
to Ajax the son of Teucer, whose alleged de- 
scendants, the priests of the very ancient tem- 
ple of Jupiter (Zeus), once ruled over all Cilicia 
Aspera. In later times it belonged to Isauria, 
and was the see of a bishop. 

Olbasa {'OXGaaa). 1. A city of Cilicia As- 
pera, at the foot of the Taurus, north of Seli- 
nus, and northwest of Caystrus ; not to be con- 
founded with Olba. — 2. A city in the southeast 
of Lycaonia, southwest of Cybistra, in the dis- 
trict called Antiochiana. — 3. A city in the north 
of Pisidia, between Pednelissus and Selge. 

Olbe. Vid. Olba. 

Olbia {'OXCiia). 1. (Now probably Eoubes, 
near Hieres), a colony of Massilia, on the coast 
of Gallia Narbonensis, on a hill called Olbianus, 
east of Telo Martius (now Toulon). — 2. (Now 
probably Terra Nova), a very ancient city, near 
the northern end of the eastern side of the isl- 
and of Sardinia, with the only good harbor on 
this coast, and therefore the usual landing- 
place for persons coming from Rome. A myth- 
ical tradition ascribed its foundation to the 
Thespiadae. — ■ 3. In Bithynia. Vid. Astacus. 
The Gulf of Astacus was also called from" it 
Sinus Olbianus. — 4. A fortress on the western 
frontier of Pamphylia, on the coast, west of 
the River Catarrhactes ; not improbably on the 
same site as the later Attalia. — 5. Vid. Borys- 

THENES. 

[Olbius ("OXBiog), a river in the north of Ar- 
cadia, near Pheneus, by the Arcadians also 
called Aeoanids. 1 ] 

Olcades, an ancient people in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, north of Carthago Nova, near the 
sources of the Anas, in a part of the country 
afterward inhabited by the Oretani. They are 
mentioned only in the wars of the Carthaginians 
with the inhabitants of Spain. Hannibal trans- 
planted some of the Olcades to Africa. Their 
chief towns were Althaea and Carteia, the site 
of both of which is uncertain ; the latter place 
must not be confounded with the celebrated 
Carteia in Baetica. 

Oloinium (Olciniata? : now Dulcigno), an an- 
cient town on the coast of Illyria, southwest 
of Scodra, belonging to the territory of Gentius. 

Olearus. Vid. Oliarus. 

Oleastrum. 1. A town of the Cosetani, in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Der- 
tosa to Tarraco, probably the place from which 
the plumbum Oleastrense derived its name. — 2. 
A town in Hispania Baetica, near Gades. 

Olen {'UXrjv), a mythical personage, who is 
represented as the earliest Greek lyric poet, 
and the first author of sacred hymns in hex- 
570 



OLIZON. 

ameter verse. He is closely connected with 
the worship of Apollo, of whom, in one legend, 
he was made the prophet. His connection with | 
Apollo is also marked by his being called Hy- 
perborean, and one of the establishes of or- 
acles, though the more common story made him 
a native of Lycia. He is said to have settled f 
at Delos. His name seems to signify simply 
the jlule-playcr. Of the ancient hymns which 
went under his name, Pausanias mentions those 
to Juno (Hera), to Achaei'a, and to Ilithyia ; the 
last was in celebration of the birth of Apollo 
and Diana (Artemis). 

[Olenia Rcpes ('QXevla nerpa), the Olenian I 
rock mentioned in the Iliad (ii., 617) ; according ; 
to Strabo, the summit of Mount Scollis in Acha- I 
ia, on the borders of Elis.J 

[Olennius, one of the chief centurions plac- 1 
ed in command over the Frisii ; by his harshness 'I 
he caused an insurrection of the people, from 
whose fury flight alone preserved him, B.C. 28.] [ 

Olenus {"Qltvog : 'SIIevloc). 1. An ancient I 
town in ^Etolia, near New Pleuron, and at th<- , 
foot of Mount Aracynthus, is mentioned b. 
Homer, but was destroyed by the JEtolians at 
an early period.— 2. A town in Achaia, between i 
Patrae and Dyme, refused to join the Achaean 
league on its restoration in B.C. 280. In the 
time of Strabo the town was deserted. The 
goat Amalthaea, which suckled the infant Jupi- 1 
ter (Zeus), is called Olenia capclla by the poets, 1 
either because the goat was supposed to have i 
been born near the town of Olenus, and to have 
been subsequently transferred to Crete, or be- 
cause the nymph Amalthaea, to whom the goat 
belonged, was a daughter of Olenus. 

Olgassys ('OXyaoovf : now Al-Gez Dagh), a 
lofty, steep, and rugged mountain chain of Asia > 
Minor, extending nearly west and east through j 
the east of Bithynia, and the centre of Paphla- 
gonia to the River Halys, nearly parallel to the i 
chain of Olympus, of which it may be consid 
ered as a branch. Numerous temples were ' 
built upon it by the Paphlagonians. 

Oliarus ('fflaapoc, 'QXeapoc : 'QXtapioc : now j 
Anliparos), a small island in the ^Egean Sea. | 
one of the Cyclades, west of Paros, originally j 
colonized by the Phoenicians, is celebrated in i 
modern times for its stalactite grotto, which is j 
not mentioned by ancient writers. 

Oligyrtus ('OXtyvproc), a fortress in the 
northeast of Arcadia, on a mountain of the same 
name, between Stymphalus and Caphyse. 

[Olina (now probably Ome), a small river in I 
the west of Gallia Lugdunensis, between the 
mouth of the Sequana and the promontory Go- ! 
baeum, flowing through the territory of the Vi- 
ducasses.] 

Olisipo (now Lisbon), a town in Lusitania, i 
on the right bank of the Tagus, near its mouth, 
and a Roman municipium with the surname 
Felicitas Julia. It was celebrated for its swift 
horses. Its name is sometimes written Ulys- 
sippo, because it was supposed by some to have 
been the town which Ulysses was said to have 
founded in Spain ; but the town to which this 
legend referred was situated in the mountains 
of Turdetania. 

Olizon ('O'Xi&v), a town of Thessaly, on the 
coast of Magnesia and on the Pagasaean Gulf 
mentioned by Homer. 



ULLIUS. 



OLYMPIADS. 



Ollios (now Oglio), a river in Gallia Trans- 
i padana, fails into the Po southwest of Mantua. 

[Ollius, T.J the father of Poppaea Sabina, 
was put to death toward the end of the reign 
of Tiberius.] 

OhmJK (Olfiiai), a promontory in the terri- 
tory of Corinth, which separated the Corinthian 
and Alcyonian Gulfs. 

[Oxmius ('CM/mof), a small river flowing from 
Helicon, which unites with the Permessus 
near Haliartus, and soon after falls into Lake 
i Copals.] 

Oloosson ('OXooaauv ■ '0?MoaabvLoc : now 
Elassona), a town of the Perrhaebi in Thessaly, 
in the district of Hestiaeotis. Homer {II., ii., 
739) calls it " white," an epithet which it ob- 
tained, according to Strabo, from the whiteness 
of its soil. 

Oi.ophyxus ('OAo^wfof : 'OXo(j>v^ioc), a town 
of Macedonia, on the peninsula of Mount Athos. 

[Olorus or Orolus ("Olopoc or "OpoAo?). 1. 
A king of Thrace, whose daughter, Hegesipyla, 
was married to Miltiades. — 2. Apparently grand- 
son of the above, and son of Hegesipyla, was 
probably the offspring of a second marriage con- 
tracted by her after the death of Miltiades. This 
Olorus was the father of Thucydides.] 

OxPiE or Olpe {"OXnat, 'OXnfi : 'OXxatoc). 
I: (Now Arapi), a town of the Amphilochi, in 
Acarnania, on the Ambracian Gulf, northwest of 
Argos Amphilochicum. — 2. A town of the Locri 
Ozolae. 

Olurus ("OAoupof : 'OXovpioc). 1. A town in 
Achaia, near Pellene, on the Sicyonian frontier. 
— 2. Also Oluris ("Olovpic), called Dorium 
(Awpjoi>) by Homer, a town in Messenia, south 
of the River Neda. 

Olus ('OAoOf : 'OXovvtioc), a town and harbor 
on the eastern coast of Crete, near the promon- 
tory of Zephyrium. 

Olybrius, Anicius, Roman emperor A. D. 472, 
was raised to this dignity by Ricimer, who de- 
posed Anthemius. He died in the course of the 
same year, after a reign of three months and 
thirteen days. His successor was Glycerius. 

Olympene, and Olympeni or Olympieni (OXv/z- 
~7jvr/, 'OXvfiTTTjvoc, 'OXv/nwivoi), the names of the 
district about the Mysian Olympus, and of its 
inhabitants. 

Olympia (02.v{nr't.a.), the name of a small plain 
in Elis, in which the Olympic games were cele- 
brated. It was surrounded on the north and 
northeast by the mountains Cronion and Olym- 
pus, on the south by the River Alpheus, and on 
the west by the River Cladeus. In this plain 
was the sacred grove of Jupiter (Zeus), called 
Altis ("AXtic, an old Elean form of aXaoc, a 
grove), situated at the angle formed by the con- 
fluence of the rivers Alpheus and Cladeus, and 
three hundred stadia distant from the town of 
Pisa. The Altis and its immediate neighbor- 
hood were adorned with numerous temples, 
statues, and public buildings, to which the gen- 
eral appellation of Olympiawas given ; but there 
was no town of this name. The Altis was sur- 
rounded by a wall. It contained the following 
temples : 1. The Olympieum, or temple of Jupi- 
ter (Zeus) Olympius, which was the most cele- 
brated of all the buildings at Olympia, and which 
contained the master-piece of Greek art, the co- 
ossal statue of Jupiter (Zeus) by Phidias. The 



sUtue was made of ivory and gold, anil the god 
was represented as seated on a throne of cedar- 
wood, adorned with gold, ivory, ebony, and pre- 
cious stones. Vid. Phidias. 2. The Heraum, 
or temple of Hera (Juno), which contained the 
celebrated chest of Cypselus, and was situated 
north of the Olympieum. 3. The Metroum, or 
temple of the Mother of the gods. The othei 
public buildings in the Altis most worthy of no- 
tice were the Thesauri, or treasuries of the dif 
ferent states which had sent dedicatory offer- 
ings to the Olympian Jupiter (Zeus), situated at 
the foot of Mount Cronion ; the Zanes, or statues 
of Jupiter (Zeus), which had been erected from 
fines imposed upon those who had been guilty 
of fraud or other irregularities in the Olympic 
contests, and which were placed on a stone plat- 
form near the Thesauri ; the Prytaneum, in 
which the Olympic victors dined after the con- 
tests had been brought to a close ; the Bouleu- 
terion, in which all the regulations relating to 
the games were made, and which contained a 
statue of Jupiter (Zeus) Horcius, before which 
the usual oaths were taken by the judges and 
the combatants ; the Philippeum, a circular build- 
ing of brick, surmounted with a dome, which 
was erected by Philip after the battle of Chee- 
rone3, and which was situated near one of the 
gates of the Altis, close to the Prytaneum ; the 
Hippodamium, a sacred inclosure, erected in 
honor of Hippodamia ; the Pelopium, a sacred 
inclosure, erected in honor of Pelops. The two 
chief buildings outside the Altis were the Stadi- 
um, to the east of Mount Cronion, in which the 
gymnastic games were celebrated, and the Hip- 
podromus, a little southeast of the Stadium, in 
which the chariot-races took place. At the 
place which formed the connection between the 
Stadium and Hippodromus, the Hellanodicae, oi 
judges of the Olympic games, had their seats 
For details, vid. Diet, of Anliq., arts. Hippodro 
mus and Stadium. The Olympic games were 
celebrated from the earliest times in Greece, 
and their establishment was assigned to various 
mythical personages. There was an interval 
of four years between each celebration of the 
festival, which interval was called an Olympiad ; 
but the Olympiads were not employed as a 
chronological era till the victory of Coroebus in 
the foot-race, B.C. 776. An account of the 
Olympic games and of the Olympiads is given 
in the Diet, of Antiq., arts. Olympia and Olym- 
pias. 

Olympias (OXvjj.iuuc). 1. Wife of Philip II., 
king of Macedonia, and mother of Alexander the 
Great, was the daughter of Neoptolemus I., 
king of Epirus. She was married to Philip B.C. 
359. The numerous amours of Philip, and the 
passionate and jealous character of Olympias, 
occasioned frequent disputes between them ; 
and when Philip married Cleopatra, the niece 
of Attalus (337), Olympias withdrew from Mace- 
donia, and took refuge at the court of her brother 
Alexander, king of Epirus. It was generally 
believed that she lent her support to the assas- 
sination of Philip, 336 ; but it is hardly credible 
that she evinced her approbation of that deed 
in the open manner asserted by some writers. 
After the death of Philip she returned to Ma- 
cedonia, where she enjoyed great influence 
through the affection of Alexander. On tho 

571 



OLYMPIODORTJS. 

death of the latter (323) she withdrew from 
Macedonia, where her enemy Antipater had 
the undisputed control of affairs, and took ref- 
uge in Epirus. Here she continued to live, as 
it were, in exile, until the death of Antipater 
(319) presented a new opening to her ambition. 
She gave her support to the new regent Poly- 
sperchon, in opposition to Cassander, who had 
formed an alliance with Eurydice the wife of 
Philip Arrhidaeus, the nominal king of Mace- 
donia. In 317, Olympias, resolving to obtain 
the supreme power in Macedonia, invaded that 
country along with Polysperchon, defeated Eu- 
rydice in battle, and put both her and her hus- 
band to death. Olympias followed up her venge- 
ance by the execution of Nicanor, the brother 
of Cassander, as well as of one hundred of his 
leading partisans among the Macedonian no- 
bles. Cassander, who was at that time in the 
Peloponnesus, hastened to turn his arms against 
Macedonia. Olympias, on his approach, threw 
herself (together with Roxana and the young 
Alexander) into Pydna, where she was closely 
blockaded by Cassander throughout the winter. 
At length, in the spring of 316, she was com- 
pelled to surrender to Cassander, who caused 
her to be put to death. Olympias was not with- 
out something of the grandeur and loftiness of 
spirit which distinguished her son, but her un- 
governable passions led her to acts of sanguin- 
ary cruelty that must forever disgrace her name. 
— [2. Daughter of Pyrrhus I., king of Epirus, 
and wife of her brother Alexander II. After 
his death she assumed the regency of the king- 
om on behalf of her two sons, Pyrrhus and 
Ptolemy ; and, in order to strengthen herself 
against the iEtolians, gave her daughter Phthia 
in marriage to Demetrius II., king of Mace- 
donia. When her sons had attained to man- 
hood, she resigned the sovereignty into the 
hands of Pyrrhus, but he did not long retain it ; 
for both he and his brother Ptolemy were soon 
removed by death, and Olympias was so deeply 
affected by this double loss, that she soon after 
died of grief.] 

Olympiodorus ('O\vp.irwdupoe). 1. A native 
of Thebes in Egypt, who lived in the fifth cen- 
tury after Christ. He wrote a work in twenty- 
two books (entitled 'laropinoi Adyoi), which com- 
prised the history of the Western empire under 
the reign of Honorius, from A.D. 407 to Octo- 
ber, A.D. 425. Olympiodorus took up the his- 
tory from about the point at which Eunapius 
had ended. Vid. Eunapius. The original work 
of Olympiodorus is lost, but an abridgment of it 
has been preserved by Photius. After the death 
of Honorius, Olympiodorus removed to Byzan- 
tium, to the court of the Emperor Theodosius. 
Hierocles dedicated to this Olympiodorus his 
work on Providence and Fate. Vid. Hierocles. 
Olympiodorus was a heathen. [The fragments 
of his history are published in the Byzantine 
Historians, with Dexippus, &c, by Niebuhr, 
Bonn, 1829.] — 2. A peripatetic philosopher, who 
taught at Alexandrea, where Proclus was one 
of his pupils. — 3. The last philosopher of celeb- 
rity in the Neo-Platonic school of Alexandrea. 
He lived in the first half of the sixth century 
after Christ, in the reign of the Emperor Jus- 
tinian. His life of Plato, and commentaries on 
several of Plato's dialogues, are still extant. 
572 



OLYMPUS. 

***** i >it4» „; *«o jmfif iiiiUmiri w 

[Edited by Fr. Creuzer, Frankfort, 1821-22. j— j 

4. An Aristotelic philosopher, the author of a i 
commentary on the Meteorologica of Aristotle, 
which is still extant, lived at Alexandrea in the 
latter half of the sixth century after Christ. \< 
Like Simplicius, to whom, however, he is in- 
ferior, he endeavors to reconcile Plato and Ar- 
istotle. 

[OLYJiproDORUs {'OTivfiiuoSupog). 1. An Athe- 
nian general, commanded a body of three hund- 
red picked men at the battle of Platseae, who 
were engaged in a service from which all the 
other Greeks shrank. — 2. An Athenian general, 
who, when Athens was attacked by Cassander, 
compelled the latter to withdraw his forces. 
He also subsequently rid the city of the Mace- 
donian garrison which Demetrius had stationed 
there, and successfully defended Athens against 
Demetrius himself] 

Olympius ('OMpimoe), the Olympian, occurs 
as a surname of Jupiter (Zeus), Hercules, the I 
Muses (Olympiades), and, in general, of all the ' 
gods who were believed to live in Olympus, in 
contradistinction from the gods of the lower 
world. 

Olympius Nemesianus. Vid. Nemesianus. 
Olympus ("QXvjnrog), the name of two Greek 
musicians, of whom one is mythical and the 
other historical. 1 . The elder Olympus belongs 
to the mythical genealogy of Mysian and Phryg- 
ian flute-players — Hyagnis, Marsyas, Olympus 
— to each of whom the invention of the flute \ 
was ascribed, under whose names we have the 
mythical representation of the contest between 
the Phrygian auletic and the Greek citharcedic 
music. Olympus was said to have been a na- 
tive of Mysia, and to have lived before the Tro- 
jan war. Olympus not unfrequently appears 
on works of art as a boy, sometimes instructed 
by Marsyas, and sometimes as witnessing and 
lamenting his fate. — 2. The true Olympus was \ 
a Phrygian, and perhaps belonged to a family j 
of native musicians, since he was said to be de- 
scended from the first Olympus. He flourished 
about B.C. 660-620. Though a Phrygian by 
origin, Olympus must be reckoned among the 
Greek musicians, for all the accounts make | 
Greece the scene of his artistic activity ; and ! 
he may be considered as having naturalized in 
Greece the music of the flute, which had previ- 
ously been almost peculiar to Phrygia. 

[Olympus fOAiyi-of), the physician in ordi- 
nary to Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, aided her in 
committing suicide, B.C. 30, and afterward pub- 
lished an account of her death ] 

Olympus ("O^u^Trof ). I. In Europe. 1. (Grk. 
Elymbo, Turk. Seviavat-Evi, i. e., Abode of the 
Celestials). The eastern part of the great chain 
of mountains which extends west and east from 
the Acroceraunian promontory on the Adriatic 
to the Thermaic Gulf, and which formed the 
northern boundary of ancient Greece proper. 
In a wide sense, the name is sometimes applied 
to all that part of this great chain which lies 
east of the central range of Pindus, and which 
is usually called the Cambunian Mountains ; 
but the more specific and ordinary use of the 
name Olympus is to denote the extreme eastern 
part of the chain, which, striking off from tho 
Cambunian Mountains to the southeast, skirts 
the southern end of the slip of coast called 



4 



OLYNTHUS. 

Ii 

I Pieiia, and forms at its termination the north- 
ern wall of the Vale of Tempe. Its shape is 
that of a blunt cone, with its outline pictur- 
esquely broken by minor summits ; its height 
is about nine thousand seven hundred feet, and 
its chief summit is covered with perpetual snow. 
From its position as the boundary between 
Thessaly and Macedonia, it is sometimes reck- 
oned to the former, sometimes to the latter. 
In the Greek mythology, Olympus was the chief 
seat of the third dynasty of gods, of which 
Zeus (Jupiter) was the head, It was a really 
local conception with the early poets, to be un- 
derstood literally, and not metaphorically, that 
these gods 

" On the snowy top 
Of cold Olympus ruled the middle air, 
Their highest heaven." 

Indeed, if Homer uses either of the terms 
"Olvjiirog and ovpavoc metaphorically, it is the 
latter that is a metaphor for the former. Even 
the fable of the giants scaling heaven must be 
understood in this sense ; not that they placed 
Pelion and Ossa upon the top of Olympus to 
reach the still higher Heaven, but that they piled 
Pelion on the top of Ossa, and both on the low- 
er slopes of Olympus, to scale the summit of 
Olympus itself, the abode of the gods. Homer 
describes the gods as having their several pal- 
aces on the summit of Olympus ; as spending 
the day in the palace of Zeus (Jupiter), round 
whom they sit in solemn conclave, while the 
younger gods dance before them, and the Muses 
entertain them with the lyre and song. They 
are shut in from the view of men upon the earth 
by a wall of clouds, the gates of which are kept 
by the Hours. The same conceptions are found 
in Hesiod, and to a great extent in the later 
poets ; with whom, however, even as early as 
the lyric poets and the tragedians, the idea be- 
comes less material, and the real abode of the 
gods is gradually transferred from the summit 
of Olympus to the vault of heaven (i. e., the 
sky) itself. This latter is also the conception 
of the Roman poets, so far, at least, as any defi- 
nite idea can be framed out of their compound 
of Homer's language with later notions.— 2. A 
hill in Laconia, near Sellasia, overhanging the 
River CEnus.— 3. Another name for Mount Ly- 
caeus in Arcadia.— II. In Asia. 1. The Mysian 
Olympus ("OTlv/jlkoc 6 Mvawc : now Keshish 
Dagh, Ala Dagh, Ishik Dagh, and Kush-Dagh), 
a chain of lofty mountains in the northwest of 
Asia Minor, forming, with Ida, the western part 
of the northernmost line of the mountain sys- 
tem of that peninsula. It extends from west to 
east through the northeast of Mysia and the 
southwest of Bithynia, and thence, inclining a 
little northward, it first passes through the cen- 
tre of Bithynia, then forms the boundary be- 
tween Bithynia and Galatia, and then extends 
through the south of Paphlagonia to the River 
Halys. Beyond the Halys, the mountains in 
the north of Pontus form a continuation of the 
chain. — 2. (Now Yanar Dagh), a volcano on the 
eastern coast of Lycia, above the city of Phce- 
nicus (now Yanar). The names of the mount- 
ain and of the city are often interchanged. Vid. 

pHOSNICUS. 

Olynthus ("OXvvOoc : 'OlvvOtoc : now Aio 
Mamas), a town of Macedonia in Chalcidice, at 



OMBI 

the head of the Toronaic Gulf, and at a littte 
distance from the coast, between the peninsulas 
of Pallene and Sithonia. It was the most im- 
portant of the Greek cities on the coast of Mac- 
edonia, though we have no record of its foun 
dation. It afterward fell into the hands of th« 
Thracian Bottiaei, when they were expelled fronr 
their own country by the Macedonians. Via 
Bottl*:i. It was taken by Artabazus, one oj 
the generals of Xerxes, who peopled it witl 
Chalcidians from Torone ; but it owed its great 
ness to Perdiccas, who persuaded the inhabit 
ants of many of the smaller towns in Chalci 
dice to abandon their own abodes and setth 
in Olynthus. This happened about the com 
mencement of the Peloponnesianwar; and fron 
this time Olynthus appears as a prosperous and 
flourishing town, with a population of five thou 
sand inhabitants capable of bearing arms. It 
became the head of a confederacy of all the 
Greek towns in this part of Macedonia, and it 
long maintained its independence against tho 
attacks of the Athenians, Spartans, and Mace- 
donians ; but in B.C. 379 it was compelled to 
submit to Sparta, after carrying on war with 
this state for four years. When the supremacy 
of Sparta was destroyed by the Thebans, Olyn- 
thus recovered its independence, and even re 
ceived an accession of power from Philip, who 
was anxious to make Olynthus a counterpoise 
to the influence of Athens in the north of the 
^Egean. With this view Philip gave Olynthus 
the territory of Potidasa, after he had wrested 
this town from the Athenians in 356. But 
when he had sufficiently consolidated his powoi 
to be able to set at defiance both Olynthus and 
Athens, he threw off the mask, and laid siege 
to the former city. The Olynthians earnestly 
besought Athens for assistance, and were warm- 
ly supported by Demosthenes in his Olynthiac 
orations ; but as the Athenians did not rendei 
the city any effectual assistance, it was taken 
and destroyed by Philip, and all its inhabitants 
sold as slaves (347). Olynthus was never re 
stored, and the remnants of its inhabitants 
were at a later time transferred by Cassander 
to Cassandrea. At the time of its prosperity 
Olynthus used the neighboring town of Mecy- 
berna as its sea-port. 

[Olynthus ('Oivvdoc), a son of Hercules and 
Bolbe, from whom the town of Olynthus was 
believed to have received its name.] 

Omana or Omanum ("Ofiava, "O/iavov). 1. A 
celebrated port on the northeastern coast of 
Arabia Felix, a little above the easternmost 
point of the peninsula, Promontorium Syagros 
(now Ras el Had), on a large gulf of the same 
name. The people of this part of Arabia were 
called Omanit/e {'O/jtavlTai) or Omani, and the 
name is still preserved in that of the district, 
Oman. — 2. (Now probably Sehaina), a sea-port 
town in the east of Carmania ; the chief em- 
porium on that coast for the trade between In- 
dia, Persia, and Arabia, 
i Omanit^e and Omanum. Vid. Omana. 

Ombi {"Ofi6ot : '0/i6lrat : ruins at Koum Om- 
bou, i. e., Hill of Omhou), the last great city of 
Upper Egypt, except Syene, from which it wai 
distant about thirty miles, stood on the eastern 
bank of the Nile, in the Ombites Nomos, and 
was celebrated as one of the chief seats of the 

573 



OMPHALE. 

worship of the crocodile. Juvenal's fifteenth 
satire is founded on a religious war between 
the people of Ombi and those of Tentyra, who 
hated the crocodile ; but as Tentyra lies so 
much further down the Nile, with several in- 
tervening cities celebrated, as well as Ombi, for 
crocodile worship, critics have suspected an 
error in the names, and some have proposed to 
read Coptos or Copton for Ombos in v. 35. It 
seems, however, better to suppose that Juvenal 
used the name without reference to topograph- 
ical precision. Opposite to Ombi, on the left 
bank, was the town of Contra-Ombos. 

Omphale ('O/Mpdlii]), daughter of the Lydian 
king Iardanus, and wife of Tmolus, after whose 
death she undertook the government herself. 
When Hercules, in consequence of the murder 
of Iphitus, was afflicted with a serious disease, 
and was informed by the oracle that he could 
only be cured by serving some one for wages 
for the space of three years, Mercury (Hermes) 
sold Hercules to Omphale. The hero became 
enamored of his mistress, and, to please her, 
he is said to have spun wool and put on the 
garments of a woman, while Omphale wore his 
lion's skin. She bore Hercules several chil- 
dren. 

[Omphalion ("Ofi(j>aXi(dv), a painter, was orig- 
inally the slave, and afterward the disciple of 
Nicias, the son of Nicomedes. He painted the 
walls of the temple of Messene with figures of 
personages celebrated in the mythological le- 
gends of Messenia.] 

Omphalium ('OfKpdXiov : 'OfiipaXLTrjg), a town 
in Crete, in the neighborhood of Cnosus. 

On. Vid. Heliopolis. 

[Onarus ("Ovapof), a priest of Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus) in Naxos, whom, according to one ac- 
count, Ariadne married after she had been 
abandoned by Theseus.] 

Onatas ('Ova-ac). 1. Of JEgina, the son of 
Micon, was a distinguished statuary and painter, 
contemporary with Polygnotus, Ageladas, and 
Hegias. He flourished down to about B.C. 460, 
that is, in the age immediately preceding that 
of Phidias. — [2. A Pythagorean philosopher of 
Croton, who wrote a work, Tlepl -d-eov nai -&etov, 
some extracts from which are preserved by 
Stobaeus.] 

Onc^e ("OyKai), a village in Bceotia, near 
Thebes, from which one of the gates of Thebes 
derived its name ('Oynalai), and which contain- 
ed a sanctuary of Minerva (Athena), who was 
hence called Minerva (Athena) Onca. 

[Onceum COyKEcov), a place in Arcadia, on 
the banks of the Ladon, with a temple of Ceres 
(Demeter) Erinnys, said to have derived its 
name from Oncus, son of Apollo, its founder.] 

Onchesmus or Onchismus ("Oyxrjdjiog, "Oy- 
XLofiog -. now Orchido), a sea-port town of Epirus 
in Ghaonia, opposite the western extremity of 
Corcyra. The ancients derived its name from 
Anchises, whence it is named by Dionysius the 
" Harbor of Anchises" ('Ayxwov Xifirjv). From 
this place Cicero calls the wind blowing from 
Epirus toward Italy Onchcsmiles. 

Onchestus ('Oy^orof : 'Oj'^crnoc)- 1- An 
ancient town of Boeotia, said to have been found- 
ed by Onchestus, son of Neptune (Poseidon), 
was situated a little south of the Lake Copais, 
near Haliartus. It contained a celebrated tem- 
574 



ONOMACRITUS. 

pie and grove of Neptune (Poseidon), and was 
the place of meeting of the Boeotian Amphic- 
tyony. The ruins of this town are still to be 
seen on the southwestern slope of the mount- 
ain Faga. — 2. A river in Thessaly, which, rises i 
in the neighborhood of Eretria, and flows by 
Cynoscephalae, and falls into the Lake Bcebeis. 
It is, perhaps, the same as the River Onochbnus 
{'Ovdxuvoi) mentioned by Herodotus. 

Onesicritus ^OvTjaiKpLTo;), a Greek historical 
writer, who accompanied Alexander on his cam- 
paigns in Asia, and wrote a history of them, 
which is frequently cited by later authors. He f 
is called by some authorities a native of Asty- 
palasa, and by others of yEgina. When Alexan- > 
der constructed his fleet on the Hydaspes, he I 
appointed Onesicritus chief pilot of the fleet, [ 
a post which he held not only during the de- 
scent of the Indus, but throughout the voyage j 
from the mouth of that river to the Persian i 
Gulf, which was conducted under the command j 
of Nearchus. Though an eye-witness of much j 
that he described, it appears that he intermixed 
many fables and falsehoods with his narrative, ' 
so that he early fell into discredit as an au- 
thority. 

[Onetor ('Ovr/roip). 1. Priest of the Idaean^ 
Jove in Troy. — 2. Father of Phrontis, the helms 
man of Menelaus.] 

Oningis or Oringis. Vid. Oringis. 

Oniros ("Oveipoc), the Dream-God, was a per- i 
sonification of dreams. According to Homer, ' 
Dreams dwell on the dark shores of the west- 1 
em Oceanus, and the deceitful dreams come j 
through an ivory gate, while the true ones issue j 
from a gate made of horn. Hesiod calls dreams 
the children of night ; and Ovid, who calls them ' 
children of Sleep, mentions three of them by 
name-, viz., Morpheus, Icelus or Phobetor, and I. 
Phantasus. Euripides called them sons of Gaea 
(Terra), and conceived them as genii with black J 
wings. 

Onoba, surnamed ^Gstdakia (now Huelva). 
1. A sea-port town of the Turdetani in Hispa- j 
nia Bsetica, between the mouths of the Bsetis j 
and Anas, on an sestuary formed by the Rivet j 
Luxia. There are remains of a Roman aque- 
duct at Huelva.— [2. Another city of Bsetica, in j 
the interior, near Corduba ] 

[Onochonus '('Ovo^vor). Vid. Onchestus, ( 
No. 2.] 

[Onomacles ('Oi>ofiaK?.7je), an Athenian gen- 
eral, sent with Phrynichus and Scironides, B.C. 
412, to besiege Miletus, but was driven off by j 
the arrival of a Peloponnesian fleet : he was J 
afterward sent to act against Chios. It was j 
probably this same Onomacles who was one of 
the thirty tyrants, B.C. 404.] 

Onomacritus ('Ovofii'iKpiTog), an Athenian, j 
who occupies an interesting position in the his- ' 
tory of the early Greek religious poetry. He 
lived about B.C. 520-485. He enjoyed the pat- 
ronage of Hipparchus until he was detected by ! 
Lasus of Hermione (the dithyrambic poet) in 
making an interpolation in an oracle of Musajus, 
for which Hipparchus banished him. He seems 
to have gone into Persia, where the Pisistratids, 
after their expulsion from Athens, took him 
again into favor, and employed him to persuade 
Xerxes to engage in his expedition against 
Greece, by reciting to him all the ancient or- 



ONOMARCHUS. 



OPILIUS. 



acles which seemed to favor the attempt. It 
appears thatOnomaeritus had made a collection 
and arrangement of the oracles ascribed toMu- 
sa;us. It is further stated that he made inter- 
polations in Homer as well as in Musoeus, and 
that he was the real author of some of the 
poems which went under the name of Orpheus. 

Onomarchus ('Ovofxapxoc ), general of the 
Phocians in the Sacred war, succeeded his 
brother Philomelus in this command, B.C. 353. 
In the following year he was defeated in Thes- 
saly by Philip, and perished in attempting to 
reach by swimming the Athenian ships, which 
were lying off the shore. His body fell into the 
hands of Philip, who caused it to be crucified 
as a punishment for his sacrilege. 

[Onomastus ('Ovofiaoroc), a confidential offi- 
cer of Philip V. of Macedon, for whom he held 
the government of the sea-coast of Thrace, and 
whose instrument he was in many acts of op- 
pression and cruelty.] 

Onosander ('OvoaavSpoc), the author of a cel- 
ebrated work on military tactics (entitled Srpa- 
Triyuibs Myoc), which is still extant. All sub- 
sequent Greek and Roman writers on the same 
subject made this work their text- book, and it 
is still held in considerable estimation. He 
appears to have lived about A.D. 50. In his 
style he imitated Xenophon with some success. 
Edited by Schwebel, Nurnberg, 1761 ; and by 
Corae, Paris, 1822. 

Onu-gnathus ("Ovov yvddoc: now Elaphonisi), 
an island and a promontory on the southern 
coast of Laconia, west of Cape Malea. 

Onuphis ("Ovov(pt(), the capital of the Nomos 
Onuphites in the Delta of Egypt. It site is un- 
certain, but it was probably near the middle of 
the Delta. 

[Onytes, a companion of ^Eneas, slain by 
Turnus in Italy.] 

[Ophemsstes ('OieXeaTnc). 1. A Trojan war- 
rior, slain by Teucer. — 2. A Peeonian warrior 
in the Trojan ranks, slain by Achilles.] 

OphelIok CSlQe'AUov), an Athenian comic poet, 
probably of the Middle Comedy, B.C. 380. [The 
few fragments of his plays remaining are col- 
lected by Meineke, Fragm. Comic. Graze, vol. 
H., p. 687-8. edit, minor.] 

Ophellas ('O^EJUaf), of Pella in Macedonia, 
was one of the generals of Alexander the Great, 
after whose death he followed the fortunes of 
Ptolemy. In B.C. 322 he conquered Cyrene 
for Ptolemy, of which city he held the govern- 
ment on behalf of the Egyptian king for some 
years. But soon after 313 he threw off his al- 
legiance to Ptolemy, and continued to govern 
Cyrene as an independent state for nearly five 
years. In 308 he formed an alliance with Agath- 
ocles, and marched against Carthage ; but he 
was treacherously attacked by Agathocles near 
this city, and was slain. 

Opheltes ('0<p&T7)c)- 1. Also called Arche- 
morus. Vid. Archemorus. — 2. One of the Tyr- 
rhenian pirates, who attempted to carry off 
Bacchus (Dionysus), and were therefore met- 
amorphosed into dolphins. 

[Opheltius ('O0£'Arwf). I. A Trojan warri- 
or, slain by Euryalus. — 2. A Grecian warrior 
before Troy, slain by Hector.] 

[Ophiodes ('O(pio>dnc), an island of the Arab- 
icus Sinus, lying off Berenice, on the coast of 



Egypt, very rich in topaz, and therefore called 
by Pliny -Topazos ; now Zarnargat ?] 

Ophion ('O01W1'). 1. One of the oldest of the 
Titans, was married to Eurynome, with whom 
he ruled over Olympus, but, being conquered by 
Saturn (Cronos) and Rhea, he and Eurynome 
were thrown into Oceanus or Tartarus. — 2. A 
giant, who perished in the battle with Jupiter 
(Zeus). — 3. Father of the centaur Amycus, who 
is hence called Ophidnides. 

Ophionenses or Ophienses ('0<pwvcic, '0^<- 
elc), a people in the northeast of ^Etolia. 

Ophir (in the Old Testament, LXX., Soviptp, 
Supt'p, Satpdpa), a place frequently referred to 
in the Old Testament as proverbial for its gold, 
and to which Solomon, in conjunction with 
Hiram, king of Tyre, sent a fleet, which brought 
back gold, and sandal- wood, and precious stones. 
These ships were sent from Ezion-geber, at the 
head of the Red Sea, whence also King Jehosh- 
aphat built ships to go to Ophir for gold; but 
this voyage was stopped by a shipwreck. It is 
clear, therefore, that Ophir was on the shores 
of the Erythrajum Mare of the ancients, or our 
Indian Ocean. Among the most plausible con- 
jectures as to its site are, (1.) That it was on 
the coast of India, or a name for India itself. 
(2.) That it was on the coast of Arabia, in which 
case it is not necessary to suppose that Arabia 
furnished all the articles of commerce which 
were brought from Ophir, for Ophir may have 
been a great emporium of the Indian and Ara- 
bian trade. (3.) That it is not the name of any 
specific place, but a general designation for the 
countries (or any of them) on the shores of the 
Indian Ocean, which supplied the chief articles 
of Indian and Arabian commerce. 

Ophis ("00(c). 1. A river in Arcadia, which 
flowed by Mantinea. — [2. (Now Of?), a river of 
Pontus, which formed the boundary between 
the territory of the Tzani and Colchis.] 

Ophiusa or Ophiussa ('O^Loeaaa, 'Oipiovaaa, 
'Odiovaa, i. e., abounding in snakes). 1. Vid 
Pityus-s:. — 2. Or Ophiussa (now perhaps Palo, 
nea), a town of European Scythia, on the left 
bank of the Tyras (now Dniester). — 3. A little 
island near Crete. — 4. (Now Afsia or Rabbi), a 
small island in the Propontis (now Sea of Mar- 
mara), off the coast ofMysia, northwest ofCyz- 
icus, and southwest of Proconnesus. — 5. Vid. 
Rhodus. — 6. Vid. Tenos. 

[Ophlimus ( J OipXinoc : now Kcmer Dagh or 
Oktar Dagh,) a branch of Mount Paryadres, in 
Pontus Proper, which, in connection with Lith- 
rus, northwest of Amasea, bounds the large and 
fertile district of Phanaroea.] 

Ophrynium ('0<l>pvveiov : now probably Frcn- 
Kevi), a small town of the Troad, near the Lake 
of Pteleos, between Dardanus and Rhoeteum, 
with a grove consecrated to Hector. 
Opici. Vid. Osci. 

Opilius MacrInus. Vid. Macrinus. 

Opilius, Aurelius, the freedman of an Epi- 
curean, taught at Rome, first philosophy, then 
rhetoric, and finally grammar. He gave up his 
school upon the condemnation of Rutilius Rufus 
(B.C. 92), whom he accompanied to Smyrna, 
and there the two friends grew old together in 
the enjoyment of each other's society. He 
composed several learned works, one of which, 
named Musa, is referred to by A. Gellius. 

575 • 



OPIMIUS. 



OPS. 



Opimius. 1..Q., consul B.C. 154, when he 
subdued some of the Ligurian tribes ^orth of 
the Alps, who had attacked Massilia. He was 
notorious in his youth for his riotous living. — 
2. L., son of the preceding, was praetor 125, in 
which year he took Fregellae, which had revolt- 
ed against the Romans. He belonged to the 
high aristocratical party, and was a violent op- 
ponent of C. Gracchus. He was consul in 121, 
and took the leading part in the proceedings 
which ended in the murder of Gracchus. Opim- 
ius and his party abused their victory most 
savagely, and are said to have killed more than 
three hundred persons. For details, vid. p. 334, 
a. In the following year (120) he was accused 
of having put Roman citizens to death without 
trial ; but he was defended by the consul C. 
Papirius Carbo, and was acquitted. In 112 he 
was at the head of the commission which was 
sent into Africa in order to divide the domin- 
ions of Micipsa between Jugurtha and Adher- 
bal, and was bribed by Jugurtha to assign to 
him the better part of the country. Three years 
after he was condemned under the law of the 
tribune C. Mamilius Limetanus, by which an 
inquiry was made into the conduct of all those 
who had received bribes from Jugurtha. Opim- 
ius went into exile to Dyrrhachium in Epirus, 
where he lived for some years, hated and in- 
sulted by the people, and where he eventually 
died in great poverty. He richly deserved his 
punishment, and met with a due recompense 
for his cruel and ferocious conduct toward C. 
Gracchus and his party. Cicero, on the con- 
trary, who, after his consulship, had identified 
himself with the aristocratical party, frequently 
laments the fate of Opimius. The year in which 
Opimius was consul (121) was remarkable for 
the extraordinary heat of the autumn, and thus 
the vintage of this year was of an unprecedent- 
ed quality. This wine long remained celebrated 
is the Vinum Opimianum, and was preserved for 
an almost incredible space of time. 

Opis (*S2mf), an important commercial city of 
Assyria, in the district of Apolloniatis, at the 
confluence of the Physcus (now Odorneh) with 
he Tigris ; not mentioned later than the Chris- 
tian era. 

Opitekgium (Opiterglnus : now Oderzo), a Ro- 
man colony inVenetia, in the north of Italy, on 
the River Liquentia, near its source, and on 
the high road from Aquileia to Verona. In the 
Marcomannic war it was destroyed by the Qua- 
di, but it was rebuilt, and afterward belonged to 
the Exarchate. From it the neighboring mount- 
ains were called Montes Opitergini. 

[Opites ('Okitw,) a Greek warrior, slain by 
Hector in the Trojan war.] 

[Oppianicus, name of three persons, two of 
whom play a prominent part in the oration of 
Cicero for Cluentius. 1. Statius Albius Opp., 
accused by his step-son, A. Cluentius, of having 
attempted to procure his death by poisoning, B. 
C. 74 ; was condemned. — 2. Son of the preced- 
ing, accused Cluentius in B.C. 66 of three dis- 
tinct acts of poisoning. — 3. C. Oppianicus, broth- 
er of No. 1, said to have been poisoned by him.] 

Oppianus ('07T7uav6f), the author of two 
Greek hexameter poems still extant, one on 
fishing, entitled Halieutka ( 'kXievTind), and the 
other on hunting, entitled Cyncgetica (Kvvnye- 
576 



tiku). Modern critics, however, have shown 
that these two poems were written by two dif 
ferent persons of this name. 1. The authoi of 
the Halieutica, was born either at Corycus or at 
Anazarba, in Cilicia, and flourished about A.D. 
180. The poem consists of about three thou- 
sand five hundred hexameter lines, divided into 
five books, of which the first two treat of the 
natural history of fishes, and the other three ol 
the art of fishing. — 2. The author of the Cyns- 
getica, was a native of Apamea or Pella, in Syr- 
ia, and flourished a little later than the other 
Oppianus, about A.D. 206. His poem, which is 
addressed to the Emperor Caracalla, consists 
of about two thousand one hundred hexameter 
lines, divided into four books. The best edition 
of the two poems is by Schneider, Argent., 1776, 
and second edition, Lips., 1813. There is also a 
prose paraphrase of a poem on hawking ('Ifra- 
tlko) attributed to Oppianus, but it is doubtful 
to which of the two authors of this name it be- 
longs. Some critics think that the work was 
probably written by Dionysius. 

Oppius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs B.C. 213, 
carried a law to curtail the expenses and lux- 
uries of the Roman women. It enacted that no 
woman should have more than half an ounce 
of gold, nor wear a dress of different colors, nor 
ride in a carriage in the city, or in any town, 
or within a mile of it, unless on account of pub- 
lic sacrifices. This law was repealed in 195, 
notwithstanding the vehement opposition of the 
elder Cato. — 2. Q., a Roman general in the Mith- 
radatic war, B.C. 88, fell into the hands of Mith- 
radates, but was subsequently surrendered by 
the latter to Sulla. — 3. C, an intimate friend of 
C. Julius Caesar, whose private affairs he man- 
aged in conjunction with Cornelius Balbus. Op- 
pius was the author of several works, referred 
to by the ancient writers, but all of which have 
perished. The authorship of the histories of 
the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars 
was a disputed point as early as the time of 
Suetonius, some assigning them to Oppius, and 
others to Hirtius. But the similarity in style 
and diction between the work on the Alexan- 
drine war and the last book of the Commenta- 
ries on the Gallic war leads to the conclusion 
that the former, at all events, was the work of 
Hirtius. The book on the African war was 
probably written by Oppius. He also wrote the 
lives of several distinguished Romans, such as 
Scipio Africanus the elder, Marius, Pompey, 
and probably Caesar. 

Ops, a female Koman divinity of plenty and 
fertility, as is indicated by her name, which is 
connected with opimus, opulenttis, inops, and 
copia. She was regarded as the wife of Sa- 
turnus, and the protectress of every thing con- 
nected with agriculture. Her abode was in the 
earth, and hence those who invoked her used to 
touch the ground. Her worship was intimately 
connected with that of her husband Saturnus, 
for she had both temples and festivals in com- 
mon with him ; but she had likewise a separate 
sanctuary on the Capitol, and in the vicus ju- 
garius, not far from the temple of Saturnus, she 
had an altar in common with Ceres. The festi 
vals of Ops are called Opalia and Opiconsivia, 
from her surname Consiva, connected with the 
verb serere, to sow, 



OPS. 



ORDESSUS. 



[Ops ( Qi/i), son of Pisenor, and father of Eu- 
rvclea, the nurse of Telemachus.] 

Optatus. [1. A freedman of Tiberius Claudi- 
us, and prtefectus classis, brought the scar (sca- 
nts) fish from the Carpathian Sea to the waters 
on the coast of Italy.] — 2. Bishop of Milevi in 
Numidia, flourished under the emperors Valen- 
tinian andValens. He wrote a work, still ex- 
tant, against the errors of the Donatists, en- 
titled Dc Schismatc Dona.tista.rum. udversus Par- 
menianum. Edited by Dupin, Paris, fol., 1700. 

Opus COnovc, contraction of '07r6e(r : 'Ott- 
ovvrtoc). 1. (Now Talanda or Talantil), the cap- 
ital of the Opurtfian Locrians, was situated, ac- 
cording to Strabo, fifteen stadia (not quite two 
miles) from the sea, and sixty stadia from its 
harbor Cynos ; but, according to Livy, it was 
only one mile from the coast. It was the birth- 
place of Patroclus. The bay of the Euboean Sea, 
near this town, was called Opuntius Sinus. Vid. 
Locri. — 2. A small town in Elis. 

[Opus ('Okovc). 1. Son of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Protogenia, was king of the Epeans and father 
of Cambyse. — 2. Son of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Cambyse, step-son of Locrus, and grandson of 
No. 1 ; said to have given name to the Opuntii 
Locri] 

Ora. 1. ("Opa), a city of Carmania, near the 
borders of Gedrosia. — 2. ("Qpa), a city in the 
northwest of India, near the sources of the In- 
dus. 

Orje. Vid. Orpme. 

Orbelus {"Op6n\oc), a mountain in the north- 
east of Macedonia, on the borders of Thrace, 
extends from Mount Rhodope along the Strymon 
to Mount Pangasus. 

Orbilius Pupillus, a Roman grammarian 
and schoolmaster, best known to us from his 
having been the teacher of Horace, who gives 
him the epithet of plagosus from the severe 
floggings which his pupils received from him. 
(Hor., Ep., ii., 1, 71.) He was a native of Bene- 
ventum, and after serving as an apparitor of the 
magistrates, and also as a soldier in the army, 
he settled at Rome in the fiftieth year of his 
age, in the consulship of Cicero, B.C. 63. He 
lived nearly one hundred years, but had lost his 
memory long before his death. 

[Orbitanium, a city of Samnium, northwest 
of Beneventnm.] 

Orbona, a female Roman divinity, was in- 
voked by parents who had been deprived of 
their children and desired to have others, and 
also in dangerous maladies of children. 

Orcades Insula (now Orkney and Shetland 
Isles), a group of several small islands off the 
northern coast of Britain, with which the Ro- 
mans first became acquainted when Agricola 
sailed round the north of Britain. 

Orchomenus ('Opxdfievoc : 'Opxojievioq). 1. 
(.Now Seripu), an ancient, wealthy, and power- 
ful city of Boeotia, the capital of the Minyean 
empire in the ante-historical ages of Greece, 
and hence called by Homer the Minyean Orcho- 
menus ('Op^. Mivveioc). It was situated north- 
west of the Lake Copais, on the River Cephisus, 
and was built on the slope of a hill, on the sum- 
mit of which stood the acropolis. It is said to 
have been originally called Andreis ('Avdpnic), 
from Andreus, the son of Peneus, who emi- 
grated from the Peneus in Thessaly ; to have 
37 



been afterward called Phlegya ($?ieyva), from 
Phlegyas, a son of Mars (Ares) and Chryse ; 
and to have finally obtained its later name from 
Orchomenus, son of Jupiter (Zeus) or Eteocles 
and the Danaid Hesione, and father of Minyas 
This Orchomenus was regarded as the real 
founder of the Minyean empire, which, before 
the time of the Trojan war, extended over the 
whole of the west of Boeotia. The cities ot 
Coronea, Haliartus, Lebedea, and Chseronea 
were subject to it ; and even Thebes at one 
time was compelled to pay it tribute. It lost, 
however, much of its power after its capture by 
Hercules, but in the time of the Trojan war it 
still appears as a powerful city. Sixty years 
after the Trojan war it was taken by the Boeo- 
tians, its empire was completely destroyed, and 
it became a member of the Boeotian league. 
All this belongs to the mythical period. In the 
historical age it continued to exist as an inde- 
pendent town till B.C. 367, when it was taken 
and destroyed by the Thebans, and its inhabit- 
ants murdered or sold as slaves. In order to 
weaken Thebes, it was rebuilt at the instiga- 
tion of the Athenians, but was soon destroyed 
again by the Thebans ; and although it was 
again restored by Philip in 338, it never re- 
covered its former prosperity ; and in the time 
of Strabo was in ruins. The most celebrated 
building in Orchomenus was the so-called treas- 
ury of Minyas, but which, like the similar monu- 
ment at Mycenae, was more probably a family 
vault of the ancient heroes of the place. It 
was a circular vault of massive masonry em- 
bedded in the hill, with an arched roof, and had 
a side door of entrance. The remains of this 
building are extant, and its form may still be 
traced, though the whole of the stone-work of 
the vault has disappeared. Orchomeiius pos- 
sessed a very ancient temple of the Charites or 
Graces, and here was celebrated in the most 
ancient times a musical festival, which wa> fre- 
quented by poets and singers from all parts of 
the Hellenic world. There was a temple of 
Hercules seven stadia north of the town, near 
the sources of the River Melas. Orchomenus 
is memorable on account of the great victory 
which Sulla gained in its neighborhood over 
Archelaus, the general of Mithradates, B.C. 86 
— 2. (Now Kalpaki), an ancient town of Arcadia, 
mentioned by Homerwith the epithet noMpir/^oc, 
to distinguish it from the Minyean Orchomenus, 
is said to have been founded by Orchomenus, 
son ofLycaon. It was situated on a hill north- 
west of Mantinea, and its territory included the 
towns of Methydrium, Theisoa, Teuthis, and the 
Tripolis. In the Peloponnesian war Orchome- 
nus sided with Sparta, and was taken by the 
Athenians. After the battle of Leuctra, the 
Orchomenians did not join the Arcadian con- 
federacy in consequence of its hatred against 
Mantinea. In the contests between the Achae- 
ans and ^Etolians, it was taken successively by 
Cleomenes and Antigonus Doson, but it event- 
ually became a member of the Achaean league. 
— 3. A town on the confines of Macedonia and 
Thessaly, and hence sometimes said to belong 
to the former, and sometimes to the latter coun- 
try. 

Orcus. Vid. Hades. 

Ordessus fOpd^owoc), a tributary of the Ister 
577 



ORDOVICES. 



ORETANI. 



(now Danube) in Scythia, mentioned by Herodo- i 
tus, but which can not be identified with any 
modern river. 

OrdovIces, a people in the west of Britain, 
opposite the island Mona (now Anglesey), occu- 
pying the northern portion of the modern Wales. 

OreIdes. Vid. Nymph/e. 

[Oresbius {'Opeu6iog), a Boeotian warrior in 
the- Greek army before Troy, slain by Hector.] 

Orestes ('Opearai), a people in the north of 
Epirus, on the borders of Macedonia, inhabiting 
the district named after them, Orestis or Ores- 
tias. They were originally independent, but 
were afterward subject to the Macedonian mon- 
archs. They were declared free by the Romans 
in their war with Philip. According to the le- 
gend, they derived their name from Orestes, 
who is said to have fled into this country after 
murdering his mother, and to have there found- 
ed the town of Argos Oresticum. 

Orestes ('Ope'trr^). 1. Son of Agamemnon 
and Clytaemnestra, and brother of Chrysothe- 
mis, Laodice (Electra), and Iphianassa (Iphi- 
genia). According to the Homeric account, 
Agamemnon, on his return from Troy, was mur- 
dered by ^Egisthus and Clytaemnestra before he 
had an opportunity of seeing him. In the eighth 
year after his father's murder Orestes came 
from Athens to Mycenae and slew the murderer 
of his father. This simple story of Orestes has 
been enlarged and embellished in various ways 
by the tragic poets. Thus it is said that at the 
murder of Agamemnon it was intended to dis- 
patch, Orestes also, but that by means of Elec- 
tra he was secretly carried to Strophius, king 
in Phocis, who was married to Anaxibia, the 
sister of Agamemnon. According to some, 
Orestes was saved by his nurse, who allowed 
.-Egisthus to kill her own child, supposing it to 
be Orestes. In the house of Strophius, Ores- 
tes grew up with the king's son Pylades, with 
whom he had formed that close and intimate 
friendship which has become proverbial. Being 
frequently reminded by messengers from Elec- 
tra of the necessity of avenging his father's 
death, he consulted the oracle of Delphi, which 
strengthened him in his plan. He therefore re- 
paired in secret to Argos. Here he pretended 
to be a messenger of Strophius, who had come 
to announce the death of Orestes, and brought 
the ashes of the deceased. After visiting his 
father's tomb, and sacrificing upon it a lock of 
his hair, he made himself known to his sister 
Electra, and soon afterward slew both ^Egis- 
thus and Clytaemnestra in the palace. Imme- 
diately after the murder of his mother he was 
seized with madness. He now fled from land 
to land, pursued by the Erinnyes of his mother. 
At length, by Apollo's advice, he took refuge 
with Minerva (Athena) at Athens. The god- 
dess afforded him protection, and appointed the 
court of the Areopagus to decide his fate. The 
Erinnyes brought forward their accusation, and 
Orestes made the command of the Delphic or- 
acle his excuse. When the court voted, and 
was equally divided, Orestes was acquitted by 
the command of Minerva (Athena). According 
to another modification of the legend, Orestes 
consulted Apollo how he could be delivered from 
his madness and incessant wandering. The 
god advised him to go to Tauris in Scythia, and 
578 



I to fetch from that country the image of Diana 
(Artemis), which was believed to have fallen 
there from heaven, and to carry it to Athens. 
Orestes and Pylades accordingly went to Tau- 
ris, where Thoas was king. On their arrival 
they were seized by the natives, in order to be 
sacrificed to Diana (Artemis), according to the 
custom of the country. But Iphigenia, the 
priestess of Diana (Artemis), was the sister of 
Orestes, and, after recognizing each other, all 
three escaped with the statue of the goddess. 
After his return to Peloponnesus, Orestes took 
possession of his father's kingdom at Mycenae, 
which had been usurped by Aletes orMenelaus. 
When Cylarabes of Argos died without leaving 
any heir, Orestes became king of Argos also. 
The Lacedaemonians likewise made him their 
king of their own accord, because they prefer- 
red him, the grandson of Tyndareus, to Nico- 
stratus and Megapenthes, the sons of Menelaus 
by a slave. The Arcadians and Phocians in- 
creased his power by allying themselves with 
him. He married Hermione, the daughter of 
Menelaus, and became by her the father of Tis- 
amenus. The story of his marriage with Her- 
mione, who had previously been married to 
Neoptolemus, is related elsewhere. Vid. Her- 
mione, Neoptolemus. He died of the bite of 
a snake in Arcadia, and his body, in accordance 
with an oraele, was afterward carried from Te- 
gea to Sparta, and there buried ; his bones are 
said to have been found, during a truce in a war 
between the Lacedaemonians and Tegeatans, 
under a blacksmith's shop in Tegea. — 2. Re- 
gent of Italy during the short reign of his infant 
son Romulus Augustulus, A.D. 475-476. He 
was born in Pannonia, and served for some 
years under Attila ; after whose death he rose 
to eminence at the Roman court Having been 
intrusted with the command of an army by Ju- 
lius Nepos, he deposed this emperor, and plac- 
ed his son Romulus Augustulus on the throne ; I 
but in the following year he was defeated by 
Odoacer and put to death. Vid. Odoacer. — 3. 
L. Aurelius Orestes, consul B.C. 126, receiv- 
ed Sardinia as his province, where he remain- 
ed upward of three years. C. Gracchus was 
quaestor to Orestes in Sardinia. — 4. Cn. Aufid- I 
ius Orestes, originally belonged to the Aurelia I 
gens, whence his surname of Orestes, and was 
adopted by Cn. Aufidius, the historian, when i 
the latter was an old man. Orestes was con- 
sul 71 B.C. 

Orestedji, Orestheum, or OresthasTum ('Op- 
eareiov, 'Opiaduov, 'OpeodaaLOv), a town in the \ 
south of Arcadia, in the district Maenalia, not 
far from Megalopolis. 

Orestias. 1. The country of the Orestae. 
Vid. Orest^. — 2. A name frequently given 
by the Byzantine writers to Hadrianopolis in 
Thrace. 

Orestilla, Aurelia. Vid. Aurelia 
[Orestis. Vid. Orest^.] 
OretIni, a powerful people in the southwest 
of HispaniaTarraconensis, bounded on the south 
by Baetica, on the north by the Carpetani, on the 
west by Lusitania, and on the east by the Bas- 
tetani ; their territory corresponded to the east- 
ern part of Granada, the whole of La Mancha, 
and the western part of Murcia. Their chief 
town was Castulo. 



OREUS. 



ORIGENES. 



OnEus ('£2pedf : 'fipa'r^f), a town in the north 
of Euboea, on the River Callas, at the foot of 
the mountain Telethrium, and in the district 
Hestiaeotis, was itself originally called Hestiaea 
or Histiaea. After the Persian wars, Oreus, with 
the rest of Euboea, became subject to the Athe- 
nians ; but on the revolt of the island in B.C. 
445, Oreus was taken by Pericles, its inhabit- 
ants expelled, and their place supplied by" two 
thousand Athenians. The site of Oreus made 
it an important place, and its name frequently 
occurs in the Grecian wars down to the disso- 
lution of the Achaean league. 

[Orfius, M., a Roman eques, of the municip- 
ium of Atella, was a tribune of the soldiers in 
Caesar's army, whom Cicero strongly recom- 
mended in B.C. 59 to his brother Quintus, who 
was then one of Caesar's legates.] 

Orgetorix, the noblest and richest among 
the Helvetii, formed a conspiracy to obtain the 
royal power B.C. 61, and persuaded his coun- 
trymen to emigrate from their own country. 
Two years were devoted to making the neces- 
sary preparations ; but the real designs of Or- 
getorix having meantime transpired, and the 
Helvetii having attempted to bring him to trial, 
he suddenly died, probably, as was suspected, 
by his own hands. 

Oribasius ('OpeiSdaioc or 'OpiBdcnoc), an em- 
inent Greek medical writer, born about A.D. 
325, either at Sardis in Lydia, or at Pergamus 
in Mysia. He early acquired a great profes- 
sional reputation. He was an intimate friend 
of the Emperor Julian, with whom he became 
acquainted several years before Julian's acces- 
sion to the throne. He was almost the only 
person to whom Julian imparted the secret of 
his apostacy from Christianity. He accompa- 
nied Julian in his expedition against Persia, 
and was with him at the time of his death, 363. 
The succeeding emperors, Valentinian and Va- 
lens, confiscated the property of Oribasius, and 
banished him. He was afterward recalled from 
exile, and was alive at least as late as 395. Of 
the personal character of Oribasius we know 
little or nothing, but it is clear that he was much 
attached to paganism and to the heathen phi- 
losophy. He was an intimate friend of Euna- 
pius, who praises him very highly, and wrote 
an account of his life. We possess at present 
three works of Oribasius: 1. Collecta Medici- 
na.Ua (Zvvayuyal 'I&rpiKat), or sometimes Heb- 
domecontabiblos {'E66ofir}Kovrd6i6?LOc), which was 
compiled at the command of Julian, when Ori- 
basius was still a young man. It contains but 
little original matter, but is very valuable on 
account of the numerous extracts from writers 
whose works are'no longer extant. More than 
half of this work is now lost, and what remains 
is in some confusion. There is no complete 
edition of the work. 2. An abridgment (Ivvo- 
i/)£f) of the former work, in nine books. It was 
written thirty years after the former. 3. En- 
porista, or De facile Parabilibus (F,vn6ptara), in 
four books. Both this and the preceding work 
were intended as manuals of the practice of 
medicine. 

Oricum or Oricus (JUpucov, "QpiKoc: 'Slpitaoc: 
now Ericho), an important Greek town on the 
coast of Illyria, near the Ceraunian Mountains 
and the frontiers of Epirus, According to tra- 



dition, it was founded by the Eubceans, who 
were east here by a storm on their return from 
Troy ; but according to another legend, it was 
a Colchian colony. The town was strongly 
fortified, but its harbor was not very secure. 
It was destroyed in the civil wars, but was re- 
built by Herodes Atticus. The turpentine tree 
(terebvtlhus) grew in the neighborhood of Oricus 
Origenes CQpiyevrjc), usually called Origen 
one of the most eminent of the early Christian 
writers, was born at Alexandrea A.D. 186. He 
received a careful education from his father, 
Leonides, who was a devout Christian ; and he 
subsequently became a pupil of Clement of Al- 
exandrea. His father having been put to death 
in the persecution of the Christians in the tenth 
year of Severus (202), Origen was reduced to 
destitution ; whereupon he became a teacher 
of grammar, and soon acquired a great reputa- 
tion. At the same time he gave instruction in 
Christianity to several of the heathen ; and, 
though only in his eighteenth year, he was ap- 
pointed to the office of catechist, which was 
vacant through the dispersion of the clergy con- 
sequent on the persecution. The young teach- 
er showed a zeal and self-denial beyond his 
years. Deeming his profession as teacher of 
grammar inconsistent with his sacred work, he 
gave it up ; and he lived on the merest pit- 
tance. His food and his periods of sleep were 
restricted within the narrowest limits ; and he 
performed a strange act of self-mutilation, in 
obedience to what he regarded as the recom- 
mendation of Christ. (Matth., xix., 12.) At a 
later time, however, he repudiated this literal 
understanding of our Lord's words. About 211 
or 212 Origert visited Rome, where he made, 
however, a very short stay. On his return to 
Alexandrea he continued to discharge his duties 
as catechist, and to pursue his biblical studies 
About 216 he paid a visit to Caesarea in Pales- 
tine, and about 230 he travelled into Greece. 
Shortly after his return to Alexandrea he had 
to encounter the open enmity of Demetrius, the 
bishop of the city. He was first deprived of his 
office of catechist, and was compelled to leave 
Alexandrea ; and Demetrius afterward procured 
his degradation from the priestho/od and his ex- 
communication. The charges brought against 
him are not specified ; but his unpopularity ap- 
pears to have arisen from the obnoxious char- 
acter of some of his opinions, and was increas- 
ed by the circumstance that even in his lifetime 
his writings were seriously corrupted. Origen 
withdrew to Caesarea in Palestine, where he was 
received with the greatest kindness. Among 
his pupils at this place was Gregory Thauma- 
turgus, who afterward became his panegyrist. 
In 235 Origen fled from Caesarea in Palestine, 
and took refuge at Caesarea in Cappadocia, 
where he remained concealed two years. It 
was subsequent to this that he undertook a sec- 
ond journey into Greece, the date of which is 
doubtful. In the Decian persecution (249-251), 
Origen was put to the torture ; but, though his 
life was spared, the sufferings which he under- 
went hastened his end. He died in 253 or 254, 
in his sixty-ninth year, at Tyre, in which city 
he was buried. The following are the mos* 
important of Origen's works: 1. The Hcxapla. 
which consisted of six copies of the Old Testa 

579 



ORIGENES. 

ment, ranged in parallel columns. The first ! 
eolumn contained the Hebrew text in Hebrew 
characters, the second the same text in Greek ] 
characters, the third the version of Aquila, the [ 
fourth that of Symmachus, the fifth the Septua- 
gint, the sixth the version of Theodotion. Be- 
sides the compilation and arrangement of these 
versions, Origen added marginal notes, contain- | 
ing, among other things, an explanation of the 
Hebrew names. Only fragments of this valu- 
able work are extant, the best edition of which 
is by Montfaucon, Paris, 1714. 2. Exegetical 
works, which comprehend three classes: (1.) 
Tomi, which Jerome renders Volumina, contain- 
ing ample commentaries, in which he gave full 
scope to his intellect. (2.) Scholia, brief notes | 
on detached passages. (3.) Homilia, popular 
expositions, chiefly delivered at Cassarea. In 
his various expositions Origen sought to ex- 
tract from the Sacred Writings their historical, 
mystical or prophetical, and moral significance. 
His desire of finding continually a mystical 
sense led him frequently into the neglect of the 
historical sense, and even into the denial of its 
truth. This capital fault has at all times fur- 
nished ground for depreciating his labors, and 
has no doubt materially diminished their value: 
it must not, however, be supposed that his de- 
nial of the historical truth of the Sacred Writ- 
ings is more than occasional, or that it has been 
carried out to the full extent which some of his 
accusers have charged upon him. 3. De Prin- 
cipiis (Ilfpi apx&v). This work was the great 
object of attack with Origen's enemies, and the 
source from which they derived their chief evi- 
dence of his various alleged heresies. It was 
divided into four books. Of this work some 
important fragments are extant ; and the Latin 
version of Rufinus has come down to us entire ; 
but Rufinus took great liberties with the orig- 
inal, and the unfaithfulness of his version is de- 
nounced in the strongest terms by Jerome. 4. 
Exhortatio ad Martyrium (Etc pap-vpwv ■xpotpen- 
TLK.be Xoyoc), or De Martyrio (Tlepi jxaprvpiov), 
written during the persecution under the Em- 
peror Maximin (235-238), and still extant. 5. 
Contra Celsum Libri VIII. (Kara Ki2.aov ro/ioi 
ft), still extant. In this important work Origen 
defends the truth of Christianity against the 
attacks of Celsus. Vid. Celsus. There is a 
valuable work entitled Philocalia (Qikonalia), 
which is a compilation by Basil of Ceesarea and 
his friend Gregory of Nazianzus, made almost 
exclusively from the writings of Origen, of 
which many important fragments have been 
thus preserved. Few writers have exercised 
greater influence by the force of their intellect 
and the variety of their attainments than Origen, 
or have been the occasion of longer and more 
acrimonious disputes. Of his more distinctive 
tenets, several had reference to the doctrine of 
the Trinity, to the subject of the incarnation, 
and to the pre-existence of Christ's human soul, 
which, as well as the pre-existence of other hu- 
man souls, he affirmed. He was charged, also, 
with holding the corporeity of angels, and with 
other errors as to angels and dasmons. He held 
the freedom of the human will, and ascribed to 
man a nature less corrupt and depraved than 
was consistent with orthodox views of the op- 
sration of divine grace. He held the doctrine 
580 



ORION. 

of the universal restoration of the guilty, con- 
ceiving that the devil alone would suffer eternal 
punishment. The best edition of his works is 
by Delarue, Paris, 1733-1759, 4 vols. fol. ; [re- 
printed in 25 vols. 8vo, 1831-48, under the edi- 
torial care of Lominatsch.] 

[Orine COpeivv, now Dahlak, in the Gulf of 
Massaouah). an island of the Sinus Arabicus, off 
the coast of ^Ethiopia, in the Sinus Adulicus.] 

Obingis or Oningis, probably the same place 
as Aurinx, a wealthy town in Hispania Baatica, 
with silver mines, near Munda. 

OkIon {'Qpiuv), son of Hyrieus, of Hyria, in 
Boeotia, a handsome giant and hunter, said to 
have been called by the Boeotians Candaon. 
Once he came to Chios (Ophiusa), and fell in 
love with Aero or Merope, the daughter of 
CEnopion by the nymph Helice. He cleared 
the island from wild beasts, and brought the I 
spoils of the chase as presents to his beloved ; 
but as CEnopion constantly deferred the mar- 
riage, Orion once when intoxicated offered vio- 
lence to the maiden. CEnopion now implored 
the assistance of Bacchus (Dionysus), who 
caused Orion to be thrown into a deep sleep by 
satyrs, in which state CEnopion deprived him 
of his sight. Being informed by an oracle that 
he should recover his sight if he would go to- 
ward the east and expose his eye-balls tc the 
rays of the rising sun, Orion followed the sound 
of a Cyclops' hammer, went to Lemnos, where 
Vulcan (Hephasstus) gave to him Cedalion as 
his guide. Having recovered his sight, Orion 
returned to Chios to take vengeance on CEno- I 
pion ; but, as the latter had been concealed by i 
his friends, Orion was unable to find him, and 
then proceeded to Crete, where he lived as a 
hunter with Diana (Artemis). The cause of 
his death, which took place either in Crete ot I 
Chios, is differently stated. According to some, 
Eos (Aurora), who loved Orion for his beauty, 
carried him off, but as the gods were angry at 
this, Diana (Artemis) killed him with an arrow 
in Ortygia. According to others, he was be- 
loved by Diana (Artemis), and Apollo, indig- | 
nant at his sister's affection for him, asserted 
that she was unable to hit with her arrow a dis- 
tant point which he showed her in the sea. She j 
thereupon took aim, and hit it, but the point 
was the head of Orion, who had been swim- 
ming in the sea. A third account, which Hor- 
ace follows (Carm., ii., 4, 72), states that he at- 
tempted to violate Artemis (Diana), and was , 
killed by the goddess with one of her arrows. [ 
A fourth account, lastly, states that he boasted 
he would conquer every animal, and would cleat 
the earth from all wild beasts ; but the earth 
sent forth a scorpion which destroyed him. ^Ea- 
culapius attempted to recall him to life, but was : 
slain by Jupiter (Zeus) with a flash of lightning. 
The accounts of his parentage and birth-place 
vary in the different writers, for some call hirr 
a son of Neptune (Poseidon) and Euryale, and 
others say that he was born of the earth, or a 
son of CEnopion. He is further called a The- 
ban or Tanagraean, but probably because Hyria, 
his native place, sometimes belonged to Tana- 
gra and sometimes to Thebes. After his death 
Orion was placed among the stars, where ho 
appears as a giant with a girdle, sword, a lion's i 
skin, and a club. The constellation of Orion 



ORION. 



OROPUS. 



set at the commencement of November, at which 
time storms and rain were frequent ; hence he 
is often called imbrifer, nimbosus, or aquosus. 

Orion and Orus ('Slpiwv and 'Opof ), names of 
several ancient grammarians, who are frequent- 
ly confounded with each other. It appears, 
however, that we may distinguish three writ- 
ers of these names. 1. Orion, a Theban gram- 
marian, who taught at Ceesarea in the fifth 
century after Christ, and is the author of a lex- 
icon, still extant, published by Sturz, Lips., 
1820. — 2. Orus, of Miletus, a grammarian, liv- 
ed in the second century after Christ, and was 
the author of the works mentioned by Suidas. 
— 3. Orus, an Alexandrine grammarian, who 
taught at Constantinople not earlier than the 
middle of the fourth century after Christ. 

Orippo, a town in Hispania, on the road be- 
tween Gades and Hispalis. 

Orit^e, HoRiTiE, or Or^e ('Qpelrai, 7 S2pat), a 
people of Gedrosia, who inhabited a district 
on the coast nearly two hundred miles long, 
abounding in wine, corn,, rice, and palm-trees, 
the modern Urboo on the coast of Beloochistan. 
Some of the ancient writers assert that they 
were of Indian origin, while others say that, 
though they resembled the Indians in many of 
their customs, they spoke a different language. 

Ofithyia ('OpeWvta). 1. Daughter of Erech- 
theus, king of Athens, and Praxithea. Once, 
as she had strayed beyond the River Ilissus, she 
was seized by Boreas and carried off to Thrace, 
where she bore to Boreas Cleopatra, Chione, 
Zetes, and Calais. — [2. One of the Nereids, 
mentioned in Homer.] 

[Orius ("Opew(), son of the Thessalian sor- 
ceress Mycale, one of the Lapithae, slain by 
Gryneus at the nuptials of Pirithous.] 

[Ormenium. Vid. Ormenus.] 

Ormenus ('Op/^evof). 1. Son of Cercaphus, 
grandson of ^Eolus, and father of Amyntor, was 
believed to have founded the town of Ormeni- 
um, in Thessaly. From him Amyntor is some- 
times called Ormenides, and Astydamia, his 
grand-daughter, Ormenis.—[2. Name of two Tro- 
jan warriors, who were slain, the one by Teucer, 
the other by Polypoetes, in the Trojan war.] 

[Orminius Mons (now Derne jailasi ?), a range 
of mountains in the northeast of Bithynia, term- 
inating in PromontoriumPosidium, on the coast.] 

Orne^e ('Opveai : 'Opve&TTig), an ancient town 
in Argolis, near the frontiers of the territory of 
Phlius, and one hundred and twenty stadia from 
Argos. It was originally independent of Argos, 
but was subdued by the Argives in the Pelopon- 
nesian war, B.C. 415. 

Orneus ('Opvevc), son of Erecht.heus, father 
of Peteus, and grandfather of Menestheus ; from 
him the town of Oineae was believed to have 
derived its name. 

[Ornytus COpwrof). 1. An Arcadian hero, 
who led an army from Teuthis to join the Greeks 
against Troy, but during the stay at Aulis he 
had a quarrel with Agamemnon, and, in conse- 
quence, led his forces back. — 2. A Tyrrhenian, 
companion of JDneas in Italy, slain by Camilla.] 

Oroanda ('Opoavda: 'Opoavdevc, or-(/cdf, Oro- 
andensis), a mountain city of Pisidia, southeast 
of Antiochia, from which the " Oroandicus trac- 
tus" obtained its name 

OroItis ('Opwt-if : now Tab), the largest of 



the minor rivers which flow into the Persian 
Gulf, formed the boundary between Susiana and 
Persia. 

OrobLe ('OpoBiai), a town on the coast of 
Euboea, not far from JEgx, with an oracle of 
Apollo. 

[Orobii, a Gallic people in Gallia Transpa- 
dana, in whose territory, according to Pliny, lay 
the cities Comum and Bergomum.] 

Orodes ('OpwJ^f), the name'of two kings of 
Parthia. Vid. Arsaces, No. 14, 17. 

Orcetes ('Opo/r^f), a Persian, was made sa- 
trap of Sardis by Cyrus, which government he 
retained under Cambyses. In B.C. 522 he de- 
coyed Polycrates into his power by specious 
promises, and put him to death. But being sus- 
pected of aiming at the establishment of an in- 
dependent sovereignty, he was himself put to 
death by order of Darius. 

Orontes ('Op6vT7ic). 1. (Now Nahr-el-Asy), 
the largest river of Syria, has two chief sources 
in Coelesyria, the one in the Antilibanus, the 
other further north, in the Libanus ; flows north- 
east into a lake south of Emesa, and thence 
north past Epiphania and Apamea, till near An- 
tioch, where it suddenly sweeps round to the 
southwest, and falls into the sea at the foot of 
Mount Pieria. According to tradition, its ear- 
lier name was Typhon (Tvfuv), and it was call- 
ed Orontes from the person who first built a 
bridge over it. — 2. A mountain on the southern 
side of the Caspian, between Parthia and Hyr- 
cania. — 3. A people of Assyria, east of Gauga 
mela. 

[Orontes ('Opovr^f). 1. A Lycian leader, an 
ally of the Trojans, accompanied ^Eneas after 
the fall of Troy, and perished by shipwreck. — 
2. Related to the Persian royal family, accom- 
panied the younger Cyrus against Artaxerxes, 
having been pardoned by Cyrus though he had 
revolted from him. He was again convicted of 
treason during the expedition, was tried by a 
court-martial; and condemned to death. His 
fate was never made public. — 3. A Persian, sa- 
trap of Armenia, married Rhodogune, the daugh- 
ter of Artaxerxes : he commanded one of the 
divisions of the king's army during the retreat 
of the ten thousand Greeks, and was a party to 
the treacherous massacre of the Greek gen- 
erals. He was afterward disgraced in conse- 
quence of mismanaging the war with Evagoras, 
and attempting to deprive Tiribazus of his com- 
mand and his army. Vid. Tiribazus. — 4. A 
descendant of Hydarnes (one of the seven con- 
spirators against Smerdis the Magian), is men- 
tioned by Strabo as the last Persian prince who 
reigned in Armenia before the division of the 
country by Antiochus the Great between two 
of his officers, Artaxias and Zariadris.] 

Orijpus ('flpcjTrof : 'Q.puiuos : now Oropo), a 
town on the eastern frontiers of Boeotia and 
Attica, near the Euripus, originally belonged to 
the Boeotians, but was at an early time seized 
by the Athenians, and was long an object of 
contention between the two nations. At length, 
after being taken and retaken several times, it 
remained permanently in the hands of the Athe- 
nians, and is always reckoned by later writers 
as a town of Attica. Its sea-port was Delphin- 
.ium, at the mouth of the Asopus, about one and 
a half miles from the town. 

581 



OROSIUS, PATJLUS. 



ORPHEUS. 



Orosius, Paulus, a Spanish presbyter, a na- 
tive of Tarragona, flourished under Arcadius 
and Honorius. Having conceived a warm ad- 
miration for St. Augustine, he passed over into 
Africa about A.D. 413. After remaining in 
Africa about two years, Augustine sent him 
inte Syria, to counteract the influence of Pela- 
gius, who had resided for some years in Pales- 
tine.' Orosius found a warm friend in Jerome, 
but was unable te procure the condemnation of 
Pelagius, and was himself anathematized by 
John, bishop of Jerusalem, when he brought a 
formal charge against Pelagius. Orosius subse- 
quently returned to Africa, and there, it is believ- 
ed, died, but at what period is not known. The 
following works by Orosius are still extant. 1. 
Historiarum adversus Paganos Libri VII., dedi- 
cated to St. Augustine, at whose suggestion the 
task was undertaken. The pagans having been 
accustomed to complain that the ruin of the 
Roman empire must be ascribed to the wrath 
of the ancient deities, whose worship had been 
abandoned, Orosius, upon his return from Pal- 
estine, composed this history to demonstrate 
that from the earliest epoch the world had been 
the scene of calamities as great as the Roman 
empire was then suffering. The work, which 
extends from the Creation down to A.D. 417, 
is, with exception of the concluding portion, 
extracted from Justin, Eutropius, and inferior 
second-hand authorities. Edited by Havereamp, 
Lugd. Bat., 1738 and 1767. 2. Liber Apologeti- 
cus de Arbitrii Libertate, written in Palestine, 
A D. 415, appended to the edition of the His- 
tory by Havereamp. 3. Commonitorium ad Au- 
gustinum, the earliest of the works of Orosius, 
composed soon after his first arrival in Africa. 

Obospeda or Ortospeda (now Sierra del Mun- 
do), the highest range of mountains in the cen- 
tre of Spain, began in the centre of Mount Idu- 
beda, ran first west and then south, and term- 
inated near Calpe at the Fretum Herculeum. 
It contained several silver mines, whence the 
part in which the Baetis rises was called Mount 
Argentarius, or the Silver Mountain. 

Orpheus ('Optyevc), a mythical personage, 
was regarded by the Greeks as the most cele- 
brated of the early poets, who lived before the 
time of Homer. His name does not occur in 
the Homeric or Hesiodic poems, but it already 
had attained to great celebrity in the lyric pe- 
riod. There were numerous legends about Or- 
pheus, but the common story ran as follows : 
Orpheus, the son of CEagrus and Calliope, lived 
in Thrace at the period of the Argonauts, whom 
he accompanied in their expedition. Presented 
with the lyre by Apollo, and instructed by the 
Muses in its use, he enchanted with its music 
not only the wild beasts, but the trees and rocks 
upon Olympus, so that they moved from their 
places to follow trie sound of his golden'harp. 
The power of his music caused the Argonauts 
to seek his aid, which contributed materially to 
the success of their expedition ; at the sound 
of his lyre the Argo glided down into the sea ; 
the Argonauts tore themselves away from the 
pleasures of Lemnos ; the Symplegades, or mov- 
ing rocks, which threatened to crush the ship 
between them, were fixed in their places ; and 
the Colchian dragon, which guarded the golden 
fleece, was lulled to sleep : other legends of 
582 



the same kjnd may be read in the Argonatitu.a, 
which hears the name of Orpheus. After his 
return from the Argonautic expedition he took 
up his abode in a cave in Thrace, and employ-i 
ed himself in the civilization of its wild inhabit- 
ants. There is also a legend of his having vis- 
ited Egypt. The legends respecting the loss 
and recovery of his wife, and his own death, 
are very various. His wife was a nymph named 
Agriope or Eurydice. In the older accounts 
the cause of her death is not referred to. The 
legend followed in the well-known passages of 
Virgil and Ovid, whicli ascribes the death of 
Eurydice to the bite of a serpent, is no doubt 
of high antiquity ; but the introduction of Aris- 
tajns into the legend can not be traced to any 
writer older than Virgil himself. He followed 
his lost wife into the abodes of Pluto (Hades), 
where the charms of his lyre suspended the 
torments of the damned, and won back his wife 
from the most inexorable of all deities ; but his 
prayer was only granted upon this condition, 
that he should not look back upon his restored 
wife till they had arrived in the upper world : 
at the very moment when they were about to 
pass the fatal bounds, the anxiety of love over- 
came the poet ; he looked round to see that 
Eurydice was following him, and he beheld hei 
caught back into the infernal regions. His 
grief for the loss of Eurydice led him to treat 
with contempt the Thracian women, who, in re- 
venge, tore him to pieces under the excitement 
of their Bacchanalian orgies. After his death 
the Muses collected the fragments of his body, 
and buried them at Libethra, at the foot of 
Olympus, where the nightingale sang sweetly 
over his grave. His head was thrown into the 
Hebrus, down which it rolled to the sea, and 
was borne across to Lesbos, where the grave 
in which it was interred was shown at Antissa. 
His lyre was also said to have been carried to 
Lesbos ; and both traditions are simply poet- 
ical expressions of the historical fact that Les- 
bos was the first great seat of the music of the 
lyre : indeed, Antissa itself was the birth-place 
of Terpander, the earliest historical musician. 
The astronomers taught that the lyre of Or- 
pheus was placed by Jupiter (Zeus) among the 
stars at the intercession of Apollo and the Mu- 
ses. In these legends there are some points 
which are sufficiently clear. The invention of 
music, in connection with the services of Apollo 
and the Muses, its first great application to the 
worship of the gods, which Orpheus is there- 
fore said to have introduced, its power over the 
passions, and the importance which the Greeks 
attached to the knowledge of it, as intimately 
allied with the very existence of all social ordei 
— are probably the chief elementary ideas of the 
whole legend. But then comes in one of the 
dark features of the Greek religion, in which 
the gods envy the advancement of man in 
knowledge and civilization, and severely punish 
any one who transgresses the bounds assigned 
to humanity. In a later age the conflict was 
no longer viewed as between the gods and man, 
but between the worshippers of different divin- 
ities ; and especially between Apollo, the sym- 
bol of pure intellect, and Bacchus (Dionysus), 
the deity of the senses ; hence Orpheus, the 
servant of Apollo, falls a victim to the jealous? 



ORPHIDIUS BENIGNUS. 



ORXINES. 



o( Bacchus (Dionysus), and the fury of his wor- 
shippers. — Orphic Societies and Mysteries. About 
the time of the first development of Greek phi- 
losophy, societies were formed, consisting of 
persons called the followers of Orpheus (oi 'Op- 
<j>iKoi), who, under the pretended guidance of 
Orpheus, dedicated themselves to the worship 
of Bacchus (Dionysus). They performed the 
rites of a mystical worship, but instead of con- 
fining their notions to the initiated, they pub- 
lished them to others, and committed them to 
literary works. The Bacchus (Dionysus) to 
whose worship the Orphic rites were annexed, 
was Bacchus (Dionysus) Zagreus, closely con- 
nected with Ceres (Demeter) and Cora (Proser- 
pina). The Orphic legends and poems related 
in great part to this Bacchus (Dionysus), who 
was combined, as an infernal deity, with Pluto 
(Hades), and upon whom the Orphic theolo- 
gers founded their hopes of the purification and 
ultimate immortality of the soul. But their 
mode of celebrating this worship was very dif- 
ferent from the popular rites of Bacchus. The 
Orphic worshippers of Bacchus did not indulge 
in unrestrained pleasure and frantic enthusi- 
asm, but rather aimed at an ascetic purity of 
life and manners. All this part of the mythol- 
ogy of Orpheus, which connects him with Bac- 
chus (Dionysus), must be considered as a later 
invention, quite irreconcilable with the original 
legend, in which he is the servant of Apollo and 
the Muses : but it is almost hopeless to explain 
the transition. Many poems ascribed to Oi> 
pheus were current as early as the time of the 
Pisistratids. Vid. Onomacritus. They are oft- 
en quoted by Plato, and the allusions to them 
in later writers are very frequent. The extant 
poems, which bear the name of Orpheus, are 
the forgeries of Christian grammarians and 
philosophers of the Alexandrean school ; but 
among the fragments, which form a part of the 
collection, are some genuine remains of that 
Orphic poetry which was known to Plato, and 
which must be assigned to the period of Ono- 
macritus, or perhaps a little earlier. The Or- 
phic literature, which in this sense may be call- 
ed genuine, seems to have included Hymns, a 
Theogony, Oracles, &c. The apocryphal pro- 
ductions which have come down to us are, 1. 
Argonautica, an epic poem in one thousand three 
hundred and eighty-four hexameters, giving an 
account of the expedition of the Argonauts. 2. 
Hymns, eighty-seven or eighty-eight in num- 
ber, in hexameters, evidently the productions 
of the Neo-Platonic school. 3. Lkhica (Aidmd), 
treats of properties of stones, both precious and 
common, and their uses in divination. 4. Frag- 
ments, chiefly of the Theogony. It is in this 
class that we find *he genuine remains of the 
literature of the early Orphic theology, but in- 
termingled with others of a much later date. 
The best edition is by Hermann, Lips., 1805. 

[Orphidius Benignus, a legate of the Em- 
peror Otho, fell in the battle of Bedriacum against 
the troops of Vitellius, A.D. 69.] 

[Orsabaris ('OpcdBapic), a daughter of Mith- 
radates the Great, taken prisoner by Pompey, 
and served to adorn his triumph, B.C. 61.] 

[Orsei's ('Oponic), a nymph, mother by Hel- 
<en of JEolus, Dorus, and Xuthus.] 

[Orsilochus ('OpaiXoxoc). 1. Son of the river- 



god Alpheus and of Telegone, father of Diodes, 
prince at Pherae, and guest friend of Ulysses. 
— 2. Son of Diocles, grandson of No. 1, accom- 
panied Agamemnon to the Trojan war, and war 
slain before Troy by ^Eneas. — 3. Son of Ido- 
meneus of Crete. — 4. A Trojan, who accom- 
panied ^Eneas to Italy ; he was slain by Ca- 
milla.] 

[Orthagoras ('OpOayopac). 1. A geograph- 
ical writer, whose age is uncertain : he wrote 
a work on India, and another concerning the 
Red Sea. — 2. A flute-player of Thebes ; accord- 
ing to Athenaeus, an instructor of Epaminondas 
in flute-playing.] 

[Orthe ("Opdri), a place in the Thessalian 
district Perrhasbia, mentioned in the second 
book of the Iliad ; supposed by Strabo to be the 
Acropolis of Phalanna.] 

Orthia ('Opdia, 'Opdlc, or 'Opdooia), a sur- 
name of the Diana (Artemis) who is also called 
Iphigenia or Lygodesma, and must be regarded 
as the goddess of the moon. Her worship was 
probably brought to Sparta from Lemnos. It 
was at the altar of Diana (Artemis) Orthia that 
Spartan boys had to undergo the flogging called 
diamastigosis. 

Orthosia ('OpduGia). 1. A city of Caria, on 
the Maeander, with a mountain of the same 
name, where the Rhodians defeated the Ca- 
rians, B.C. 167.— 2. (Now Ortosa), a city of 
Phoenice, south of the mouth of the Eleuthe- 
rus, and twelve Roman miles from Tripolis. 

Orthrus ("Opdpoc), the two-headed dog of 
Geryones, who was begotten by Typhon and 
Echidna, and was slain by Hercules. Vid. p. 
358, a.] 

[Ortona (now Ortona a Mare), a port-town 
of the Frentani, according to the Itineraries on 
the road from Aternum to Histonium.] 

Ortospana or -um ('Oproanava : now Cabul ?), 
a considerable city of the Paropamisadae, at 
the sources of a western tributary of the River 
Cogs, and at the junction of three roads, one 
leading north into Bactria, and the others south 
and east into India. It was also called Carura 
or Cabura. 

OrtygTa ('Oprvyla). 1. The ancient name of 
Delos. Since Diana (Artemis) and Apollo were 
born at Delos, the poets sometimes call the god- 
dess Ortygia, and give the name of Ortygia loves 
to the 6attle pastured by Apollo. The ancients 
connected the name with Ortyx ("Oprwf), a quail. 
Vid. p. 435, b. — 2. An island near Syracuse. 
Vid. Syracuse. — 3. A grove near Ephesus, in 
which the Ephesians pretended that Apollo and 
Diana (Artemis) were born. Hence Propertius 
calls the Cayster, which flowed near Ephesus, 
Ortygius Cayster. 

[Ortygius-, a Rutulian, one of the warriors 
on the side of Turnus in his wars with ^Eneas, 
slain by Caaneus.] 

Orus. Vid. Horus, Orion. 

[Orus ('%>of), a Greek warrior before Troy, 
slain by Hector.] 

[Orxines ('Op!;ivnc) or Orsines, a noble and 
wealthy Persian, who traced his descent from 
Cyrus. He was present, and commanded a 
portion of the troops at Gaugamela. At the 
death of Phrasaortes Orxines assumed the sa- 
trapy of Persis, which usurpation was over- 
looked by Alexander ; but he was subsequently 

583 



OSCa 



OSTRACINA. 



charged with sacrilege, and on this or some 
other grc and was crucified by Alexander.] 

Osca. 1. (Now Hucsca in Arragonia), an im- 
portant town of the Ilergetes and a Roman col- 
ony in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from 
Tarraco to Uerda, with silver mines ; whence 
Livy speaks of argentum Osciense, though these 
words may perhaps mean silver money coined 
at Osca. — 2. (West of Huescar in Granada), a 
town of the Turdetani in Hispania Beetica. 

Oscela. Vid. Lepontii. 

Osci or Opici ("Ocr/cot, 'Oitikoi), one of the 
most ancient tribes of Italy, inhabited the cen- 
tre of the peninsula, from which they had driven 
out the Siculi. Their principal settlement was 
in Campania, but we also find them in parts of 
Latium and Samnium. They were subdued by 
the Sabines and Tyrrhenians, and disappeared 
from history at a comparatively early period. 
They were called in their own language Uskus. 
They are identified by many writers with the 
Ausones or Aurunci ; but others think that the 
latter is a collective name for all the people 
dwelling in the plain, and that the Osci were a 
branch of the Ausones. The Oscan language 
was closely connected with the other ancient 
Italian dialects, out of which the Latin language 
was formed ; and it continued to be spoken by 
the people qf Campania long after the Oscans 
had disappeared as a separate people. A knowl- 
edge of it was preserved at Rome by the Fab- 
ulae Atellanse, which were a species of farce or 
comedy written in Oscan. 

Osi, a people in Germany, probably in the 
mountains between the sources of the Oder and 
the Gran, were, according to Tacitus, tributary 
to the Sarmatians, and spoke the Pannonian 
language. 

OsiCERDA. Vid. OsSIGERDA. 

[Osinius, kingofClusium, aided JEneas in his 
wars with Turnus in Italy.] 

Osiris ("Oaipic), the great Egyptian divinity, 
and husband of Isis. According to Herodotus, 
they were the only divinities who were wor- 
shipped by all the Egyptians. His Egyptian 
name is said to have been Hysiris, which is in- 
terpreted to mean "son of Isis," though some 
said that it meant " many-eyed." He is said to 
have been originally king of Egypt, and to have 
reclaimed his subjects from a barbarous life by 
teaching them agriculture, and enacting wise 
laws. He afterward travelled into foreign 
lands, spreading wherever he went the bless- 
ings of civilization. On his return to Egypt he 
was murdered by his brother Typhon, who cut 
his body into pieces and threw them into the 
Nile. After a long search Isis discovered the 
mangled remains of her husband, and with the 
assistance of her son Horus defeated Typhon, 
and recovered the sovereign power, which Ty- 
phon had usurped. Vid. Isis. 

[Osiris, a friend of Turnus, the king of the 
Rutuli, slain by the Trojan Thymbraeus.] 

OsismIi, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, at 
the northwestern extremity of the coast, and in 
the neighborhood of the modern Quimper and 
Brest. 

Ogroene ('OapoTjvrj : 'Oaporjvoi, pi. : now Pa- 
slialik of Orfah), the westernmost of" the two por- 
tions into which Northern Mesopotamia was di- 
vided by the River Chaboras (now Khabour), 
584 



which separated it from Mygdonia on the east, 
and from the rest of Mesopotamia on the south ; 
the Euphrates divided it on the west and north- 
west from the Syrian districts of Chalybonitis, 
Cyrrhestice, and Commagene ; and on the north 
it was separated by Mount Masius from Armenia. 
Its name was said to be derived from Osrogs, 
an Arabian chieftain, who, in the time of the 
Seleucidae, established over it a petty principal- 
ity, with Edessa for its capital, which lasted till 
the reign of Caracalla, and respecting the his 
tory of which, vid. Abgaros. 

[OsROES. Vid. OsROENE.] 

Ossa ('Oaaa : now Kissavo, i. e., ivy-clad). 
1. A celebrated mountain in the north of Mag- 
nesia, in Thessaly, connected with Pelion on 
the southeast, and divided from Olympus on the 
northwest by the Vale of Tempe. It is one of 
the highest mountains in Greece, but much less 
lofty than Olympus. It is mentioned by Homer 
in the legend of the war of the Giants, respect- 
ing -which, vid. Olympus. — [2. (Now Osa), a 
small river of Etruria, which empties into the 
Tyrrhenian Sea between Promontorium Tela- 
mon and the city of Cosa.] 

Osset, with the surname Constantia Julia, a 
town in Hispania Bastica, on the right bank of 
the Bastis, opposite Hispalis. 

Ossigerda or Osicerda (Ossigerdensis), a 
town of the Edetani in Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, and a Roman municipium. 

Ossigi (now Maquiz), a town of the Turduli 
in Hispania Bastica, on the spot where the Bas- 
tis first enters Baetica. 

Ossonoba {now Estoy, north of Faro), a town 
of the Turdetani inLusitania, between the Ta- 
gus and Anas. 

Osteodes ('OoTcudijc vjjooc : now Alicur), an 
island at some distance from the north coast of 
Sicily, opposite the town of Soli. 

Ostia (Ostiensis : now Ostia,) a town at the 
mouth of the River Tiber, and the harbor of 
Rome, from which it was distant sixteen miles 
by land, was situated on the left bank of the left 
arm of the river. It was founded by Ancus 
Marcius.'the fourth king of Rome, was a Roman 
colony, and eventually became an important and 
flourishing town. In the civil wars it was de- 
stroyed byMarius, but it was soon rebuilt with 
greater splendor than before. The Emperor 
Claudius constructed a new and better harbor 
on the right arm of the Tiber, which was en- 
larged and improved by Trajan. This new har- 
bor was called simply Portus Romanus or Portus 
Augusli, and around it there sprang up a flour- 
ishing town, also called Portus (the inhabitants 
Portuenses). The old town of Ostia, whose 
harbor had been already partly filled up by sand, 
now sank into insignificance, and only continued 
to exist through its salt-works (salines), which 
had been established by Ancus Marcius. The 
ruins of Ostia are between two and three miles' 
from the coast, as the sea has gradually receded 
in consequence of the accumulation of sand de- 
posited by the Tiber. 

Ostia Nili. Vid. Nilus. 
[Ostorius Sabinus. Vid. Sabinus.] 
Ostorius Scapula. Vid. Scapula. 
Ostra (Ostranus), a town in Umbria, in the 
territory of the Senones. 

[Ostracina ('OaTpaKiva), a city destitute of 



OTACILIUS CRASSUS, T. 



OTHRYS. 



water (c-a9/ibe avvSpoc), in Lower Egypt, east 
of the Nile, on the road from Rhinoeorura to 
Pelusium, and not far from Lake Sirbonis.] 

Otacilius Crassus, T 1. A Roman general 
during the second Puni; war, was praetor B.C. 
217, and subsequently propraetor in Sicily. In 
215 he crossed over to Africa, and laid waste 
the Carthaginian coast. He was praetor for the 
second time, 214, and his command was pro- 
longed during the next three years. He died in 
Sicily, 211. — [2. Otacilius Crassds, one of 
Pompey's officers, had the command of the town 
of Lissus in Illyria, and cruelly murdered two 
hundred and twenty of Caesar's soldiers, who 
had surrendered to him on the promise that they 
should be uninjured. Shortly after this he aban- 
doned Lissus, and joined the main body of the 
Pompeian army.] 

Otacilius Pilitus, L., a Roman rhetorician, 
who opened a school at Rome B.C. 81, was 
originally a slave, but having exhibited talent 
and a love of literature, he was manumitted by 
his master. Cn. Pompeius Magnus was one of 
his pupils, and he wrote the history of Pompey, 
and of his father likewise. 

Otanes {'Ordvris). 1. A Persian, son of Phar- 
naspes, was the first who suspected the impos- 
ture of Sinerdis the Magian, and took the chief 
part in organizing the conspiracy against the 
pretender (B.C. 521). After the accession of 
Darius Hystaspis, he was placed in command 
of the Persian force which invaded Samos for 
the purpose of placing Syloson, brother of Poly- 
crates, in the government. — 2. A Persian, son 
of Sisamnes, succeeded Megabyzus (B.C. 506) in 
the command of the forces on the sea-coast, 
and took Byzantium, Chalcedon, Antandrus, and 
Lamponium, as well as the islands of Lemnos 
and Imbros. He was probably the same Otanes 
who is mentioned as a son-in-law of Darius Hys- 
taspis, and as a general employed against the 
revolted Ionians in 499. 

Otho, L. Roscius, tribune of the plebs B.C. 
67, was a warm supporter of the aristocratical 
party. He opposed the proposal of Gabinius to 
bestow upon Pompey the command of the war 
against the pirates ; and in the same year he 
proposed and carried the law which gave to the 
equites a special place at the public spectacles, 
in fourteen rows or seats {in quatluordecim gradi- 
bus sive ordinibus), next to the place of the sen- 
ators, which was in the orchestra. This law 
was very unpopular ; and in Cicero's consulship 
(63) there was such a riot occasioned by the ob- 
noxious measure that it required all his elo- 
quence to allay the agitation. 

Otho, SalvIcs. 1. M., grandfather of the 
Emperor Otho, was descended from an ancient 
and noble family of the town of Ferentinum in 
Etruria. His father was a Roman eques ; his 
mother was of low origin, perhaps even a freed- 
woman. Through the influence of Livia Au- 
gusta, in whose house he had been brought up, 
Otho was made a Roman senator, and eventu- 
ally obtained the praetorship, but was not ad- 
vanced to any higher honor. — 2. L., son of the 
preceding, and father of the Emperor Otho, stood 
so high in the favor of Tiberius, and resembled 
this emperor so strongly in person, that it was 
supposed by most that he was his son. He was 
sonsul suffectus in A.D. 33 ; was afterward pro- 



consul in Africa ; and in 42 was sent into lllyn- 
cum, where he restored discipline among the 
soldiers, who had lately rebelled against Clau- 
dius. At a later time he detected a conspiracy 
which had been formed against the life of Clau- 
dius. — 3. L., surnamed Titianus, elder son of 
No. 2, was consul 52, and proconsul in Asia 63, 
when he had Agricola for his quaestor. It is 
related to the honor of the latter that he was 
not corrupted by the example of his superior 
officer, who indulged in every kind of rapacity. 
On the death of Galba in January, 69, Titianus 
was a second time made consul, with his brother 
Otho, the emperor. On the death of the latter, 
he was pardoned by Vitellius. — 4. M., Roman 
emperor from January 15th to April 16th, A.D. 
69, was the younger son of No. 2. He was born 
in the early part of 32. He was of moderate 
stature, ill made in the legs, and had an effem- 
inate appearance. He was one of the compan- 
ions of Nero in his debaucheries ; but when the 
emperor took possession of his wife, the beauti- 
ful but profligate Poppaea Sabina, Otho was sent 
as governor to Lusitania, which he administered 
with credit during the last ten years of Nero's 
life. Otho attached himself to Galba when he 
revolted against Nero, in the hope of being 
adopted by him and succeeding to the empire. 
But when Galba adopted L. Piso on the 10th of 
January, 69, Otho formed a conspiracy against 
Galba, and was proclaimed emperor by the sol 
diers at Rome, who put Galba to death. Mean 
time Vitellius had been, proclaimed emperor at 
Cologne by the German troops on the 3d oi 
January, and his generals forthwith set out for 
Italy to place their master on the throne. When 
these news reached Otho, he marched into the 
north of Italy to oppose the generals of Vitellius. 
The fortune of war was at first in his favor. 
He defeated Caecina, the general of Vitellius, in 
more than one engagement ; but his army was 
subsequently defeated in a decisive battle near 
Bedriacum by the united forces of Caecina and 
Valens, whereupon he put an end to his own life 
at Brixellum, in the thirty-seventh year of his 
age. 

Othryades ('Odpv6.6r,(;). 1. A patronymic 
given to Panthous or Panthus, the Trojan priest 
of Apollo, as the son of Othryas. — 2. ASpartan, 
one of the three hundred selected to fight with 
an equal number of Argives for the possession 
of Thyrea. Othryades was the only person 
who survived the battle, and was left for dead. 
He spoiled the dead bodies of the enemy, and 
remained at his post, while Alcenor and Chro- 
mius, the two survivors of the Argive party, 
hastened home with the news of victory, sup- 
posing that all their opponents had been slain. 
As the victory was claimed by both sides, a 
general battle ensued, in which the Argives 
were defeated. Othryades slew himself on the 
field, being ashamed to return to Sparta as the 
one survivor of her three hundred champions. 

[Othryoneus ('Odpvovevs), an ally of Priam, 
from Cabesus, was a suitor for the hand of Cas- 
sandra, Priam's daughter, and promised, in re- 
turn, to drive the Greeks from before Troy ; but 
he was slain by Idomeneus.] 

Othrvs ('Odpve : [now Goura or Katavothry 1 
the highest summit Jerako, according to Leake]), 
a lofty range of mountains in the south of Thes- 

585 



OTREUS. 

saly, which extended from Mount Tymphres- 
tus, or the most southerly part of Pindus, to the 
eastern coast and the promontory between the 
Pagasaean Gulf and the northern point of Eu- 
boea. It shut in the great Thessalian plain on 
the south. 

[Otreus ('Orprff), king of Phrygia, whom 
Priam aided against the Amazons.] 

[Otris, a town of Babylonia, south of Baby- 
lon, above the marshes of the Euphrates.] 

[Otrosa ('Grpoia), a city of Bithynia, above 
Lake Ascania, said to have derived its name 
from Otreus, probably the same as the town of 
Phrygia mentioned by Plutarch under the name 
of Otryae ('Orpvai) in his life of Lucullus.] 

[Otrynteus ('Orpwrevc), king of Hyde at the 
base of Mount Tmolus, father of Iphition by one 
of the nymphs.] 

Otus, and his brother Ephialtes, are bet- 
ter known by their name of the Aldidce. Vid. 
Aloeus. — [2. Of Cyllene, a Greek warrior at the 
siege of Troy, slain by Polydamas.] 

Ovidius Naso, P., the Roman poet, was born 
at Sulmo, in the country of the Peligni, on the 
20th of March, B.C. 43. He was descended from 
an ancient equestrian family, but possessing 
only moderate wealth. He, as well as his 
brother Lucius, who was exactly a year older 
than himself, was destined to be a pleader, and 
received a careful education to qualify him for 
that calling. He studied rhetoric under Arel- 
lius Fiiscus and Porcius Latro, and attained to 
considerable proficiencv in the art of declama- 
tion. But the bent of nis genius showed itself 
very early. The hours which should have been 
spent in the study of jurisprudence were em- 
ployed in cultivating his poetical talent. The 
older Seneca, who had heard him declaim, tells 
us that his oratory resembled a solutum' carmen, 
and that any thing in the way of argument was 
irksome to him. His father denounced his fa- 
vorite pursuit as leading to inevitable poverty ; 
but the death of his brother, at the early age 
of twenty, probably served in some degree to 
mitigate his father's opposition, for the patri- 
mony which would have been scanty for two 
might amply suffice for one. Ovid's education 
was completed at Athens, where he made him- 
self thoroughly master of the Greek language. 
Afterward he travelled with the poet Macer in 
Asia and Sicily. It is a disputed point whether 
he ever actually practiced as an advocate after 
his return to Rome. The picture Ovid himself 
draws of his weak constitution and indolent 
temper prevents us from thinking that he ever 
followed his profession with perseverance, if 
indeed at all. The same causes deterred him 
from entering the senate, though he had put on 
the latus clavus when he assumed the toga viri- 
lis, as being by birth entitled to aspire to the 
senatorial dignity. (Trist., iv., 10, 29.) He be- 
came, however, one of the Triumviri Capilales ; 
and he was subsequently made one of the Cen- 
tumviri, or judges who tried testamentary and 
even criminal causes ; and in due time he was 
promoted to be one of the Decemviri, who as- 
sembled and presided over the court of the 
Centumviri. Such is all the account that can 
be given of Ovid's business life. He married 
twice in early life at the desire of his parents, 
but he speedily divorced each of his wives in 
586 



OVIDIUS NASO, P. 

succession. The restraint of a wife Was ii It- 
some to a man like Ovid, who was devoted to 
gallantry and licentious life. His chief mistress 
in the early part, of his life was the one whom 
he celebrates in his poems under the name of 
Corinna. If we may believe the testimony of 
Sidonius Apollinaris, Corinna was no less a 
personage than Julia, the accomplished but 
abandoned daughter of Augustus. There are 
several passages in Ovid's Amores which ren- 
der the testimony of Sidonius highly probable. 
Thus it appears that his mistress was a mar- 
ried woman, of high rank, but profligate morals ; 
all which particulars will suit Julia. How long 
Ovid's connection with Corinna lasted there are 
no means of deciding ; but it probably ceased 
before his marriage with his third wife, whom 
he appears to have sincerely loved. We can 
hardly place his third marriage later than his «| 
thirtieth year, since a daughter, Perilla, was the I 
fruit of it (Trist., iii., 7, 3), who was grown up 
and married at the time of his banishment. 
Perilla was twice married, and had a child by 
each husband. Ovid was a grandfather before ' 
he lost his father at the age of ninety ; soon 
after whose decease his mother also died. Till 
his fiftieth year Ovid continued to reside at 
Rome, where he had a house near the Capitol, 
occasionally taking a trip to his Pelignan farm. 
He not only enjoyed the friendship of a large 
circle of distinguished men, but the regard and I 
favor of Augustus and the imperial family. But 
in A.D. 9 Ovid was suddenly commanded by an 
imperial edict to transport himself to Tomi, a 
town on the Euxine, near the mouths of the j 
Danube, on the very border of the empire. He 
underwent no trial, and the sole reason for his 
banishment stated in the edict was his having 
published his poem on the Art of Love (Ars I 
Amatoria). It was not, however, an exsilium, 
but a relegatio ; that is, he was not utterly cut 
off from all hope of return, nor did he lose his 
citizenship. The real cause of his banishment 
has long exercised the ingenuity of scholars. 
The publication of the Ars Amatoria was cer- 
tainly a mere pretext. The poem had been 
published nearly ten years previously ; and, 
moreover, whenever Ovid alludes to that, the 
ostensible cause, he invariably couples with it 
another which he mysteriously conceals. Ac- 
cording to some writers, the rtial cause was his 
intrigue with Julia. But this is sufficiently re- 
futed by the fact that Julia had been an exile 
since B.C. 2. Other writers suppose that he 
had been guilty of an intrigue with the younger 
Julia, the daughter of the elder one ; and the 
remarkable fact that the younger Julia was ban- 
ished in the same year with Ovid leads very 
strongly to the inference that his fate was in 
someway connected with hers. But Ovid states 
himself that his fault was an involuntary one ; 
and the great disparity of years between the 
poet and the younger Julia renders it improb- 
able that there had been an intrigue between 
them. He may more probably have become ac- 
quainted with Julia's profligacy by accident, 
and by his subsequent conduct, perhaps, for in- 
stance, by concealing it, have given offence to 
Livia, or Augustus, or both. Ovid draws an 
affecting picture of the miseries to which he 
was exposed in his place of exile. He <ou> 



OVIDIUS NASO, P. 



OXLE. 



plains of the inhospitable soil, of the severity 
of the climate, and of the perils to which he 
was exposed, when the barbarians plundered 
the surrounding country, and insulted the very 
walls of Tomi. In the most abject terms he 
supplicated Augustus to change his place of 
banishment, and besought his friends to use 
their influence in his behalf. In the midst of 
all his misfortunes, he sought some relief in the 
exercise of his poetical talents. Not only did 
he finish his Fasti in his exile, besides writing 
the Ibis, the Tristia, Ex Ponto, &c., but he like- 
wise acquired the language of 'the Getae, in 
which he composed some poems in honor of 
Augustus. These he publicly recited, and they 
were received with tumultuous applause by the 
Tomitae. With his new fellow-citizens, indeed, 
he had succeeded in rendering himself highly 
popular, insomuch that they honored him with 
a decree, declaring him exempt from all public 
burdens. He died at Tomi in the sixtieth year 
of his age, A.D. 18. The following is a list of 
Ovid's works, arranged, as far as possible, in 
chronological order : 1. Amoriim Libri III., the 
earliest of the poet's works. According to the 
epigram prefixed, the work, as we now possess 
it, is a second edition, revised and abridged, 
the former one having consisted of five books. 

2. Epistola. Heroiium, twenty-one in number. 

3. Ars Amatoria, or Be Arte Amandi, written 
about B.C. 2. At the time of Ovid's banish- 
ment this poem was ejected from the public 
libraries by command of Augustus. 4. Remedia 
Amoris, in one book. 5. Nux, the elegiac com- 
plaint of a nut-tree respecting the ill treatment 
it receives from wayfarers, and even from its 
own master. 6. Metamorphoseon Libri XV. 
This, the greatest of Ovid's poems in bulk and 
pretensions, appears to have been written be- 
tween the age of forty and fifty. It consists 
of such legends or fables as involved a trans- 
formation, from the Creation to the time of 
Julius Caesar, the last being that emperor's 
change into a star. It is thus a sort of cyclic 
poem, made up of distinct episodes, but con- 
nected into one narrative thread with much 
skill. 7. Fastorum Libri XII., of which only 
the first six are extant. This work was incom- 
plete at the time of Ovid's banishment. In- 
deed, he had perhaps done little more than col- 
lect the materials for it ; for that the fourth 
book was written in Pontus appears from verse 
eighty-eighth. The Fasti is a sort of poetical 
Roman calendar, with its appropriate festivals 
and mythology, and the substance was probably 
taken in a great measure from the old Roman 
annalists. The work shows a good deal of 
learning, but it has been observed that Ovid 
makes frequent mistakes in his astronomy, from 
not understanding the books from which he took 
it. 8. Tristium Libri V., elegies written during 
the first four years of Ovid's banishment. They 
are chiefly made up of descriptions of his afflict- 
ed condition, and petitions for mercy. The 
tenth elegy of the fourth book is valuable, as 
containing many particulars of Ovid's life. 9. 
Epistolarum ex Ponto Libri IV. t are also in the 
elegiac metre, and much the same in substance 
as the Tristia, to which they were subsequent. 
It must be confessed that age and misfortune 
seem to have damped Ovid's genbs both in 



this and the preceding work. Even the versi- 
fication is more slovenly, and some of the lines 
very prosaic. 10. Ibis, a satire of between six 
hundred and seven hundred elegiac verses, also 
written in exile. The poet inveighs in it against 
an enemy who had traduced him. Though the 
variety of Ovid's imprecations displays learning 
and fancy, the piece leaves the impression of 
an impotent explosion of rage: The title and 
plan were borrowed from Callimachus, 11. 
Consolatio ad Liviam Augustam, is considered 
by most critics not to be genuine, though it is 
allowed on all hands to be not unworthy of 
Ovid's genius. 12. The Medieamina Faciei and 
Halieuticon are mere fragments, and their gen- 
uineness not altogether certain. Of his lost 
works, the most celebrated was his tragedy, 
Medea, of which only two lines remain. That 
Ovid possessed a great poetical genius is un- 
questionable, which makes it the more' to be 
regretted that it was not always under the con- 
trol of a sound judgment. He possessed great 
vigor of fancy, warmth of coloring, and facility 
of composition. vidhas himself described how 
spontaneously his verses flowed ; but the facil- 
ity of composition possessed more charms for 
him than the irksome but indispensable labor 
of correction and retrenchment. Ovid was the 
first to depart from that pure and correct taste 
which characterizes the Greek poets, and their 
earlier Latin imitators. His writings abound 
with those false thoughts and frigid conceits 
which we find so frequently in the Latin poets ; 
and in this respect he must be regarded as un- 
antique. The best edition of Ovid's complete 
works is byBurmann, Amsterdam, 1727, 4 vols. 
4to. [Of the separate works, the most useful 
editions are, the Metamorphoses, by Gierig (cura 
Jahn), Leipzig, 1821-23, and by Loers, Leipzig, 
1843 ; the Fasti, by Merkel, Berlin, 1841, and 
by Keightley, London, 1848 ; the Tristia, by 
Loers, Treves, 1839 ; Ars Amatoria (including 
Heroides, &c), by Jahn, Leipzig, 1828 ; the He- 
roides, by Loers, Cologne, 1829.] 

[Oxathres ('OSjudpnc). 1. Youngest son of 
Darius II. by Parysatis, brother of Artaxerxes 
Mnemon, was treated with kindness by his 
brother, and. even admitted to unusual honors. 
— 2. Brother of Darius Codomannus, was dis- 
tinguished for his bravery, and took a conspic- 
uous part in the battle of Issus, B.C. 333. He 
accompanied Darius in his flight, but was taken 
prisoner by Alexander, who treated him with 
kindness, and gave him an honorable post about 
his own person.] 

Oxia Palus, is first mentioned distinctly by 
Ammianus Marcellinus as the name of the Sea 
of Aral, which the ancients in general did not 
distinguish from the Caspian. When Ptolemy, 
however, speaks of the Oxiana Palus ()? 'S2fe«- 
avrj Xijwri) as a small lake in the steppes of Sog- 
diana, he is perhaps following some vague ac- 
count of the separate existence of the Sea of 
Aral, and the same remark may be applied to 
Pliny's account that the source (instead of the 
termination) of the River Oxus was in a lake of 
the same name. 

[Oxi^e ('Otjeiac, sc. vijoot), i. e., Insula, the 
■doa'i of Homer ; a group of islands at the mouth 
of the Achelous, belonging to the Echinadbs 
Insula.] 

587 



OXIANI. 

Oxiani ('Qfravoi, Ovt-iavoi), a people of Sog- 
diana, on the north of the Oxus. 

Oxii Montes (ret "fifeta, or Oifaa, oprj : now 
probably Ak-tagh), a range of mountains be- 
tween the Rivers Oxus and Jaxartes ; the north- 
ern boundary of Sogdiana toward Scythia. 

Oxus or Oaxus ("Ofof, "fifof : now Jihoun or 
Amou), a great river of Central Asia, rose, ac- 
cording to some' of the ancient geographers, on 
the northern side of the Paropamisus Mountains 
(now Htncloo-Koosh), and, according to others, in 
the Emodi Mountains, and flowed northwest, 
forming the boundary between Sogdiana on the 
north, and Bactria and Margiana on the south, 
and then, skirting the north of Hyrcania, it fell 
into the Caspian. The Jihoun now flows into the 
southwestern corner of the Sea of Aral ; but 
there are still distinct traces of a channel ex- 
tending in a southwestern direction from the 
Sea of Aral to the Caspian, by which at least a 
portion, and probably the whole, of the waters 
of the Oxus found their way into the Caspian ; 
and very probably the Sea of Aral itself was 
connected with the Caspian by this channel. 
The ancient geographers mention, as important 
tributaries of the Oxus, the OcHtrs, the Mar- 
gus, and the Bactrus, which are now inter-' 
cepted by the sands of the Desert. The Oxus 
is a broad and rapid river, navigable through a 
considerable portion of its course. It formed, 
in ancient times, a channel of commercial in- 
tercourse between India and Western Asia, 
goods being brought down it to the Caspian, 
and thence up the Cyrus and across Armenia 
into Asia Minor. It occupies also an important 
place in history, having been in nearly all ages 
the extreme boundary between the great mon- 
archies of Southwestern Asia and the hordes 
which wander over the central steppes. Cyrus 
and Alexander both crossed it ; but the former 
effected no permanent conquests on its north- 
ern side ; and the conquests of the latter in 
Sogdiana, though for a time preserved under 
the Bactrian kings, - were always regarded as 
lying beyond the limits of the civilized world, 
and were lost at the fall of the Bactrian king- 
dom. Herodotus does not mention the Oxus 
by name, but it is supposed to be .the river 
which he calls Araxes. 

[OXYAETBS ('Ofuapr^f), Or OxARTES ('Ofap- 

a Bactrian, father of Roxana, the wife of 
Alexander the Great. He was one of the chiefs 
who accompanied Bessus into Sogdiana. After 
the death of Bessus, he deposited his wife and 
daughters for safety in a rock fortress in Sog- 
diana, which was deemed impregnable, but 
which soon fell into the hands of Alexander. 
After the espousal of Alexander to Roxana, 
Oxyartes made his submission, and was treated 
with distinction by the conqueror, and was ap- 
pointed satrap of the province of Paropamisus, 
or India south of the Caucasus, which he con- 
tinued to hold after the death of Alexander, and 
probably to the period of his own death some 
years subsequently.] 

Oxybii, a Ligurian people on the coast of 
Gallia Narbonensis, west of the Alps, and be- 
tween the Flumen Argenteum (now Argcns) 
and Antipolis (now Antibes). They were neigh- 
bors of the Salluvii and Deciates. 

Oxydracje ('Ofiidpd/cat), a warlike people of 
588 



PACHYMERES, GEORGIUS. 

India intra Gangem, in the Punjab, between the 
Rivers Hydaspes (now Jhelum) and Acesines 
(now Chenab), in whose capital Alexander was I 
wounded. They called themselves descend- 
ants of Bacchus (Dionysus). 

' Oxylvs ("Ofivlof), the leader of the Heraclidae 
in their invasion of Peloponnesus, and subse- | 
quently king of Elis. Vid. p. 354, b. 

[Oxyntas ('Ofwraf), son of Jugurtha, was 
led captive, together with his father, before the 
triumphal car of Marius, B.C. 104 ; but his life 
was spared, and he was placed in custody af 
Venusia, where he remained till B.C. 90, when 
he was adorned with the insignia of royalty, to 
gather around him the Numidians in the service 
of the Roman general L. Caesar. The device 
proved successful,, but the subsequent fate of 
Oxyntas is unknown.] 

Oxvrhynchus ('Ofupuy^of : ruins at Behne- 
seh), a city of Middle Egypt, on the western 
bank of the canal which runs parallel to the 
Nile on its western side (now Bohr Yussuf). It ' 
was the capital of the Nomos Oxyrhyn'chites, 
and the chief seat of the worship of the fish 
called oxyrynchus. 

[Ozene ('Ofyvq, now Uzen or Ougein), in the 
time of Ptolemy the capital of the kingdom La- 
rica, in India intra Gangem, and the residence 
of a prince who bore the title Tiascanus. It 
carried on an extensive traffic, exported onyxes, 
myrrh, and fine cotton stuff, and supplied the 
great commercial city Barygaza with all the | 
necessaries of life.] 

Ozogardana, a city of Mesopotamia, on the 
Euphrates, the people of which preserved a lofty 
throne or chair of stone, which they called Tra- 
jan's judgment-seat. 

P. 

Pacaris. Vid. Hypacyris. 

[Pacarius Decimus, procurator of Corsica in 
A.D. 69, wished to send assistance to Vitellius, 
but was murdered by the inhabitants.] 

Pacatiana. Vid. Phrygia. 

Paccius or Paccius Antiochus, a physician 
about the beginning of the Christian era, who j 
was a pupil of Philonides of Catana, and lived 
probably at Rome. . He made a large fortune by 
the sale of a certain medicine of his own inven- 
tion, the composition of which he kept a pro- 
found secret. At his death he left his prescrip- 
tion as a legacy to the Emperor Tiberius, who, 
in order to give it as wide a circulation as pos- 
sible, ordered a copy of it to be placed in all the 
public libraries. 

Paches (Ild^f), an Athenian general in the 
Peloponnesian war, took Mytilene and reduced 
Lesbos, B.C. 427. On his return to Athens he 
was brought to trial on some charge, and, per- 
ceiving his condemnation to be certain, drew 
his sword and stabbed himself in the presence 
of his judges. 

Pachymerbj, Georgius, an important Byzan- 
tine writer, was born about A.D. 1242 atNicsea, 
but spent the greater part of his life at Con- 
stantinople. He was a priest, and opposed the 
union of the Greek and Latin Churches. Pa- 
chymeres wrote several works, the most im- 
portant of which is a Byzantine History, contain- 
ing an account of the emperors Michael Palaso- 



PACHYNUS 



PADUS. 



logus and Andronicus Paleeologus the elder, In 
thirteen books. The style is remarkably good 
and pure for the age. Edited by Possinus, 
Rome, 1666-1669, 2 vols, fol., and by Bekker, 
Bonn, 1835, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Pachynus or Pachynum (now Capo Passaro), 
a promontory at the southeastern extremity of 
Sicily, and one of the three promontories which 
give to Sicily its triangular figure, the other two 
being Pelorum and Lilybaeum. By the side of 
Pachynus was a bay, which was used as a har- 
bor, and which is called by Cicero Poetus Pa- 
chyni (now Porto di Palo). 

[Pacianus, bishop of Barcelona, in Spain, 
flourished A.D. 370. He was renowned for his 
eloquence, and wrote several books, especially 
one against the Novatians. His works have 
been published by Tilius, Paris, 1538, and in the 
Biblioth. Patrum Maxima.] 

[Paoidii, two generals of the Pompeian party 
in Africa under Metellus Scipio, one of whom 
fell in the battle of Tegea, B.C. 46.] 

Pacilus, the name of a family of the patrician 
Furia gens, mentioned in the early history of 
the republic: [the most celebrated were, 1. C. 
Furius Pacilus Fusus, consul B.C. 441 with M\ 
Papirius Crassus, censor B.C. 435 with M. Ge- 
ganius Macerinus, and subsequently one of the 
consular tribunes in B.C. 426. — 2. C. Furius P., 
son of the preceding, consul B.C. 412 with Q. 
Fabius Vibulanus Ambustus. — 3. C. Furius P., 
consul B.C. 251 with L. Caecilius Metellus in 
the first Punic war.] 

[Paconius, M. 1. A Roman knight, violently 
dispossessed of his property by the tribune 
Clodius. — 2. M., a legatus of Silanus, procon- 
sul of Asia, was one of his accusers in A.D. 
22. Paconius was put to death by Tiberius on 
a charge of treason.] 

Pacorus (UaKopoc). 1. Son of Orodes I., king 
of Parthia. His history is given under Ars aces, 
No. 14.— 2. King of Parthia. Vid. Arsaces, No. 
24. 

Pactolus (HciktoIoc : now Sarabat), a small 
but celebrated river of Lydia, rose on the north- 
ern side of Mount Tmolus, and flowed north 
past Sardis into the Hermus, which it joined 
thirty stadia below Sardis. The golden sands 
of Pactolus have passed into a proverb. Lydia 
was long the California of the ancient world, its 
streams forming so many gold "washings ;" and 
hence the wealth of the Lydian kings, and the 
alleged origin of gold money in that country. 
But the supply of gold was only on the surface, 
and by the beginning of our era it was so far 
exhausted as not to repay the trouble of collect- 
ing it. 

Pactyas (HaKTvac), a Lydian, who, on the 
conquest of Sardis (B.C. 546), was charged by 
Cyrus with the collection of the revenue of the 
province. When Cyrus left Sardis on his re- 
turn to Ecbatana, Pactyas induced the Lydians 
to revolt against Cyrus ; but when an army was 
sent against him, he first fled to Cyme, then to 
Mytilene, and eventually to Chios. He was sur- 
rendered by the Chians to the Persians. 

Pactye (HaKTvij : now St. George), a town in 
the Thracian Chersonesus, on the Propontis, 
thirty-six stadia from Cardia, to which Alcibia- 
des retired when he was banished by the Athe- 
nians, B.C. 407. 



Pactyica {TlaKTvinrj), the country of the Pac- 
tyes (UdnTvcc), in the northwest of India, west 
of the Indus, and in the thirteenth satrapy of 
the Persian empire, is most probably the north- 
eastern part of Afghanistan, about Jellalabad. 

[Paculla, Annia or Minia, a Campanian 
woman, one of the chief agents in introducing 
the worship of Bacchus into Rome, B.C. 186.] 

Pacuvius, M., one of the early Roman trage- 
dians, was born about B.C. 220, at Brundisium, 
and is said to have been the son of the sister of 
Ennius. Pacuvius appears to have been brought 
up at Brundisium, but he afterward repaired to 
Rome. Here he devoted himself to painting 
and poetry, and obtained so much distinction in 
the former art, that a painting of his in the tem- 
ple of Hercules, in the forum boarium, was re- 
garded as only inferior to the celebrated paint- 
ing of Fabius Pictor. After living many years 
at Rome, for he was still there in his eightieth 
year, he returned to Brundisium on account of 
the failure of his health, and died in his native 
town, in the ninetieth year of his age, B.C. 130. 
We have no further particulars of his life save 
that his talents gained him the friendship of 
Laelius, and that he lived on the most intimate 
terms with his younger rival Accius. Pacuvius 
was universally allowed by the ancient writers 
to have been one of the greatest of the Latin 
tragic poets. (Hor., Ep., ii., 1, 56.) He is es- 
pecially praised for the loftiness of his thoughts, 
the vigor of his language, and the extent of his 
knowledge. Hence we find the epithet doctus 
frequently applied to him. He was also a favor- 
ite with the people, with whom his verses con- 
tinued to be esteemed in the time of Julius Cae- 
sar. His tragedies were taken from the great 
Greek writers ; but he did not confine himself, 
like his predecessors, to a mere translation of 
the latter, but worked up his materials with 
more freedom and independent judgment. Some 
of the plays of Pacuvius were not based upon 
the Greek tragedies, but belonged to the class 
called Pratextata, in which the subjects were 
taken from Roman story. One of these was 
entitled Paulus, which had as its hero L. ^Emil- 
ius Paulus, the conqueror of Perseus, king of 
Macedonia. The fragments of Pacuvius are 
published by Bothe, Poet. Lat. Scenic. Fragm., 
Lips., 1834. 

[Pad^i (Jladaloi), a rude nomad tribe in 
Northwestern India (perhaps in the modern 
Multan or Ajmer), who not only ate raw flesh, 
but also devoured the sick and old of their own 
people.] 

Padus (now Po), the chief river of Italy, whose 
name is said to have been of Celtic origin, and 
to have been given it on account of the pine- 
trees (in Celtic padi) which grew on its banks. 
In the Ligurian language it was called Bodcncus 
or Bodincus. Almost all later writers identified 
the Padus with the fabulous Eridanus, from 
which amber was obtained, and hence the Roman 
poets frequently give the name of Eridanus to 
the Padus. The reason of this identification 
appears to have been, that the Phoenician ves- 
sels received at the mouths of the Padus the 
amber which had been transported by land from 
the coasts of the Baltic to those of the Adriatic. 
The Padus rises from two springs on the east- 
ern side of Mount Vesulus (now Monte Viso) in 

589 



PADUSA. 

tlie Alps, and flows with a general easterly di- 
rection through the great plain of Cisalpine Gaul, 
which it divides into two parts, Gallia Cispa- 
dana and Gallia Transpadana. It receives nu- 
merous affluents, which drain the whole of this 
vast plain, descending from the Alps on the 
north and the Apennines on the south. These 
affluents, increased in the summer by the melt- 
ing of the snow on the mountains, frequently 
bring down such a large body of water as to 
cause the Padus to overflow its banks. The 
whole course of the river, including its wind- 
ings, is about four hundred and fifty miles. 
About twenty miles from the sea the river di- 
vides itself into two main branches, of which 
the northern one was called Padoa (now Maestra, 
Po Grande, or Po delle Fornaci), and the south- 
ern one Olana (nowPo d'Ariano) ; and each of 
these now falls into the Adriatic by several 
mouths. The ancient writers enumerate seven 
of these mouths, some of which were canals. 
They lay between Ravenna and Altinum, and 
bore the following names, according to Pliny, 
beginning with the southern and ending with 
the northern: 1. Padusa, also called Augusta 
Fossa, was a canal dug by Augustus, which con- 
nected Ravenna with the Po. 2. Vatrenus, also 
called Eridanum Ostium or Spineticum Ostium 
(now Po di Prima.ro), from the town of Spina at 
its mouth. 3. Ostium Caprasiae (now Porto In- 
terito di bdV Ochio). 4. Ostium Sagis (now Porto 
di Magnavacca). 5. Olane or Volane, the south- 
ern main branch of the river, mentioned above. 
6. Padoa, the northern main branch, subdivided 
into several small branches called Ostia Car- 
bonaria. 7. Fossae Philistinae, connecting the 
river, by means of the Tartarus, with the Athesis. 
Padusa. Vid. Pados. 

P-i*ean (Raiav, Uairiuv or Tlaiuv), that is, " the 
nealing," is, according to Homer, the designa- 
tion of the physician of the Olympian gods, who 
heals, for example, the wounded Mars (Ares) 
and Pluto (Hades). After the time of Homer 
and Hesiod, the word Paan became a surname 
of iEsculapius, the god who had the power of 
healing. The name was, however, used also 
in the more general sense of deliverer from any 
evil or calamity, and was thus applied to Apollo 
and Thanatos, or Death, who are conceived as 
delivering men from the pains and sorrows of 
life. With regard to Apollo and Thanatos, how- 
ever, the name may at the same time contain an 
allusion to irateiv, to strike, since both are also 
regarded as destroyers. From Apollo himself 
the name Paean was transferred to the song 
dedicated to him, that is, to hymns chanted to 
Apollo for the purpose of averting an evil, and 
to warlike songs, which were sung before or 
during a battle. 

PiE ania (Tlaiavia : UaiavLevQ), a demus in 
Attica, on the eastern slope of Mount Hyrnet- 
tus, belonging to the tribe Pandionis. It was 
the demus of the orator Demosthenes. 

[Pveanius {Ylaiavios), the author of a trans- 
lation of the history of Eutropius into Greek, 
whose age is uncertain, but who seems to have 
lived not long after Eutropius himself. The 
version is printed in Havercamp's and Verheyk's 
editions of Eutropius ] 

P^mani, a people of German origin in Gallia 
Belgica. 

590 




P.ERISADES. 

I 

P^eones (Haiovec), a powerful Thracian peo 
pie, who in early times were spread over a great [ 
part of Macedonia and Thrace. According to [ 
a legend preserved by Herodotus, they were of 
Teucrian origin ; and it is not impossible that |i 
they were a branch of the great Phrygian peo- 
ple, a portion of which seems to have settled in | 
Europe. In Homer the Paeonians appear as 
allies of the Trojans, and are represented as 
having come from the River Axius. In histor- 
ical times they inhabited the whole of the north 
of Macedonia, from the frontiers of Illyria to ; 
some little distance east of the River Strymon. 
Their country was called P^eonia {Xlaiovia). 
The Paeonians were divided into several tribes, 
independent' of each other, and governed by 
their own chiefs, though at a later period they 
appear to,have owned the authority of one king. 
The Paeonian tribes on the lower course of the 
Strymon were subdued by the Persians, B.C. 
513, and many of them were transplanted to 
Phrygia ; but the tribes in the north of the 
country maintained their independence. They | 
were long troublesome neighbors to the Mace- 
donian monarchs; whose territories they fre- 
quently invaded and plundered ; but they were 
eventually subdued by Philip, the father of Alex- 
ander the Great, who allowed them nevertheless 
to retain their own monarchs. They continued 
to be governed by their own kings till a much 
later period, and these kings were often virtu- 
ally independent of the Macedonian monarchy, i 
Thus we read of their king Audoleon, whose ' 
daughter Pyrrhus married. After the conquest [ 
of Macedonia by the Romans, 168, the part of 
Paeonia east of the Axius formed the second, , i 
and the part of Paeonia west of the Axius form 
ed the third of the four districts into which Ma 
cedonia was divided by the Romans. 
[Paeonia (Tlatovia). Vid. Phones.] 
[P-ffioN (Tlaiuv). Vid. P^ean.] 
P^onius (Ilauivtoc). 1. Of Ephesus, an arch- j 
itect, probably lived between B.C. 420 and 380. 
In conjunction with Demetrius, he finally com- 
pleted the great temple of Diana (Artemis) at 
Ephesus, which Chersiphron had begun ; and, 
withDaphnis the Milesian, he began to build at | 
Miletus a temple of Apollo, of the Ionic order, j 
The latter was the famous Didymaium., or tem- 
ple of Apollo Didymus, the ruins of which are i 
still to be seen near Miletus. The former tem- 
ple, in which the Branchidae had an oracle of 
Apollo, was burned at the capture of Mile*u8 j 
by the army of Darius, 498. The new temple, 
which was on a scale only inferior to that of 
Diana (Artemis), was never finished. —-2. Of 
Mende, in Thrace, a statuary and sculptor, flour- 
ished about 435. 

PjeopLjE (~n.aioTr2.ai), a Paeonian people on the i 
lower course of the Strymon and the Angites, 
who were subdued by the Persians, and trans- 
planted to Phrygia by order of Darius, B.C. 513. 
They returned to their native country with the- i 
help of Aristagoras, 500 ; and we find them set-; 
tied north of Mount Pangaeus in the expedition 
of Xerxes, 480. 

PvErisades or Parisades (Uaipioad'Tjc ovllcpi 
aadni), the name of two kings of Bosporus. 1 
Son of Leucon, succeeded his brother Spartacus 
B.C. 349, and reigned thirty-eight years. Ha i 
continued the same friendly relations with the 



P^ESTANUS SINUS. 

Athenians which were begun by his father Lefu- 
con. — 2. The last monarch of the first dynasty 
that ruled in Bosporus. The pressure of the 
Scythian tribes induced Paerisades to cede his 
sovereignty to Mithradates the Great. The date 
of this event can not be placed earlier than 112, 
nor later than 98. 

Pvestancjs Sinus. Vid. P^estum. 

P^estum (Paestanus), called Posidonia (Uo- 
ou&uvia : Tlocseid*uviu.Tric) originally, was a city 
in Lucania, situated between four and five miles 
southeast of the mouth of the Silarus, and near 
the bay which derived its name from the town 
(TLooeiduvtdrtis noliroc, Paestanus Sinus : now 
Gulf of Salerno). Its origin is uncertain, but 
it was probably in existence before it was col- 
onized by the Sybarites about B.C. 524. It 
soon became a powerful and flourishing city ; 
but, after its capture by the Lucanians (between 
438 and 424), it gradually lost the characteris- 
tics of a Greek city, and its inhabitants at length 
ceased to speak the Greek language. Its an- 
cient name of Posidonia was probably changed 
into that of Paestum at this time. Under the 
supremacy of the Romans, who founded a Latin 
colony at Paestum about B.C. 274, the town 
gradually sank in importance ; and in the time 
of Augustus it is only mentioned on account of 
the beautiful roses grown in the neighborhood. 
The ruins of Paestum are striking and magnifi- 
cent. They consist of the remains of walls, 
of an amphitheatre, of two fine temples, and of 
another building. The two temples are in the 
Doric style, and are some of the most remark- 
able ruins of antiquity. 

P^esus (iTaiffof), a town in the Troad, men- 
tioned by Homer, but destroyed before the time 
of Strabo, its population having been transplant- 
ed to Lampsacus. Its site was on a river of 
the same name (now Bciram-Dere), between 
Lampsacus and Parium. 

P^etinus, the name of a family of theFulvia 
gens, which was eventually superseded by the 
name of Nobilior. Vid. Nobilior. 

Paetus, a cognomen in many Roman gentes, 
signified a person who had a slight cast in the 
eye. 

Paetus, .Elius. 1. P., probably the son of 
Q. ^Elius Paetus, a pontifex, who fell in the bat- 
tle of Cannae. He was plebeian aedile B.C. 204, 
praetor 203, magister equitum 202, and consul 
201. In his consulship he fought a battle with 
the Boii, and made a treaty with the Ingauni 
Ligures. In 199 he was censor with P. Scipio 
Africanus. He afterward became an augur, 
and died 174, during a pestilence at Rome. He 
is mentioned as one of the Roman jurists. — 2. 
Sex., brother of the last, curule aedile 200, 
consul 198, and censor 193 with Cn. Cethegus. 
He was a jurist of eminence, and a prudent 
man, whence he got the cognomen Catus. He 
is described in a line of Ennius as " Egregie 
cordatus homo Catus iElius Sextus." He is 
enumerated among the old jurists who collect- 
ed or arranged the matter of law, which he did 
in a work entitled Tripartita or Jus Mlianum. 
This was a work on the Twelve Tables, which 
contained the original text, an interpretation, 
and the Legis actio subjoined. It was probably 
the first commentary written on the Twelve 
Tables. — 3. Q.,son of No. 1, was elected augur 



PAGUS 

174 in place of his father, and was consul 167. 
when he laid waste the territory of the Ligu- 
rians. 

Paetus, P. Autronius, was elected consul for 
B.C. 65 with P. Cornelius Sulla ; but he and 
Sulla were accused of bribery by L. Aurelius 
Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus, and condemn- 
ed. Their election was accordingly declared 
void, and their accusers were chosen consuls 
in their stead. Enraged at his disappointment, 
Paetus conspired with Catiline to murder the 
consuls Cotta and Torquatus ; and this design 
is said to have been frustrated solely by the 
impatience of Catiline, who gave the signal pre- 
maturely before the whole of the conspirators 
had assembled. Vid. Catilina. Paetus after- 
ward took an active part in the Catilinarian con- 
spiracy, which broke out in Cicero's consulship, 
63. After the suppression of the conspiracy 
Paetus was brought to trial for the share he had 
had in it ; he was condemned, and went into 
exile to Epirus, where he was living when Cic- 
ero himself went into banishment in 58. Cicero 
was then much alarmed lest Paetus should make 
an attempt upon his life. 

Paetus, C. C^esennius, sometimes called Cje- 
sonius, consul A.D. 61, was sent by Nero in 63 
to the assistance of Domitius Corbulo in Ar- 
menia. He was defeated by Vologeses, king 
of Parthia, and purchased peace of the Parthi- 
ans on the most disgraceful terms. After the 
accession of Vespasian he was appointed gov- 
ernor of Syria, and deprived Antiochus IV., 
king of Commagene, of his kingdom. 

P^tus Thrasea. Vid. Thrasea. 

Pag^e or PeGjE {Hayat, Att. YirjyaL: Uayaloc: 
now Psatho), a town in Megaris, a colony from 
Megara, was situated at the eastern extremity 
of the Alcyonian Sea, and was the most im- 
portant town in the country after Megara. It 
possessed a good harbor. 

Pagasje, called by the Romans Pagasa, -je 
(Rayaaai : now Volo), a town of Thessaly, on 
the coast of Magnesia, and on the bay called 
after it Sinus Pagas^us or Pagasicus {Tlaya- 
arjTUibc koWkoc : now Gulf of Volo). It was the 
port of Iolcos, and afterward of Pherae, and is 
celebrated in mythology as the place where Ja- 
son built the ship Argo. Hence some of the an- 
cients derived its name from rcriyvvfu; but others 
connected the name with the fountains {Tzjjyai) 
in the neighborhood. The adjective Pagasceus 
is applied to Jason on account of his building 
the ship Argo, and to Apollo because he had a 
sanctuary at Pagasae. The adjective is also 
used in the general sense of Thessalian : thus 
Alcestis, the wife of Admetus, is called by Ovid 
Pagasaa conjux. 

[Pagasus, a Trojan warrior, companion or 
.Eneas, slain by Camilla in Italy.] 

Pagr.#: (TLaypai: now Pagras, Bagras, Bar- 
gas), a city of Syria, on the eastern side of 
Mount Amanus, at the foot of the pass called 
by Ptolemy the Syrian Gates, on the road be- 
tween Antioch and Alexandrea : the scene of 
the battle between Alexander Balas and Deme- 
trius Nicator, B.C. 145. 

Pagus (Tldyoc), a remarkable conical hill, from 
five hundred to six hundred feet high, a little 
north of Smyrna in Ionia. It was crowned with 
a shrink of Nemesis, and had a celebrated spring 

591 



PAL^SMON. 



PAL^ESTINA. 



Pai.^emon {Xlakaifiuv). 1. Son of Athamas 
and Ino, was originally called Melicertes. When 
his mother, who was driven mad by Juno (Hera), 
had thrown herself, with her boy, into the sea, 
both were changed into marine divinities, Ino 
becoming Leucothea, and Melicertes Palaemon. 
For details, vid. Athamas. According to some, 
Melicertes, after his apotheosis, was called Glau- 
eus, whereas, according to another version, 
Glaucus is said to have leaped into the sea from 
Lis love of Melicertes. The body ofMelicertes, 
according to the common tradition, was washed 
by the waves, or carried by dolphins into the 
port Schoenus on the Corinthian isthmus, or to 
that spot on the coast where the altar of Palae- 
mon subsequently stood. There the body was 
found by his uncle Sisyphus, who ordered it to 
be carried to Corinth, and on the command of 
the Nereides he instituted the Isthmian games 
and sacrifices of black bulls in honor of the dei- 
fied Palaemon. In the island of Tenedos it is 
said that children were sacrificed to him, and 
the whole worship seems to have had something 
gloomy about it. The Romans identified Palae- 
mon with their own god Portunus or Portum- 
nus. Vid. Poktunus. — 2. Q. Remmios Palae- 
mon, a grammarian in the reigns of Tiberius, 
Caligula, and Claudius. He was a native of 
Vicentia (now Vicenza), in the north of Italy, 
and was originally a slave ; but having been 
manumitted, he opened a school at Rome, where 
he became the most celebrated grammarian of 
his time, though his moral character was in- 
famous, He is twice mentioned by Juvenal 
(vi., 451 ; vii., 251). He was the master of 
Quintilian. 

Palaeopolis. Vid. Neapolis. 

[Palaepaphus (TlaTiaiiratpoe). Vid. Paphus.] 

[Pal^epharus (near the modern Kranovo or 
Ondoklari), a place in the Thessalian district 
Pelasgiotis, on the eastern declivity of Mount 
Chalcodonius.] 

Palaephatus (TlalatyaToc). 1. Of Athens, a 
mythical epic poet of the ante-Homeric period. 
The time at which he lived is uncertain, but he 
appears to have been usually placed after Phe- 
monoe (in'd. Phemonoe), though some writers as- 
signed him even an earlier date. — 2. Of Paros 
or Priene, lived in the time of Artaxerxes. 
Suidas attributes to him the work " On Incred- 
ible Tales," spoken of below. — 3. Of Abydus, an 
historian, lived in the time of Alexander the 
Great, and is stated to have been loved by the 
philosopher Aristotle. — 4. An Egyptian or Athe- 
nian, and a grammarian. His most celebrated 
work was entitled Troica (Tpoiica), which is 
frequently referred to by the ancient gramma- 
rians. There is extant a small work in fifty- 
one sections, entitled UalaiifiaTog trept ait'taruv, 
or 11 Of Incredible Tales," giving a brief ac- 
count of some of the most celebrated Greek 
legends. It is an abstract of a much larger 
work, which is lost. It was to the original 
work to which Virgil refers ( Ciris, 88) : " Docta 
Palaephatia testatur voce papyrus." It is doubt- 
ful who was the author of this work ; but as he 
adopts the rationalistic interpretation of the 
myths, he must be looked upon as a disciple 
of Euemerus (vid. Evemercs), and may thus 
have been an Alexandrine Greek, and the 
same person as No. 4. The best editiqji is by 
592 



Westermann, in the Mythographi Graci, Brune. 
wick, 1843. 

Palaerds (TlaXatpbc ■ TlaXatpev;), a town on 
the coast of Acarnania, near Leucas. 

Pal^ste (now Pulasa), a town of Epirus, on 
the coast of Chaonia, and a little south of the 
Acroceraunian Mountains : here Caesar landed 
his forces when he crossed over to Greece to 
carry on the war against Pompey. 

Pal^estina (Ila2.aiaTivri, i] XiaKaiarlvn 'Zvpln : 
UakawrLvoc, Palaestinus, and rarely Palaestin- 
ensis : now Palestine, or the Holy Land), is the 
Greek and Roman form of the Hebrew word 
which was used to denote the country of the 
Philistines, and which was extended to the 
whole country. In the Scriptures it is called 
Canaan, from Canaan, the son of Ham, whose 
descendants were its first inhabitants ; the Land 
of Israel, the Land of Promise, the Land of 
Jehovah, and the Holy Land. The Romans 
usually called it Judaea, extending to the whole 
country the name of its southern part. It was 
regarded by the Greeks and Romans as a part 
of Syria. Its extent is pretty well defined by 
natural boundaries, namely, the Mediterranean 
on the west ; the mountains of Lebanon on the 
north ; the Jordan and its lakes on the east, in 
the original extent of the country as defined in 
the Old Testament, but in the wider and usual 
extent of the country, the Arabian Desert was 
its boundary on the east ; and on the south and 
southwest, the deserts which stretch north of 
the head of the Red Sea as far as the Dead Sea 
and the Mediterranean : here it was separated 
from Egypt by the small stream called in Scrip- 
ture the River of Egypt (probably the brook El- 
Arish), which fell into the Mediterranean at 
Rhinocolura (now El-Arish), the frontier town 
of Egypt. The southern boundary of the ter- 
ritory east of Jordan was the River Arnon (now 
Wady-el-Mojib). The extent of country within 
these limits was about eleven thousand square 
miles. The political boundaries varied at dif- 
ferent periods. By the covenant of God with 
Abraham (Gen., xv., 18), the whole land was 
given to his descendants, from the river of Egypt 
to the Euphrates ; but the Israelites never hac 
the faith or courage to take permanent posses- 
sion of this their lot ; the nearest approach 
made to the realization of the promise was in 
the reigns of David and Solomon, when the con- 
quests of the former embraced a large part of 
Syria, and the latter built Tadmor (afterward 
Palmyra) in the Syrian Desert ; and, for a time, 
the Euphrates seems to have been the border 
of the kingdom on the northeast (vid. 2 Sam., 
viii., 3 ; 1 Chron., xviii., 3). On the west, 
again, the Israelites never had full possession 
of the Mediterranean coast, a strip of which, 
north of Mount Carmel, was always retained 
by the Phoenicians (vid. Phoenice) ; and another 
portion in the southwest was held by the Philis- 
tines, who were independent, except during 
brief intervals. On the south and east, again, 
portions of the land were frequently subjugated 
by the neighboring people of Amalek, Edom, 
Midian, Moab, Ammon, &c. On the north, ex- 
cept during the reigns of David and Solomon, 
Palestine ceased at the southern entrance of 
the valley of Coelesyria, and at Mount Hermon in 
Antilibanus. In the physical formation of Pal- 



PAL^ESTINA. 

estine, the most remarkable feature \t the de- 
pression which is formed by the valley of the 
Jordan and its lakes (vid. Jordanes), between 
which and the Mediterranean the country is in- 
tersected by mountains, chiefly connected with 
the Lebanon system, and running north and 
south. Between these ranges, and between 
the central range and the western coast, are 
some comparatively extensive plains, such as 
those of Esdraelon and Sharon, and several 
smaller valleys ; in the south of the country 
the mountains gradually subside into the rocky 
deserts of Arabia Petraea. The valleys and 
slopes of the hills are extremely fertile, and 
were much more so in ancient times, when the 
soil on the mountain sides was preserved by 
terraces, which areniow destroyed through neg- 
lect or wantonness. This division of the coun- 
try has only a few small rivers (besides mount- 
ain streams), which fall into the Mediterranean : 
the chief of them are the Belus, just south of 
PtolemaTs (now Acre), the Kishon, flowing from 
Mount Tabor, through the plain of Esdraelon, 
and falling into the Bay of Acre north of Mount 
Carmel, the Chorseus, north of Caesarea, the 
Kanah, west of Sebaste (Samaria), the Jarkon, 
north of Joppa, the Eshcol, near Askelon, and 
the Besor, near Gaza. On the east of the Jor- 
dan, the land rises toward the rocky desert of 
the Hauran (the ancient Auranitis), and the hills 
bordering the Syrian Desert, its lower portion, 
near the river, forming rich pastures, watered 
by the eastern tributaries of the Jordan, the 
chief of which are the Hieromax, the Jabbok, 
and the Arnon, the last flowing into the Dead 
Sea. The earliest inhabitants of Palestine were 
the several tribes of Canaanites. It is unneces- 
sary to recount in detail those events with 
which we are familiar through the sacred his- 
tory : the divine call of Abraham from Mesopo- 
tamia to live as a stranger in the land which 
God promised to his descendants, and the story 
of his, and his son's, and his grandson's resi- 
dence in it till Israel and his family removed 
to Egypt : their return and conquest of the land 
of Canaan and of the portion of territory east 
of the Jordan, and the partition of the whole 
among the twelve tribes : the contests with the 
surrounding nations, and the government by 
judges, till the establishment of the monarchy 
under Saul : the conquests of David, the splen- 
did reign of Solomon, and the division of the 
kingdom under Rehoboam into the kingdom of 
Israel, including two thirds of the country west 
of Jordan, and all east of it, and the kingdom 
of Judah, including the southern portion which 
was left, between the Mediterranean on the 
west, and the Dead Sea and a small extent of 
Jordan on the east : and the histories of these 
two monarchies down to their overthrow by 
the Assyrians and Babylonians respectively. 
The former of these conquests made an import- 
ant change in the population of Palestine by 
the removal of the greater part of the inhabit- 
ants of the kingdom of Israel, and the settle- 
ment in their place of heathen nations from 
other parts of the Assyrian empire, thus re- 
stricting the country occupied by the genuine 
Israelites within the limits of the kingdom of 
Judah. Hence the names of Judaea and Jews 
applied to the country and the people in their 
38 



PaL^ESTINA. 

subsequent history. Between these last ano 
the mixed people of North Palestine a deadly 
enmity arose^ the natural dislike of the pu r e 
race of Israel to heathen foreigners being ag- 
gravated by the wrongs they suffered from them, 
especially at their return from the Babylonish 
captivity, and still more by the act of religious 
usurpation of which the remnant of the North- 
ern Israelites were guilty at a later period, in 
setting up a temple for themselves on Mount 
(Serizim. Vid. Samaria. The date assigned to 
the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel 
is B.C. 721. The remainder of the history of 
the kingdom of Judah (passing over its religious 
history, which is most important during this 
period) consists of alternate contests with, and 
submissions to, the kings of Assyria, Egypt, 
and Babylon, till the conquest of the country 
by Nebuchadnezzar and the removal of a part 
of its people to Babylonia, in 598, and the de- 
struction of Jerusalem and the temple, after 
the rebellion of Zedekiah, in 588, when a still 
larger portion of the people were carried cap- 
tive to Babylon, while others escaped to Egypt 
In 584, during the siege of Tyre, Nebuchadnez- 
zar sent a further portion of the Jews into cap- 
tivity ; but there was still a considerable rem- 
nant left in the land, and (what is very, import- 
ant) foreign settlers were not introduced ; so 
that, when Cyrus, after overthrowing the Baby 
Ionian empire, issued his edict for the return of 
the Jews to their own land (B.C. 536), there 
was no great obstacle to their quiet settlement 
in it. . They experienced some trouble from the 
jealousy and attacks of the Samaritans, and 
the changeful dispositions of the Persian court ; 
but at length, by the efforts of Zerubbabel and 
Joshua, and the preaching of Haggi' and Zech- 
ariah, the new temple was finished and dedi- 
cated in 516, and Jerusalem was rebuilt, Fresh 
bands of Jewish exiles returned under Ezra, 
458, and Nehemiah,445; and, between this time 
and that of the Macedonian .conquest, Judaea 
was repeopled by the Jews, and through the 
tolerance of the Persian kings, it was governed 
virtually by the high-priests. In B.C. 332, after 
Alexander had taken Tyre and Gaza, he visited 
Jerusalem, and received the quiet submission 
of the Jews, paying the most marked respect 
to their religion. Under the successors of Alex- 
ander, Palestine belonged alternately to Egypt 
and Syria, the contest between whose kings for 
its possession are too complicated to recount 
here ; but its internal government seems to 
have been pretty much in the hands of the high- 
priests, until the tyranny of Antiochus Ef :ph- 
anes provoked the successful revolt under the 
Maccabees or Asmonaeans, whose history is 
given under Maccabjei, and the history of the 
Idumaean dynasty, who succeeded them, is giv- 
en under Antipater, Herodes, and Archelaus. 
The later Asmonaean princes had regained the 
whole of Palestine, including the districts of 
Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee (besides Idumaea), 
west of the Jordan, and the several districts of 
Per«a, Batanea, Gaulonitis, Ituraea, and Trach- 
onitis or Auranitis, east of it ; and this was the 
extent of Herod's kingdom. But, from B.C. 
63, when Pompey took Jerusalem, the country 
was really subject to the Romans. At the death 
of Herod, his kingdom was divided between his 

593 



PALAMEDES. 



PAL1NURUM. 



son* as tetrarchs, under the sanction of Au- 
gustus, Archelaus receiving Judaea, Samaria, 
and Idumaea, Herod Antipas Galilee and Peraea, 
and Philip Batanaea, Gaulonitis, and Trachon- 
itis ; all standing to the Roman empire in a re- 
lation of virtual subjection, which successive 
events converted into an integral union. First, 
A.D. 7, Archelaus was deposed by Augustus, 
and Judaea was placed under a Roman procura- 
tor : next, about 31, Philip died, and his gov- 
ernment was united to the province of Syria, ana* 
was in 37 again conferred on Herod Agrippa I., 
with the title of king, and with the addition of 
Abilene, the district round Damascus. In 39, 
Herod Antipas was banished to Gaul, and his 
tetrarchy was added to the kingdom of Herod 
Agrippa ; and two years later he received from 
Claudius the government of Judaea and Samaria, 
and thus Palestine was reunited under a nom- 
inal king. On his death in 44, Palestine again 
became a part of the Roman province of Syria 
under the name of Judaea, which was governed 
by a procurator. The Jews were, however, 
most turbulent subjects of the Roman empire, 
and at last they broke out into a general rebel- 
lion, which, after a most sanguinary war, was 
crushed by Vespasian and Titus ; and the latter 
took and destroyed Jerusalem in A.D. 70. Un- 
der Constantine, Palestine was divided afresh 
into the three provinces of P. Prima in the 
centre, P. Secunda in the north, and P. Tenia, 
the south of Judaea, with Idumeea. 

Palamedes (JlaXa/iriSr^). 1. Son of Nauplius 
and Clymene. He joined the Greeks in their 
expedition against Troy; but Agamemnon, Dio- 
medes, and Ulysses, envious of his fame, caused 
a captive Phrygian to write to Palamedes a let- 
ter in the name of Priam, and bribed a servant 
of Palamedes to conceal the letter under his 
master's bed. They then accused Palamedes of 
treachery; upon searching his tent, they found 
the letter which they themselves had dictated, 
and thereupon they caused him to be stoned to 
death. When Palamedes was led to death, he 
exclaimed, " Truth, 1 lament thee, for thou hast 
died even before me." According to some tra- 
ditions, it was Ulysses alone who hated and 
persecuted Palamedes. The cause of this ha- 
tred is also stated differently. According to 
some, Ulysses hated him because he had been 
compelled by him to join the Greeks against 
Troy ; according to others, because he had been 
severely censured by Palamedes for returning 
with empty hands from a foraging excursion 
into Thrace. The manner in which Palamedes 
perished is likewise related differently. Some 
say that Ulysses and Diomedes induced him to 
descend into a well, where they pretended they 
had discovered a treasure, and when he was 
below they cast stones upon him, and killed 
him ; others state that he was drowned by them 
while fishing ; and others, that he was killed by 
Paris with an arrow. The place where he was 
killed is either Colons in Troas, or in Tenedos, 
or at Geraestus. The story of Palamedes, which 
is not mentioned by Homer, seems to have been 
first related in the Cypria, and was afterward 
developed by the tragic poets, especially by Eu- 
ripides, and lastly by the sophists, who liked to 
look upon Palamedes as their pattern. The 
tragic poets ant 1 sophists describe him as a sage 
594 



among the Greeks, and as a poet ; and he is 
said to have invented light-houses, measures, 
scales, the discus, dice, the alphabet, and the 
art of regulating sentinels. — 2. A Greek gram- 
marian, was a contemporary of Athenaeus, who 
introduces him as one of the speakers in his 
work. 

Palatinus Mons. Vid. Roma. 
PalatIum. Vid. Roma. 

Pale (YldXi] : TlaTidc, Ion. IlaAMc, Att. Halrjc, 
in Polyb. H.a?Muc : ruins near Lixuri), one e* - 
the four cities of Cephallenia, situated on a 
height opposite Zacynthus. 

Pales, a Roman divinity of flocks and shep- 
herds, is described by some as a male, and by 
others as a female divinity. Hence some mod- 
ern writers have inferred that Pales was a com- 
bination of both sexes ; but such a monstrosity 
is altogether foreign to the religion of the Ro- 
mans. Some of the rites performed at the fes- 
tival of Pales, which was celebrated on the 21st 
.of April, the birth-day of the city of Rome, 
would seem to indicate that the divinity was a 
female ; but, besides the express statements to 
the contrary, there are also other reasons for 
believing that Pales was a male divinity. The 
name seems to be connected with Palatinus, the 
centre of all the earliest legends of Rome, and 
the god himself was with the Romans the em 
bodiment of the same idea as Pan among thf 
Greeks. Respecting the festival of the Palilia. 
vid. Diet, of Anliq., s. v. 

[Palfurius Sura, one of the delators under 
Domitian, was son of a man of consular rank. 
He was expelled from the senate by Vespasian, 
and then applied himself to the study of the 
Stoic philosophy, and became distinguished for 
his eloquence. He was restored to the senate 
by Domitian, and became one of the informers 
for that emperor.] 

Palicanus, Lollius. Vid. Lollius. 

[Palice (JlaXiKTi), a city of Sicily, founded by 
Ducetius, southwest of Leontini, and having in 
its vicinity the famous lakes and the temple of 
the deities called Palici. It was in ruins in the 
time of Diodorus Siculus. Vid. Palici ] 

Palici (JlaliKoi), were Sicilian gods, twin 
sons of Jupiter (Zeus) and the nymph Thalia, 
the daughter of Vulcan (Hephaestus). Some- 
times they are called sons of Vulcan (Hephaes- 
tus) by -•Etna, the daughter of Oceanus. Thalia, 
from fear of Juno (Hera), prayed to be swallowed 
up by the earth ; her prayer was granted ; but 
in due time she sent forth from the earth twin 
boys, who, according to the absurd etymology 
of the ancients, were called YlaliKot, from to 
naTiiv 'iKeodai. They were worshipped in the 
neighborhood of Mount JEtna, near Palice, and 
in the earliest times human sacrifices were of- 
fered to them. Their sanctuary was an asylum 
for runaway slaves, and near it there gushed 
forth from the earth two sulphureous fountains, 
called Deilloi, or brothers of the Palici, at which 
solemn oaths were taken. The oaths were writ- 
ten on tablets, and thrown into one of the fount- 
ains ; if the tablet swam on the water, the oath 
was considered to be true ; but if it sank down, 
the oath was regarded as a perjury, and was be- 
lieved to be punished instantaneously by blind- 
ness or death. 

Palinurum (now Cape Palinuro), a promonton 



PALIURUS. 



PALLADIUS. 



on the western coast of Lueania, which was said 
to have derived its name from Palinurus, the 
son of Iasus, and pilot of the ship of JEneas, 
who fell into the sea, and was murdered on the 
coast by the natives. 

[Paliurus (UaXiovpoc), a town of Africa on 
the borders of Cyrenaica and Marmarica, on a 
river of the same name.] 

[Palla (Ild/.Aa) oi-PaljE (now probably Porto 
Pcllo), a city on the south coast of Corsica, at the 
termination of the Roman road running along 
the eastern coast.] 

Pallacopas (naPiAajcoTrrif), a canal in Baby- 
lonia, cut from the Euphrates, at a point eight 
hundred stadia (eighty geographical miles) south 
of Babylon, westward to the edge of the Arabian 
Desert, where it lost itself in marshes. 

Palladas (TIa?.M<5ac), the author of a large 
number of epigrams in the Greek Anthology, 
was a pagan and an Alexandrean grammarian. 
He lived at the beginning of the fifth century of 
the Christian era, for in one of his epigrams he 
speaks of Hypatia, the daughter of Theon, as 
still alive. Hypatia was murdered in A D. 415. 

Palladium {UaMdSwv), properly any image 
of Pallas Athena (Minerva), but generally ap- 
plied to an ancient image of this goddess, which 
was kept hidden and secret, and was revered as 
a pledge of the safety of the town where it ex- 
isted. Among these ancient images of Pallas 
none is more celebrated than the Trojan Palla- 
dium, concerning which there was the following 
tradition : Minerva (Athena) was brought up by 
Triton ; and when his daughter Pallas and Mi- 
nerva (Athena) were once wrestling together 
for the sake of exercise, Jupiter (Zeus) inter- 
fered in the struggle, and suddenly held the 
aegis before the face of Pallas. Pallas, while 
looking up to Jupiter (Zeus), was wounded by 
Minerva (Athena), and died. Minerva (Athena), 
in her sorrow, caused an image of the maiden 
to be made, round which she hung the aegis. 
When Electra had come as a suppliant to the 
Palladium, Jupiter (Zeus) hurled it down from 
heaven upon the earth, because it had been sul- 
lied by the hands of one who was no longer a 
pure madden. The image fell upon the earth at 
Troy when Ilus was just beginning to build the 
city. Ilus erected a sanctuary to it. Accord- 
ing to some, the image was dedicated by Elec- 
tra, and according to others, it was given by 
Jupiter (Zeus) to Dardanus. The image itself 
is said to have been three cubits in height, with 
its legs close together, and holding in its right 
hand a spear, and in the left a spindle and a 
distaff. This Palladium remained at Troy until 
Ulysses and Diomeues contrived to carry it 
away, because the city could not be taken so 
long as it was in the possession of that sacred 
treasure. According to some accounts, Troy 
contained two Palladia, one of which was car- 
ried off by Ulysses and Diomedes, while the 
other was conveyed by iEneas to Italy, or the 
one taken by the Greeks was a mere imitation, 
while that which iEneas brought to Italy was 
the genuine image. But this two-fold Palladium 
was probably a mere invention, to account for 
its existence in more than one place. Several 
towns both in Greece and Italy claimed the 
honor of possessing the genuine Trojan Palla- 
dium, as, for example, Argos and Athens, where 



it was believed that Demophon took it from 
Diomedes on his return from Troy. Vid. De- 
mophon. This Palladium at Athens, however, 
was different from another image of Pallas 
there, which was also called Palladium, and 
stood on the acropolis. In Italy the cities of 
Rome, Lavinium, Luceria, and Siris likewise 
pretended to possess the Trojan Palladium. 

Palladius (TLaXMciioc). 1. Of Methone, a 
sophist or rhetorician, who lived in the reign of 
Constantine the Great. — 2. Bishop of,Helenopo- 
lis, in Bithynia, to which he was raised A.D. 400. 
He was ordained by Chrysostom ; and on the 
banishment of the latter, Palladius was accused 
of holding the opinions of Origen, and, fearful 
of the violence of his enemies, he fled to Rome, 
405. Shortly afterward he ventured to return 
to the East, but was arrested and banished to 
the extremity of Upper Egypt. He was after- 
ward restored to his bishopric of Helenopolis, 
from which he was translated to that of Aspona 
or Aspuna in Galatia, perhaps about 419 or 420. 
Three works in Greek have come down to us 
under the name of Palladius, but there has been 
considerable dispute whether they were written 
by one individual or more : (1.) Historia Lausi- 
aca, " the Lausiac History," so called from its 
being dedicated to Lausus, a chamberlain at the 
imperial court. This work contains internal 
proofs of having been written by the Bishop of ■ 
Helenopolis. It gives biographical notices or 
characteristic anecdotes of a number of ascetics 
with whom Palladius Was personally acquaint- 
ed, or concerning whom he received informa- 
tion from those who had known them person- 
ally. Edited by Meursius, Lugd. Bat., 1616. 
(2.) The Life of Chrysostom, was probably writ- 
ten by a different person from the Bishop of 
Helenopolis. Edited by Bigotius, Paris, 1680. 
(3.) Be Gentibus India et Bragmanibus (Brah- 
mans). The authorship of this work is uncer- 
tain. It appears that the writer himself had 
visited India. Edited by Camerarius in Libei 
Gnomologicus, 8vo, Lips., without date ; and by 
Bissaeus, London, 1665. — 3. Surnamed latroso- 
phista, a Greek medical writer, of whose life 
nothing is known. He lived after Galen. We 
possess fhree works commonly attributed to 
him, namely, two books of commentaries on 
Hippocrates, and a short treatise on Fevers, all 
of which are taken chiefly from Galen. — 4. Pal- 
ladius Rutilius Taurus ^Emilianus, the author 
of a treatise Be Re Rustica, in the form of a 
Farmer's Calendar, the various operations con- 
nected with agriculture and a rural life being 
arranged in regular order, according to the sea- 
sons in which they ought to be performed. It 
is comprised in fourteen books : the first is in- 
troductory ; the twelve following contain the 
duties of the twelve months in succession, com- 
mencing with January; the last is a poem, in 
eighty-five elegiac couplets, upon the art of 
grafting {Be Insitione). A considerable portion 
of the work is taken from Columella. The date 
of the author is uncertain, but it is most proba- 
ble that he lived in the middle of the fourth cen- 
tury of the Christian era. The work was very 
popular in the Middle Ages. Edited in the 
Sariptores Rei Rustica by Gesner, Lips., 1735; 
reprinted by Ernesti in 1773, and by Schneider, 
Lips., 1794. 

595 



PALLANTIA. 



PaLMTRA. 



Pali.antTa (Pallantinus : now Palencia), the 
ihief town of the Vaccaei in the north of His- 
pania Tarraconensis, and on a tributary of the 
Durius. 

PallantTas and Pallantis, patronymics giv- 
en to Aurora, the daughter of the giant Pallas. 

Pallantium (YlaXkuvnov : Fla'A^avrLevc), an 
ancient town of Arcadia near Tegea, said to 
have been founded by Pallas, the son of Lycaon. 
Evander is said to have come from this place, 
and to have called the town, which he founded 
on the banks of the Tiber, Pallanleum (afterward 
Palanlium and Palalium), after the Arcadian 
town. On the foundation of Megalopolis, most 
of the inhabitants of Pallantium settled in the 
new city ; and the town remained almost de- 
serted, till it was restored by Antoninus Pius, 
and exempted from taxes on account of its sup- 
posed connection with the imperial city. 

[Pallantius, epithet of Evander. Vid. Pal- 
las, No. 4.] i 

Pallas (IldAAaf). 1. One of the Titans, son 
of Crius and Eurybia, husband of Styx, and fa- 
ther of Zelus, Cratos, Bia, and Nice. — 2. A gi- 
ant, slain by Minerva (Athena) in the battle with 
the gods. — 3. According to some traditions, the 
father of Minerva (Athena), who slew him when 
he attempted to violate her. — 4. Son of Lycaon, 
and grandfather of Evander, is said to have 
founded the town of Pallantium in Arcadia. 
Hence Evander is called by the poets Pallantius 
hcros. — 5. Son of Evander, and an ally of ^Ene- 
as, was slain by the Rutulian Turnus. — 6. Son 
of the Athenian king Pandion, and father of 
Clytus and Butes. His two sons were sent 
with Cephalus to implore assistance of jfEacus 
against Minos. Pallas was slain by Theseus. 
The celebrated family of the Pallantidae at 
Athens traced their origin from this Pallas. 

Pallas SJlaXXac), a surname of Athena (Mi- 
nerva). In Homer this name always appears 
united with that of Athena, as IlaXkac 'Adrivn, 
or TlaXKac 'hdrivair] ; but in later writers we 
also find Pallas alone instead of Athena (Miner- 
va). Some ancient writers derive the name 
from ■xuXkeiv, to brandish, in reference to the 
goddess brandishing the spear or aegis ; others 
derive it from the giant Pallas, who was slain 
by Athena (Minerva). But it is more probable 
that Pallas is the same word as TrdAXaf, i. e., a 
virgin or maiden. 

Pallas, a favorite freedman of the Emperor 
Claudius. In conjunction with another freed- 
man, Narcissus, he administered the affairs of 
the empire. After the death of Messalina, Pal- 
las persuaded the weak emperor to marry Agrip- 
pina ; and as Narcissus had been opposed to this 
marriage, he now lost his former power, and 
Pallas and Agrippina became the rulers of the 
Roman world. It was Pallas who persuaded 
Claudius to adopt the young Domitius (after- 
ward the Emperor Nero), the son of Agrippina ; 
and it was doubtless with the assistance of Pal- 
las that Agrippina poisoned her husband. Nero, 
soon after his accession, became tired of his 
mother's control, and, as one step toward eman- 
cipating himself from her authority, he deprived 
Pallas of , all his public offices, and dismissed 
him from the palace in 56. He was suffered to 
live unmolested for some years, till at length 
his immense wealth excited the rapacity of 
696 



N6ro, who had him removed by poison in 63. 
His enormous wealth, which was acquired dur- 
ing the reign of Claudius, had become proverb- 
ial, as we see from the line in Juvenal (i., 107), 
ego possidco plus Pallante el Licinio. The'brother 
of Pallas was Antonius or Claudius Felix, who 
was appointed by Claudius procurator of Judaea. 
Vid. Felix, Antonius. 

Pallas Lacus. Vid. Triton. 

Pallene {Ua7i\rjvn). 1. (UaXTinvatoc, IlaA- 
XrjVLbc), the most westerly of the three penin- 
sulas running out from Chalcidice in Mace- 
donia. It is said to have been formerly called 
Phlegra (QXeypa), and on the narrow isthmus 
which connected it with the main land stood 
the important town of Potidaea. — 2. (TlaMnvevc, 
rarely HaTih-nvawc), a demus in Attica belong- 
ing to the tribe Antiochis, was situated on one 
of the slopes of Pentelicus, a few miles south- 
west of Marathon. It possessed a temple of 
Minerva (Athena), surnamed Pallenis (Ro.\1t]- 
vlc) from the place ; and in its neighborhood the 
contest between Pisistratus and the party op- 
posed to him took place. 

Palma (now Palma), a Roman colony on the 
southwest coast of the island Balearis Major 
(now Majorca). 

[Palma, A. Cornelius, was consul in A.D. 
99, and a second time in 109. Between his first 
and second consulships he was governor of 
Syria, and conquered the part of Arabia around 
Petra about A.D. 105. He was put to death by 
order of Hadrian on the latter's accession to the 
throne in 117.] 

Palmaria (now Palmaruola), a small unin- 
habited island off the coast of Latium and the 
Promontory Circeium. 

[Palmus, a Trojan warrior wounded by Me- 
zentius, who stripped him of his armor.] 

Palmyra (RaXuvpa : Tla^fivpr/vSc, Palmyre- 
nus ; in the Old Testament, Tadmor : ruins at 
Tadmor), a celebrated city of Syria, stood in an 
oasis of the great Syrian Desert, which from 
its position must have been in the earliest times 
a halting-place for the caravans between Syria 
and Mesopotamia. Here Solomon built a city, 
which was called in Hebrew Tadmor, that is, 
the city of palm-trees ; and of this name the 
G*eek TlciXfivpa is a translation. It lies in 34° 
18' north latitude, and 38° 14' east longitude, 
and was reckoned two hundred and thirty-seven 
Roman miles from the coast of Syria, one hund- 
red and seventy-six northeast of Damascus, 
eighty east of Emesa, and one hundred and 
thirteen southeast of Apamea. With the ex- 
ception of a tradition that it was destroyed by 
Nebuchadnezzar, we-hear nothing of it till the 
time of the government of the East by M. An- 
tonius, who marched to surprise it, but the'in- 
habitants retreated with their movable property 
beyond the Euphrates. Under the early Ro- 
man emperors it was a free city and a great 
commercial emporium. Its position on the bor- 
der between the Parthian and Roman dominions 
gave it the command of the trade of both, but 
also subjected it to the injuries of war. Under 
Hadrian and the Antonines it was highly fa- 
vored and reached its greatest splendor. The 
history of its temporary elevation to the rank 
of a capital in the third century is related un- 
der Odenathus and Zenobia. On its capture 



PALMYRENE. 



PAMPHWA. 



by Aurelian in 270, it was plundered, and soon 
afterward an insurrection of its inhabitants led 
10 its partial destruction. It was fortified by 
Justinian, but never recovered from its fall. In 
the Arabian conquest it was one of the first 
cities taken ; but it was still inhabited by a 
small population, chiefly of Jews, till it was 
taken and plundered by Timour (Tamerlane) in 
1400. It has long been entirely deserted, ex- 
cept when a horde of Bedouins pitch their tents 
among its splendid ruins. Those ruins, which 
form a most striking object in the midst of the 
Desert, are of the Roman period, and decidedly 
inferior in the style of architecture, as well as 
in grandeur of effect, to those of Baalbek {vid. 
Heliopolis), the sister deserted city of Syria. 
The finest remains are those of the temple of 
the Sun ; the most interesting are the square 
sepulchral towers of from three to five stories. 
The streets and the foundations of the houses 
are traceable to some extent ; and there are 
several inscriptions in Greek and in the native 
Palmyrene dialect, besides one in Hebrew and 
one or two in Latin. The surrounding district 
of Palmyrene contained the Syrian Desert from 
the eastern border of Ccelesyria to the Euphra- 
tes. 

[Palmyrene (IlaTLfivpjjvri). Vid. Palmyra.] 
[Palmys (IlaAjUuf), a warrior from Ascania, 

who came to the aid of the Trojans against the 

Greeks.] 

[Palus M^otis (Ma«j-jf M/xvjj). Vid. Mao- 
ris.] 

[Paludes Pomptinje. Vid. Pomptin^e Palu- 

DES.] 

Pamisds (Udfjitoos). 1. A southern tributary 
of the Peneus in Thessaly. — 2. (Now Pirnatza), 
the chief river of Messenia, rises in the eastern 
part of the country, forty stadia east of Ithome, 
flows first southwest, and then south through 
the Messenian plain, and falls into the Messe- 
nian Gulf.— 3. A small river in Laconia, falls into 
the Messenian Gulf near Leuctra. It was at 
one time the ancient boundary between Laconia 
and Messenia. 

[Pammenes (JlafifiEvrit). 1- A Theban gen- 
eral of considerable celebrity, was connected 
withEpaminondas by political and friendly ties. 
When Philip was sent as a hostage to Thebes, 
he was placed under the care of Pammenes. 
He distinguished himself in the defence and 
support of Megalopolis, and defeated the forces 
of the Persian king Ochus. — 2. An Athenian 
rhetorician, a contemporary of Cicero, who calls 
him the most eloquent man in Greece. M. 
Brutus studied under.him.] 

[Pammon (Tldfi/xuv), one of the sons of Priam 
and Hecuba.] 

Pamphia or Pamphium (UafKpla, Huu<I>lov), a 
village of /Etolia, destroyed by the Macedonians. 

Pamphila (Hafj.<pi?^), a female historian of 
considerable reputation, who lived in the reign 
of Nero. She is described by some writers as 
a native of Epidaurus, by others as an Egyp- 
tian. Her principal work, of which Photius has 
given some extracts, was a kind of Historical 
Miscellany (entitled ovft/iiKTuv icropucuv vwofivri- 
uarav \6yoi). It was not arranged according 
to subjects or according to any settled plan, but 
it was more like a common-place book, in which 
each piece of information was set do'.vn as it 



fell under the notice of the writer. Modem 
scholars are best acquainted with the name of 
Pamphila from a statement in her work, pre- ■ 
served by A. Gellius (xv., 23), by which is as- 
certained the year of the birth of Hellanicus, 
Herodotus, and Thucydides respectively. 

Pamphilus (TldiMpiAog). 1. A disciple of Plato, 
who is only remembered by the circumstance 
that Epicurus, when a young man, heard him at 
Samos. Epicurus used to speak of him with 
great contempt, that he might not be thought to 
owe any thing to his instruction ; for it was the 
great boast of Epicurus that he was the sole 
author of his own philosophy. — 2. An Alexan- 
drean grammarian, of the school of Aristarchus. 
and the author of a lexicon, which is supposed 
by some scholars to have formed the foundation 
of the lexicon of Hesychius. He appears to 
have lived in the first century of our era. — 3. 
A philosopher or grammarian of Nicopolis, the 
author of a work on agriculture, of which there 
are considerable fragments in the Geoponica. — 
4. Presbyter of Caesarea, in Palestine, saint and 
martyr, and celebrated for his friendship with 
Eusebius, who, as a memorial of this intimacy, 
assumed the surname of Pamphilus. Vid. Eu- 
sebius. He suffered martyrdom A. D. 307. The 
life of Pamphilus seems to have been entirely 
devoted to the cause of biblical literature. He 
was an ardent admirer and follower of Origen. 
He formed, at Ccesarea, an important public li- 
brary, chiefly of ecclesiastical authors. Perhaps 
the most valuable of the contents of this library 
were the Tetrapla and Hexapla of Origen, from 
which Pamphilus, in conjunction with Euse- 
bius, formed a new recension of the Septua- 
gint, numerous copies of which were put into 
circulation. — 5. Of Amphipolis, one of the most 
distinguished of the Greek painters, flourished 
about B.C. 390-350. He was the disciple of 
Eupompus, the founder of the Sicyonian school 
of painting, for the establishment of which, how- 
ever, Pamphilus seems to have done much more 
than even Eupompus himself. Of his own works 
we have most scanty accounts ; but as a teach- 
er of his art he was surpassed by none of the 
ancient masters. According to Pliny, he was 
the first ^artist who possessed a thorough ac- 
quaintance with all branches of knowledge, es- 
pecially arithmetic and geometry, without which 
he used to say that the art could not be per- 
fected. All science, therefore, which could in 
any way contribute to form the perfect artist, 
was included in his course of instruction, which 
extended over ten years, and for which the fee 
was no less than a talent. Among those who 
paid this price for his tuition were Apelles and 
Melanthius. Not only was the school of Pam- 
philus remarkable for the importance which the 
master attached to general learning, but also 
for the minute attention which he paid to accu- 
racy in drawing. 

Pamphos (Ylafupus), a mythical poet, who is 
placed by Pausanias later than Olen, and much 
earlier than Homer. His name is connected 
particularly with Attica. 

Pamphylia (JlafufiiXia : Tlu/ifvXoc, Tlaf.ityv\iot;, 
Pamphyllus), in its original and more restricted 
sense, was a narrow strip of the southern coast 
of Asia Minor, extending in a sort of arch along 
the Sinus Pamphylius (now Gulf of Adalia),b& 

597 



PAMPHYL1UM MARE. 



PANCHAICUS. 



tween Lycia on the west and Cilicia on the 
east, and on the north bordering on Pisidia. 
lis boundaries, as commonly stated, were Mount 
Climax on the west, the River Melas on the 
east, and the foot of Mount Taurus on the north ; 
but the statements are not very exact : Strabo 
gives to the coast of Pamphylia a length of six 
hundred and forty stadia, from Olbia on the 
west to Ptolemai's, some distance east of the 
Melas, and he makes its width barely two miles ; 
and there are still other different accounts. It 
was a belt of mountain coast-land, intersected 
by rivers flowing down from the Taurus in a 
short course, but several of them with a con- 
siderable body of water : the chief of them, go- 
ing from west to east, were the Catarrhactes, 
Oestrus, Eurymedon, and Melas (No. 6), all 
navigable for some distance from their mouths. 
The inhabitants were amixture of races, whence 
their name Hdp$v%oi, of all races (the genuine 
old form, the other in -coi is later). Besides 
the aboriginal inhabitants of the Semitic (Syro- 
Arabian) family and Cilicians, there were very, 
early Greek settlers and later Greek colonies 
in the land. Tradition ascribed the first Greek 
settlements to Mopsus, after the Trojan war, 
from whom the country was in early times call- 
ed Mopsopia. It was successively a part of 
the Persian, Macedonian, Greco-Syrian, and 
Pergamene kingdoms, and passed by the will 
of Attalus III. to the Romans (B.C. 130), under 
whom it was made a province ; but this prov- 
ince of Pamphylia included also Pisidia and 
Isauria, and afterward a part of Lycia. Under 
Constantine Pisidia was again separated from 
Pamphylia. 

Pamphylium Mare, PamphylIus Sinus (to 
llafitpuhiov Tre'Aayof, Xlafityvhioc n6?iiroc : now 
Gulf of Adalia), the great gulf formed in the 
southern coast of Asia Minor by the direction 
of the Taurus chain and by Mount Solyma, be- 
tween the Promontorium Sacrum or Chelido- 
nium (now Cape Khelidonia), the southeastern 
point of Lycia, and Promontorium Anemurium 
(now Cape Anemour), the southern point of Ci- 
licia. Its depth from north to south, from Pro- 
montorium Sacrum to Olbia, is reckoned by 
Strabo at three hundred and sixty-seven stadia 
(36-7 geographical miles), which is too little. 

Pamphylus (LTu/^uAof), son of iEgimius and 
brother of Dymas, was king of the Dorians at 
the foot of Mount Pindus, and along with the 
Heraclidae invaded Peloponnesus. 

Pan (Jluv), the great god of flocks and shep- 
herds among the Greeks. He is usually called 
a son of Mercury (Hermes) by the daughter of 
Dryops ; but he is also described as a son of 
Mercury (Hermes) by Callisto, by CEneis or 
Thymbris, or by Penelope, whom the god visited 
in the shape of a ram, or as a son of Penelope 
by Ulysses, or by all her suitors in common. 
He was perfectly developed from his birth, and 
when his mother saw him she ran away through 
fear ; but Mercury (Hermes) carried him to Olym- 
pus, where all the gods were delighted with him, 
and especially Bacchus (Dionysus). From his 
delighting all the gods, the Homeric hymn de- 
rives his name. He was originally only an Ar- 
cadian god, and Arcadia was always the princi- 
pal seat of his worship. From this country his 
name and worship afterward spread over other 
598 



parts of Greece, but at Athens his worship was 
not introduced till the time of the-battle of Mar- 
athon. In Arcadia he was the god of forests, i 
pastures, flocks, and shepherds, and dwelt in f 
grottoes, wandered on the summits of mount- 
ains and rocks, and in valleys, either amusingj 
himself with the chase, or leading the danced 
of the nymphs. As the god of flocks, both of 
wild and tame animals, it was his province to i 
increase and guard them ; but he was also a 
hunter, and hunters owed their success or fail- 
ure to him. The Arcadian hunters used to 
scourge the statue of the god if they had been 
disappointed in the chase. During the heat of 
mid-day he used to slumber, and was very in- 
dignant when any one disturbed him. As the i 
god of flocks, bees also were under his protec- 
tion, as well as the coast where fishermen car- 
ried on their pursuit. As the god of every thing 
connected with pastoral life, he was fond of mu- 
sic, and the inventor of the syrinx or shepherd's ' 
flute, which he himself played in a masterly 
manner, and in which he instructed others also, 
such as Daphnis. He is thus said to have loved 
the poet Pindar, and to have sung and danced 
his lyric songs, in return for which Pindar erect- 
ed to him a sanctuary in front of his house. 
Pan, like other gods who dwelt in forests, was 
dreaded by travellers, to whom he sometimes 
appeared, and whom he startled with sudden 
awe or terror. Thus, when Phidippides, the 
Athenian, was sent to Sparta to solicit its aid 
against the Persians, Pan accosted him, and 
promised to terrify the barbarians if the Athe- 
nians would worship him. Hence sudden fright 
without any visible cause was ascribed to Pan, 
and was called a Panic fear. He is further said 
to have had a' terrific voice, and by it to have 
frightened the Titans in their fight with the 
gods. It seems that this feature, namely, his 
fondness of noise and riot, was the cause of his 
being considered the minister and companion 
of Cybele and Bacchus (Dionysus). He was, at 
the same time, believed to be possessed of pro- 
phetic powers, and to have even instructed 
Apollo in this art. While roaming in his forests 
he fell in love with Echo, by whom or by Pitho 
he became the father of lynx. His love of Sy- 
rinx, after whom he named his flute, is well 
known from Ovid (Met., i., 691, seq.). Fir- 
trees were sacred to him, since the nymph Pi- 
tys, whom he loved, had been metamorphosed 
into that tree ; and the sacrifices offered to him 
consisted of cows, rams, lambs, milk, and honey. 
Sacrifices were also offered to him in common 
with Bacchus (Dionysus) a.nd the nymphs. The 
various epithets which are given him by the 
poets refer either to his singular appearance, or 
are derived from the names of the places in 
which he was worshipped. The Romans identi- 
fied with Pan their own god Inuus, and also 
Faunus, which name is merely another form 
of Pan. In works of art Pan is represented as 
a voluptuous and sensual being, with horns, 
puck-nose, and goat's feet, sometimes in the 
act of dancing, and sometimes playing on the 
syrinx. 

Panacea (HavaKcia), i. e., " the all-healing," 
a daughter of ^Esculapius, who had a temple at 
Oropus. 

Panachaicus Mons (to IlavaxaiKov 6po(), a 



PANACRA. 



PANDION. 



mountain h Achaia, six thousand three hundred 
feet high, immediately behind Patrae. 

Panacra (Udvaicpa), a mountain in Crete, a 
branch of Mount Ida. 

Panactum (HdvaicTov), a town on the frontiers 
of Attica and Bosotia, originally belonged to 
Bosotia, and, after being a frequent object of 
contention between the Athenians and Boeo- 
tians, at length became permanently annexed to 
Attica. 

Pan^nus (Tldvaivoc ), a distinguished Atheni- 
an painter, who flourished B.C. 448. He was 
the nephew of Phidias, whom he assisted ' in 
decorating the temple of Jupiter (Zeus) at Olym- 
pia. He was also the author of a series of 
paintings of the battle of Marathon, in the Poa- 
cile at Athens. 

[Panaetius (Jlavafrioc). 1. Tyrant of Leon- 
tini. He was the first who raised himself to 
power in that way in Sicily. — 2. A native of 
Tenos, commanded a vessel of the Tenians in 
the armament of Xerxes against Greece, ap- 
parently by compulsion, for, just before the bat- 
tle of Salamis, Panaetius with his vessel desert- 
ed the Persians and joined the Greeks.] 

Pan^stius (HavaiTioc), a native of Rhodes, 
and a celebrated Stoic philosopher, studied first 
at Pergamum under the grammarian Crates, 
and subsequently at Athens under the Stoic 
Diogenes of Babylon, and his disciple Antipater 
of Tarsus. He afterward went to Rome, where 
he became an intimate friend of Laelius and of 
Scipio Africanus the younger. In B.C. 144 he 
accompanied Scipio on the embassy which he 
undertook to the kings of Egypt and Asia in al- 
liance with Rome. Panaetius succeeded Antip- 
ater as head of the Stoic school, and died at 
Athens, at all events before 111. The princi- 
pal work of Panaetius was his treatise on the 
theory of moral obligation (nepi tov Kadr/Kovrog), 
in three books, from which Cicero took the 
greater part of his work De Officiis. Panaetius 
had softened down the harsh severity of the 
older Stoics, and, without giving up their funda- 
mental definitions, had modified them so as to 
make them applicable to the conduct of life, and 
had clothed them in the garb of eloquence. 

Pan^etolium, a mountain in iEtolia, near 
Thermon, in which town the Panaetolium or 
general assembly of the ^Etolians was held. 

[Panara. Vid. Panohjea.] 

[Panch^ea (Hayxaia), a fabled island in the 
Eastern orlndian Ocean, which Euhemerus pre- 
tended to have discovered, and to have found 
in its capital, Panara, a temple of the Tripliyl- 
ian Jupiter, containing a column inscribed with 
the date of the births and deaths of many of the 
gods. (Vid. Euhemerus.) Virgil makes men- 
tion of Panchasa and its turifera, arena, by which 
he evidently refers to Arabia Felix.] 

Panda, a river ia the country of the Siraci, 
in the interior of Sarmatia Asiatica (Tac, Ann., 
xii., 16). ■ 

Pandareos (JlavSdpeai;), son of Merops of Mi- 
letus, is said to have stolen from the temple of 
Jupiter (Zeus) in Crete the golden dog which 
Vuican (Hephaestus) had made, and to have car- 
ried it to Tantalus. When Jupiter (Zeus) sent 
Mercury (Hermes) to Tantalus to claim the dog 
back, Tantalus declared that it was not in his 
possession. The god, however, took the ani- 



mal by force, and threw Mount Sipylus upon 
Tantalus. Pandareos fled to Athens, and thence 
to Sicily, where he perished with his wife Har- 
mothoe. The story of Pandareos derives more 
interest from that of his three daughters. Ae- 
don, the eldest of them, was married to Zethus, 
the brother of Amphion, by whom she became 
the mother of Itylus. From envy of Amphion, 
who had many children, she determined to mur- 
der one of his sons, Amaleus, but in the night 
she mistook her own son for her nephew, and 
killed him. The two other daughters of Pan- 
dareos, Merope and Cleodora (according to Pau- 
sanias, Camira and Clytia), were, according to 
Homer, deprived of their parents by the gods, 
and remained as helpless orphans in the palace. 
Venus (Aphrodite), however, fed them with milk, 
honey, and wine. Juno (Hera) gave them beauty 
and understanding far above other women. Di- 
ana (Artemis) gave them dignity, and Minerva 
(Athena) skill in the arts. When Venus (Aphro- 
dite) went up to Olympus to arrange the nup- 
tials for her maidens, they were carried off by 
the Harpies. 

Pandarus (Uuvdapoc). 1. A Lycian, son of 
Lycaon, commanded the inhabitants of Zelea 
on Mount Ida in the Trojan war. He was dis- 
tinguished in the Trojan army as an archer, and 
was said to have received his bow from Apollo. 
He was slain by Diomedes, or, according to 
others, by Sthenelus. He was afterward hon- 
ored as a hero at Pinara in Lycia. — 2. Son of 
Alcanor, and twin-brother of Bitias, was one of 
the companions of ^Eneas, and was slain by 
Turnus. 

Pandataria (now Vendutene), a small island 
in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the coast of Cam- 
pania, to which Julia, the daughter of Augustus, 
was banished. 

Pandemos (UavSnfiog), i. e., " common to all 
the people," a surname of Venus (Aphrodite), 
used in a two-fold sense : 1. As the goddess of 
low, sensual pleasures, as Venus vulgivaga oi 
popularis, in opposition to Venus Urania, or the 
heavenly Venus (Aphrodite). 2. As the goddess 
uniting all the inhabitants of a country into one 
social or political body. Under the latter view 
she was worshipped at Athens along with Pei- 
tho (persuasion), and her worship was said to 
have been instituted by Theseus at the time 
when he united the scattered townships into one 
great body of citizens. The sacrifices offered 
to her consisted of white goats. 

Pandion (TlavSiuv). 1. 1. King of Athens, son 
of Erichthonius by the Naiad Pasithea, was 
married td Zeuxippe, by whom he became the 
father of Procne and Philomela, and of the twins 
Erechtheus and Butes. In a war against Lab- 
dacus, king of Thebes, he called upon Tereus 
of Daulis in Phocis for assistance, and after- 
ward rewarded him by giving him his daughter 
Procne in marriage. Vid. Tereus. It was in 
his reign that Bacchus (Dionysus) and Ceres 
(Demeter) were said to have come to Attica. — 
2. II. King of Athens, son of Cecrops and Metia- 
dusa. Being expelled from Athens by the Me- 
tionidae, he fled to Megara, and there married 
Pylia, the daughter of King Pylas. When the 
latter, in consequence of a murder, migrated 
into Peloponnesus, Pandion obtained the gov- 
ernment of Megara. He became the father oi 

599 



PANDOCUS. 



PANNONIA. 



.Egeus, Pallas, Nisus, Lycus, and a natural son, 
CEneus, and also of a daughter, who was married 
to Sciron. After his death his four sons, called 
the Pandwnula (Tlavdiovi&ai), returned from Me- 
gara to Athens, and expelled the Metionidae. 
.Egeus obtained Athens, Lycus the eastern 
coast of Attica, Nisus Megaris, and Pallas the 
southern coast. — [3. A Greek in the army against 
Troy, a companion of Teucer.] 

[Pandocus {TlavdoKog), a Trojan, slain by 
Ajax before Troy.] 

Pandora (Uavdupa), the name of the first 
woman on earth. When Prometheus had stolen 
the fire from heaven, Jupiter (Zeus), in revenge, 
caused Vulcan (Hephaestus) to make a woman 
out of earth, who by her charms and beauty 
should bring misery upon the human race. Ve- 
nus (Aphrodite) adorned her with beauty ; Mer- 
cury (Hermes) bestowed upon her boldness and 
cunning ; and the gods called her Pandora, or 
All-gifted, as each of the gods had given her 
some power by which she was to work the ruin 
of man. Mercury (Hermes) took her to Epi- 
metheus, who made her his wife, forgetting the 
advice of his brother Prometheus, that he should 
not receive any gifts from Jupiter (Zeus.) In 
the house of Epimetheus was a closed jar, which 
he had been forbidden to open. But the curi- 
osity of a woman could not resist the tempta- 
tion to know its contents ; and when she open- 
ed the lid, all the evils incident to man poured 
out. She had only time to shut down the lid, 
and prevent the escape of hope. Later writers 
relate that Pandora brought with her from heav- 
en a box (and not a jar) containing all human 
ills, upon opening which all escaped and spread 
over the earth, Hope alone remaining. At a 
still later period, the box is said to have con- 
tained all the blessings of the gods, which would 
have been preserved for the human race had not 
Pandora opened the vessel, so that the winged 
blessings escaped. 

Pandosia (Ilavdoala). 1. (Now Kastri), a town 
of Epirus in the district Thesprotia, on the River 
Acheron, and in the territory of the Cassopeei. — 
2. (Now Castel Franco ?), a town in Bruttium, 
near the frontiers of Lucania, situated on the 
River Acheron, and also either upon or at the 
foot of three hills, was originally a residence of 
native (Enotrian chiefs. It was here that Alex- 
ander of Epirus fell, B.C. 326, in accordance with 
an oracle. 

Pandrosos {TLavdpoGoc), i.e., "the all-bedew- 
ing" or " refreshing," was a daughter of Ce- 
crops and Agraulos, and a sister of Erysichthon, 
Herse, and Aglauros. She was worshipped at 
Athens along with Thallo, and had a sanctu- 
ary there near the temple of Minerva (Athena) 
Polias. 

Paneas. Vid. CjEsarea, No. 2. 

Paneum or -ium (Tldveiov, Xluviov, i. e., Pan's 
abode), the Greek name of the cave, in a mount- 
ain at the southern extremity of the range of 
Antilibanus, out of which the River Jordan takes 
its rise, a little above the town of Paneas or 
Cffisarea Philippi. The mountain, in whose 
southern side the cave is, was called by the same 
name, and the surrounding district was called 
Paneas. 

Pang^eum or Pang^eus (Jlayyalov, Tluyyaioc : 
now Pangea), a celebrated range of mo -mains 
600 



in Macedonia, between the Strymon and the 
Nestus, and in the neighborhood of Philippi, 
with gold and silver mines, and with splendid 
roses. 

Panhellenius (n.avel'kqvLoc), i. e., the god 
worshipped by all the Hellenes. This surname 
is said to have been given to Jupiter (Zeus) by 
yEacus, when he offered a propitiatory sacrifice 
on behalf of all the Greeks for the purpose of 
averting a famine. In iEgina there was a sanc- 
tuary of Jupiter (Zeus) Panhellenius, which was 
said to have been founded by vEacus ; and a' 
festival, Panhellenia, was celebrated there. 

PanionIum. Vid. Mycale ; and Diet, of Ant., 
s. v. Panionia. 

PanIum (Tluviov). 1. A town on the coast of 
Thrace, near Heraclea.— [2. Vid. Paneum.] 

Pannonia, one of the most important of the 
Roman provinces between the Danube and the 
Alps, was separated on the west from Noricum 
by the Mons Cetius, and from Upper Italy by 
the Alpes Julice, on the south from Illyria by the 
Savus, on the east from Dacia by the Danube, 
and on the north from Germany by the same 
river. It thus corresponded to the eastern part 
of Austria, Shjria, Carinthia, Carniola, the whole 
of Hungary between the Danube and the Save, 
Slavonia, and a part of Croatia and Bosnia. 
The mountains in the south and west of the 
country, on the borders of Illyria, Italy, and 
Noricum, belonged to the Alps, and are there- 
fore called by the general name of the Alpes 
Pannonicte, of which the separate names are 
Ocra, Carvancas, Cetius, . and Albii or Albani 
Montes. The principal rivers of Pannonia, be- 
sides the Danube, were the Dravus (now Drave), 
Savus (now Save), and Arrabo (now Raab), all 
of which flow into the Danube. The Panno- 
nians (Pannonii), sometimes called Paeonians 
by the Greek writers, were probably of Illyrian 
origin, and were divided into numerous tribes. 
They were a brave and warlike people, but are 
described by the Roman writers as cruel, faith- 
less, and treacherous. They maintained their 
independence of Rome till Augustus, after his 
conquest of the Ulyrians (B.C. 35), turned his 
arms against the Pannonians, who were shortly 
afterward subdued by his general Vibius. In 
A.D. 7 the Pannonians ioined the Dalmatians 
and the other Illyrian tribes in their revolt from 
Rome, and were with difficulty conquered by 
Tiberius, after a desperate struggle, which last- 
ed three years (A.D. 7-9). It was after the 
termination of this war that Pannonia appears 
to have been reduced to the form of a Roman 
province, and was garrisoned by several Ro- 
man legions. The dangerous mutiny of these 
troops after the death of Augustus (A.D. 14) 
was with difficulty quelled by Drusus. From 
this time to the end of the empire Pannonia 
always contained a large number of Roman 
troops, on account of its bordering on the Quadi 
and other powerful barbarous nations. We find 
at a later time that Pannonia was the regular 
quarters of seven legions. In consequence of 
this large number of troops always stationed in 
the country, several towns were founded and 
numerous fortresses were erected along the 
Danube. Pannonia originally formed only one 
province, but was soon divided into two prov- 
inces, called Pannonia Superior and Pannonia 



PANOMPHJiUS. 



PANTHEUM. 



Inferior. These were separated from one an- 
other by a straight line drawn from the River 

j Arrabo south as far as the Savus, the country 
west of this line being P. Superior, and the part 

I east P. Inferior. Each of the provinces was 
governed by a separate propraetor ; but they 
were frequently spoken of in the plural under 
the name of Pannonia:. In the fourth century, 
the part of P. Inferior between the Arrabo, the 
Danube, and the Dravus was formed into a 
separate province by Galerius, who gave it the 
name of Valeria, in honor of his wife. But as 
P. Inferior had thus lost a great part of its ter- 
ritory, Gonstantine added to it a portion of P. 

! Superior, comprising the upper part of the course 

j of the Dravus and the Savus. P. Superior was 
now called Pannonia Prima, and P. Inferior 
Pannonia Sccunda; and all three Pannonian 
provinces (together with the two Noric prov- 
inces and Dalmatia) belonged to the six Illy rian 
provinces of the Western Empire. In the mid- 
dle of the fifth century Pannonia was taken 
possession of by the Huns. After the death of 
Attila it passed into the hands of the Ostro- 

I goths, and subsequently into those of the Lan- 
gobards. 

Panomph^eus (JlavoftQaiof), i. e., the author 
of all signs and omens, a surname of Jupiter 
| (Zeus), who had a sanctuary on the Hellespont 
between Capes Rhceteum and Sigeum. 

Panope (Uavorrn), a nymph of the sea, daugh- 
ter of Nereus and Doris. 

[Panopes, one of the followers of ^Eneas in 
his voyage to Italy, distinguished at the funeral 
games celebrated in Sicily in honor of Anchi- 
ses.] 

Panopeus (IIajJ07r£i)f), son of Phocus and As- 
teropaea, accompanied Amphitryon on his expe- 
dition against the Taphians or Teleboans, and 
took an oath not to embezzle any part of the 
booty ; but, having broken his oath, he was pun- 
ished by his son Epeus becoming unwarlike. 
He is also mentioned among the Oalydonian 
hunters. 

Panopeus (Tlavoirevc, Horn.), Panope/E (Havo- 
Trial), or Panope (Uavdrnj, Ttiuc. ; ethnic Tlavo- 
irevc, now Agio Vlasi), an ancient town in Pho- 
eis, on the Cephisus, and near the frontiers of 
Bceotia, twenty stadia west of Chaeronea, said 
to have been founded by Panopeus, son of Pho- 
cus. 

[Panopion Uebinius, was proscribed by the 
triumvirs in B.C. 43, but was preserved by the 
fidelity of one of his slaves, who exchanged 
dresses with his master, dismissed him*. by the 
back door as the soldiers were entering the villa, 
then placed himself in the bed of Panopion, and 
allowed himself to be killed for his master.] 

Panopolis. Vid. Chemmis. 

Panoptes. Vid. A".gus. 

Panoemus (Jlavopixoc), that is, " All- Port," or 
i a place always fit for landing, the name of sev- 
eral harbors. 1. (IlavopfiiTnc, Panormlta, Panor- 

I I mitanus : now Palermo), an important town on 
the northern coast of Sicily and at the mouth 
of the River Orethus, was founded by the Phoe- 
nicians, and at a later time received its Greek 
name from its excellent harbor. From the Phoe- 

! nicians it passed into the hands of the Cartha- 
ginians, in whose power it remained for a long 
time, and who made it one of the chief stations 



for their fleet. It was taken by the Romans tis 
the first Punic war, B.C. 254, and was subse- 
quently made a Roman colony. — 2. (Now Porto 
Raphti), the principal harbor on the eastern 
coast of Attica, near the demus Prasiae, and op 
posite the southern extremity of Eubcea. — 3. 
(Now Tekieh), a harbor in Achaia, fifteen stadia 
east of the promontory Rhium. — 4. A harbor in 
Epirus, in the middle of the Acroceraunian 
rocks. — 5. (Ruins near Mylopotamo), a town and 
harbor on the northern coast of Crete. — 6. The 
outer harbor of Ephesus, formed by the mouth 
of the River Cayster. Vid. p. 282 , a. 

Pansa, C. Vibius, a friend and partisan of 
Caesar, was tribune of the plebs B.C. 51, and 
was appointed by Caesar in 46 to the govern- 
ment of Cisalpine Gaul as successor to M. Bru- 
tus. Cassar subsequently nominated him and 
Hirtius consuls for 43. Pansa was consul in 
that year along with Hirtius, and fell before 
Mutina in the month of April. The details are 
given under Hirtius. 

Pantacyas, Pantagias, or Pantagies (Ilav- 
Taxvac : now Fiume di Porcari), a small river 
on the eastern coast of Sicily, which flowed into 
the sea between Megara and Syracuse. 

[Pantvenus (TLdvTaivoc), the teacher of Cle- 
mens of Alexandrea, and master of the cate- 
chetical school in that city about A.D. 181 : in 
philosophy he had been in the Stoic school, and 
had adopted their principles, and hence was 
designated the Stoic. He was selected, on ac- 
count of his learning and piety, to conduct a 
missionary enterprise to India.] 

Pantaleon {TLavraleuv). I. Son of Ompha- 
lion, king or tyrant of Pisa in Elis at the period 
of the thirty-fourth Olympiad (B.C. 644), as- 
sembled an army, with which he made himself 
master of Olympia, and assumed by force the 
sole presidency of the Olympic games. The 
Eleans, on this account, would not reckon this 
as one of the regular Olympiads. Pantaleon 
assisted the Messenians in the second Mes- 
senian war. — [2. A son of Alyattes, king of 
Lydia, by an Ionian woman. His claim to the 
throne in preference to his brother Croesus was 
put forward by his partisans during the lifetime 
of Alyattes, but that monarch decided in favor 
of Croesus. — 3. A Macedonian of Pydna, an 
officer in the service of Alexander, who was 
appointed by him governor of Memphis.] 

Panthea. Vid. Abradatas. 

Pantheum (Jldvdetov), a celebrated temple 
at Rome, in the Campus Martius, which is still 
extant, and used as a Christian church. It is 
in a circular form, surmounted by a dome, and 
contains a noble Corinthian portico of sixteen 
pillars. In its general form it resembles the 
Colosseum in the Regent's Park. It was built 
by M. Agrippa in his third consulship, B.C. 27, 
as the inscription on the portico still testifies. 
All the ancient authors call it a temple, and 
there is no reason for supposing, as some mod- 
ern writers have done, that it was originally an 
entrance to the public baths. The name is 
commonly derived from its being supposed to 
be sacred to all the gods ; but Dion Cassius 
expressly states that it was dedicated to Mara 
and Venus. The temple of Julius Caesar was 
erected by Augustus in the interior of the tem- 
ple, and that of Augustus in the pronaos. I', 

601 



PANTHCEDAS. 

was restored by the Emperor Septimius Seve- 
rus, A.D. 202. Between 608 and 610 it was 
consecrated as a Christian church by the pope 
Boniface IV., with the approbation of the Em- 
peror Phocas. In 655 the plates of gilded bronze 
that covered the roof were carried to Constan- 
tinople by command of Constans II. The Pan- 
theon is the largest circular building of anti- 
quity; the interior diameter of the rotunda is 
one hundred and forty-two feet, and the height 
from the pavement to the summit about one 
hundred and forty-eight feet. The portico is 
one hundred and three feet wide, and the col- 
umns forty-seven feet high. 

[Panthcedas {Uavdoida^), a Spartan, sent out 
by the ephors in B.C. 403 against Clearchus, 
who had gone to Byzantium against orders. 
He was slain in battle in 377 against Pelopidas, 
near Tanagra.] 

Panthous, contr. PANTH&s(riai'0oof, Tldvdovg), 
one of the elders at Troy, husband of Phrontis, 
and father of Euphorbus, Polydamas, and Hy- 
perenor. Hence both Euphorbus and Polyda- 
mas are called Panthoides. He is said to have 
been originally a priest of Apollo at Delphi, and 
to have been carried to Troy by Antenor on 
account of his beauty. He continued to be a 
priest of Apollo, and is called by Virgil (JEn., 
•i, 319) Othryades, or son of Othryas. 

[Pantias (Uavriac), of Chios, a statuary of 
the school of Sicyon, son and pupil of Sostra- 
tus, who was the seventh in the succession of 
disciples from Aristocles of Cydonia.] 

Pantic ap^eum (TlavriKaKaiov : HavTUicnratoc;, 
TlavriKaTxaLivQ, TlavriKaiuaTTjc; : now Kertsch), a 
town in the Taurie Cherspnesus, was situated 
on a hill twenty stadia in circumference on the 
Cimmerian Bosporus, and opposite the town of 
Phanagoria in Asia. It derived its name from 
the River Panticapes. It was founded by the 
Milesians about B.C. 541, and from its position 
and excellent harbor soon became a place of 
great commercial importance. It was the res- 
idence of the Greek kings of the Bosporus, and 
hence is sometimes called Bosporus. Justinian 
caused it to be surrounded with new walls. 

Panticapes (IlavTiKanric), a river in European 
Sarmatia, which, according to Herodotus, rises 
in a lake, separates the agricultural and nomad 
Scythians, flows through the district Hylaea, 
and falls into the Borysthenes. It is usually 
identified with the modern Somara, but without 
sufficient grounds. 

Panyasis (Uavvacis). 1. A Greek epic poet, 
was a native of Halicarnassus, and a relation 
of the historian Herodotus, probably his uncle. 
Panyasis began to be known about B.C. 489, 
continued in reputation till 467, and was put to 
death by Lygdamis, the tyrant of Halicarnas- 
sus, about 457. The most celebrated of the 
poems of Panyasis was his Heraclea or Hera- 
cleas, which gave a detailed account of the ex- 
ploits of Hercules. It consisted of fourteen 
books and nine thousand verses. Another poem 
of Panyasis bore the name of lonica ('luvma), 
and contained seven thousand verses ; it relat- 
ed the history of Neleus, Codrus, and the Ionic 
colonies. In later times the works of Panyasis 
were extensively read and much admired ; the 
Alexandrine grammarians ranked him with Ho- 
mer, Hesiod, Pisander, and Antimachqs, as one 
602 

. 



PAPHLAGONIA. ! 

of the five principal epic poets. [The hag- ' 

ments are collected by Tzschirner, Panyasidis } 
Fragmenta, &c, Breslau, 1842 ; and by Diib- 
ner, at the end of Epici Graeci Minores, in Di- 

dot's Bibliotheca Grasca.]- -2. A philosopher, | 
also a native of Halicarnassus, who wrote two 

books " On Dreams" {TJepl bvetpuv), was per j 
haps a grandson of the poet. 

[Panyasps (Jlavvaooos : now Spirnazza), a | 

river of Illyris Greeca, which empties, south of j 
Dyrrachium, into the Ionian Sea.] 

Paphlagonia {HaipXayovia : Tla^Xa-yuv, pi. | 
-oves, Paphlago), a district on the northern side 
of Asia Minor, between Bithynia on the west 
and Pontus on the east, being separated from I 
the former by the River Partbenius, and from 
the latter by the Halys ; on the south it was di- li 
vided by the chain of Mount Olympus (accord- < 
ing to others by Olgassys) from Phrygia in the ■ 
earlier times, but from Galatia afterward ; and 
on the north it bordered on the Euxine. These ' 
boundaries, however, are not always exactly I 
observed. Xenophon brings the Paphlagonians j 
as far east as Themiscyra and the Jasonian ' 
promontory. It appears to have been known | 
to the Greeks in the mythical period. The Ar- 
gonautic legends mentioned Paphlagon, the son i 
of Phineus, as the hero eponymus of the coun- I 
try. In the Homeric Catalogue, Pylaemenes ! 
leads the Paphlagonians, as allies of the Tro- 
jans, from the land of the Heneti, about the I 
River Parthenius, a region famed for its mules ; 
and from this Pylaemenes the later princes of ! 
Paphlagonia claimed their descent, and the | 
country itself was sometimes called Pyl^eme- 
nia. Herodotus twice mentions the Halys as i 
the boundary between the Paphlagonians and I 
the Syrians of Cappadocia ; but we learn also 
from him and from other authorities that the ; 
Paphlagonians were of the same race as the J i 
Cappadocians (j. e., the Semitic or Syro-Ara- !' 
bian), and quite distinct, in their language and I 
their customs, from their Thracian neighbors \ 
on the west. They were good soldiers, espe- t 
cially as cavalry, but uncivilized and supersti- \ 
tious. The country had also other inhabitants, I 
probably of a different race, namely, the Heneti [j 
and the Caucones ; and Greek settlements were I 
established on the coast at an early period. The | 
Paphlagonians were first subdued by Crcesus. 
Under the Persian empire they belonged to the I 
third satrapy, but their satraps made themselves i j 
independent, and assumed the regal title, main- i 
taining themselves in this position (with a brief 1 
interruption, during which Paphlagonia was sub- | : 
ject to Eumenes) until the conquest of the coun- j 
try by Mithradates, who added the eastern part i J 
of his own kingdom, and made over the west- ! j 
ern part to Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, who j 
gave it to his son Pylsemenes. After the fall 1 
of Mithradates the Romans added the north of || 
Paphlagonia, along the coast, to Bithynia, and j 
the interior was left to the native princes, as j 
tributaries to Rome; but, the race of these \\ 
princes becoming soon extinct, the whole of . | 
Paphlagonia was made Roman, and Augustus i 
made it a part of the province of Galatia. It J 
was made a separate province under Constan- j 
tine ; but the eastern part, from Sinope to the 1 
Halys, was assigned to Pontus, under the name I 
of Hellespontus. Paphlagonia was a mountain^ j I 



PAPHUS. 



PAPREMIS. 



ous country, being intersected from west to 
east by three chains of the Olympus system, 
namely, the Olympus itself on the southern bor- 
der, Olgassys in the centre, and a minor chain 
with no specific name nearer to the coast. The 
belt of land between this last chain and the sea 
was very fertile, and the Greek cities of Amas- 
tris and Sinope brought a considerable com- 
merce to its shore ; but the inland parts were 
chiefly covered with native forests, which were 
celebrated as. hunting grounds. The country 
was famed for its horses and mules, and in 
some parts there were extensive sheep-walks ; 
and its rivers were particularly famous for their 
fish. The country was divided into nine dis- 
tricts, the names of which are not of enough 
importance to be specified here. 

Paphus (Ila^cc), son of Pygmalion by the 
statue into which life had been breathed by 
Venus (Aphrodite). From him the town of 
Paphus is said to have derived its name ; and 
Pygmalion himself is called the Paphian hero. 
(Ov., Met., x., 290.) 

Paphus (Udipoc : Ilafios), the name of two 
towns on the western coast of Cyprus, near 
each other, and called respectively " Old Pa- 
phos" (U.aXalira(pog) and " New Paphos" (Ild- 
(j>oe via). Old Paphos was situated near the 
promontory Zephyrium, on the River Bocarus, 
ten stadia from the coast, where it had a good 
harbor ; while New Paphos lay more inland, in 
the midst of a fertile plain, sixty stadia from 
the former. Old Paphos was the chief seat of 
the worship of Venus (Aphrodite), who is said 
to have landed at this place after her birth 
among the waves, and who is hence frequently 
called the Paphian goddess (Paphia). Here 
she had a celebrated temple, the high priest of 
which exercised a kind of religious superintend- 
ence over the whole island. Every year there 
was a grand procession from New Paphos to 
the temple of the goddess in the old city. There 
were two legends respecting the foundation of 
Paphos, one describing the Syrian king Cinyras 
as its founder, and the other the Arcadian Ag- 
apenor on his return from Troy. These state- 
ments are reconciled by the supposition that 
Cinyras was the founder of Old Paphos and 
Agapenor of New Paphos. There can be no 
doubt of the Phoenician origin of Old Paphos, 
and that the worship of Venus (Aphrodite) was 
introduced here from the East ; but an Arcadian 
colony can not be admitted. When Paphos is 
mentioned by later writers without any epithet, 
they usually mean the New City ; but when the 
name occurs in the poets, we are generally to 
understand the Old City, as the poets, for the 
most part, speak of the place in connection 
with the worship of Venus (Aphrodite). Old 
Paphos was destroyed by an earthquake in the 
reign of Augustus, but was rebuilt by order of 
the emperor, and called Augusta. Under the 
Romans New Paphos was the capital of one of 
the four districts into which the island was di- 
vided. Old Paphos corresponds to the modern 
Kukla or Konuklia, and New Paphos to the mod- 
ern Baffa. 

Papias {TLaniag), an early Christian writer, 
said to have been a hearer of the Apostle John, 
and a companion of Polycarp, was bishop of Hie- 
rapolis, on the borders ofPhrygia. He taught 



the doctrine of the Millennium, maintaining that 
there will be, for one thousand years after the 
resurrection of the dead, a bodily reign of Christ 
on this earth. Only fragments of his works are 
extant. 

Papinianus, ^Emilius, a celebrated Roman 
jurist, was preefectus praetorio under the Em- 
peror Septimius Severus, whom he accompanied 
to Britain. The emperor died at York A.D. 211, 
and is said to have commended his two sons, 
Caracalla and Geta, to the care of Papinian. 
On the death of his father, Caracalla dismissed 
Papinian from his office, and shortly afterward 
put him to death. There are five hundred and 
ninety-five excerpts from Papinian's works in 
the Digest. These excerpts are from the thirty- 
seven books of Quastiones, a work arranged ac- 
cording to the order of the Edict, the nineteen 
books of Responsa, the two books of Definilioncs, 
the two books De Adulteriis, a single book De 
Adulteriis, and a Greek work or fragment, which 
probably treated of the office of asdile both at 
Rome and in other towns. No Roman jurist 
had a higher reputation than Papinian. Nor is 
his reputation unmerited. It was not solely be- 
cause of the high station that he filled, his pene- 
tration, and his knowledge, that he left an im- 
perishable name ; his excellent understanding, 
guided by integrity of purpose, has made him tho 
model of a true lawyer. 

Papinius Statius. Vid. Statius. 

PapirIa Gens, patrician and plebeian. The 
patrician Papirii were divided into the families 
of Crassus, Cursor, Maso, and Mugillanus ;■ and 
the plebeian Papirii into those of Carbo, Pcetus, 
and Turdus. Of these the families of Carbo, 
Cursor, Maso, and Mugillanus alone require 
mention. 

Papirian^: Fossae, a village in Etruria, on the 
Via iEmilia, between Luna and Pisa. 

Papirius, C. or Sex., the author of a supposed 
collection of the Leges Regis, which was called 
Jus Papirianum or Civile Papirianum. He is 
said to have lived in the reign of Tarquinius 
Superbus. 

Papius Mutilus. Vid. Mutilus. 

Pappua (Tlamvova), a lofty rugged mountain 
on the extreme border of Numidia, perhaps the 
same as the Thammes of Ptolemy, and as the 
mountain abounding with wild cats, near the 
city of Melitene, to which Diodorus Siculus 
refers (xx., 58), but without mentioning its 
name. 

Pappus (Tlumroc), of Alexandrea, one of the 
later Greek geometers, is said by Suidas to have 
lived under Theodosius (A.D. 379-395). Of the 
works of Pappus, the only one which has come 
down to us is his celebrated Mathematical Col- 
lections {Madrmaracuv ovvayuytiv ^tfi/li'a). This 
work, as we have it now in print, consists of 
the last six of eight books. Only portions of 
these books have been published in Greek. 
There are two Latin editions of Pappus : the 
first by Commandinus, Pisauri, 1588 ; and the 
second by Manolessius, Bononiae, 1660. 

Papremis (ndtrprifiie), a city of Lower Egypt, 
capital of the Nomos Papremites, and sacred to 
the Egyptian god whom the Greeks identified 
with Mars (Ares). It is only mentioned by He- 
rodotus, and is perhaps the same as the Choi's 
of later times. 

603 



PAPUS,^MILIUS. 

Papos, ^Emilius. 1. M., dictator B.C. 321.— 
2. Q., twice consul, 282 and 278, and censor 
275. In both his consulships and in his censor- 
ship he had as colleague C. Fabricius Luscinus. 
—3. L., consul 225, defeated the Cisalpine Gauls 
with great slaughter. He was censor 220 with 
C. Flaminius. 

Paracheloitis (IlapaxeXoiTis), the name of 
the plain in Acarnania and ^Etolia, near the 
mouth of the Achelous, and through which that 
river flows. 

Parachoathras (Tlapaxoddpac, rallapaxoddpa: 
now Mountains of Louristan), a part of the chain 
of mountains forming the eastern margin of the 
Tigris and Euphrates valley, was the boundary 
between Susiana and Media. The same name 
is given to an eastern branch of the chain, which 
formed the boundary between Parthia and the 
desert of Carmania. Strabo places it too far 
north. 

Par^etacene (TLapaiTannvf] : Tlapairanai, Tla- 
panaKnvoU Paratacae, Paraetaceni), the name of 
various mountainous regions in the Persian em- 
pire, is the Greek form of a Persian word, sig- 
nifying mountainous. 1. The best known of 
those districts was on the borders of Media and 
Persis, and was inhabited by a people of Median 
origin, who are mentioned several times by the 
historians of Alexander and his successors. — 
2. A district between the rivers Oxus and Jax- 
artes, on the borders of Bactria and Sogdiana. 
— 3. A district between Arachosia and Drangi- 
ana, also called Sacastana, from its inhabitants, 
the Scythian Sacas. 

Par^etonium or Ammonia (Tlapairoviov, % 'A/*- 
/Mv'ia : now El-Bareton or Marsa-Labeit), an im- 
portant city on the northern coast of Africa, be- 
longed to Marmarica in its widest sense, but 
politically to Egypt, namely, to the Nomos Libya : 
nence this city on the west and Pelusium on 
the east are called " cornuaiEgypti." It stood 
near the Promontory Artos or Pythis (now Ras- 
el-Hazeit), and was reckoned two hundred Ro- 
man miles west of Alexandrea, between seventy 
and eighty miles, or, according to Strabo, nine 
hundred stadia (all too small) east of the Cata- 
bathmos Major, and one thousand three hundred 
stadia north of Ammonium in the Desert (now 
Siwah), which Alexander the Great visited by 
the way of Paraetonium. The city was forty 
stadia in circuit. It was an important sea-port, 
a strong fortress, and a renowned seat of the 
worship of Isis. It was restored by Justinian, 
and continued a place of some consequence till 
its complete destruction by the late Pasha of 
Egypt, Mehemet Ali, in 1820. 

Paragon Sinus (Tlapdyuv koK-koc : now Gulf 
of Oman), a gulf of the Indicus Oceanus, on the 
coast of Gedrosia, namely, the gulf formed in the 
northwest of the Indian Ocean by the approach 
of the northeastern coast of Arabia to that of 
Beloocliistan and Persia, outside of the entrance 
to the Persian Gulf. 

ParalIa (TlapaXia), the sea-coast district of 
Attica, around the Promontory of Sunium, ex- 
tending upward as far as Halae Axonides on the 
western coast, and Prasiae on the eastern coast. 
The inhabitants of this district, the Paralii(n.apd- 
Xioi), were one of the three political parties into 
which Attica was divided at the time of Pisis- 
tratus, the other two being the Diacrii (Atd/rpjoi), 
604 




PARIS. 

or Highlanders, and the Pediasii (Tlcdtdaioi), oi 
inhabitants of the plain. 

Paralus (HtlpaXoc), the younger of the two 
legitimate sons of Pericles. He and his brother j 
Xanthippus were educated by their father with I 
(Shei greatest care, but they both appear to have 
been of inferior capacity, which was any thing | 
but compensated by worth of character, though ! 
Paralus seems to have been a somewhat more i 
hopeful youth than his brother. They both fell ! 
victims to the plague; B.C. 429. - 

Parapotamii or ia (TlapairoTdpioi, -a/iia : now 
Belissi), an ancient town in Phocis, situated on J 
a steep hill, and on the left bank of the River 
Gephisus, from which it derives its name. It 
was near the frontiers of Bceotia, being only 
forty stadia from Chaeronea, and sixty stadia 1 
from Orchomenus. It is probably mentioned by 1 
Homer(J7.,ii.,522). It was destroyed by Xerxes, 
but was rebuilt, and was destroyed a second time 
in the Sacred war. 

Parasopia (TlapaaoKta), a district in the south 
of Bceotia on both banks of the ^Esopus, the in- 
habitants of which were called Parasopti (Tiapa- 
o&iuoi). 

[Parasopias (Jlapaoumdc), a city ofThessaly, 
in the district QEtaea.] 
Parc^se. Vid. Moir.s:. 

Parentium (now Parenzo), a town in Istria, 
with a good harbor, inhabited by Roman citizens, 
but not a Roman colony, thirty-one miles from 1 
Pola. 

Paris (Jldpic), also called Alexander ('A^tf- 
avdpoc), was the second son of Priam and Hecu- 
ba. Before his birth Hecuba dreamed that she - I 
had brought forth a fire-brand, the flames of j 
which spread over the whole city. Accordingly, ' 
as soon as the child was born, he was given to 
a shepherd, who was to expose him on Mount 
Ida. After the lapse of five days, the shepherd, 
on returning to Mount Ida, found the child still 
alive, and fed by a she-bear. Thereupon he car- 
ried the boy home, and brought him up along ' 
with his own child, and called him Paris. When \ 
Paris had grown up, he distinguished himself j 
as a valiant defender of the flocks and shep- 
herds, and hence received the name of Alexan- 
der, i. e., the defender of men. He also suc- 
ceeded in discovering his real origin, and was 
received by Priam as his son. He now married j 
CEnone, the daughter of the river-god Gebren, 
by whom, according to some, he became the fa 1 
ther of Corythus. But the most celebrated 
event in the life of Paris was his abduction of 
Helen. This came to pass in the following way : j 
Once upon a time, when Peleus and Thetis sol- 
emnized their nuptials, all the gods were invited 
to the marriage, with the exception of Eris, 01 
Strife. Enraged at her exclusion, the goddess 
threw a golden apple among the guests, with 
the inscription, "To the fairest." Thereupon ! 
Juno (Hera), Venus (Aphrodite), and Minerva 
(Athena) each claimed the apple for herself. 
Jupiter (Zeus) ordered Mercury (Hermes) to j 
take the goddesses to Mount Gargarus, a portion 
of Ida, to the beautiful shepherd Paris, who was 
there tending his flocks, and who was to decide 
the dispute. The goddesses accordingly ap- ( 
peared before him. Juno (Hera) promised him 
the sovereignty of Asia and great riches, Mi 
nerva (Athena) great glory and renown in war 



PARIS. 



PARMENIDES. 



and Venus (Aphrodite) the fairest of women for 
his wife. Paris decided in favor of Venus 
(Aphredite), and gave her the golden apple. 
This judgment called forth in Juno (Hera) and 
Minerva (Athena) fierce hatred against Troy. 
Under the protection of Venus (Aphrodite), Paris 
now sailed to Greece, and was hospitably re- 
ceived in the palace of Menelaus at Sparta. 
Here he succeeded in carrying off Helen, the 
wife of Menelaus, who was the most beautiful 
woman in the world. The accounts of this rape 
are not the same in all writers. According to 
the more usual account, Helen followed her se- 
ducer willingly, owing to the influence of Ve- 
nus (Aphrodite), while Menelaus was absent in 
Crete. Others relate that the goddess deceived 
Helen by giving to Paris the appearance of 
Menelaus ; and others, again, say that Helen 
was carried off by Paris by force, either during 
a festival or during the chase. On his return 
to Troy, Paris passed through Egypt and Phoe- 
nicia, and at length arrived at Troy with Helen 
and the treasures which he had treacherously 
taken from the hospitable house of Menelaus. 
In regard to this voyage the accounts again dif- 
fer ; for, according to some, Paris and Helen 
reached Troy three days after their departure ; 
whereas, according to later traditions, Helen 
did not reach Troy at all, for Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Juno (Hera) allowed only a phantom resembling 
her to accompany Paris to Troy, while the real 
Helen was carried to Proteus in Egypt, and re- 
mained there until she was fetched by Mene- 
laus. The abduction of Helen gave rise to the 
Trojan war. Before her marriage with Mene- 
laus she had been wooed by the noblest chiefs 
in all parts of Greece. Her former suitors now 
resolved to revenge her abduction, and sailed 
against Troy. Vid. Agamemnon. Homer de- 
scribes Paris as a handsome man, fond of the 
female sex and of music, and not ignorant of 
war, but as dilatory and cowardly, and detested 
by his own friends for having brought upon them 
the fatal war with the Greeks. He fought with 
Menelaus before the walls of Troy, and was de- 
feated, but was carried offby Venus (Aphrodite). 
He is said to have killed Achilles, either by one 
of his arrows, or by treachery in the temple of 
the Thymbraean Apollo. Vid. Achilles. On 
the capture of Troy, Paris was wounded by 
Philoctetes with an arrow of Hercules, and then 
returned to his long-abandoned wife O3none. 
But she, remembering the wrongs she had suf- 
fered, or, according to others, being prevented 
by her father, refused to heal the wound. He 
then went back to Troy and died. QSnone 
quickly repented, and hastened after him with 
remedies, but came too late, and in her grief 
hung herself. According to others, she threw 
herself from a tower; or rushed into the flames 
of the funeral pile on which the body of Paris 
was burning. Paris is represented in works 
of art as a beautiful youth, without a beard, 
with a Phrygian cap, and sometimes with an 
apple in his hand, in the act of presenting it to 
Venus (Aphrodite). 

Paris, the name of two celebrated panto- 
mimes. 1. The elder Paris lived in the reign 
of the Emperor Nero, with whom he was a 
great favorite. He was originally a slave of 
Pomitia, the aunt of the emperor, and he pur- 



chased his freedom by paying hei a laige sum 
of money. Paris was afterward declared, by- 
order of the emperor, to have been free-born 
(ingenuus), and Domitia was compelled to re- 
store to him the sum which she had received 
for his freedom. When Nero attempted to be- 
come a pantomime, he put Paris to death as a 
dangerous rival. — 2. The younger Paris, . and 
the more celebrated of the two, was a native 
of Egypt, and lived in the reign of Domitian. 
with whom he was also a great favorite. He 
was put to death by Domitian because he had 
an intrigue with Domitia, the wife of the em< 
peror. 

Parish. Vid. Lutetia Parisiorum. 

Parium (to Tldptov : Uapiuvoc, Uaptnvoc, Tla- 
piavtvs : ruins at Kemer), a city of Mysia, on 
the northern coast of the Troad, on the Pro- 
pontis, between Lampsacus and Priapus, was 
founded by a colony from Miletus, mingled with 
natives of Paros and Erythras, and became a 
flourishing sea-port, having a better harbor than 
that of Priapus. Under Augustus it was made 
a Roman colony, by the name of Colonia Pari- 
ana Julia Augusta. It was a renowned seat 
of the worship of Cupid (Eros), Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus), and Apollo. The surrounding district 
was called j] llapiavrj. 

Parma (Parmensis : now Parma), a town in 
Gallia Cispadana, situated on a river of the 
same name and on the Via ^Emilia, between 
Placentia and Mutina, was originally a town of 
the Boii, but was made a Roman colony B.C 
183, along with Mutina, and from that time be- 
came a place of considerable importance. It 
suffered some injury in the civil war after Cae- 
sar's death, but was enlarged and embellished 
by Augustus, and received the name of Colonia 
Julia Augusta. After the fall of the "Western 
Empire it was for a time called Chrysopolis, or 
the " Gold-City." but for what reason we do 
not know. The country around Parma was 
originally marshy ; but the marshes were drain- 
ed by the consul Scaurus, and converted into 
fertile land. The wool of Parma was particu- 
larly good. 

Parmenides (Jlapfievldrjc), a distinguished 
Greek philosopher, was a native of Elea in Italy. 
According to Plato, Parmenides, at the age of 
sixty-five, came to Athens to the Panathenaea, 
accompanied by Zeno, then forty years old, and 
became acquainted with Socrates, who at that 
time was quite young. Supposing Socrates to 
have been nineteen or twenty years of age at 
the time, we may place the visit of Parmenides 
to Athens in B.C. 448, and consequently his 
birth in 513. Parmenides was regarded with 
great esteem by Plato and Aristotle ; and his 
fellow-citizens thought so highly of him, that 
every year they bound their magistrates to ren- 
der obedience to the laws which he had enact- 
ed for them. The philosophical opinions of 
Parmenides were developed in a didactic poem, 
in hexameter verse, entitled On Nature, of 
which only fragments remain. In this poem he 
maintained that the phenomena of sense were 
delusive, and that it was only by mental ab- 
straction that a person could attain to the knowl- 
edge of the only reality, a One and All, a con- 
tinuous and self-existent substance, which could 
not be perceived by the senses. But although 

605 



PARMENION. 



PAROPAMISAD^E. 



he believed the phenomena of sense to be de- 
lusive, nevertheless he adopted two elements, 
Warm and Cold, or Light and Darkness. The 
best edition of the fragments of Parmenides is 
by Karsten, in Philosophorum Grate. Veterum 
Opcr. RcliquicE, Amstelod., 1835. 

Parmenion (Uap/icviuv). 1. Son of Philotas, 
a distinguished Macedonian general in the serv- 
ice of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the 
Great. Philip held him in high esteem, and 
used to say of him that he had never been able 
to find more than one general, and that was 
Parmenion. In Alexander's invasion of Asia, 
Parmenion was regarded as second in command. 
At the three great battles of the Granicus, Issus, 
and Arbela, while the king commanded the right 
wing of the army, Parmenion was placed at the 
head of the left, and contributed essentially to 
the victory on all those memorable occasions. 
The confidence reposed in him by Alexander 
appears to have been unbounded, and he is con- 
tinually spoken of as the most attached of the 
king's friends, and as holding, beyond all ques- 
tion, the second place in the state. But when 
Philotas, the only surviving son of Parmenion, 
was accused in Drangiana (B.C. 330) of being 
privy to the plot against the king's life, he not 
only confessed his own guilt when put to the 
torture, but involved his father also in the plot. 
Whether the king really believed in the guilt 
of Parmenion, or deemed his life a necessary 
sacrifice to policy after the execution of his son, 
he caused his aged friend to be assassinated in 
Media before he could receive the tidings of his 
son's death. The death of Parmenion, at the 
age of seventy years, will ever remain one of 
the darkest stains upon the character of Alex- 
ander. It is questionable whether even Philo- 
tas was really concerned in the conspiracy, and 
we may safely pronounce that Parmenion had 
no connection with it. — 2. Of Macedonia, an 
epigrammatic poet, whose verses were included 
in the collection of Philip of Thessalonica, 
whence it is probable that he flourished in, or 
shortly before, the time of Augustus. 

[Parmeniscus (TlapftevioKoc), a grammarian 
and commentator, of whose writings a few frag- 
ments remain.] 

[Parmenon (Uapfievuv), of Byzantium, a cho- 
liambic poet, a few of whose verses are pre- 
served in Athenaeus and the scholiasts : these 
fragments are collected by Meineke, Choliambica 
Poesis Grcecorum, Berol., 1845.] 

[Parmys (Ilup/tuf), daughter of Smerdis, the 
son of Cyrus. She became the wife of Darius 
Hystaspis, and was the mother of Ariomardos.] 

Parnassus (Hapvaaaoc, Tlapvaaos, Ion. ITap- 
vna6(), the name, in its widest signification, of 
a range of mountains, which extends from (Eta 
and Corax southeast through Doris and Phocis, 
and under the name of Cirphis (Kip<pi^) term- 
inates it the Corinthian Gulf between Cirrha 
and Anticyra. But in its narrower sense, Par- 
nassus indicates the highest part of the range a 
few miles north of Delphi. Its two highest 
summits were called Tithorea (Ttdopia : now 
Velitza), and Lycorea (Aviiupeta : now Liakura), 
the former being northwest and the latter north- 
east of Delphi ; and hence Parnassus is fre- 
quently described by the poets as double-headed. 
Immediately above Delphi the mountain forms 
606 



a semicircular range of lofty rocks, at the foot 
of which the town was built. These rocks 
were called Phcedriades ($aifipui<5ec), or the " Re- 
splendent," from their facing the south, and 
thus receiving the full rays of the sun during 
the most brilliant part of the day. The sides 
of Parnassus were well wooded : at its foot 
grew myrtle, laurel, and olive-trees, and higher 
up, firs ; and its summit was covered with snow 
during the greater part of the year. It con- • 
tained numerous caves, glens, and romantic 
ravines. It is celebrated as one of the chief 
seats of Apollo and the Muses, and an inspiring 
source of poetry and song. On Mount Lycorea 
was the Corycian cave, from which the Muses 
are sometimes called the Corycian nymphs 
Just above Delphi was the far-famed Castalian 
spring, which issued from between two cliffs, 
called Nauplia and Hyamplia. These cliffs are 
frequently called by the poets the summits of 
Parnassus, though they are in reality only smal? 
peaks at the base of the mountain. The mount- 
ain also was sacred to Bacchus (Dionysus), and 
on one of its summits the Thyades held their 
Bacchic revels. Between Parnassus Proper 
and Mount Cirphis was the valley of the Plis- 
tus, through which the sacred road ran from 
Delphi to Daulis and Sti/is ; and at the point 
where the road branched off to these two places 
(called axtarrj), CEdipus slew his father Laius. 
^2. A town in the north of Cappadocia, on a 
mountain of the same name (now Pas cha Dagh), 
probably on the River Halys, and on the road 
between Ancyra and Archelais. 

Parnes (Jldpvrjc, gen. Hapvndog : now Ozia 
or Nozia), a mountain in the northeast of At- 
tica, in some parts as high as four thousand 
feet, was a continuation of Mount Cithasron, 
from which it extended eastward as far as the 
coast atRhamnus. It was well wooded, abound- | 
ed in game, and on its lower slopes produced 
excellent wine. It formed part of the bound- 
ary between Breotia and Attica ; and the pass 
through it between these two countries was 
easy of access, and was therefore strongly for- 
tified by the Athenians. On the summit of the 
mountain there was a statue of Jupiter (Zeus) 
Parnethius, and there were likewise altars of 
Jupiter (Zeus) Semaleos and Jupiter(Zeus) Om- 
brius or Apemius. 

Parnon {Hdpvuv : now Malevo), a mountain 
six thousand three hundred and thirty-five feet 
high, forming the boundary between Laconia 
and the territory of Tegea in Arcadia. 

ParopamisaDjE (Hapoira/jiaudai) or Parop..- 
misii, the collective name of several commu- 
nities dwelling in the southern slopes of Mount 
Paropamisus {vid. next article), and of the coun- 
try they inhabited, which was not known by 
any other name. It was divided on the north 
from Bactria by the Paropamisus ; on the west 
from Aria, and on the south from Drangiana 
and Arachosia, by indefinite boundaries ; and 
on the east from India by the River Indus, 
thus corresponding to the eastern part of Af- 
ghanistan and the strip of the Punjab west of 
the Indus. Under the Persian empire it was 
the northeasternmost district of Ariana. It 
was conquered by Alexander when he passed 
through it on his march to India ; but the peo- 
ple soon regained their independence, though 



PAROPAMISUS. 



PARRHASIUS. 



parts of the country were nominally included 
in the limits of the Greco-Syrian and Bactrian 
kingdoms. It is a rugged mountain region, in- 
tersected by branches of the Paropamisus. In 
the north the climate is so severe that, ac- 
cording to the ancient writers, confirmed by 
modern travellers, the snow almost buries the 
houses ; but in the south the valleys of the low- 
er mountain slopes yield all the products of the 
warmer 1 regions of Asia. In its north was the 
considerable river Cophes or Cophen (now Ca- 
hoot), flowing into the Indus, and having a trib- 
utary, Choas, Choes, or Choaspes (No. 2). The 
particular tribes, included under the general 

! name of Paropamisadae, were the Cabolltas (Ka- 
6o\lTai) in the north, whose name and position 
point to Cabool, the Parsii (TLapaio'i) in the south- 
west, the Ambautas (A^fiaOrat) in the east, on 
the River Choas, the Parsuetae {Xlapavfirai) on 
the south, and the 1 ' Apiaro^vXoi, probably a dom- 
inant tribe of a different race, on the west. At 
\oe time of the Macedonian conquest the people 
were little civilized, but quiet and inoffensive. 
The chief cities were Ortospana and Alexan- 
drea, the latter founded by Alexander the Great. 

Paropamisus {HapoirdjiLaoc, and several other 
forms, of which the truest is probably Hapo-nd- 
vlooc : now Hindoo-Koosh), a word no doubt de- 

| rived, as many other words beginning like it, 
from the Old Persian paru, a mountain, is the 
name of a part of the great mountain-chain 
which runs from west to east through the cen- 
tre of the southern portion of the highlands of 
Central Asia, and divides the part of the con- 
tinent, which slopes down to the Indian Ocean, 
from the great central table-land of Tartary and 

| TMbet. It is a prolongation of the chain of 
Ana-Taurus. The name was applied to that 

! part of the chain between the Sariphi Mount- 
ains (now Mountains of Kohistan) on the west 
and Mount Imaus (now Himalaya) on the east, 
or from about the sources of the River Margus 
on the west to the point where the Indus breaks 
through the chain on the east. They were be- 
lieved by the ancients to be among the highest 
mountains in the world (which they are), and to 
contain the sources of the Oxus and the Indus ; 
the last statement being an error which natu- 
rally arose from confounding the cleft by which 
the Indus breaks through the chain with its un- 
known source. When Alexander the Great 
crossed these mountains, his followers — regard- 
ing the achievement as equivalent to what a 
Greek considered as the highest geographical 
adventure, namely, the passage of the Caucasus 
— conferred this glory on their chief by simply 
applying the name of Caucasus to the mountain 
chain which he had thus passed ; and then, for 
the sake of distinction, this chain was called 

j Caucasus Indicus, ard this name lias come 
down to our times in the native form of Hindoo- 
Koosh, and in others also. The name Paro- 

! pamisus is also applied sometimes to the great 

j southern branch of this chain (now Soliman 

I Mountains) which skirts the valley of the Indus 
on the west, and which is more specifically call- 
ed Paryeti or Parsyet^e. 

Paropus (Paropinus), a small town in the in- 
ferior of Sicily, north of the Nebrodes Montes. 

Parorea (ilapupeia). 1. A town in Thrace, 
on the frontiers of Macedonia, whose inhabit- 



ants were the same people as the Paroraei of 
Pliny. — 2. Or Paroria (Uapupla), a town in the 
south of Arcadia, north of Megalopolis, said to 
have been founded by Paroreus, son of Tri- 
colonus, and a grandson of Lycaon, the inhabit- 
ants of which took part in the building of Me- 
galopolis. ♦ 

Paroreat^ss (HapupeuTai), the most ancient 
inhabitants of the mountains in Triphylia in Elis, 
who were expelled by the Minyaj. 

Parorios. Vid. Phrygia. 

Paros (Ildpoc: Tldpiog : now Par o), an island 
in the ^Egean Sea, one of the larger of the Cyc- 
lades, was situated south of Delos and west of 
Naxos, being separated from the latter by a 
channel five or six miles wide. It is about 
thirty-six miles in circumference. It is said to 
have been originally colonized by Cretans, but 
was afterward inhabited by Ionians, and be- 
came so prosperous, even at an early period, as 
to send out colonies to Thasos and to Parium 
on the Propontis. In the first invasion of Greece 
by the generals of Darius, Paros submitted to 
the Persians ; and after the battle of Marathon, 
Miltiades attempted to reduce the island, but 
failed in his attempt, and received a wound, of 
which he died. Vid. Miltiades. After the de- 
feat of Xerxes, Paros came under the supremacy 
of Athens, and shared the fate of the other Cyc- 
lades. Its name rarely occurs in subsequent 
history. The most celebrated production of 
.Paros was its marble, which was extensively 
used by the ancient sculptors. It was chiefly 
obtained from a mountain called Marpessa. The 
Parian figs were also highly prized. The chief 
town of Paros was situated on the western coast, 
and bore the same name as the island. The 
ruins of it are still to be seen at the modern 
Paroikia. Paros was the birth-place of the poet 
Archilochus. In Paros was discovered the cele- 
brated inscription called the Parian Chronicle, 
which is now preserved at Oxford. The in- 
scription is cut on a block of marble, and in its 
perfect state contained a chronological account 
of the principal events in Greek history from 
Cecrops, B.C. 1582, to the archonship of Dio- 
gnetus, 264. [This inscription, so far as it is 
preserved, was reprinted in Chandler's Marmora 
Oxoniensia, Oxford, 1763, fol. ; by Boeckh in his 
Corpus Inscriptionum Gracarurn, vol. ii., p. 293, 
sqq. ; and by Miiller in Fragm. Hist. Grac, vol. 
i., p. 533-590.] 

Parrhasia (Tlappaala : Ilap/idot.oi), a district 
in the south of Arcadia, to which, according to 
Pausanias, the towns Lyeosura, Thocnia, Tra- 
pezus, Proseis, Acacesium, Acontium, Macaria, 
and Dasea belonged. The Parrhasii are said tu 
have been one of the most ancient of the Arca- 
dian tribes. At the time of the Peloponnesian 
war they were under the supremacy of Manti- 
nea, but were rendered independent of that city 
by the Lacedaemonians. Homer (II., ii., 608) 
mentions a town Parrhasia, said to have been 
founded by Parrhasus, son of Lycaon, or by Pe- 
lasgus, son of Arestor. The adjective Parrhasius 
is frequently used by the poets as equivalent to 
Arcadian. 

Parrhasius (Tlappdatoc), one of the most cele- 
brated Greek painters, was a native ofEphesus, 
the son and pupil of Evenor. He practiced his 
art chiefly at Athens, and by some writers he is> 

607 



PARISH. 



PARTHENON. 



called an Athenian, probably because the Athe- 
nians had bestowed upon him the right of citi- 
zenship. He flourished about B.C. 400. Par- 
rhasius did for painting, at least in pictures of 
gods and heroes, what had been done for sculp- 
ture by Phidias in divine subjects, and by Poly- 
cletus in the human figure : he#established a 
canon of proportion, which was followed by all 
the artists that came after him. Several inter- 
esting observations on the principles of art 
which he followed are made in a dialogue with 
Socrates, as reported by Xenophon (Mem., iii., 
10). The character of Parrhasius was marked 
n the highest degree by that arrogance which 
often accompanies the consciousness of pre- 
eminent ability. In epigrams inscribed on his 
works he not only made a boast of his luxuri- 
ous habits, but he also claimed the honor of hav- 
ing assigned with his own hand the precise lim- 
its of the art, and fixed a boundary which never 
was to be transgressed. Respecting the story 
of his contest with Zeuxis, vid. Zeuxis. Of the 
works of Parrhasius, the most celebrated seems 
to have been his picture of the Athenian People. 

Parsii. Vid. Pakopamisad-s:. 

Paesici Montes (tu. Haptjucu opn, now Bush- 
kurd Mountains in the west of Beloochistan), a 
chain of mountains running northeast from the 
Paragon Sinus (now Gulf of Oman), and forming 
the boundary between Carmania and Gedrosia. 
At the foot of these mountains, in the west of 
Gedrosia, were a people called Paksid^e, with a. 
capital Paesis (now perhaps Serbah). 

Parsyetve (Uapavrjrat), a people on the bor- 
ders of Arachosia and the Paropamisadse, with 
a mountain of the same name, which is proba- 
bly identical with the Parveti Montes and with 
the Soliman Mountains. 

Parthalis, the chief city of the Calingae, a 
Iribe of the Gangarida;, in India intra Gangem, 
at the head of the Sinus Gangeticus (now Sea 
of Bengal). 

[Paethaon. Vid. Poethaon.] 

Partheni. Vid. Paethini. 

ParthenTas (Uapdeviac), also called Parthe- 
nia, a small river in Elis, which flows into the 
Alpheus east of Olympia, not far from Harpinna. 

Parthenium (Uapdevwv). 1. A town inMysia, 
south of Pergamum. — 2. (Now Felenk-burun), a 
promontory in the Chersonesus Taurica, on 
which stood a temple of the Tauric Diana (Ar- 
temis), from whom it derived its name. It was 
in this temple that human sacrifices were of- 
fered to the goddess. 

PaethenIum Mare (to Hapdeviicdv TriXayoc), 
the southeastern part of the Mediterranean,'be- 
tween Egypt and Cyprus. 

Paetheni us [Hapdivioc), of Nicaaa, or, accord- 
ing to others, of Myrlea, a celebrated gramma- 
rian, is said by Suidas to have been taken pris- 
oner by Cinna in the Mithradatic war, to have 
been manumitted on account of his learning, 
and to have lived to the reign of Tiberius. If 
this statement is true, Parthenius must have 
attained a great age, since there were seventy- 
seven years from the death of Mithradates to 
the accession of Tiberius. Parthenius taught 
Virgil Greek, and he seems to have been very 
popular among the distinguished Romans of 
his time. The Emperor Tiberius imitated his 
poems, and placed his works and statues in the 
608 



public libraries along with the most celebrated 
ancient writers. Parthenius wrote many poems, 
but the only one of his works which has come 
down to us is in prose, and entitled Hepi epari- 
kuv iradrfjiaTuv. It contains thirty-six brief 
love-stories, which ended in an unfortunate 
manner. It is dedicated to Cornelius Gallus, 
and was compiled for his use,' that he might 
avail himself of the materials in the composi- 
tion of epic and elegiac poems. The best edi- 
tion is by Westermann, in the Mythographi Gra- 
ci, Brunswick, 1843. 

Parthenius [Xlapdevioc). 1. A mountain on 
the frontiers of Argolis and Arcadia, through 
which was an important pass leading from Ar- 
golis to Tegea. This pass is still called Partheni, 
but the mountain itself, which rises to the height 
of three thousand nine hundred and ninety-three 
feet, bears the name of Roino. It was on this 
mountain that Telephus, the son of Hercules 
and Auge, was said to have been suckled by a 
hind ; and it was here, also, that the god Pan is 
said to have appeared to Phidippides, the Athe- 
nian courier, shortly before the battle of Mara- 
thon. — 2. ( Also Tlapdcvnc : now Chati-Su or Bar- 
tan-Su), the chief river of Paphlagonia, rises in 
Mount Olgassys, and flows northwest into the 
Euxine ninety stadia west of Amastris, forming 
in the lower part of its course the boundary be- 
tween Bithynia and Paphlagonia. 

Parthenon (6 Hapdevuv, i. e., the virgin's 
chamber), was the usual name of one of the 
finest, and, in its influence upon art, one of the 
most important edifices ever built, the temple 
of Minerva (Athena) Parthenos on the Acropolis 
,of Athens. It was also called Hecatompedon 
^'EinaTOjiiredov) or Hecatompedos ('EKaTOfiiredoc, 
sc. veuc), from its being one hundred feet in one 
of its chief dimensions, probably in the breadth 
of the top step on which the front pillars stand . 
It was erected, under the administration of 
Pericles, on the site of the older temple of Mi- 
nerva (Athena), burned during the Persian in- 
vasion, and was completed by the dedication of 
the statue of the goddess, B.C. 438. Its archi- 
tects were Ictinus and Callicrates, but all the 
works were under the superintendence of Phidi- 
as. It was built entirely of Pentelic marble , 
its dimensions were two hundred and twenty- 
seven English feet long, one hundred and one 
broad, and sixty-five high ; it was fifty feet longer 
than the edifice which preceded it. Its archi- 
tecture was of the Doric order, and of the purest 
kind. It consisted of an oblong central build- 
ing (the cella or ve6c), surrounded on all sides 
by a peristyle of pillars, forty-six in number, 
eight at each end and seventeen at each side 
(reckoning the corner pillars twice), elevated on 
a platform, which was ascended by three steps 
all round the building. Within the porticoes, at 
each end, was another row of six pillars, stand- j 
ing on a level with the floor of the cclla, and two 
steps higher than that of the peristyle. The 
cella was divided into two chambers of unequal 
size, the prodomus or pronaos (npofiouoc, -rrpovaos), , 
and the opisthodomus (bntadodojioc) or posticum ; 
the former, which was the larger, contained the 
statue of the goddess, and was the true.sanctu- 
ary, the latter being probably used as a treasury 
and vestry. Both these chambers had inner 
rows of pillars (in two stories, one over the oth- 



PARTHENOPiEUS. 



PARTHIA. 



er), sixteen in the former and four in the latter, 
supporting the partial roof, for the large cham- 
ber, at least, had its centre open to the sky. 
Technically, the temple is called peripteral octa- 
slylc hypathral. It was adorned, within and 
without, with colors and gilding, and with sculp- 
tures which are regarded as the master-pieces 
of ancient art. The colossal chryselephantine 
(ivory and gold) statue of Minerva (Athena), 
which stood at the end of the prodomus, opposite 
to the entrance, was the work of Phidias him- 
self, and surpassed every other statue in the 
ancient world, except that of Jupiter (Zeus) at 
Olympia by the same artist. The other sculp- 
tures were executed under the direction of 
Phidias by different artists, as may still be seen 
by differences in their style ; but the most im- 
portant of them were doubtless from the hand 
of Phidias himself : (1.) The tympana of the pedi- 
ments (i. e., the inner flat portion of the triangu- 
lar gable-ends of the roof above the two end 
porticoes) were filled with groups of detached 
colossal statues, those of the eastern or prin- 
cipal front representing the birth of Minerva 
(Athena), and those of the western front the 
contest between Minerva (Athena) and Neptune 
(Poseidon) for the land of Attica. (2.) In the 
frieze of the entablature (i. e., the upper of the 
two portions into which the surface between 
the columns and the roof is divided), the me- 
topes betioeen the triglyphs (i. e., the square spaces 
between the projections answering to the ends 
of beams if the roof had been of wood) were 
filled with sculptures in high relief, ninety-two 
in all, fourteen on each front, and thirty-two on 
each side, representing subjects from the Attic 
mythology, among which the battle of the Athe- 
nians with the Centaurs forms the subject of 
the fifteen metopes from the southern side, which 
are now in the British Museum. (3. ) Along the 
top of the external wall of the cella, under the 
ceiling of the peristyle, ran a frieze, sculptured 
with a representation of the Panathenaic pro- 
cession in very low relief. A large number of 
the slabs of this frieze were brought to England 
by Lord Elgin, with the fifteen metopes just men- 
tioned, and a considerable number of other frag- 
ments, including some of the most important, 
though mutilated, statues from the pediments ; 
and the whole collection was purchased by the 
nation in 1816, and deposited in the British Mu- 
seum, where may also be seen excellent models 
of the ruins of the Parthenon,- and of the temple 
as conjecturally restored. The worst of the in- 
juries which it has suffered from war and pillage 
was inflicted in the siege of Athens by theVene- 
tians in 1687, when a bomb exploded in the very 
centre of the Parthenon, and threw down much 
of both the side walls. Its ruins are still, 
however, in sufficient preservation to give a 
good idea of the construction of all its principal 
parts. • 

Parthenop^eos (Tlapdevonaioc), one of the 
seven heroes who accompanied Adrastus in his 
expedition against Thebes. He is sometimes 
called a son of Mars (Ares) or Milanion and Ata- 
lanta, sometimes of Meleager and Atalanta, and 
sometimes of Talaus and Lysimache. His son, 
by the nymph Clymene, who marched against 
Thebes as one of the Epigoni, is called Proma- 
chus, Stratolaus, Thesimenes, or Tlesimenes. 
39 



Parthenopaeus was killed at Thebes by Asphodi- 
cus, Amphidicus, or Periclymenus. 

[Parthenope (HapOevonn), one of the Sirens 
who is said to have given its early and poetir 
name to Neapolis. Vid. Neapoi.is.] 

Parthenopolis (Tlapdevonolig), a town in 
Mcesia Inferior, near the Pontus Euxinus, and- 
between Oalatis and Torai. 

Parthia, Parthy^sa, Parthiene (Ylapdia, 
TlapPvaia, TlapOvrjvrj : IldpOoc, Tlapdvaloi, Parthi, 
Parthieni: now Khorassan), a country of Asia, 
to the southeast of the Caspian. Its extent was 
different at different times; but, as the term was 
generally understood by the ancient geogra- 
phers, it denoted the partly mountainous and 
partly desert country on the south of the mount- 
ains which hem in the Caspian on the southeast 
(Mons Labuta), and which divided Parthia on the 
north from Hyrcania. On the northeast and 
east, a branch of the same chain, called Masdo- 
ranus, divided it from Aria; on the south the 
deserts of Parthia joined those ofCarmania, and 
further westward the Mons Parachoathras di- 
vided Parthia from Persis and Susiana ; on the 
west and northwest it was divided from Media 
by boundaries which can not be exactly marked 
out. Of this district only the northern part, in 
and below the mountains of Hyrcania, seems to 
have formed the proper country of the Parthi, 
who were a people of Scythian origin. The an- 
cient writers tell us that the name means exiles; 
but this is uncertain. They were a very warlike 
people, and- especially celebrated as horse-arch- 
ers. Their tactics, of which the Romans had 
fatal experience in their first wars with them, 
became so celebrated as to pass into a proverb. 
Their mail-clad horsemen spread like a cloud 
round the hostile army, and poured in a shower 
of darts ; and then evaded any closer conflict 
by a rapid flight, during which they still shot 
their arrow backward upon the enemy. Under 
the Persian empire, the Parthians, with the 
Chorasmii, Sogdii, and Arii, formed the six- 
teenth satrapy : under Alexander and the Greek 
kings of Syria, Parthia and Hyrcania together 
formed a satrapy. About B.C. 250 they revolt- 
ed from the Seleucidae, under a chieftain named 
Arsaces, who founded an independent mon- 
archy, the history of which is given under Ar- 
saces. During the period of the downfall of 
the Syrian kingdom, the Parthians overran the 
provinces east of the Euphrates, and about B.C. 
130 they overthrew the kingdom of Bactria, so 
that their empire extended over Asia from the 
Euphrates to the Indus, and from the Indian 
Ocean to the Paropamisus, or even to the Qxus ; 
but on this northern frontier they had to main- 
tain a continual conflict with the nomad tribes 
of Central Asia. On the west their progress 
was checked by Mithradates and Tigranes, till 
those kings fell successively before the Ro- 
mans, who were thus brought into collision 
with the Parthians. After the memorable de- 
struction of Crassusand his army, B.C. 53 (vid. 
Crassus), the Parthians threatened Syria and 
Asia Minor ; but their progress was stopped by 
two signal defeats, which they suffered from 
Antony's legate Ventidius in 39 and 38. The 
preparations for renewing the war with Rome 
were rendered fruitless by the contest for the 
Parthian throne between Phraates IV. and Tir- 

609 



PARTHIN1. 



PASION. 



tdates, which led to an appeal to Augustus, and 
to the restoration of the standards of Crassus, 
B.C. 20 ; an event to which the Roman poets 
often allude in terms of flattery to Augustus, 
almost as if he had conquered the Parthian em- 
pire. It is to be observed that the poets of the 
•Augustan age use the names Parthi, Persae, and 
Medi indifferently. The Parthian empire had 
now begun to decline, owing to civil contests 
and the defection of the governors of provinces, 
and had ceased to be formidable to the Romans. 
There were, however, continual disputes be- 
tween the two empires for the protectorate of 
the kingdom of Armenia. In consequence of 
one of these disputes, Trajan invaded the Par- 
thian empire, and obtained possession for a short 
time of Mesopotamia ; but his conquests were 
surrendered under Hadrian, and the Euphrates 
again became the boundary of the two empires. 
There were other wars at later periods, which 
resulted in favor of the Romans, who took Se- 
leucia and Ctesiphon, and made the district of 
Osrogne a Roman province. The exhaustion 
which was the effect of these wars at length 
gave the Persians the opportunity of throwing 
off the Parthian yoke. Led by Artaxerxes ( Ard- 
shir), they put an end to the Parthian kingdom 
of the Arsacidae, after it had lasted four hund- 
red and seventy-six years, and established the 
Persian dynasty of the Sassanidse, A.D. 226. 
Vid. Arsaces, Sassanidse. 

ParthIni or Partheni (liapdivoc, Hapdtjvoi), 
an Illyrian people, in the neighborhood of Dyr- 
rlrachium. 

Parthiscus or Parthissus, a river in Dacia, 
probably the same as the Tibiscus. Vid. Tibis- 
cus. 

Paryadres (Ylapvadprjc : now Kara-bel Dagh, 
or Kut-Tagh), a mountain chain of Western 
Asia, running southwest and northeast from the 
east of Asia Minor into the centre of Armenia, 
and forming the chief connecting link between 
the Taurus and the mountains of Armenia. It 
was considered as the boundary between Cap- 
padocia (i. e., Pontus Cappadocius) and Arme- 
nia (i. e., Armenia Minor). In a wide sense the 
name seems sometimes to extend so far north- 
east as to include Mount Abus (now Ararat) in 
Armenia. 

Paryeti Montes (ra liapvnroiv opn, from the 
Indian word paruta, i. e., a mountain: now Soli- 
man Mount), the great mountain chain which 
runs north and south on the western side of the 
valley of the Indus, and forms the connecting 
link between the mountains which skirt the 
northern coast of the Persian Gulf and the In- 
dian Ocean, and the parallel chain, further north, 
called the Paropamisus or Indian Caucasus ; or, 
between the eastern extensions of the Taurus 
and Anti-Taurus systems, in the widest sense. 
This chain formed the boundary between Ara- 
chosia and the Paropamisadae : it now divides 
Beloochislan and Afghanistan on the west from 
Scinde and the Punjab on the east, and it meets 
the Hindoo-Koosh in the northeastern corner of 
Afghanistan, between Cabool and Peshawur. Its 
ancient inhabitants were called Paryeta (ITa- 
pvrjrai) ; and the name Paruta is found in old 
Persian inscriptions and in the Zendavesta (the 
old Persian sacred book) as that of a people. 

Parysatis (Tlapvoanc or TLapvoaTic), daughter 
610 



of Artaxerxes L Longimanus, king of Persia, 
was given by her father in marriage to her own 
brother Darius, surnamed Ochus, who in B.C. 
424 succeeded Xerxes II. on the throne of Per- 
sia. The feeble character of Darius threw the 
chief power into the hands of Parysatis, whose 
administration was little else than a series of 
murders. Four of her sons grew up to man 
hood. The eldest of these, Artaxerxes Mne- 
mon, was born before Darius had obtained the 
sovereign power, and on this pretext Parysatis 
sought to set aside his claims to the throne in 
favor of her second son Cyrus. Failing in this 
attempt, she nevertheless interposed after the 
death of Darius, 405, to prevent Artaxerxes 
from putting Cyrus to death, and prevailed 
with the king to allow him to return to his sat- 
rapy in Asia Minor. After the death of Cyru3 
at the battle of Cunaxa (401), she did not hesi- 
tate to display her grief for the death of her 
favorite son by bestowing funeral honors on his 
mutilated remains ; and she subsequently suc- 
ceeded in getting into her power all the authors 
of the death of Cyrus, whom she put to death 
by the most cruel tortures. She afterward 
poisoned Statira, the wife of Artaxerxes. The 
feeble and indolent king was content to banish 
her to Babylon ; and it was not long before he 
recalled her to his court, where she soon re- 
covered all her former influence. Of this she 
availed herself to turn his suspicions against 
Tissaphernes, whom she had long hated as hav- 
ing been the first to discover the designs of 
Cyrus to his brother, and who was now put to 
death by Artaxerxes at her instigation, 396. 
She appears to have died soon afterward. 

Pasargada or -m (Ylaoapydda, Haoapyddat), 
the older of the two capitals of Persis (the other 
and later being Persepolis), is said to have been 
founded by Cyrus the Great on the spot where 
he gained his great victory over Astyages. The 
tomb of Cyrus stood here in the midst of a beau- 
tiful park. The exact site is doubtful. Strabo 
describes it as lying in the hollow part of Per- 
sis, on the River Cyrus, southeast of Persepo- 
lis, and near the borders of Carmania. Most 
modern geographers identify it with Murghab, 
northeast of Persepolis, where there are the 
remains of a great sepulchral monument of the 
ancient Persians. Others place it at Farsa or 
at Darab-gherd, both southeast of Persepolis, 
but not answering Strabo's description in other 
respects so well as Murghab. Others identify 
it with Persepolis, which is almost certainly an 
error. 

Pasargada (Uaoapyadai), the most noble of 
the three chief tribes of the ancient Persians 
the other two being the Maraphii and Maspii 
The royal house of the Achagmenidae were of 
the race of the Pasargadae. They had their resi- 
dence chiefly in and about the city of Pasargada. 

[Passas (ttaoiac), father of the Sicyonian ty- 
rant Abantidas ; after the death of his son he 
made himself tyrant, but was soon after slain 
by Nicocles.] 

Pasias, a Greek painter, belonged to the Sic- 
yonian school, and flourished about B.C. 220. 

Pasion (Uaaiuv). [1. A Megarian, in the 
service of Cyrus the younger when he besieged 
Miletus : he afterward joined him with seven 
hundred men at Sardis in his expedition against 



PASIPHAE. 



PATERCULUS, C. VELLEIUS. 



his brother Artaxerxes. Having taken offence 
at Cyrus's allowing Olearchus to retain the sol- 
diers who had deserted from him at Tarsus, 
Pasion himself abandoned the cause of Cyrus, 
and sailed away from Myriandrus for Greece 
with his most valuable effects. He was not 
pursued, and Cyrus did not even detain his wife 
and children, who were in his power at Tralles.] 
— 2. A wealthy banker at Athens, was origin- 
ally a slave of Antisthenes and Archestratus, 
who were also bankers. In their service he 
displayed great fidelity as well as aptitude for 
business, and was manumitted as a reward. He 
afterward set up a banking concern on his own 
account, by which, together with a shield man- 
ufactory, he greatly enriched himself, while he 
continued all along to preserve his old character 
for integrity, and his credit stood high through- 
out Greece. He did not, however, escape an 
accusation of fraudulently keeping back some 
money which had been intrusted to him by a 
foreigner from the Euxine. The plaintiff's case 
is stated in an oration of Isocrates (rpa-n-eStriKOf ), 
still extant. Pasion did good service to Athens 
with his money on several occasions. He was 
rewarded with the freedom of the city, and was 
enrolled in the demus of Acharnae. He died at 
Athens in B.C. 370, after a lingering illness, 
accompanied with failure of sight. Toward the 
end of his life his affairs were administered to 
a great extent by his freedman Phormion, to 
whom he let his banking shop and shield manu- 
factory, and settled in his will that he should 
marry his widow Archippe, with a handsome 
dowry, and undertake the guardianship of his 
younger son Pasicles. His elder son, Apollo- 
dorus, grievously diminished his patrimony by 
extravagance and law-suits. 

Pasiphae {U.aat$ari), daughter of Helios (the 
Sun) and Perseis, and a sister of Circe and 
.■Eetes, was the wife of Minos, by whom she 
became the mother of Androgeos, Catreus, Deu- 
calion, Glaucus, Acalle, Xenodice, Ariadne, and 
Phasdra. Hence Phaedra is called Pasiphaaia, 
(Ov., Met., xv., 500). Respecting the passion 
of Pasiphae for the beautiful bull, and the birth 
of the Minotaurus, vid. p. 517, b. 

Pasiteles (ITa(TtreAj7f). 1. A statuary, who 
flourished about B.C. 468, and was the teacher 
of Colotes, the contemporary of Phidias. — 2. A 
statuary, sculptor, and silver-chaser, of the high- 
est distinction, was a native of Magna Graecia, 
and obtained the Roman franchise with his 
countrymen in B.C. 90. He flourished at Rome 
from about 60 to 30. Pasiteles also wrote a 
treatise in five books upon celebrated works of 
sculpture and chasing. 

Pasithea (Ylaaidea). 1. One of the Charites, 
or Graces, also called Aglaia. — 2. One of the 
Nereids. 

Pasitigris (JlaatTLypyc or Ylaairiypi^ : now 
probably [Shat-el-Arab]), a considerable river of 
Asia, rising in the mountains east of Mesoba- 
tene, on the confines of Media and Persis, and 
flowing first west by north to Mount Zagros 
or Parachoathras, then, breaking through this 
chain, it turns to. the south, and flows through 
rfusiana into the head of the Persian Gulf, after 
receiving the Eulajus on its western side. Some 
geographers make the Pasitigris a tributary of 
the Tigris 



Passaron (Haoa&puv : near Dhramisius, south- 
west of Joannina), a town of Epirus in Molos- 
sia, and the ancient capital of the Molossian 
kings. It was destroyed by the Romans, to- 
gether with seventy other towns of Epirus, after 
the conquest of Macedonia, B.C. 168. 

Passienus Crispus. Vid. Crispus. 

Passienus Paulus. Vid. Paulus. 

[Passienus Rufus. Vid. Rufus.] 

Pat^eci ( Udractcoi ), Phoenician divinities, 
whose dwarfish figures were attached to Phoe- 
nician ships. 

Patala, Pat ale ne. Vid. Pattala, Patta- 

LENE. 

Patara (tu Tldrapa : Tlarapevg : ruins at Pa- 
tara), one of the chief cities of Lycia, was a 
flourishing sea-port, on a promontory of the 
same name (fi Harapuv uKpa), sixty stadia (six 
geographical miles) east of the mouth of the 
Xanthus. It was early colonized by Dorians 
from Crete, and became a chief seat of the 
worship of Apollo, who had here a very cele- 
brated oracle, which uttered responses in the 
winter only, and from whose son Patarus the 
name of the city was mythically derived, ft 
was restored and enlarged by Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, who called it Arsinoe, but it remained 
better known by its old name. 

[Patarbemis (TlaTapSTi/tic), one of the prin- 
cipal officers of Apries, king of Egypt, having 
been sent to arrest and bring to him Amasis, 
but having failed in so doing, was shamefully 
mutilated by the king ; this conduct caused a 
revolt of the Egyptians.] 

Patavium (Patavlnus : now Padova or Padua), 
an ancient town of the Veneti in the north of 
Italy, on the Medoacus Minor, and on the road 
from Mutina to Altinum, was said to have been 
founded by the Trojan Antenor. It became a 
flourishing and important town in early times, 
and was powerful enough in B.C. 302 to drive 
back the Spartan king Cleomenes with great 
loss when he attempted to plunder the surround- 
ing country. Under the Romans Patavium was 
the most important city in the north of Italy, 
and, by its commerce and manufactures (of 
which its woollen stuffs were the most cele- 
brated), it attained great opulence. According 
to Strabo, it possessed five hundred citizens, 
whose fortune entitled them to the equestrian 
rank. It was plundered by Attila ; and, in con- 
sequence of a revolt of its citizens, it was sub- 
sequently destroyed by Agilolf, king of the Lan- 
gobards, and razed to the ground ; hence the 
modern town contains few remains of antiquity. 
Patavium is celebrated as the birth-place of the 
historian Livy. In its neighborhood were the 
Aqua Patavina, also called Aponi Pons, respect- 
ing which, vid. p. 78, b. 

PatercOlus, C. Veli.eius, a Roman historian, 
was probably born about B.C. 19, and was de- 
scended from a distinguished Campanian fam- 
ily. He adopted the profession of arms ; and, 
soon after he had entered the army, he accom- 
panied C. Ceesar in his expedition to the East, 
and was present with the latter at his interview 
with the Parthian king in A.D. 2. Two years aft- 
erward, A.D. 4, he served underTiberius in Ger- 
many, succeeding his father in the rank of prae- 
fectus equitum, having previously filled in suc- 
cessioi ' i« cffices "'tribune of the soldiers and 

611 



PATERNUS, TARRUNTENUS. 

tribune of the camp. For the next eight years 
Paterculus served under Tiberius, either as prae- 
fectus or legatus, in the various campaigns of 
the latter in Germany, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, 
and, by his activity and ability, gained the favor 
of the future emperor. He was quaestor A.D. 
7, but he continued to serve as legatus under 
Tiberius. He accompanied his commander on 
his return to Rome in 12, and took a prominent 
part in the triumphal procession of Tiberius, 
along with his brother Magius Celer. The two 
brothers were praetors in 15. Paterculus was 
alive in 30, as he drew up his history in that 
year for the use of M. Vinicius, who was then 
consul ; and it is conjectured, with much prob- 
ability, that he perished in the following year 
(31), along with the other friends of Sejanus. 
The favorable manner in which he had so re- 
cently spoken in his history of this powerful 
minister would be sufficient to insure his con- 
demnation on the fall of the latter. The work 
of Paterculus, which has come down to us, is a 
brief historical compendium in two books, and 
bears the title C. Velleii Paterculi Histories Ro- 
rflcincB ad M. Vinicium Cos. Libri II. The begin- 
ning of the work is wanting, and there is also a 
portion lost after the eighth chapter of the first 
book. The object of this compendium was to 
give a brief view of universal history, but more 
especially of the events connected with Rome, 
the history of which occupies the main portion 
of the book. It commenced apparently with the 
destruction of Troy, and ended with the year 
30. In the execution of his work, Velleius has 
shown great skill and judgment. He does not 
attempt to give a consecutive account of all the 
events of history ; he seizes upon a few only 
of the more prominent facts, which he describes 
at sufficient length to leave them impressed 
upon the recollection of his hearers. His style, 
which is a close imitation of Sallust's, is char- 
acterized by clearness, conciseness, and en- 
ergy. In his estimate of the characters of the 
leading actors in Roman history, he generally 
exhibits both discrimination and judgment; but 
he lavishes the most indiscriminate praises, as 
might have been expected, upon his patron 
Tiberius: Only one manuscript of Paterculus 
has come down to us ; and as this manuscript 
abounds with errors, the text is in a very cor- 
rupt state. The best editions are by Ruhn- 
Ken, Lugd. Bat., 1789 ; by Orelli, Lips., 1835 ; by 
Bothe.Turici, 1837; [and byKritz, Lips., 1840.] 

Paternus, Tarruntenus, a jurist, is probably 
the same person who was praefectus praetorio 
under Commodus, and was put to death by the 
emperor on a charge of treason. He was the 
author of a work in four books, entitled Be Re 
Militari or Militarium, from which there are two 
excerpts in the Digest. 

Patmos (Ildr^of : now Patmo), one of the isl- 
ands called Sporades, in the Icarian Sea, at 
about equal distances south of Samos and west 
of the Promontorium Posidium on the coast of 
Caria, celebrated as the place to which the 
Apostle John was banished, and in which he 
wrote the Apocalypse. The natives still affect 
to show the cave where St. John saw the apoc- 
alyptic visions (to onrjXaiov rije anoKaTivipeuc:). 
On the eastern side of the island was a city with 
a harbor. 

612 



PATROCLUS. 

Patrae (Ilarpai, Harpies, Herod. : Tlarpevt, ■ J 
now Patras), one of the twelve cities of Achaia, t 
was situated west of Rhium, near the opening 
of the Corinthian Gulf. It is said to have been f 
originally called Aroe ('Apo??), and to have been t| 
founded by the autochthon Eumelus ; and after k 
the expulsion of the Ionians, to have been taken f. 
possession of by-Patreus, from whom it derived '.' 
its name. The town is rarely mentioned in i 
early Greek history, and was chiefly of import- \ 
ance as the place from which the Peloponnesian§ ■ 
directed their attacks against the opposite coast i 
of ^Etolia. Patrae was one of the four towns . 
which took the leading part in founding the sec- 
ond Aehaean league. In consequence of assist- 
ing the ^Etolians against the Gauls in B.C. 279, 
Patrae became so weakened that most of the in- ; 
habitants deserted the town and took up their j 
abodes in the neighboring villages. Under the 
Romans it continued to be an insignificant place 
till the time of Augustus, who rebuilt the town ' ! 
after the battle of Actium, again collected its 
inhabitants, and added to them those ofRhypae. 
Augustus further gave Patrae dominion over the 
neighboring towns, and even over Locris, and I 
also bestowed upon it the privileges of a Roman i 
colony : hence we find it called on coins Colonia 
Augusta Aroe Patrensis. Strabo describes Pa- 
trae in his time as a flourishing and populous 
town, with a good harbor, and it was frequently 
the place at which persons landed sailing from i 
Italy to Greece. The modern Patras is still an 
important place, but contains few remains of 
antiquity. 

Patroci.es (Ilarpo/fAz/c), a Macedonian gen- ! 
eral in the service of Seleucus I. and Antiochus ' 
I., kings of Syria. Patrocles held, both undei 
Seleucus and Antiochus, an important govern- 
ment over some of the eastern provinces of the 
Syrian empire. During the period of his hold 
ing this position, he collected accurate geo- 
graphical information, which he afterward pub- 1 
lished to the world ; but, though he is frequently ! 
cited by Strabo, who placed the utmost reliance I 
on his accuracy, neither the title nor exact sub- 
ject of his work is mentioned. It seems clear, 
however, that it included a general account of 
India, as well as of the countries on the banks ' 
of the Oxus and the Caspian Sea. Patrocles I 
regarded the Caspian Sea as a gulf or inlet of 
the ocean, and maintained the possibility of sail- ! 
ing thither by sea from the Indian Ocean. 

Patrocli Insula (UarpdKXov vrjooc : now Ga- 
daroncsi or Gaidronisi), a small island off the ' 
southwestern coast of Attica, near Sunium. 

Patroclus (IIurpoKAof ornarpo/i?i/)c),the cele- I 
brated friend of Achilles, was son of Mencetius 1 
of Opus, and grandson of Actor and -Egina, 
whence he is called Actoridcs. His mother is 
commonly called Sthenele, but some mention ; 
her under the name of Periapis or Polymele. I 
JEacus, the grandfather of Achilles, was a broth- 
er of Mencetius, so that Achilles and Patroclus j 
were kinsmen as well as friends. While still a 
boy, Patroclus involuntarily slew Clysonymus, 
son ofc Amphidamas. In consequence of this 
accident, he was taken by his, father to Pelens 
at Phthia, where he was educated together with 
Achilles. He is said to have taken part in the 
expedition against Troy on account of his at- 
tachment to Achilles. He fought bravely against j 



I 



PATRON. 



PAULUS. 



the Trojans, until his friend withdrew from the 
scene of action, when Patroclus followed his 
example. But when the Greeks were hard 
pressed, he begged Achilles to allow him to put 
on his armor, and with his men to hasten to the 
assistance of the Greeks. Achilles granted the 
request, and Patroclus succeeded in driving back 
the Trojans and extinguishing the fire which 
was raging among the ships. He slew many 
enemies, and thrice made an assault upon the 
walls of Troy ; but on a sudden he was struck 
by Apollo, and became senseless. In this state 
Euphorbus ran him through with his lance from 
behind, and Hector gave him the last and fatal 
blow. Hector also took possession of his armor. 
Along struggle now ensued between the Greeks 
and Trojans for the body of Patroclus ; but the 
former obtained possession of it, and brought it 
to Achilles, who was deeply grieved, and vowed 
to avenge the death of his friend. Thetis pro- 
tected the body with ambrosia against decom- 
position, until Achilles had leisure solemnly to 
burn it with funeral sacrifices. His ashes were 
collected in a golden urn which Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus) had once given to Thetis, and were de- 
posited under a mound, where the remains of 
Achilles were subsequently buried. Funeral 
games were celebrated in his honor. Achilles 
and Patroclus met again in the lower world ; or, 
according to others, they continued after their 
death to live together in the island of Leuce. 

[Patron, an Arcadian, mentioned by Virgil as 
one of those engaged in the games celebrated 
by ^Eneas in Sicily in honor of his father.] 

Patron. [1. A native of Phocis, commander 
of the Greek mercenaries who accompanied 
Darius after the battle of Gaugamela. When 
Bessus and his accomplices were conspiring 
against Darius, Patron with his Greeks remain- 
ed faithful to him.] — 2. An Epicurean philoso- 
pher, lived for some time in Rome, where he be- 
came acquainted with Cicero and others. From 
Rome he removed to Athens, and there succeed- 
edPhaedrus as president of the Epicurean school, 
B.C. 52. 

Pattala. Vid. Pattalene. 

Pattalene or Patalene (TlaTraTir/vij, Tlara- 
Xijvy ■ now Lower Scinde), the name of the great 
delta formed by the two principal arms by which 
the Indus falls into the sea. At the apex of the 
delta stood the city Pattala or Patala (now 
probably Hyderabad). The name is probably a 
native Indian word, namely, the Sanscrit patala, 
which means the western country, and is applied 
to the western part of Northern India about the 
Indus, in contradistinction to the eastern part 
about the Ganges. 

Patulcius, a surname of Janus. Vid. Janus. 

Patumus (Hdrovfioc : in the Old Testament, 
Pithom : probably near Habascyh or Bclbcls), an 
Egyptian city in the Arabian Desert, on the east- 
ern margin of the Delta, near Bubastis, and near 
the commencement of Neeho's Canal from the 
Nile to the Red Sea ; built by the Israelites dur- 
ing their captivity (Exod., i., 11). 

Paulina or Paullina. 1. Lollia. Vid. Lol- 
lia.--2. Pompeia, wife of Seneca the philoso- 
pher, and probably the daughter of Pompeius 
Paulinus, who commanded in Germany in the 
reign of Nero. When her husband was con- 
demned to death, she opened her veins along 



with him. After the blood had flowed some 
time, Nero commanded her veins to be bound 
up ; she lived a few years longer, but with a 
paleness which testified how near she had been 
to death. 

Paulinus. 1. Pompeius, commanded in Ger- 
many along with L. Antistius Vetus in A.D. 58, 
and completed the dam to restrain the inunda- 
tion of the Rhine, which Drusus had commenced 
sixty-three years before. Seneca dedicated to 
him his treatise Be Brevitate Vila, ; and the Pom- 
peia Paulina, whom the philosopher married, 
was probably the daughter of this Paulinus. — 
2. Suetonius, propraetor in Mauretania, in the 
reign of the Emperor Claudius, A.D. 42, when 
he conquered the Moors who had revolted, and 
advanced as far as Mount Atlas. He had the 
command of Britain in the reign of Nero, from 
59 to 62. For the first two years all his under- 
takings were successful ; but during his absence 
on an expedition against the island of Mona 
(now Anglesey), the Britons rose in rebellion 
under Boadicea (61). They at first met with 
great success, but were conquered by Suetonius 
on his return from Mona. Vid. Boadicea. In 
66 he was consul ; and, after the death of Nero 
in 68, he was one of Otho's generals in the war 
against Vitellius. It was against his advice that 
Oiho fought the battle at Bedriacum. He was 
pardoned by Vitellius after Otho's death. — 3. Of 
Milan {Mcdiolanensis), was the secretary of St. 
Ambrose, after whose death he became a dea- 
con, and repaired to Africa, where, at the re- 
quest of St. Augustine, he composed a biogra- 
phy of his former patron. This biography, and 
two other small works by Paulinus, are still ex- 
tant. — 4. Meropius Pontius Anicius Paulinus, 
bishop of Nola, and hence generally designated 
Paulinus Nolanus, was born at Bourdeaux, or at 
a neighboring town, which he calls Embroma- 
gum, about A.D. 353. His parents were wealthy 
and illustrious, and he received a careful educa- 
tion, enjoying in particular the instructions of 
the poet Ausonius. After many years spent in 
worldly honors, he withdrew from the world, and 
was eventually chosen bishop of Nola in 409. 
He died in 431. The works of Paulinus are 
still extant, and consist of Epistola. (fifty-one in 
number), Carmina (thirty-two in number, com- 
posed in a great variety of metres), and a short 
tract entitled Passio S. Genesii Arelatensis. Ed- 
ited by Le Brun, 4to, Paris, 1685, reprinted at 
Veron., 1736. 

Paullus or Paulus, a Roman cognomen in 
many gentes, but best known as the name of a 
family of the ^Emilia gens. The name was 
originally written with a double I, but subse- 
quently with only one I. 

Paulus (Ravhoc), Greek wi iters. 1. ^Egineta, 
a celebrated medical writer, of whose personal 
history nothing is known except that he was 
born in ^Egina, and that he travelled a good 
deal, visiting, among other places, Alexandrea. 
He probably lived in the latter half of the sev- 
enth century after Christ. He wrote several 
medical works in Greek, of which the principal 
one is still extant, with no exact title, but com- 
monly called De Re Medica Libri Septem. This 
work is chiefly a compilation from former writ- 
ers. The Greek text has been twice published, 
Venet., r!528, and Basil., 1538. There is an ex- 



PAULUS, iEMILIUS. 



PAULUS, JULIUS. 



ceilent English translation by Adams, London, j 
1834, seq. — 2. Of Alexandrea, wrote, in A.D. 
378, an Introduction to Astrology (Eigayuy?] elc 
-Tjv a-7T0TE2.eajiaTiKrjv), which has come down to 
us, edited by Schatus or Schato, Wittenberg, 
1586. — 3. Of Samosata, a celebrated heresiarch 
of the third century, was made bishop of Anti- 
och about A.D. 260. He was condemned and 
deposed by a council held in 269. Paulus de- 
nied the distinct personality of the Son of God, 
and maintained that the Word came and dwelt 
in the man Jesus. — 4. Silentiauius, so called, 
because he was chief of the silentiarii, or secre- 
taries of the Emperor Justinian. He wrote va- 
rious poems, of which the following are extant: 
(1.) A Description of the Church of St. Sophia 
('F,Kij>pai!ic tov vaov tt)c dyiac 'Zodiac), consist- 
ing of one thousand and twenty-nine verses, of 
which the first one hundred and thirty-four are 
iambic, the rest hexameter. This poem gives 
a clear and graphic description of the superb 
structure which forms its subject, and was re- 
cited by its author at the second dedication of 
the church (A.D. 562), after the restoration of 
the dome, which had fallen in. Edited by Graefe, 
Lips., 1822, and by Bekker, Bonn, 1837, in the 
Bonn edition of the Byzantine historians. (2.) A 
Description of the Pulpit CEnQpaoic tov upSuvoc), 
consisting of three hundred and four verses, is a 
supplement to the former poem. It is printed 
in the editions mentioned above. (3.) Epigrams, 
eighty-three in all, given in the Anthologia. 
Among these is a poem On the Pythian Baths, 
(Eif ra ev UvdioLC -&epfj.a). 

Paulus, ^EmilIus. 1. M., consul B.C. 302, 
and magister equitum to the dictator Q. Fabius 
Maximus Rullianus, 301. — 2. M., consul 255 
with Ser. Fulvius Peetinus Nobilior, about the 
middle of the first Punic war. Vid. Nobilior, 
No. 1. — 3. L., son of No. 2, consul 219, when 
he conquered Demetrius off the island of Pharos 
in the Adriatic, and compelled him to fly for 
refuge to Philip, king of Macedonia. He was 
consul a second time in 216 with C. Terentius 
Varro. This was the year of the memorable 
defeat at Cannae. Vid. Hannibal. The battle 
was fought against the advice of Paulus ; and 
he was one of the many distinguished Romans 
who perished in the engagement, refusing to 
fly from the field when a tribune of the soldiers 
offered him his horse. Hence we find in Hor- 
ace (Carm., i., 12), " animasque magna prodi- 
gum Paulum, superante Poeno." Paulus was a 
stanch adherent of the aristocracy, and was 
raised to the consulship by the latter party to 
counterbalance the influence of the plebeian 
Terentius Varro. — 4. L., afterward surnamed 
Macedonicus, son of No. 3, was born about 230 
or 229, since at the time of his second consul- 
ship, 168, he was upward of sixty years of age. 
He was one of the best specimens of the high 
Roman nobles. He would not condescend to 
flatter the people for the offices of the state, 
maintained with strictness severe discipline in 
the army, was deeply skilled in the law of the 
augurs, to whose college he belonged, and 
maintained throughout life a pure and unspot- 
ted character. He was elected curule aedile 
192 ; was pnfitor 191, and obtained Further 
Spain as his province, where he carried on war 
with the Lusitani; and was consul 181, when 
614 



he conquered the Ingauni, a Ligurian people. 
For the next thirteen years he lived quietly at 
Rome, devoting most of his time to the educa- 
tion of his children. He was consul a second ! 
time in 168, and brought the war against Per- 1 
sens to a conclusion by the defeat of the Mace- 
donian monarch, near Pydna, on the 22d of 
June. Perseus shortly afterward surrendered 
himself to Paulus. Vid. Perseus. Paulus re- 1 
mained in Macedonia during the greater part of I 
the following year as proconsul, and arranged 
the affairs of Macedonia, in conjunction with I 
ten Roman commissioners, whom the senate 
had dispatched for the purpose. Before leav- 
ing Greece he marched into Epirus, where, in 1 
accordance with a cruel command of the senate, 
he gave to his soldiers seventy towns to be pil- 
laged because they had been in alliance with 
Perseus. The triumph of Paulus, which was 
celebrated at the end of November, 167, was 
the most splendid that Rome had yet seen. It 
lasted three days. Before the triumphal car of 
^Emilius walked the captive monarch of Mace- 
donia and his children, and behind it were his 
two illustrious sons, Q. Fabius Maximus and I 
P. Scipio Africanus the younger, both of whom 
had been adopted into other families. But the 
glory of the conqueror was clouded by family 
misfortune. At this very time he lost his two 
younger sons ; one, twelve years of age, died 
only five days before his triumph, and the other, 
fourteen years of age, only three days after his 
triumph. The loss was all the severer, since 
he had no son left to carry his name down to 
posterity. In 164 Paulus was censor with Q. 
Marcius Philippus, and died in 160, after a long 
and tedious illness. The fortune he left behind 
him was so small as scarcely to be sufficient to 
pay his wife's dowry. The Adelphi of Terence 
was brought out at the funeral games exhibited 
in his honor. ^Emilius Paulus was married 
twice. By his first wife, Papiria, the daughter 
of C. Papirius Maso, consul 231, he had four 
children, two sons, one of whom was adopted 
by Fabius Maximus and the other by P. Scipio, 
and two daughters, one of whom was married 
to Q. ^Elius Tubero, and the other to M. Cato, 
son of Cato the censor. He afterward divorced 
Papiria ; and by his second wife, whose name 
is not mentioned, he had two sons, whose death 
has been mentioned above, and a daughter, who 
was a child at the time that her father was 
elected to his second consulship. 

Paulus, Julius, one of the most distinguish- 
ed of the Roman jurists, has been supposed, 
without any good reason, to be of Greek origin. 
He was in the auditorium of Papinian, and, 
consequently, was acting as a jurist in the reign 
of Septimius Severus. He was exiled by Ela- 
gabalus, but he was recalled by Alexander Se- 
verus when the latter became emperor, and 
was made a member of his consilium. Paulus 
also held the office of praefectus prastorio : he 
survived his contemporary Ulpian. Paulus was 
perhaps the most fertile of all the Roman law 
writers, and there is more excerpted from him 
in the Digest than from any other jurist ex- 
cept Ulpian. Upward of seventy separate works 
by Paulus are quoted in the Digest. Of these, 
his greatest work was Ad Edictum, in eighty 
books. 



PAULUS, PASSIENUS. 



PAUSANIAS. 



Paulus, Passienus, a contemporary and friend 
of the younger Pliny, was a distinguished Ro- 
man eques, and was celebrated for his elegiac 
and lyric poems. He belonged to the same 
municipium (Mevania in Umbria) as Propertius, 
whom he numbered among his ancestors. 

Pausanias (Uavcavias). 1. A Spartan of the 
Agid branch of the royal family, the son ofCle- 
ombrotus and nephew of Leonidas. Several 
writers incorrectly call him king ; but he only 
succeeded his father Cleombrotus in the guard- 
ianship of his cousin Plistarchus, the son of 
Leonidas, for whom he exercised the functions 
of royalty from B.C. 479 to the period of his 
death. In 479, when the Athenians called upon 
the Lacedaemonians for aid against the Persians, 
the Spartans sent a body of five thousand Spar- 
tans, each attended by seven Helots, under the 
command of Pausanias. At the Isthmus Pau- 
sanias was joined by the other Peloponnesian 
allies, and at Eleusis by the Athenians, and 
forthwith took the command of the combined 
forces, the other Greek generals forming a sort 
of council of war. The allied forces amounted 
to nearly one hundred and ten thousand men. 
Near Plataeas in Bceotia, Pausanias defeated the 
Persian army under the command of Mardonius. 
This decisive victory secured the independence 
of Greece. Pausanias received as his reward 
a tenth of the Persian spoils. In 477 the con- 
federate Greeks sent out a fleet, under the com- 
mand of Pausanias, to follow up their success 
by driving the Persians completely out of Eu- 
rope and the islands. Cyprus was first attack- 
ed, and the greater part of it subdued. From 
Cyprus Pausanias sailed to Byzantium, and cap- 
tured the city. The capture of this city afford- 
ed Pausanias an opportunity for commencing 
the execution of the design which he had ap- 
parently formed even before leaving Greece. 
Dazzled by his success and reputation, his sta- 
tion as a Spartan citizen had become too re- 
stricted for his ambition. His position as re- 
gent was one which must terminate when the 
king became of age. He therefore aimed at 
becoming tyrant over the whole of Greece, with 
the assistance of the Persian king. Among the 
prisoners taken at Byzantium were some Per- 
sians connected with the royal family. These 
he sent to the king, with a letter, in which he 
offered to bring Sparta and the rest of Greece 
under his power, and proposed to marry his 
daughter. His offers were gladly accepted, and 
whatever amount of troops and money he re- 
quired for accomplishing his designs. Pausa- 
nias now set no bounds to his arrogant and dom- 
ineering temper. The allies were so disgusted 
by his conduct, that they all, except the Pelo- 
ponnesians and JEginetans, voluntarily offered 
to transfer to the Athenians that pre-eminence 
of rank which Sparta had hitherto enjoyed. In 
this way the Athenian confederacy first took its 
rise. Reports of the conduct and designs of 
Pausanias reached Sparta, and he was recalled 
and put upon his trial ; but the evidence re- 
specting his meditated treachery was not yet 
thought sufficiently strong. Shortly afterward 
he returned to Byzantium, without the orders 
of the ephors, and renewed his treasonable in- 
trigues. He was again recalled to Sparta, was 
again put on his trial, and again acquitted. But 



even after this second escape he still continued 
to carry on his intrigues with Persia. At length 
a man, who was charged with a letter to Per- 
sia, having his suspicions awakened by notic- 
ing that none of those sent previously on simi- 
lar errands had returned, counterfeited the seal 
of Pausanias and opened the letter, in which 
he found directions for his own death. He car- 
ried the letter to the ephors, who prepared to 
arrest Pausanias ; but he took refuge in the 
temple of Athena (Minerva) Chalcicecus. The 
ephors stripped off the roof of the temple and 
built up the door ; the aged mother of Pausa- 
nias is said to have been among the first who 
laid a stone for this purpose. When he was 
on the point of expiring, the ephors took him 
out lest his death should pollute the sanctuary. 
He died as soon as he got outside, B.C. 470. 
He left three sons behind him, Plistoanax, aft- 
erward king, Cleomenes, and Aristocles. — 2. 
Son of Plistoanax, and grandson of the preced- 
ing, was king of Sparta from B.C. 408 to 394. 
In 403 he was sent with an army into Attica, 
and secretly favored the cause of Thrasybulus 
and the Athenian exiles, in order to counteract 
the plans of Lysander. In 395 Pausanias was 
sent with an army against the Thebans ; but in 
consequence of the death of Lysander, who was 
slain under the walls of Haliartus on the day 
before Pausanias reached the spot, the king 
agreed to withdraw his forces from Bceotia. 
On his return to Sparta he was impeached, and, 
seeing that a fair trial was not to be hoped for, 
went into voluntary exile, and was condemned 
to death. He was living at Tegea in 385, when 
Mantinea was besieged by his son Agesipolis, 
who succeeded him on the throne.— 3. King of 
Macedonia, the son and successor of Aeropus. 
He was assassinated in the year of his acces- 
sion by Amyntas II., 394. — 4. A pretender. to 
the throne of Macedonia, made his appearance 
in 367, after Alexander II. had been assassin- 
ated by Ptolemaeus. Eurydice, the mother of 
Alexander, sent to request the aid of the Athe- 
nian general Iphicrates, who expelled Pausanias 
from the kingdom. — 5. A Macedonian youth of 
distinguished family, from the province of Ores- 
tis. Having been shamefully treated by Attalus, 
he complained of the outrage to Philip; but, as 
Philip took no notice of his complaints, he di- 
rected his vengeance against the king himself. 
He shortly afterward murdered Philip at the 
festival held at JEgee, 336, but was slain on the 
spot by some officers of the king's guard. Sus- 
picion rested on Olympias and Alexander of 
having been privy to the deed ; but with regard 
to Alexander, at any rate, the suspicion is prob- 
ably totally unfounded. There was a story that 
Pausanias, while meditating revenge, having 
asked the sophist Hermocrates which was the 
shortest way to fame, the latter replied that it 
was by killing the man who had performed the 
greatest achievements. — 6. The traveller and 
geographer, was perhaps a native of Lydia. He 
lived under Antoninus Pius #nd M. Aurelius, 
and wrote his celebrated work in the reign of 
the latter emperor. This work, entitled 'EZ 
XaSoc Xlepiriyrjaic, a Periegesis or Itineiary oj 
Greece, is in ten books, and contains a descrip 
tion of Attica and Megaris (i.), Corinthia, Sic- 
! yonia, Phliasia, and Argolis (ii.), Laconica (iii.), 

filS 



PAUSIAS. 



PEDIUS. 



Messenia (iv.), Elis (v., vi.), Achaea (vii.), Arca- 
dia (viii.), Boeotia (ix.), Phocis (x.). The work 
shows that Pausanias visited most of the places 
in these divisions of Greece, a fact which is 
clearly demonstrated by the minuteness and 
particularity of his description. The work is 
merely an Itinerary. Pausanias gives no gen- 
eral description of a country or even of a place, 
but he describes the things as he comes to them. 
His account is minute ; but it mainly refers to 
objects of antiquity and works of art, such as 
buildings, temples, statues, and pictures. He 
also mentions mountains, rivers, and fountains, 
and the mythological stories connected with 
them, which, indeed, are his chief inducements 
to speak of them. His religious feeling was 
strong, and his belief sure, for he tells many 
old legends in true good faith and seriousness. 
His style has been much condemned by mod- 
ern critics ; but if we except some corrupt pas- 
sages, and if we allow that his order of words 
is not that of the best Greek writers, there is 
hardly much obscurity to a person who is com- 
petently acquainted with Greek, except that 
obscurity which sometimes is owing to the mat- 
ter. With the exception of Herodotus, there 
is no writer of antiquity, and perhaps none of 
modern times, who has comprehended so many 
valuable facts in a small volume-. The best 
editions are by Siebelis, Lips., 1822-1828, 5 vols. 
8vo ; by Schubart and Walz, Lips., 1838-40, 3 
vols. 8vo ; [and by L. Dindorf, Paris, 1845, 8vo.] 

Pausias {TlavGLag), one of the most distin- 
guished Greek painters, was a contemporary 
of Aristides, Melanthius, and Apelles (about 
B.C. 360-330), and a disciple of Pamphilus. He 
had previously been instructed by his father 
Brietes, who lived at Sicy on, where also Pausias 
passed his life. The department of the art 
which Pausias most practiced was painting in 
encaustic with the cestrum. His favorite sub- 
jects were small panel-pictures, chiefly of boys. 
One of his most celebrated pictures was the 
portrait of Glycera, a flower-girl of his native 
city, of whom he was enamored when a young 
man. Most of his paintings were probably trans- 
ported to Rome, with the other treasures of Sic- 
yonian art, in the aedileship of Scaurus, when 
the state of Sicyon was compelled to sell all 
the pictures which were public property in order 
to pay its debts. 

[Pausic^e (ILavoUai), a people of the Persian 
empire, classed under the eleventh general di- 
vision, dwelling between the Oxus and Jaxar- 
tes.] 

Pausilypum {to TLavoi'kvKOv), that is, the 
" grief-assuaging," was the name of a splendid 
villa near Neapolis in Campania, which Vedius 
Pollio bequeathed to Augustus. The name was 
transferred to the celebrated grotto (now Posi- 
lippo) between Naples and Puzzuoli, which was 
formed by a tunnel cut through the rock by the 
architect Cocceius, by command of Agrippa. 
At its entrance the tomb of Virgil is still shown. 

[Pausiras (WayoLpac.) or Pausiris (Tlavaiptc), 
son of Amyrtaeus, the rebel satrap of Egypt. 
Vid. Amyrt^us. Notwithstanding his father's 
revolt, he was appointed by the Persian king to 
the satrapy of Egypt.] 

Pauso.n {Jiavouv), a Greek painter, who ap- 
pears, from the description of Aristotle {Poet., 
filO 



| ii., § 2), to have lived somewhat earlier than the f 
time of this philosopher. 

PAUsffLxE(Paiisulanus : now Monte dell' Olmo), 
a town in the interior of Picenum, between Urbs 
Salvia and Asculum. I 
Pavor. Vid. Pallor. 

Pax, the goddess of Peace, called Irene by the I 
Greeks. Vid. Irene. 
j Pax Julia or Pax Augusta (now Beja), a Ro- | 
man colony in Lusitania, and the seat of a con- | 
ventus juridicus, north of Julia Myrtilis. 

Paxi (now Paxo and Anlipaxo), the name of i 
two small islands off the western coast of Greece, 
between Corcyra and Leucas. 

Ped^eum or Ped^eus (Ur]6aiov, accus., Horn. 
II, xiii., 172), a town of the Troad. 

[Ped^eus (UnSaioc), son of Antenor, slain by 
Meges in the Trojan war.] 

Pedalium (n^daAiOf). 1. (Now Cape Ghinazi), 
a promontory of Caria, on the western side of 
; the Sinus Glaucus, called also Artemisium, from 
a temple of Artemis upon it.. — 2. (Now Capo della 
Grcga), a promontory on the eastern side of 
' Cyprus. 

[Pedanius, T. 1. The first centurion of the 
I principes, was distinguished for his bravery in 
the second Punic war, B.C. 212. — 2. Pedanius 
Secundus, praefectus urbi in the reign of Nero, 
was killed by one of his own slaves.] 

Pedasa {Ur/6aoa : Tlijiaoevc, plur. TlySaaeec, 
Herod.), a very ancient city of Caria, was origin- 
I ally a chief abode of the Leleges. Alexander 
j assigned it to Halicarnassus. At the time of 
j the Roman empire it had entirely vanished, 
though its name was preserved in that of the 
| district around its site, namely, Pedasis {Ilnda- 
oic). Its locality is only known thus far, that 
it must have stood somewhere in the triangle 
formed by Miletus, Halicarnassus, and Strato- 
nicea. 

Pedasus (Midaooc). 1. A town of Mysia, on 
the Satniois, mentioned several times by Homer, 
j It was destroyed by the time of Strabo, who says 
I that it was a settlement of the Leleges on Mount 
j Ida. — [2. A city of Messenia, mentioned by Ho- 
mer, which subsequent writers sought to identify 
i with Methone or Corone.] 

[Pedasus (Ri'iSaooc), son of Bucolion and the 
nymph Abarbarea, and brother ofiEsepus, slain 
by Euryalus under the walls of Troy.] 
Pedianus, Ascqnius. Vid. Asconius. 
[Pediea {IlMcia: now probably the ruins at 
Palea-Fiva), a place in Phocis, near the Cephi 
sus, between Neon and Tritcea.] 

Pedius. 1. Q., the great-nephew of the dic- 
tator C. Julius Caesar, being the grandson of 
Julia, Caesar's eldest sister. He served under 
Caesar in Gaul as his legatus, B.C. 57. In 55 
he was a candidate for the curule aedileship with 
Cn. Plancius and others, but he lost his election. 
In the civil war he fought on Caesar's side. He 
was praetor in 48, and in that year he defeated 
and slew Milo in the neighborhood of Thurii. 
In 45 he served against the Pompeian party in 
Spain. In Caesar's will, Pedius was named one 
of his heirs along with his two other great-neph- 
ews, C. Octavianus and L. Pinarius, Octavianus 
obtaining three fourths of the property, and the 
remaining one fourth being divided between 
Pinarius and Pedius : the latter resigned his 
share of the inheritance to Octavianus. After 



PEDNELISSUS. 



PEI AGONIA. 



the tall of the consuls Hirtius and Pansa, at 
the battle of Mutina, in April, 43, Octavianus 
marched upon Rome at the head of an army, 
and in the month of August he was elected con- 
sul along with Pedius. The latter forthwith pro- 
! posed a law, known by the name of the Lex Pe- 
j dia, by which all the murderers of Julius Caesar 
were punished with aqua, et ignis interdictio. 
Pedius was left in charge of the city, while Oc- 
tavianus marched into the north of Italy. He 
died toward the end of the year, shortly after the 
news of the proscription had reached Rome. — 
[2. Q., grandson of No. 1, was dumb from his 
j birth. He was instructed in painting by the di- 
i rection of his kinsman Messala, with the sanc- 
tion of Augustus, and attained to considerable 
excellence in the art, but died while still a 
youth.] — 3. Sextus, a Roman jurist, frequently 
cited by Paulus and Ulpian, lived before the time 
of Hadrian. 

Pednelissus (IMi^/Uo-crof), a city in the in- 
terior of Pisidia, and apparently on the Euryme- 
don, above Aspendus and Selge. It formed an 
independent state, but was almost constantly at 
I war with Selge. Mr. Fellowes supposes its site 
to be marked by the ruins of the Roman period 
near Bolkas-Koi, on the eastern bank of theEu- 
rymedon. 

Pedo Albinovanus. Vid. Albinovanus. 
Peduc^eus, Sex. 1. Propraetor in Sicily, B.C. 
T and 75, in the latter of which years Cicero 
served under him as quaestor. — 2. Son of the 
preceding, and an intimate friend of Atticus and 
Cicero. In the civil war Peducaeus sided with 
Cajsar, by whom he was appointed in 48 to the 
government of Sardinia. In 39 he was proprae- 
tor in Spain. 

Pedum (Pedanus : now Gallicano), an ancient 
town of Latium, on the Via Lavicana, which fell 
into decay at an early period. 
Peg^e. Vid. Pag-sb. 

Pegasis (Tlrjyaijii), i. e., sprung from Pegasus, 
was applied to the fountain Hippocrene, which 
was called forth by the hoof of Pegasus. The 
Muses are also called Pegasides, because the 
fountain Hippocrene was sacred to them. 

Pegasus (tlf/yaaog). 1. The celebrated winged 
horse, whose origin is thus related : When Per- 
seus struck ofFthe head of Medusa, with whom 
Neptune (Poseidon) had had intercourse in the 
form of a horse or a bird, there sprang from her 
Chrysaor and the horse Pegasus. The latter 
received this name because he was believed to 
have made his appearance near the sources 
(nrjyai) of Oceanus. He ascended to the seats 
of the immortals, and afterward lived in the 
palace of Jupiter (Zeus), for whom he carried 
tnunder and lightning. According to this view, 
which is apparently the most ancient, Pegasus 
was the thundering .horse of Jupiter (Zeus); 
but later writers describe him as the horse of 
Eos (Aurora), and place him among the stars. 
Pegasus also acts a prominent part in the com- 
bat of Bellerophon against the Chimaera. In 
order to kill the Chimajra, it was necessary for 
Bellerophon to obtain possession of Pegasus. 
For this purpose the soothsayer Polyidus at 
Corinth advised him to spend a night in the tem- 
ple of Minerva (Athena). As Bellerophon was 
asleep in the temple, the goddess appeared to 
him in a dream, commanding him to sacrifice to 



Neptune (Poseidon), and gave him a golden 
bridle. When he awoke he found the bridle, 
offered the sacrifice, and caught Pegasus while 
he was drinking at the well Pirene. According 
to some, Minerva (Athena) herself tamed and 
bridled Pegasus, and surrendered him to Bel- 
lerophon. After he had conquered the Chimaera, 
he endeavored to rise up to heaven upon his 
winged horse, but fell down upon the earth 
Vid. Bellerophon. Pegasus was also regarded 
as the horse of the Muses, and in this connection 
is more celebrated in modern times than in an- 
tiquity ; for with the ancients he had no con- 
nection with the Muses, except producing with 
his hoof the inspiring fountain Hippocrene. The 
story about this fountain runs as follows : When 
the nine Muses engaged in a contest with the 
nine daughters of Pierus on Mount Helicon, all 
became darkness when the daughters of Pierus 
began to sing ; whereas, during the song of the 
Muses, heaven, the sea, and all the rivers stood 
still to listen,, and Helicon rose heavenward 
with delight, until Pegasus, on the advice of 
Neptune (Poseidon), stopped its ascent by kick- 
ing it with his hoof. From this kick there arose 
Hippocrene, the inspiring well of the Muses, on 
Mount Helicon, which, for this reason, Persius 
calls fons caballinus. Others, again, relate that 
Pegasus caused the well to gush forth because 
he was thirsty. Pegasus is often seen repre- 
sented in ancient works of art along with Mi- 
nerva (Athena) and Bellerophon. — 2. A Roman 
jurist, one of the followers or pupils of Procu- 
lus, and prasfectus urbi under Domitian (Juv., 
iv., 76). The Senatusconsultum Pegasianum, 
which was passed in the time of Vespasian, 
when Pegasus was consul sufFectus with Pusio, 
probably took its name from him. 

[Peie^eeus {Tleipauvc). Vid. Piraeus.] 
Peiso Lacus. Vid. Pelso Lacus. 
Pelagius, probably a native of Britain, cele 
brated as the propagator of those heretical opin 
ions which have derived their name from him, 
and which were opposed with great energy by 
his contemporaries, Augustine and Jerome. He 
first appears in history about the beginning of 
the fifth century, when we find him residing at 
Rome. In the year 409 or 410, when Alaric was 
threatening the metropolis, Pelagius, accom- 
panied by his disciple and ardent admirer Coeles- 
tius, passed over to Sicily, from thence pro- 
ceeded to Africa, and, leaving Ccelestius at 
Carthage, sailed for Palestine. The fame of 
his sanctity had preceded him, for upon his ar- 
rival he was received with great warmth by 
Jerome and many other distinguished fathers 
of the Church. Soon afterward the opinions Oi 
Pelagius were denounced as heretical ; and, in 
A.D. 417, Pelagius and Ccelestius were anathe 
matized by Pope Innocentius. A very few onlj 
of the numerous treatises of Pelagius have de- 
scended to us. They are printed with the works 
of Jerome. 

[Pelagon (Us^dyuv). 1. A Pylian warrior, 
served in the Trojan war under Nestor. — 2. A. 
Lycian warrior in the train of Sarpedon. — 3. A 
Phocian, son of Amphidamas : from him Cad- 
mus bought the cow which guided him to 
Thebes.] 

Pelagonia (Jlelayovia : Tle^ayovec, pi ). 1. A 
district in Macedonia. The Pelagones were an 

617 



PELARGE. 

ancient people, probably of Pelasgic origin, and 
seem originally to have inhabited the Valley of 
the Axius, since Homer calls Pelagon a son of 
Axius. The Pelagones afterward migrated 
westward to the Erigon, the country around 
which received the name of Pelagonia, which 
thus lay south of Paeonia. The chief town of 
this district was also called Pelagonia (now Vi- 
tolia or Monastir), which was under the Romans 
the capital of the fourth division of Macedonia. 
It was situated on the Via Egnatia, not far from 
the narrow passes leading into Illyria. — 2. A 
district in Thessaly, called the Pelagonian Tripo- 
lis, because it consisted of the three towns of 
Azorus, Pythium, and Doliche. It was situated 
west of Olympus, in the upper valley of the 
Titaresius, and belonged to Perrhaebia, whence 
these three towns are sometimes called the 
Perrhaebian Tripolis. Some of the Macedonian 
Pelagonians, who had been driven out of their 
homes by the Pseonians, migrated into this part 
of Thessaly, which was originally inhabited by 
Dorians. 

[Pelarge (Ylslapyrj), daughter of Potneus, 
wife of Isthmiades, was instrumental in estab- 
lishing the Cabiri-worship in Bceotia, and hence 
became herself an object of worship.] 

Pelasgi (TleXaoyoi), the earliest inhabitants 
of Greece, who established the worship of the 
Dodonaean Zeus (Jupiter), Hephaestus (Vulcan), 
the Cabiri, and other divinities that belong to the 
earliest inhabitants of the country. They claim- 
ed descent from a mythical hero, Pelasgus, of 
whom we have different accounts in the differ- 
ent parts of Greece inhabited by Pelasgians. 
The nation was widely spread over Greece and 
the islands of the Grecian archipelago, and the 
name of Pelasgia was given at one time to 
Greece. One of the most ancient traditions 
represented Pelasgus as a descendant of Pho- 
roneus, king of Argos ; and it seems to have 
been generally believed by the Greeks that the 
Pelasgi spread from Argos to the other coun- 
tries of Greece. Arcadia, Attica, Epirus, and 
Thessaly were, in addition to Argos, some of the 
principal seats of the Pelasgi. They were also 
found on the coasts of Asia Minor, and, accord- 
ing to some writers, in Italy as well. Of the 
language, habits, and civilization of this people, 
we possess no certain knowledge. Herodotus 
says they spoke a barbarous language, that is, a 
language not Greek ; but from the facility with 
which the Greek and Pelasgic languages coa- 
lesced in all parts of Greece, and from the fact 
that the Athenians and Arcadians are said to 
have been of pure Pelasgic origin, it is probable 
that the two languages had a close affinity. The 
Pelasgi are further said to have been an agri- 
cultural people, and to have possessed a consid- 
erable knowledge of the useful arts. The most 
ancient architectural remains of Greece, such 
as the treasury or tomb of Atreus at Mycenae, 
are ascribed to the Pelasgians, and are cited as 
specimens of Pelasgian architecture, though 
there is no positive authority for these state- 
ments. 

Pelasgia (TleXaayia), an ancient name of the 
islands ofDelos and Lesbos, referring, of course, 
to their having been early seats of the Pelasgi- 
ans. 

Pelasgiotis (HelaayitiTic), a district in Thes- 
6'8 



PELEUS. 

saly, between Hestiaeotis and Magnesia. Vid 
Thessalia. 

Pelasgus. Vid. Pelasgi. 

Pelendones, a Celtiberian people inHispania 
Tarraconensis, between the sources of the Du- 
rius and the Iberus. 

Pelethronium (TieTicdpoviov), a mountainous 
district in Thessaly, part of Mount Pelion, where 
the Lapithae dwelt, and which is said to have de- 
rived its name from Pelethronius, king of the 
Lapithae, who invented the use of the bridle and 
the saddle. 

Peleus (UrjXevc), son of iEacus and Endeis, 
was king of the Myrmidons at Phthia in Thes- 
saly. He was a brother of Telamon, and step- 
brother of Phocus, the son of iEacus, by the 
Nereid Psamathe. Peleus and Telamon re- 
solved to get rid of Phocus, because he ex- 
celled them in their military games, and Tela- 
mon, or, according to others, Peleus, murdered 
their step-brother. The two brothers concealed 
their crime by removing the body of Phocus, 
but were nevertheless found out, and expelled 
by iEacus from ^Egina. Peleus. went to Phthia 
in Thessaly, where he was purified from the 
murder by Eurytion, the son of Actor, married 
his daughter Antigone, and received with her j 
a third of Eurytion's kingdom. Others relate I 
that he went to Ceyx at Trachis ; and, as he ' 
had come to Thessaly without companions, he ! 
prayed to Jupiter (Zeus) for an army ; and the 
god, to please Peleus, metamorphosed the ants ' 
(fivpixriiiEs) into men, who were accordingly call- I 
ed Myrmidons. Peleus accompanied Eurytion \ 
to the Calydonian hunt, and involuntarily killed j 
him with his spear, in consequence of which he i 
fled from Phthia to Iolcus, where he was again | 
purified by Acastus, the king of the place. While 
residing at Iolcus, Astydamia, the wife of Acas- 
tus, fell in love with him ; but, as her proposals p 
were rejected by Peleus, she accused him to I 
her husband of having attempted her virtue. 
Acastus, unwilling to stain his hand with the j, 
blood of the man whom he had hospitably re- 
ceived, and whom he had purified from his guilt, i 
took him to Mount Pelion, where they hunted j 
wild beasts ; and when Peleus, overcome with j 
fatigue, had fallen asleep, Acastus left him j 
alone, and concealed his sword, that he might j 
be destroyed by the wild beasts. When Peleus 
awoke and sought his sword, he was attacked ! 
by the Centaurs, but was saved by Chiron, who j 
also restored to him his sword. There are 
some modifications of this account in other writ- 
ers : instead of Astydamia, some mention Hip- i 
polyte, the daughter of Cretheus ; and others 
relate that after Acastus had concealed the ! 
sword of Peleus, Chiron or Mercury (Hermes) | 
brought him another, which had been made by 
Vulcan (Hephaestus). While on Mount Pelion 
Peleus married the Nereid Thetis, by whom he j 
became the father of Achilles, though some re- 
garded this Thetis as^lifferent from the marine 
divinity, and called her a daughter of Chiron. 
The gods took part in the marriage solemnity ; 
Chiron presented Peleus with a lance, Neptune 
(Poseidon) with the immortal horses, Balius 
and Xanthus, and the other gods with arms. 
Eris or Strife was the only goddess who was 
not invited to the nuptials, and she revenged 
herself by throwing an apple among the guests, 



PELIADES. 



PELLA. 



with the inscription " To the fairest." Vid. Par- 
is. Homer mentions Achilles as the only son 
of Peleus and Thetis, but later writers state 
that she had already destroyed by fire six chil- 
dren, of whom she was the mother by Peleus, 
and that, as she attempted to make away with 
Achilles, her seventh child, she was prevented 
by Peleus. After this, Peleus, who is also men- 
tioned among the Argonauts, in conjunction 
with Jason and the Dioscuri, besieged Acastus 
and Iolcus, slew Astydamia, and over the scat- 
tered limbs of her body led his warriors into 
the city. The flocks of Peleus were at one 
time worried by a wolf, which Psamathe had 
sent to avenge the murder of her son Phocus, 
iut she herself afterward, on the request of 
Thetis, turned the animal into stone. Peleus, 
who had in former times joined Hercules in his 
expedition against Troy, was too old to accom- 
pany his son Achilles against that city : he re- 
mained at home, and survived the death of his 
son. 

Peliades (n.e/uad°es), the daughters of Pelias. 
Vid. Pelias. 

Pelias (HeMag). 1. Son of Neptune (Poseidon) 
and Tyro, a daughter of Salmoneus. Neptune 
(Poseidon) once visited Tyro in the form of the 
river-god Enipeus, with whom she was in love, 
and she became by him the mother of Pelias and 
Neleus. To conceal her shame, their mother 
exposed the two boys, but they were found and 
reared by some countrymen. They subsequent- 
ly learned their parentage ; and, after the death 
of Cretheus, king of Iolcos, who had married 
their mother, they seized the throne of Iolcos, 
to the exclusion of /Eson, the son of Cretheus 
and Tyro. Pelias soon afterward expelled his 
own brother Neleus, and thus became sole ruler 
of Iolcos. After Pelias had long reigned over 
Iolcos, Jason, the son of iEson, came to Iolcos 
and claimed the kingdom as his right. In order 
to get rid of him, Pelias sent him to Colchis to 
fetch the golden fleece. Hence arose the cele- 
brated expedition of the Argonauts. After the 
return of Jason, Pelias was cut to pieces and 
boiled by his own daughters (the Peliades), who 
had been told by Medea that in this manner they 
might restore their father to vigor and youth. 
His son Acastus held funeral games in his honor 
at Iolcus, and expelled Jason and Medea from 
the country. For details, vid. Jason, Medea, 
Argonautje. The names of several of the 
daughters of Pelias are recorded. The most 
celebrated of them was Alcestis, the wife of 
Admetus, who is therefore called by Ovid Pelice 
gener. — [2. A Trojan, wounded by Ulysses in 
the Trojan war ; he survived the destruction 
of the city, and accompanied ^Eneas to Italy.] 

Pelides (n^A«'(5)7£-, TlriXeiuv), a patronymic 
from Peleus, generaljv given to his son Achilles, 
more rarely to his grandson Neoptolemus. 

Peligni, a brave and warlike people of Sabine 
origin in central Italy, bounded southeast by the 
Marsi, north by the Marrucini, south by Sam- 
nium and the Frentani, and east by the Fren- 
tani likewise. The climate of their country 
was cold Plor., Carm., iii., 19, 8) ; but it pro- 
duced a considerable quantity of flax, and was 
celebrated for its honey. The Peligni, like their 
neighbors, the Marsi, were regarded as magi- 
cians. Their principal towns were Coffinium 



and Sulmo. They offered a brave resistance 
to the Romans, but concluded a peace with the 
republic along with their neighbors the Marsi, 
Marrucini, and Frentani, in B.C. 304. They took 
an active part in the Social war (90, 89), and 
their chief town Corfinium was destined by the 
allies to be the new capital of Italy in place 
of Rome. They were subdued by Pompeius, 
Strabo, after which time they are rarely men- 
tioned. 

PeliNjEUs Mons (to TleXivawv opoc, or HeWn- 
valov : now Mount Elias), the highest mountain 
of the island of Chios, a little north of the city 
of Chios, with a celebrated temple of Zeif TleXi- 
vatot;. 

Pelinna, or more commonly Pelinn^um (Ile- 
Ilvvo., Tle'kivvalov : now Gardhiki), a town of 
Thessaly in Hestiaaotis, on the left bank of the 
Peneus, was taken by the Romans in their war 
with Antiochus. 

Pelion, more rarely Pelios (to UtiXlov opog : 
now Plessidhi or Zagora), a lofty range of mount- 
ains in Thessaly, in the district of Magnesia, 
was situated between the Lake Bcebeis and the 
Pagasaean Gulf, and formed the promontories 
of Sepias and yEantium. Its sides were cover- 
ed with wood, and on its summit was a temple 
of Jupiter (Zeus) Actaeus, where the cold was 
so severe that the persons who went in pro- 
cession to this temple once a year wore thick 
skins to protect themselves. Mount Pelion was 
celebrated in mythology. The giants in their 
war with the gods are said to have attempted 
to heap Ossa and Olympus on Pelion, or Pelion 
and Ossa on Olympus, in order to scale heaven. 
Near the summit of this mountain was the cave 
of the Centaur Chiron, whose residence was 
probably placed here on account of the number 
of the medicinal plants which grew upon the 
mountain, since he was celebrated for his skill 
in medicine. On Pelion also the timber was 
felled with which the ship Argo was built, 
whence Ovid applies the term Pelias arbor to 
this ship. 

Pella (YleXka : HeXhaloq, Pellaeus). 1. (Now 
Alaklisi), an ancient town of Macedonia, in the 
district Bottiaea, was situated upon a hill, and 
upon a lake formed by the Paver Lydias, one 
hundred and twenty stadia from its mouth. It 
continued to be a place of small importance till 
the time of Philip, who made it his residence 
and the capital of the Macedonian monarchy, 
and adorned it with many public buildings. It 
is frequently mentioned by subsequent writers 
on account of its being the birth-place of Alex- 
ander the Great. It was the capital of one of 
the four districts into which the Romans di- 
vided Macedonia (vid. p. 464, a), and was sub- 
sequently made a Roman colony under the name 
of Col. Jul. Aug. Pella.— 2. (Now El-Bujeh ?), 
the southernmost of the ten cities which com- 
posed the Decapolis in Peraea, that is, in Pales- 
tine east of the Jordan, stood five Roman miles 
southeast of Scythopolis, and was also called 
Boiirif. It was taken by Antiochus the Great 
in the wars between Syria and Egypt, and was 
held by a Macedonian colony till it was de- 
stroyed by Alexander Jannaeus on account of 
the refusal of its inhabitants to embrace the 
Jewish religion. It was restored and given 
back to its old inhabitants by Pompey. It was 

619 



PELL^EUS PAGUS. 



PELOPONNESUS. 



the place of refuge of the Christians who fled 
from Jerusalem before its capture by the Ro- 
mans. The exact site of Pella is very uncer- 
tain. — 3. A city of Syria on the Orontes, for- 
merly called Pharnace, was named Pella by the 
Macedonians, and afterward Apamea (No. 1). — 
4. In Phrygia. Vid. Pelt.se. 

Pellyeus Pagus was the name given by Al- 
exander, after Pella in Macedonia, to the dis- 
trict of Susiana about the mouths of the Tigris ; 
in which he built the city of Alexandrea, after- 
ward called Charax. 

Pellana. Vid. Pellene, No. 2. 

Pellene (Jlel\7]vri, Dor. TleXkava : TleTilrjv- 
evc). 1. A city in Achaia, bordering on Sicyonia, 
the most easterly of the twelve Achaean cities, 
was situated on a hill sixty stadia from the city, 
and was strongly fortified. Its port-town was 
Aristonautae. The ancients derived its name 
from the giant Pallas, or from the Argive Pel- 
len, the son of Phorbas. It is mentioned in Ho- 
mer ; and the inhabitants of Scione, in the pen- 
insula of Pallene,*in Macedonia, professed to be 
descended from the Pellenaeans in Achaia, who 
were shipwrecked on the Macedonian coast on 
their return from Troy. In the] Peloponnesian 
war Pellene sided with Sparta. In the later 
wars of Greece between the Achaean and iEto- 
lian leagues, the town was several times taken 
. by the contending parties. Between Pellene 
and iEgae there was a smaller town of the same 
name, where the celebrated Pellenian cloaks 
(TltXkriviaK.ai x^awai) were made, which were 
given as prizes to the victors in the games at 
this place. — 2. Usually called Pellana, a town 
in Laconia, on the Eurotas, about fifty stadia 
r.orthwest of Sparta, belonging to the Spartan 
Tripolis. 

Pelodes (Tl7]?i6dr]c "kifiriv, in App. Ha?i6stc : 
now Armyro), a port-town belonging to Buthro- 
tum in Epirus, and on a bay which probably bore 
the same name. 

Pelopea or Pelopia (UeXonEia), daughter of 
Thyestes, dwelt at Sicyon, where her father of- 
fered her violence, without knowing that she 
was his daughter. While pregnant by her fa- 
ther, she married her uncle Atreus. Shortly 
afterward she bore a son TEgisthus, who event- 
ually murdered Atreus. For details, vid. Mgis- 

THUS. 

[Pelopid^e (Tlclionidai), descendants of Pe- 
lops, e. g., Theseus (Plut.), Tantalus, Atreus (Pe- 
lopeius, Ovid), Thyestes, Agamemnon {Propert.), 
Hermione and Iphigenia (Pelopela virgo, Ovid), 
Orestes (Lucan.).] 

Pelopidas (UeTiontdag), the Theban general 
and statesman, son of Hippoclus, was descend- 
ed from a noble family, and inherited a large es- 
tate, of which he made a liberal use. He lived 
always in the closest friendship with Epami- 
nondas, to whose simple frugality, as he could 
not persuade him to share his riches, he is said 
to have assimilated his own mode of life. He 
took a leading part in expelling the Spartans 
from Thebes, B.C. 379 ; and from this time 
until his death there was not a year in which 
he was not intrusted with some important com- 
mand. In 371 he was one of the Theban com- 
manders at the battle of Leuctra, so fatal to the 
Lacedaemonians, and joined Epaminondas in 
urging the expediency of immediate action. In 
620 



369 he was also one of the generals in the first 
invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans. Re- 
specting his accusation on his return from this 
campaign, vid. p. 281, b. In 368 Pelopidas was 
sent again into Thessaly, on two separate occa- 
sions, in consequence of complaints against Al- 
exander of Pherae. On his first expedition Al- 
exander of Pherae sought safety in flight ; and 
Pelopidas advanced into Macedonia to arbitrate 
between Alexander II. and Ptolemy of Alorus. 
Among the hostages whom he took with him 
from Macedonia was the famous Philip, the fa- 
ther of Alexander the Great. On his second 
visit to Thessaly, Pelopidas went simply as an 
ambassador, not expecting any opposition, and 
unprovided with a military force. He was seiz- 
ed by Alexander of Pherae, and was kept in con- 
finement at Pherae till his liberation in 367 by a 
Theban force under Epaminondas. In the same 
year in which he was released he was sent as 
ambassador to Susa, to counteract the Lacedae- 
monian and Athenian negotiations at the Per- 
sian court. In 364 the Thessalian towns again 
applied to Thebes for protection against Alex- 
ander, and Pelopidas was appointed to aid them. 
His forces, however, were dismayed by an 
eclipse of the sun (June 13), and, therefore, 
leaving them behind, he took with him into 
Thessaly only three hundred horse. On his 
arrival at Pharsalus he collected a force which 
he deemed sufficient, and marched against Al- 
exander, treating lightly the great disparity of 
numbers, and remarking that it was better as it 
was, since there would be more for him to con- 
quer. At Cynoscephalae a battle ensued, ii> 
which Pelopidas drove the enemy from their 
ground, but he himself was slain as, burning 
with resentment, he pressed rashly forward to 
attack Alexander in person. The Thebans and 
Thessalians made great lamentations for his 
death, and the latter, having earnestly request- 
ed leave to bury him, celebrated his funeral with 
extraordinary splendor. 

[Pelopis Insula, nine islands on the coast 
of Argolis, eastward of Methana, between -LCgi- 
na and Calauria.] 

Peloponnesus (ij Jle^onovvrjaoc : now Morca), 
the southern part of Greece or the peninsula, 
which was connected with Hellas proper by the 
Isthmus of Corinth. It is said to have derived 
its name Peloponnesus, or the " Island of Pe- 
lops," from the mythical Pelops. Vid. Pei.ops. 
This name does not occur in Homer. In his 
time the peninsula was sometimes called Apia, 
from Apis, son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, and 
sometimes Argos ; which names were given to 
it on account of Argos being the chief power in 
Peloponnesus at that period. Peloponnesus 
was bounded on the north by the Corinthian 
Gulf, on the west by the Ionian or Sicilian Sea, 
on the south by the Libyan, and on the west by 
the Cretan and Myrtoan seas. On the east and 
south there are three great gulfs, the Argolic, 
Laconian, and Messenian. The ancients com- 
pared the shape of the country to the leaf of a 
plane-tree ; and its modern name, the Morca (6 
Mapeoc), which first occurs in the twelfth cen- 
tury of" the Christian era, was given it on ac- 
count of its resemblance to a mulberry-leaf. 
Peloponnesus was divided into various provin- 
! ces, all of which were bounded on one side by 



PELOPS. 



PELOPS. 



the sea, with the exception of Arcadia, which [ 
was in the centre of the country. These prov- 
inces, besides Arcadia, were Achaia in the 
north, Elis in the west, Messenia in the west 
and south, Laconia in the south and east, [Ar- 
golis in the east,] and Corinthia in the east 
and north. An account of the geography of the 
peninsula is given under these names. The 
area of Peloponnesus is . computed to be seven 
thousand seven hundred and seventy-nine En- 
glish miles, and it probably contained a popu- 
lation of upward of a million in the flourishing 
period of Greek history. Peloponnesus was 
originally inhabited by Pelasgians. Subsequent- 
ly the AchaBans, who belonged to the ^Eolic 
race, settled in the eastern and southern parts 
of the peninsula, in Argolis, Laconia, and Mes- 
senia ; and the Ionians in the northern part, in 
Achaia ; while the remains of the original in- 
habitants of the country, the Pelasgians, col- 
lected chiefly in the central part, in Arcadia. 
Eighty years after the Trojan war, according to 
mythical chronology, the Dorians, under the 
conduct of the Heraclida?, invaded and conquer- 
ed Peloponnesus, and established Doric states 
in Argolis, Laconia, and Messenia, from whence 
they extended their power over Corinth, Sic- 
yon, and Megara. Part of the Achaean popula- 
tion remained in these provinces as tributary 
subjects to the Dorians, under the name of Peri- 
ceci, while others of the Achaeans passed over 
to the north of Peloponnesus, expelled the Io- 
nians, and settled in this part of the country, 
which was called after them Achaia. The ^Eto- 
lians, who had invaded Peloponnesus along with 
the Dorians, settled in Elis and became inter- 
mingled with the original inhabitants. The 
peninsula remained under Doric influence dur- 
ing the most important period of Greek history, 
and opposed to the great Ionic city of Athens. 
After the conquest of Messenia by the Spartans, 
it was under the supremacy of Sparta till the 
overthrow of the power of the latter by the 
Thebans at the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371. 

Pelops (U&oip), grandson of Jupiter (Zeus), 
son of Tantalus and Dione, the daughter of 
Atlas. Some writers call his mother Euryanassa 
or Clytia. He was married to Hippodamia, by 
whom he became the father of Atreus, Thyes- 
tes, Dias,. Cynosurus, Corinthius, Hippalmus 
(Hippalcmus or Hippalcimus), Hippasus, Cleon, 
Argius, Alcathous, ^Elius, Pittheus, Trcezen, 
Nicippe, and Lysidice. By Axioche or the 
nymph Danais he is said to have been the father 
of Chrysippus. Pelops was king of Pisa in Elis, 
and from him the great southern peninsula of 
Greece was believed to have derived its name 
Peloponnesus. According to a tradition, which 
became very general in later times, Pelops was 
a Phrygian, who wis expelled by Ilus from 
Phrygia (hence called by Ovid, Met., viii., 622, 
Pelopeia arva), and thereupon migrated with his 
great wealth to Pisa. Others describe him as 
a Paphlagonian, and call the Paphlagonians 
themselves HeXonrfioi. Others, again, represent 
him as a native of Greece ; and there can be 
little doubt that in the earliest traditions Pelops 
was described as a native of Greece and not as 
a foreign immigrant ; and in them he is called 
the tamer of horses and the favorite of Neptune 
'Poseidon). The legends about Pelops consist 



' mainly of the story of his being cut to pieces 
and boiled, of his contest with QEnomaus and 
Hippodamia, and of his relation to his sons ; to 
which we may add the honors paid to his re- 
mains. 1. Pelops cut to pieces and boiled (Kpsovp- 
yia TleXonoc). Tantalus, the favorite of the 
gods, once invited them to a repast, and on thai 
occasion killed his own son, and having boiled 
him, set the flesh before them that they might 
eat it. But the immortal gods, knowing what 
it was, did not touch it ; Ceres (Demeter) alone, 
being absorbed by grief for her lost daughter, 
consumed the shoulder of Pelops. Hereupon 
the gods ordered Mercury (Hermes) to put the 
limbs of Pelops into a caldron, and thereby 
restore him to life. "When the process was 
over, Clotho took him out of the caldron, and 
as the shoulder consumed by Ceres (Demeter) 
was wanting, the goddess supplied its place by 
one made of ivory ; his descendants (the Pelo- 
pidae), as a mark of their origin, were believed 
to have one shoulder as white as ivory. — 2. Con- 
test with (Enomaus and Hippodamia. As an or- 
acle had declared to QEnomaus that he should 
be killed by his son-in-law, he refused giving 
his fair daughter Hippodamia in marriage to any 
one. But since many suitors appeared, QEno- 
maus declared that he would bestow her hand 
upon the man who should conquer him in the 
chariot-race, but that he should kill all who 
were defeated by him. Among other suitors 
Pelops also presented himself, but when he saw 
the heads of his conquered predecessors stuck 
up above the door of QEnomaus, he was seized 
with fear, and endeavored to gain the favor of 
Myrtilus, the charioteer of QEnomaus, promis 
ing him half the kingdom if he would assist him 
in conquering his master. Myrtilus agreed, and 
left out the linch-pins of the chariot of GEnoma- 
us. In the race the chariot of QEnomaus broke 
down, and he was thrown out and killed. Thus 
Hippodamia became the wife of Pelops. But 
as Pelops had now gained his object, he was 
unwilling to keep faith with Myrtilus ; and ac- 
cordingly, as they were driving along a cliff, he 
threw Myrtilus into the sea. As Myrtilus sank, 
he cursed Pelops and his whole race. Pelops 
returned with Hippodamia to Pisa in Elis, and 
soon also made himself master of Olympia, 
where he restored the Olympian games with 
greater splendor than they had ever been cele 
brated before. — 3. The sons of Pelops. Chrysip- 
pus was the favorite of his father, and was, in 
consequence, envied by his brothers. The two 
eldest among them, Atreus and Thyestes, with 
the connivance of Hippodamia, accordingly mur- 
dered Chrysippus, and threw his body into a 
well. Pelops, who suspected his sons of the 
murder, expelled them from the country. Hip- 
podamia, dreadingthe anger of her husband, fled 
to Midea in Argolis, from whence her remains 
were afterward conveyed by Pelops to Olympia. 
Pelops, after his death, was honored at Olympia 
above all other heroes. His tomb, with an iron 
sarcophagus, existed on the banks of the Alphe- 
us, not far from the temple of Diana (Artemis), 
near Pisa. The spot on which his sanctuary 
(TleloTuov) stood in the Altis was said to have 
been dedicated by Hercules, who also offered 
to him the first sacrifices. The magistrates of 
the Eleans likewise offered to him there an an« 

621 



PELORIS. 

nual sacrifice, consisting of a black ram, with 
special ceremonies. The name of Pelops was 
so celebrated that it was constantly used by the 
poets in connection with his descendants and 
the cities they inhabited. Hence we find Atreus, 
the son of Pelops, called Pelopelus Atreus, and 
Agamemnon, the grandson or great-grandson 
of Atreus, called Pelopelus Agamemnon. In the 
same way, Iphigenia, the daughter of Agamem- 
non, and Hennione, the wife of Menelaus, are 
each called by Ovid Pclopeia virgo. Virgil (J5n., 
ii., 193) uses the phrase Pelopea maznia to sig- 
nify the cities in Peloponnesus which Pelops 
and his descendants ruled over ; and, in like 
manner, Mycenee is called by Ovid Pelopelades 
Mycence. 

Peloris, Pelorias, or Pelorus (TleXwp'ic, Ile- 
Aupiaf, Tlelupoc : now Cape Faro), the northeast- 
ern point of Sicily, was northeast of Messana, on 
the Fretum Siculum, and one of the three prom- 
ontories which formed the triangular figure of 
the island. According to the usual story, it de- 
rived its name from Pelorus, the pilot of Hanni- 
bal's ship, who was buried here after being kill- 
ed by Hannibal in a fit of anger ; but the name 
was more ancient than Hannibal's time, being 
mentioned by Thucydides. On the promontory 
there was a temple of Neptune (Poseidon), and 
a tower, probably a light-house, from which the 
modern name of the Cape (Faro) appears to have 
come. 

Pelorus (Tle"kupoc : now probably Lori or Lit- 
ri), a river of Iberia in Asia, appears to have 
been a southern tributary of the Cyrus (now 
Kour). 

Pelso or Peiso (now Plattensee), a great lake 
in Pannonia, the waters of which were con- 
ducted into the Danube by the Emperor Galen- 
as, who thus gained a great quantity of fertile 
land for his newly-formed province of Valeria. 

Pelt^e (Tl£2.Tai : LTeAr^vof), an ancient and 
flourishing city of Asia Minor, in the north of 
Phrygia, ten parasangs from Celaenae (Xenoph.), 
and no doubt the same place as the Pella of the 
Roman writers, twenty-six Roman miles north 
or northeast of Apamea Cibotus, to the conven- 
tus of which it belonged. The surrounding dis- 
trict is called by Strabo to TieXrnvbv ■Kedlov. Its 
site is uncertain. Some identify it with the 
ruins eight miles south of Sandakli; others, with 
those near Ishekli. 

Peltuinum (Peltuinas, -atis : now Monte Bel- 
la), a town of theVestini in Central Italy. 

Pelusium (Jlrfkovaiov : Egypt. Peremoun or 
Peromi ; in the Old Testament, Sin : all these 
names are derived from nouns meaning mud: 
UnXovaturnc ; Pelusiota : ruins at Tineh), also 
called Abaris in early times, a celebrated city 
of Lower Egypt, stood on the eastern side of the 
easternmost mouth of the Nile, which was call- 
ed after it the Pelusiac mouth, twenty stadia 
(two geographical miles) from the sea, in the 
midst of morasses, from which it obtained its 
name. As the key of Egypt on the northeast, 
and the frontier city toward Syria and Arabia, 
it was strongly fortified, and was the scene of 
many battles and sieges in the wars of Egypt 
with Assyria, Persia, Syria, and Rome, from the 
defeat of Sennacherib near it by Sethon down 
to its capture by Octavianus after the battle of 
Actium. In later times it was the capital of 
622 



PENELOPE. 

the district of Augustamnica. It was the birth 
place of the geographer Claudius Ptolemasus. 

Penates, the household gods of the Romans, 
both those of a private family and of the state, 
as the great family of citizens. Hence we have 
to distinguish between private and public Pena- 
tes. The name is connected with penus, and 
the images of those gods were kept in the pene- 
tralia, or the central part of the house. The I 
Lares were included among the Penates; both [ 
names, in fact, are often used synonymously. 
The Lares, however, though included in the 
Penates, were not the only Penates ; for each 
family had usually no more than one Lar, where- 
as the Penates are always spoken of in the plu- 
ral. Since Jupiter and Juno were regarded as 
the protectors of happiness and peace in the 
family, these divinities were worshipped as Pe- 
nates. Vesta was also reckoned among the Pe- 
nates ; for each hearth, being the symbol of do- 
mestic union, had its Vesta. All other Penates, 
both public and private, seem to have consisted 
of certain sacred relics connected with indefi- i 
nite divinities, and hence Varro says that the ' 
number and names of the Penates were indef- | 
inite. Most ancient writers believe that the 
Penates of the state were brought by .Eneas 
from Troy into Italy, and were preserved first at 
Lavinium, afterward at Alba Longa, and finally 
at Rome. At Rome they had a chapel near 
the centre of the city, in a place called sub Velia 
As the public Lares were worshipped in the 
central part of the city and at the public hearth, 
so the private Penates had their place at the 
hearth of every house, and the table also was 
sacred to them. On the hearth a perpetual fire 
was kept up in their honor, and the table al- 
ways contained the salt-cellar and the firstlings _ 
of fruit for these divinities. Every meal that 
was taken in the house thus resembled a sacri- 
fice offered to the Penates, beginning with a 
purification and ending with a libation, which 
was poured either on the table or upon the 
hearth. After every absence from the hearth, 
the Penates were saluted like the living inhab- 
itants of the house ; and whoever went abroad j 
prayed to the Penates and Lares for a happy re^ 
turn, and when he came back to his house, h'J 
hung up his armor, staff, and the like, by the I 
side of their images. 

Peneis, that is, Daphne, daughter of the riv- 
er-god Peneus. 

Peneleos {UrjvD.euc), son of Hippalcmus and 
Asterope, and one of the Argonauts. He v*a» 
the father of Opheltes, and is also mentioaed 
among the suitors of Helen. He was one of 
the leaders of the Boeotians in the war against 
Troy, where he slew Uioneus and Lycon, and 
was wounded by Polydamas. He is said to have 
been slain by Eurypylus, the son of Telephus. 

Penelope (JlriveXoirtj, Tiev&oTrn, Jlr/ve^uireca). | 
daughter oflcarius and Periboea of Sparta, .mar- 
ried Ulysses, king of Ithaca. (Respecting her 
marriage, vid. Icarius, No. 2.) By Ulysses she 
had an only child, Telemachus, who was an in- 
fant when her husband sailed against Troy. 
During the long absence of Ulysses she was be- 
leaguered by numerous and importunate suitors, 
whom she deceived by declaring that she must 
finish a large robe which she was making for 
Laertes, her aged father-in-law, before she could 



PENEST^te. 



PENTRL 



make up her mind. During the daytime she 
accordingly worked at the robe, and in the night 
she undid the work of the day. By this means 
she succeeded in putting off the suitors. But 
at length her stratagem was betrayed by her 
servants ; and when, in consequence, the faith- 
ful Penelope was pressed more and more by the 
impatient suitors, Ulysses at length arrived in 
[thaca, after an absence of twenty years. Hav- 
ing recognized her husband by several signs, 
she heartily welcomed him, and the days of her 
grief and sorrow were at an end. Vid. Ulys- 
ses. While Homer describes Penelope as a 
most chaste and faithful wife, some later writ- 
ers charge her with the very opposite vice, and 
relate that by Mercury (Hermes) or by all the 
suitors together she became the mother of Pan. 
They add that Ulysses, on his return, repudiated 
her, whereupon she went to Sparta, and thence 
to Mantinea, where her tomb was shown in after 
times. According to another tradition, she mar- 
ried Telegonus, after he had killed his father 
Ulysses. 

[Penestje (TLevearai), according to Stephanus 
of Byzantium, aThessalian tribe, but according 
to Livy, a warlike race of Grecian Illyria, in the 
district Penestia or Pe?iestiana terra, on the bor- 
ders of Thessaly and Macedonia.] 

Peneus {Hrjveioc). 1. (Now Salambria or Sa- 
lamria), the chief river of Thessaly, and one of 
the most important in all Greece, rises near Alal- 
comenae in Mount Lacmon, a branch of Mount 
Pindus, flows first southeast and then northeast, 
and after receiving many affluents, of which the 
most important were the Enipeus, the Lethaeus, 
and the Titaresius, forces its way through the 
Vale of Tempe between Mounts Ossa and Olym- 
pus into the sea. Vid. Tempe. As a god, Peneus 
was called a son of Oceanus and Tethys. By 
the Naiad Creusa he became the father of Hyp- 
seus, Stilbe, and Daphne. Gyrene also is called 
by some his wife, and by others his daughter, 
and hence Peneus is described as the progeni- 
tor of Aristaeus.— 2. (Now Gastuni), a river in 
Elis, which rises on the frontiers of Arcadia, 
flows by the town of Elis, and falls into the sea be- 
tween the promontories Chelonatas andlchthys. 

Penius, a little river of Pontus, falling into 
the Euxine. (Ovid, Ex Ponto, iv., 10.) 

Pennine Alpes. Vid. Alpes. 

[Pennus, Junius M. 1. Praetor B.C. 172, and 
obtained Nearer Spain for his province. He was 
eonsul B.C. 167, with Q. ,-Elius Paetus, and ob- 
tained Pisse as his province. — 2. M. Junius, son 
of the preceding, was tribune of the plebs B.C. 
126, in which year he brought forward a law for 
expelling all strangers or foreigners (peregrini) 
from Rome. This law was opposed by C. Grac- 
chus, but was carried. Pennus was afterward 
elected to the asdileship, but died before obtain- 
ing any higher honor in the state.] 

Pentapolis (TlevTaTToXtc), the name for any 
association of five cities, was applied specific- 
ally to, 1. The five chief cities of Cyrenaica in 
Northern Africa, Cyrene, Berenice, Arsinoe, 
Ptolemai's, and Apollonia, from which, under the 
Ptolemies, Cyrenaica received the name of 
Pentapolis, or Pentapolis Libyae, or, in the Ro- 
man writers, Pentapolitana Regio. When the 
name occurs alone, this is its meaning ; the 
other applications of it are but rare.— 2. The 



five cities of the Philistines in the southwest ol 
Palestine, namely, Gaza, Ashdod ( Azotus), Aska- 
lon, Gath, and Ekron. — 3. In the apocryphal 
Book of the Wisdom of Solomon (x., 6), the name 
is applied to the five "cities of the plain" of the 
southern Jordan, Sodom, Gomorrha, Adama, 
Zeboi'm, and Zoar, all of which (except the last, 
which was spared at the intercession of Lot) 
were overthrown by fire from heaven, and the 
valley in which they stood was buried beneath 
the waters of the Dead Sea. 

Penteleum (UevreXeiov), a fortified place in 
the north of Arcadia, near Pheneus. 

Pentelicus Mons (to HevT£?.iKdv opoc : now 
Penteli), a mountain in Attica, celebrated for its 
marble, which derived its name from the demus 
ofPentele (Tlevrelri), lying on its southern slope. 
It is a branch of Mount Parnes, from which it 
runs in a southeasterly direction between Athens 
and Marathon to the coast. It is probably the 
same as the mountain called Brilessus (BpiTino- 
aoc) by Thucydides and others. 

Penthesilea (n.evdea'i'ktta), daughter of Mars 
(Ares) and Otrera, and queen of the Amazons. 
After the death of Hector she came to the assist- 
ance of the Trojans, but was slain by Achilles, 
who mourned over the dying queen on account 
of her beauty, youth, and valor. Thersites rid- 
iculed the grief of Achilles, and was, in conse- 
quence, killed by the hero. Thereupon Diome- 
des, a relative of Thersites, threw the body of 
Penthesilea into the River Scamander ; but, ac- 
cording to others, Achilles himself buried it on 
the banks of the Xanthus. 

PENTHEus(IIeii0£ijf), son ofEchion and Agave, 
the daughter of Cadmus. He succeeded Cad- 
mus as king of Thebes ; and having resisted the 
introduction of the worship of Bacchus (Diony- 
sus) into his kingdom, he was driven mad by the 
god, his palace was hurled to the ground, and he 
himself was torn to pieces by his own mother 
and her two sisters, Ino and Autonoe, who, in 
their Bacchic phrensy, believed him to be a wild 
beast. The place where Pentheus suffered death 
is said to have been Mount Cithaeron or Mount 
Parnassus. It is related that Pentheus got upon 
a tree for the purpose of witnessing in secret 
the revelry of the Bacchic women, but on being 
discovered by them was torn to pieces. Ac- 
cording to a Corinthian tradition, the women 
were afterward commanded by an oracle to dis- 
cover that tree, and to worship it like the god 
Bacchus (Dionysus); and, accordingly, out of 
the tree two carved images of the god were 
made. The tragic fate of Pentheus forms the 
subject of the Bacch.ce. of Euripides. 

[Penthilims (JXevdil'i6ai), a noble family at 
Mytilene in Lesbos, who derived their origin 
from Penthilus, the son of Orestes, who was 
said to have led a colony to Lesbos.] 

Penthilus (Hevdiloc), son of Orestes andEri- 
gone, is said to have led a colony of /Eolians to 
Thrace. He was the father of Echelatus and 
Damasias. 

Pentri, one of the most important of the 
tribes in Samnium, were conquered by the Ro- 
mans along with the other Samnites, and were 
the only one of the Samnite tribes who remain- 
ed faithful to the Romans when the rest of the 
nation revolted to Hannibal in the second Punir. 
war. Their chief town was Bovianum. 

623 



PEOR. 



PERDICCAS 



Peor, a mountain of Palestine, in the land 
of Moab, only mentioned in the Pentateuch. It 
was probably one of the summits of the mount- 
ains called Abarim, which ran north and south 
through Moabitis, along the eastern side of the 
valley of the southern Jordan and the Dead Sea. 

Peos Artemidos (IKor, probably corrupted 
from Ineoc, cave, Wprcfildoc : ruins at Beni Has- 
san), a city of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, 
on the eastern bank of the Nile, nearly opposite 
to Hermopolis the Great, on the western bank. 
It is remarkable as the site of the most extensive 
rock-hewn catacpmbs in all Egypt, the walls of 
which are covered with sculptures and paintings 
of the greatest importance for elucidating Egyp- 
tian antiquities. 

Peparethus (Jle-apndoc : Tlenapiidioc : now 
Pipcri), a small island in the iEgean Sea, off the 
coast of Thessaly, and east of Halonesus, with 
a town of the same name upon it, and two other 
small places. It produced a considerable quan- 
tity of wine. It is mentioned in connection 
with Halonesus in the war between Philip and 
the Athenians. Vid. Halonesus. 

[PEPHNos(ne^vof). 1. A city on the west coast 
of Laconia, twenty stadia from Thalamae. In 
front of it lay, 2. A small island of the same 
name, where, according to tradition, the Dios- 
curi were born.] 

Pephredo (U.e<j>pr/do)). Vid. Grave. 

Pepuza (IlcTrovta : ruins near Besh-Shehr), a 
city in the west of Phrygia, of some note in ec- 
clesiastical history. 

Per^ea {fj Htpa'ia, SC. yij or ^upa, the country 
on the opposite side), a general name for any dis- 
trict belonging to or closely connected with a 
country, from the main part of which it was 
separated by a sea or river, was used specific- 
ally for, i. The part of Palestine east of the 
Jordan in general, but usually, in a more re- 
stricted sense, for a part of that region, namely, 
the district between the Rivers Hieromax on 
the north, and Arnon on the south. Respecting 
its political connections with the rest of the 
country, vid. Pal^estina. — 2. Per.ea Rhodio- 
rum (r/ ixepaia tuv 'Podiuv), also called the Rho- 
dian Chersonese, a district in the south of Caria, 
opposite to the island of Rhodes, from Mount 
Phoenix on the west, to the frontier of Lycia on 
the east. This strip of coast, which was reck- 
oned fifteen hundred stadia in length (by sea), 
and was regarded as one of the finest spots on 
the earth, was colonized by the Rhodians at an 
early period, and was always in close political 
connection with Rhodes even under the suc- 
cessive rulers of Caria ; and, after the victory 
of the Romans over Antiochus the Great, B.C. 
190. it was assigned, with the whole of Carian 
Doris, to the independent republic of the Rho- 
dians. Vid. Rhodus. — 3. P. Tenediorum (7rt- 
paia TeveSIuv), a strip of the western coast of 
Mysia, opposite to the island of Tenedos, be- 
tween Cape Sigeum on the north, and Alexandrea 
Troas on the south. — 4. A city on the western 
coast of Mysia, near Adramyttium, one of the 
colonies of the Mytilenseans, and not improb- 
ably preserving in its name that of a district 
once called Perasa Mytilenaeorum ; for the peo- 
ple of Mytilene are known to have had many 
eettleinents on this coast. • 

[Percennius, a common soldier, w is the ring- 
624 



leader in the formidable mutiny of the Panno- 
nian legions, which broke out at the beginning 
of the reign of Tiberius, A.D. 14. He was killed 
by order of Drusus.] 

Percote (TlepKUTTj, formerly TlepKumi, accord- 
ing to Strabo : now Borgas or Burgus, Turk., 
and Percate, Grk.), a very ancient city of Mysia, |i 
between Abydos and Lampsacus, near the Hel- ; 
lespont, on a river called Percates, in a beau- b 
tiful situation. It is mentioned by Homer. 

Perdiccas {TlepdiKKac). 1. I. The founder of 
the Macedonian monarchy, according to Herodo- s 
tus, though later writers represent Caranus as ;' 
the first king of Macedonia, and make Perdiccas \ 
only the fourth. Vid. Caranus. According to \ 
Herodotus, Perdiccas and his two brothers, Gau- ; 
anes and ASropus, were Argives of the race of 
Temenus, who settled nearMountBermius.from i 
whence they subdued the rest of Macedonia. 
(Herod., viii., 137, 138.) It is clear, however, 
that the dominions of Perdiccas and his imme- • 
diate successors comprised but a very small 1 
part of the country subsequently known under 
that name. Perdiccas was succeeded by his I 
son Argeeus. — 2. II. King of Macedonia from , 
about B.C. 454 to 413, was the son and success- a 
or of Alexander I. Shortly before the com- i) 
mencement of the Peloponnesian war Perdiccas 
was at war with the Athenians, who sent a force 5 
to support his brother Philip, and Derdas, a 
Macedonian chieftain, against the king, while ' 
the latter espoused the cause of Potidaea, which I 
had shaken off the Athenian yoke, B.C. 432. In '■. 
the following year peace was concluded be- ji 
tween Perdiccas and the Athenians, but it did jj 
not last long, and he was during the greater ii 
part of his reign on hostile terms with the Athe- ji 
nians. In 429 his dominions were invaded by | 
Sitalces, king of the powerful Thracian tribe of t 
the Odrysians, but the enemy was compelled, i 
by want of provisions, to return home. It was |> 
in great part at his instigation that Brasidas in f 
424 set out on his celebrated expedition to Mac- i 
edonia and Thrace. In the following year (423), 
however, a misunderstanding arose between ( 
him and Brasidas ; in consequence of which he Ji 
abandoned the Spartan alliance, and concluded j 
peace with Athens. Subsequently we find him | 
at one time in alliance with the Spartans, and i 
at another time with the Athenians ; and it is [ 
evident that he joined one or other of the bel- | 
ligerent parties according to the dictates of his i 
own interest at the moment. — 3. III. King of 
Macedonia B.C. 364-359, was the second son 
of Amyntas II. by his wife Eurydice. On the I 
assassination of his brother Alexander II. by j 
Ptolemy of Alorus, 367, the crown of Macedo- ' 
nia devolved upon him by hereditary right, but < 
Ptolemy virtually enjoyed the sovereign power , 
as guardian of Perdiccas till 364, when the lat- 
ter caused Ptolemy to be put to death, and took i 
the government into his own hands. Of the 
reign of Perdiccas we have very little informa- 
tion. We learn only that he was at one time [ 
engaged in hostilities with Athens on account 
of Amphipolis, and that he was distinguished ' 
for his patronage of men of letters. He fell in 
battle against the Illyrians, 359. — 4. Son of Oron- 
tes, a Macedonian of the province of Orestis. 
was one of the most distinguished of the generals 
of Alexander the Great. He accompanied Alex- 



! 



PERDIX. 



PERGAMON. 



ander throughout his campaigns in Asia ; and 
he king on his death-bed is said to have taken 
the royal signet- ring from his finger and given 
it to Perdiccas. After the death of the king 
(323), Perdiccas had the chief authority intrust- 
ed to him under the command of the new king 
Arrhidffius, who was a mere puppet in his hands, 
and he still further strengthened his power by 
the assassination of his rival Meleager. Vid. 
Meleager. The other generals of Alexander 
regarded him with fear and suspicion ; and at 
length his ambitious schemes induced Antipater, 
Craterus, and Ptolemy to unite in a league and 
declare open war against Perdiccas. Thus as- 
Bailed on all sides, Perdiccas determined to 
leave Eumenes in Asia Minor, to make head 
against their common enemies in that quarter, 
while he himself inarched into Egypt against 
Ptolemy. He advanced without opposition as 
far as Pelusium, but found the banks of the Nile 
strongly fortified and guarded by Ptolemy, and 
was repulsed in repeated attempts to force the 
passage of the river ; in the last of which, near 
Memphis, he lost great numbers of men. There- 
j upon his troops, who had long been discontent- 
ed with Perdiccas, rose in mutiny, and put him 
to death in his own tent. 
Perdix (Ilepdtf), the sister of Daedalus, and 
I mother of Talos, or, according to others, the 
1 Bister's son of Dasdalus, figu .es in the mytho- 
logical period of Greek art, as the inventor of 
various implements, chiefly for working in wood. 
Perdix is sometimes confounded with Talos or 
Calos, and it is best to regard the various le- 
gends respecting Perdix, Talos, and Calos as 
referring to one and the same person, namely, 
according to the mythographers, a nephew of 
Daedalus. The inventions ascribed to him are, 
the saw, the idea of which is said to have been 
suggested to him by the back-bone of a fish, or 
the teeth of a serpent ; the chisel ; the com- 
passes ; the potter's wheel. His skill excited 
the jealousy of Daedalus, who threw him head- 
long from the temple of Minerva (Athena) on 
the Acropolis, but the goddess caught him in his 
fall, and changed him into the bird which was 
named after him, perdix, the partridge. 

Peregrinus Proteus, a cynic philosopher, 
born at Parium, on the Hellespont, flourished in 
the reign of the Antonines. After a youth spent 
in debauchery and crimes, he visited Palestine, 
where he turned Christian, and by dint of hypoc- 
risy attained to some authority in the Church. 
He next assumed the cynic garb, and returned 
to his native town, where, to obliterate the mem- 
ory of his crimes, he divided his inheritance 
among the populace. He again set out on his 
travels, and after visiting many places, and 
adopting every method to make himself conspic- 
uous, he at length resolved on publicly burning 
himself at the Olympic games ; and carried his 
resolution into effect in the two hundred and 
thirty-sixth Olympiad, A.D. 165. Lucian, who 
knew Peregrinus, and who was present at his 
strange self-iinmolation, has left us an account 
of his life. 

Perenna, Anna. Vid. Anna. 
Perennis, succeeded Paternus in A.D. 183, 
as sole praefect of the praetorians, and, Com- 
modus being completely sunk in debauchery and 
loth, virtually ruled the empire. Having, how- 
40 



ever, rendered himself obnoxious to the sol- 
diery, he was put to death by them in 186 or 
187. Dion Cassius represents Perennis as a 
man of a pure and upright life ; but the other 
historians charge him with having encouraged 
the emperor in all his excesses, and urged h ; m 
on in his career of profligacy. 

[Pereus (TIepevc), son of Elatus and Laodii^e, 
brother of Stymphalus, and father of Neaera.] 

Perga (Tlepyrj : Uepyaioc : ruins at Murtana), 
an ancient and important city of Pamphylia, lay 
a little inland, northeast of Attalia, between the 
Rivers Catarrhactes and Cestrus, sixty stadia 
(six geographical miles) from the mouth of the 
former. It was a celebrated seat of the wor- 
ship of Diana (Artemis). On an eminence near 
the city stood a very ancient and renowned 
temple of the goddess, at which a yearly festi- 
val was celebrated ; and the coins of Perga bear 
images of the goddess and her temple. Under 
the later Roman empire, it was the capital of 
Pamphylia Secunda. It was the first place in 
Asia Minor visited by the Apostle Paul on his 
first missionary journey {Acts, xiii., 13 ; vid. also 
xiv., 25). Splendid ruins of the city are still 
visible about sixteen miles northeast of Adalia. 

Pergama and Pergamia. Vid. Pergamon. 
No. 1. 

Pergamon or -um, Pergamos or -us (ro Hip- 
yajiov, rj Ilepya/ioc : the former by far the most 
usual form in the classical writers, though the 
latter is more common in English, probably or 
account of its use in our version of the Bible, 
Rev., ii., 13 ; in Latin it seldom occurs in the 
nominative, but, when used, the form is Perga- 
mum : Hepyap.rjv6r, Pergamenus. The word is 
significant, connected with irvpyoc, a tower ; it is 
used in the plural form, irepya/ia, as a com- 
mon noun by iEschylus, Prom., 956; Euripides, 
Phcen., 1098, 1176). 1. The citadel of Troy, and 
used poetically for Troy itself : the poets also 
use the forms Pergama (to Tlepyapia) and Per- 
gamia (n ILepya/ita, sc. noXic) : the king of Troy, 
Laomedon, is called Hepyafiidric, and the Ro- 
mans are spoken of by Silius Italicus as " san- 
guis Pergameus." — 2. (Ruins at Bergamo, or 
Pergamo), a celebrated city of Asia Minor, the 
capital of the kingdom of Pergamus, and after 
ward of the Roman province of Asia, was situ- 
ated in the district of Southern Mysia called Teu- 
thrania, in one of the most beautiful and fertile 
valleys in the world. It stood on the northern 
bank of the River Caicus, at a spot where that 
river receives the united waters of two small 
tributaries, the Selinus, which flowed through 
the city, and the Cetius, which washed its walls. 
The navigable river Ca'/cus connected it with 
the sea at the Elai'tic Gulf, fiom which its dis- 
tance was somewhat less than twenty miles. 
It was built at the foot, and on the lowest slopes, 
of two steep hills, on one of which the ruins of 
the acropolis are still visible, and in the plain 
below are the remains of the Asclepieum and 
other temples, of the stadium, the theatre, and 
the amphitheatre, and of other buildings. The 
origin of the city is lost in mythical traditions, 
which ascribed its foundation to a colony from 
Arcadia under the Heraclid Telephus, and its 
name to Pergamus, a son of Pyrrhus and An- 
dromache, who made himself king of Teuthra- 
nia by killing the king Arius in single combat 

625 



Hr. 



PERGAMON. 



PERIANDER. 



There is also a tradition that a colony of Epi- I 
daurians settled here under ^Esculapius (As- 
clepius). At all events, it was already, in the 
time of Xenophon, a very ancient city, with a 
mixed population of Teuthranians and Greeks ; 
but it was not a place of much importance until 
the time of the successors of Alexander. After 
the defeat of Antigonus at Ipsus in 301, the 
northwestern part of Asia Minor was united to 
the Thracian kingdom of Lysimachus, who en- 
larged and beautified the city of Pergamus, and 
used it as a treasury on account of its strength 
as a fortress. The command of the fortress 
was intrusted to Phileteerus, who, toward the 
end of the reign of Lysimachus, revolted to Se- 
leucus, king of Syria, retaining, however, the 
fortress of Pergamus in his own hands ; and, 
upon the death of Seleucus in 280, Phileteerus 
established himself as an independent ruler. 
This is the date of the commencement of the 
kingdom of Pergamus, though the royal title 
was only assumed by the second successor of 
PhiletEerus, Attalus I., after his great victory 
over the Gauls. The successive kings of Per- 
gamus were PhiletEerus, 280-263 ; Eumenes 
L, 263-241; Attalus I., 241-197; Eumenes 
II., 197-159 ; Attalus II. Philadelphus, 159- 
138 ; Attalus III. Philometor, 138-133. For 
the outline of their history, vid. the articles. 
The kingdom reached its greatest extent after 
the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the Ro- 
mans in B.C. 190, when the Romans bestowed 
upon Eumenes II. the whole of Mysia, Lydia, 
both Phrygias, Lycaonia, Pisidia, and Pampliylia. 
It was under the same king that Pergamus 
reached the height of its splendor, and that the 
celebrated library was founded, which for a long 
time rivalled that of Alexandrea, and the for- 
mation of which occasioned the invention of 
parchment, charta Pergamena. This library was 
afterward united to that of Alexandrea, having 
been presented by Antony to Cleopatra. Dur- 
ing its existence at Pergamus, it formed the 
tentre of a great school of literature, which ri- 
valled that of Alexandrea. On the death of At- 
talus III. in B.C. 133, the kingdom, by a bequest 
in his will, passed to the Romans, who took pos- 
session of it in 130 after a contest with the 
usurper Aristonicus, and erected it into the prov- 
ince of Asia, with the city of Pergamus for its 
capital, which continued in such prosperity that 
Pliny calls it " longe clarissimum Asiae." The 
city was an early seat of Christianity, and is 
one of the Seven Churches of Asia, to whom 
the apocalyptic epistles are addressed. St. John 
describes it as the scene of a persecution of 
Christianity, and the seat of gross idolatry, 
which had even infected the Church. The ex- 
pression " where Satan's seat is" is thought by 
some to refer to the worship of the serpent, as 
the symbol of ^Esculapius (Asclepius), the pa- 
tron god of the city. Under the Byzantine em- 
perors, the capital of the province of Asia was 
transferred to Ephesus, and Pergamus lost much 
of its importance. Among the celebrated na- 
tives of the city were the rhetorician Apollo- 
dorus and the physician Galen. — 3. A very an- 
cient city of Crete, the foundation of which was 
ascribed to the Trojans who survived their city. 
The legislator Lycurgus was said to have died 
here, and his grave was shown. The site of 
626 



the city is doubtful. Some place it at Perama, 
others at Platania. 

Pergamus. Vid. Pergamon. 

Perge. Vid. Pekga. 

[Pergus, a lake of Sicily, not far from the 
walls of Enna, on the banks of which Proser- 
pina (Persephone) was said to have been col- 
lecting flowers when she was seized and car- . 
ried off by Pluto (Hades).] 

Periander (Uepiav6po(). 1. Son ofCypselus, 
whom he succeeded as tyrant of Corinth, B.C. 
625, and reigned forty years, to B.C. 585. His 
rule was mild and beneficent at first, but after- 
ward became oppressive. According to the 
common story, this change was owing to the 
advice of Thrasybulus, tyrant of Miletus, whom 
Periander had consulted on the best mode of 
maintaining his power, and who is said to have 
taken the messenger through a corn-field, cut- 
ting off as he went the tallest ears, and then to 
have dismissed him without committing himself 
to a verbal answer. The action, however, was 
rightly interpreted by Periander, who proceeded 
to rid himself of the most powerful nobles in 
the state. He made his power respected abroad 
as well as at home ; and besides his conquest 
of Epidaurus, mentioned below, he kept Corcyra 
in subjection. He was, like many of the other 
Greek tyrants, a patron of literature and philoso- 
phy, and Arion and Anacharsis were in favor at 
his court. He was very commonly reckoned 
among the Seven Sages, though by some he 
was excluded from their number, andMyson of 
Chens in Laconia was substituted in his room. 
The private life of Periander was marked by 
misfortune and cruelty. He married Melissa, 
daughter of Procles, tyrant of Epidaurus. She 
bore him two sons, Cypselus and Lycophron, 
and was passionately beloved by him ; but he 
is said to have killed her by a blow during her 
pregnancy, having been roused to a fit of anger 
by a false accusation brought against her. His 
wife's death imbittered the remainder of his 
days, partly through the remorse which he felt 
for the deed, partly through the alienation of 
his younger son Lycophron, inexorably exasper- 
ated by his mother's fate. The young man's 
anger had been chiefly excited by Procles, and 
Periander, in revenge, attacked Epidaurus, and, 
having reduced it, took his father-in-law pris- 
oner. Periander sent Lycophron to Corcyra ; 
but when he was himself advanced in years, he 
summoned Lycophron back to Corinth to suc- 
ceed to the tyranny, seeing that Cypselus, his 
elder son, was unfit to hold it, from deficiency 
of understanding. Lycophron refused to return 
to Corinth as long as his father was there ; 
thereupon Periander offered to withdraw to 
Corcyra if Lvcophron would come home and 
take the government. To this he assented ; but 
the Corcyraeans, not wishing to have Periander 
among them, put Lycophron to death. Perian 
der shortly afterward died of despondency, at 
the age of eighty, and after a reign of forty 
years, according to Diogenes Laertius. He was 
succeeded by a relative, Psammetichus, son of 
Gordias. — 2. Tyrant of Ambracia, was contem- 
porary with his more famous namesake of Coi 
inth, to whom he was also related, being the 
son of Gorgus, who was son or brother to Cyp 
I selus. Periander was deposed by the people 



PERIBCEA. 

probably after the death of the Corinthian tyrant 
f585). 

Peribcea (TlepiSoia). 1. Wife of Icarius, and 
mother of Penelope. Vid. Icarius, No. 2. — 

2. Daughter of Alcathous, and wife of Tela- 
mon, by whom she became the mother of Ajax 
and Teucer. Some writers call her Eribcea. — 

3. Daughter of Hipponous, and wife of CEneus, 
by whom she became the mother of Tydeus. 
Vid. CEneus. — 4. Wife of King Polybus of Cor- 
inth. — [5. Daughter of Acesamenus, mother by 
Axius of Pelagon. — 6. Daughter ofEurymedon, 

I mother of Nausithous by Neptune (Poseidon).] 

Pericles (RepiK^fig). 1. The greatest of 
j Athenian statesmen, was the son of Xanthip- 
pus and Agariste, both of whom belonged to the 
I noblest families of Athens. The fortune of his 
parents procured for him a careful education, 
which his extraordinary abilities and diligence 
turned to the best account. He received in- 
struction from Damon, Zeno of Elea, and Anax- 
agoras. With Anaxagoras he lived on terms 
of the most intimate friendship, till the philos- 
opher was compelled to retire from Athens. 
From this great and original thinker Pericles 
was believed to have derived not only the cast 
of his mind, but the character of his eloquence, 
which, in the elevation of its sentiments, and 
the purity and loftiness of its style, was the 
fitting expression of the force and dignity of his 
character and the grandeur of his conceptions. 
Of the oratory of Pericles no specimens remain 
to us, but it is described by ancient writers as 
characterized by singular force and energy. He 
wasdescribed as thundering andlightening when 
he spoke, and as carrying the weapons of Jupi- 
ter (Zeus) upon his tongue. In B.C. 469, Peri- 
cles began to take part in public affairs, forty 
years before his death, and was soon regarded 
as the head of the more democratical part in the 
state, in opposition to Cimon. He gained the 
favor of the people by the laws which he got 
passed for their benefit. Thus it was enacted 
through his means that the citizens should re- 
ceive from the public treasury the price of their 
admittance to the theatre, amounting to two 
oboli apiece ; that those who served in the 
courts of the Heliaea should be paid for their at- 
tendance ; and that those citizens who served 
as soldiers should likewise be paid. It was at 
his instigation that his friend Ephialtes propos- 
ed, in 461, the measure by which the Areopagus 
was deprived of those functions which rendered 
it formidable as an antagonist to the democrat- 
ical party. This success was followed by the 
ostracism of Cimon, who was charged with La- 
conism, and Pericles was thus placed at the 
head of public affairs at Athens. Pericles was 
distinguished as a general as well as a states- 
man, and frequently dommanded the Athenian 
armies in their wars with the neighboring states. 
In 454 he commanded the Athenians in their 
campaigns against the Sicyonians and Acarna- 
nians ; in 448 he led the army which assisted 
the Phocians in the Sacred war ; and in 445 he 
rendered the most signal service to the state by 
recovering the island of Euboea, which had re- 
volted from Athens. Cimon had been previously 
recalled from exile, without any opposition from 
Pericles, but had died in 449. On his death the 
autocratical party was headed by Thucydides, 



PERICLES. 

the son of Melesias, but on the ostracism ot tne 
latter in 444, the organized opposition of the 
aristocratical party was broken up, and Pericles 
was left without a rival. Throughout the re- 
mainder of his political course no one appeared 
to contest his supremacy ; but the boundless in- 
fluence which he possessed was never perverted 
by him to sinister or unworthy purposes. So 
far from being a mere selfish demagogue, he 
neither indulged nor courted the multitude. 
The next important event in which Pericles was 
engaged was the war against Samos, which had 
revolted from Athens, and which he subdued 
after an arduous campaign, 440. The poet Soph- 
ocles was one of the generals who fought with 
Pericles against Samos. For the next ten years, 
till the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war, the 
Athenians were not engaged in any considera- 
ble military operations. During this period Peri 
cles devoted especial attention to the Athenian 
navy, as her supremacy rested on her maritime 
superiority, and he adopted various judicious 
means for consolidating and strengthening her 
empire over the islands of the ^Egean. The 
funds derived from the tribute of the allies and 
from other sources were, to a large extent, de- 
voted by him to the erection of those magnifi- 
cent temples and public buildings which ren- 
dered Athens the wonder and admiration of 
Greece. Under his administration the Propy- 
lsea, and the Parthenon, and the Odeum were 
erected, as well as numerous other templeo 
and public buildings. With the stimulus af- 
forded by these works, architecture and sculp- 
ture reached their highest perfection, and some 
of the greatest artists of antiquity were em- 
ployed in erecting or adorning the buildings. 
The chief direction and oversight of the public 
edifices was intrusted to Phidias. Vid. Phidias. 
These works calling into activity almost every 
branch of industry and commerce at Athens, 
diffused universal prosperity while they proceed- 
ed, and thus contributed in this, as well as in 
other ways, to maintain the popularity and in- 
fluence of" Pericles. But he still had many ene- 
mies, who were not slow to impute to him base 
and unworthy motives. From the comic poets 
Pericles had to sustain numerous attacks. They 
exaggerated his power, spoke of his party as 
Pisistratids, and called upon him to swear that 
he was not about to assume the tyranny. His 
high character and strict probity, however, ren- 
dered all these attacks harmless. But as his 
enemies were unable to ruin his reputation by 
these means, they attacked him through his 
friends. His friends Phidias and Anaxagoras, 
and his mistress Aspasia, were all accused be- 
fore the people. Phidias was condemned and 
cast into prison (vid. Phidus) ; Anaxagoras was 
also sentenced to pay a fine and quit Athens (vid. 
Anaxagoras) ; and Aspasia was only acquitted 
through the entreaties and tears of Pericles. 
The Peloponnesian war has been falsely ascribed 
to the ambitious schemes of Pericles. It is true 
that he counselled the Athenians not to yielc 
to the demands of the Lacedaemonians, and he 
pointed out the immense advantages which the 
Athenians possessed in carrying on the war ; 
but he did this because he saw that war was 
inevitable ; and that, as long as Athens retained 
the great power which she then possessed, 

627 



PERICLYMENUS. 

Sparta would never rest contented. On the out- 
break of the war in 431, a Peloponnesian army 
under Archidamus invaded Attica, and upon his 
a'dvice the Athenians conveyed their movable 
property into the city, and their cattle and beasts 
of burden to Eubcea, and allowed the Pelopon- 
nesians to desolate Attica without opposition. 
The next year (430), when the Peloponnesians 
again invaded Attica, Pericles pursued the same 
policy as before. In this summer the plague 
made its appearance in Athens. The Atheni- 
ans, being exposed to the devastation of the war 
and the plague at the same time, began to turn 
their thoughts to peace, and looked upon Peri- 
cles as the author of all their distresses, inas- 
much as he had persuaded them to go to war. 
Pericles attempted to calm the public ferment ; 
but such was the irritation against him that he 
was sentenced to pay a fine. The ill feeling of 
the people having found this vent, Pericles soon 
resumed his accustomed sway, and was again 
elected one of the generals for the ensuing year 
(429). Meantime Pericles had suffered in com- 
mon with his fellow-citizens. The plague car- 
ried off most of his near connections. His son 
Xanthippus, a profligate and undutiful youth, 
his sister, and most of his intimate friends, died 

it. Still he maintained unmoved his calm 
bearing and philosophic composure. At last his 
only surviving legitimate son, Paralus, a youth 
of greater promise than his brother, fell a vic- 
tim. The firmness of Pericles then at last gave 
way : as he placed the funeral garland on the 
head of the lifeless youth, he burst into tears 
and sobbed aloud. He had one son remaining, 
his child by Aspasia, and he was allowed to en- 
rol this son in his own tribe and give him his 
own name. In the autumn of 429, Pericles him- 
self died of a lingering sickness. When at the 
point of death, as his friends were gathered 
round his bed, recalling his virtues and enumer- 
ating his triumphs, Pericles, overhearing their 
remarks, said that they had forgotten his great- 
est praise : that no Athenian through his means 
had been made to put on mourning. He sur- 
vived the commencement of the war two years 
and six months. The name of the wife of Peri- 
cles is not mentioned. She had been the wife 
of Hipponicus, by whom she was the mother of 
Callias. She bore two sons to Pericles, Xan- 
thippus and Paralus. She lived unhappily with 
Pericles, and a divorce took place by mutual 
consent, when Pericles connected himself with 
Aspasia. Of his strict probity he left the de- 
cisive proof in the fact that at his death he was 
found not to have added a single drachma to his 
hereditary property. — 2. Son of the preceding, 
by Aspasia, was one of the generals at the battle 
of Arginusae, and was put to death by the Athe- 
nians with the other generals, 406. 

Periclymenus {TlepiitXvftevoc.) 1. One of the 
Argonauts, was son of Neleus and Chloris, and 
brother of Nestor. Neptune (Poseidon) gave 
him the power of changing himself into different 
forms, and conferred upon him great strength, 
but he was nevertheless slain by Hercules ai 
the capture of Pylos. — 2. Son of Neptune (Po- 
seidon) and Chloris, the daughter of Tiresias 
of Thebes. In the war of the Seven against 
Thebes he was believed to have killed Parthen- 
opasus ; and when he pursued Amphiaraus, the 
628 



PER1PHAS. 

latter, by the command of Jupiter (Zeus), was 
swallowed up by the earth. 

[Perictione {TicpiKTiovT]), daughter of Crit- 
ias, and mother of the celebrated philosophet - 
Plato.] 

[PeridIa, a Theban female, mother of Onytes, ,' 
who was slain by Turnus in Italy ] 

Perieres (IIfp!)7pj7f). ] • Son of JColus and 
Enarete, king of Messene, was the father of 
Aphareus and Leucippus by Gorgophone. In 
some traditions Perieres was called a son of j 
Cynortas, and, besides the sons above mention- • 
ed, he is said to have been the father of Tyn- 
dareos and Icarius. — [2. Father of Borus, men- 
tioned in the Iliad. — 3. A Cumaean, founder of 
Zancle in Sicily.] 

[Perigune (Repiyovvri), daughter of Sinis, the 
famous robber, who was slain by Theseus ; after 
her father's death Theseus married her, being 
charmed with her beauty, and had by her a son 
named Melanippus.] 

Perilaus (Ilfp/Aaof). 1. Son of Icarius and 
Peribcea, and a brother of Penelope. — [2. A cit- j 
izen of Megara, who espoused the party of 
Philip of Macedon, and, according to Demos- I 
thenes, betrayed his country to that monarch, 
but was afterward treated by him with neglect 
and contempt.] 

Perillus (Ueptlloc), a statuary, was the mak- 
er of the bronze bull of the tyrant Phalaris, re- 
specting which, vid. further under Phalaris. 
Like the makers of other instruments of death, | 
Perillus is said to have become one of the vic- 
tims of his own handiwork. 

[Perimedes {XlepifiriSTis). 1. A companion of 
Ulysses, mentioned in the Odyssey.— 2. Father 
of Schedius, who was a commander of the Pho- 
cians in the Trojan war.] 

[Perimus (Repifios), son of Meges, a Trojan 
warrior, slain by Patroclus.] 

[Perimela, daughter of Hippodamas, cast by 
her father into the sea, and changed by Neptune 
into an island ] 

Perinthus {Jlepivdoc ■ Tlepivdioc : now Eski 
Eregli), an important town in Thrace, on the 
Propontis, was founded by the Samians about 
B.C. 559. It was situated twenty-two miles 
west of Selymbria, on a small peninsula, and was 
built on the slope of a hill with rows of houses 
rising above each other like seats in an amphi- 
theatre. It is celebrated for the obstinate re- 
sistance which it offered to Philip of Macedon, 
at which time it was a more powerful place 
than Byzantium. Under the Romans it still 
continued to be a flourishing town, being the 
point at which most of the roads met leading to 
Byzantium. The commercial importance of the 
town is attested by its numerous coins, which 
are still extant. At a later time, but not earlier 
than the fourth century of the Christian era, we 
find it called Heraclca, which occurs sometimes 
alone without any addition, and sometimes in 
the form of Heraclca Thracia or Heraclca Perin- 
thus. 

PerIphas (Tltp^ar). 1. An Attic autochthon, 
previous to the time of Cecrops, was a priest 
of Apollo, and, on account of his virtues, was 
made king of the country. In consequence of 
the honors paid to him, Jupiter (Zeus) wished 
to destroy him ; but, at the request of Apollo, he 
was metamorphosed by Jupiter (Zeus) into an 



PERIPHETES. 

! eagle, and his wife likewise into a bird. — [2. 
I Son of the iEtolian Ochesius, fell by the hand 
of Mars (Ares) in the Trojan war. — 3. Son of 
Epytus, and a herald of ./Eneas. — 4. A Greek, 
who was engaged in the Trojan war, and took 
part in the destruction of the city.] 

Periphetes {Hspiff/TTic). 1. Son of Vulcan 
;Hephaestus) and Anticlea, surnamed Corynetes, 
that is, Club-bearer, was a robber at Epidaurus, 
who slew travellers with an iron club. The- 
seus at last killed him, and took his club for his 
Bwn use. — [2. Son of Copreus of Mycenae, a 
Greek warrior at Troy, slain by Hector. — 3. A 
Trojan warrior, slain by Teucer.] 

[Perisadii (liepioddiec), an Illyrian people in 
the neighborhood of the silver mines of Damas- 
tion, also called Seoapf/OLoi.] 

Permessus (Hepfirianog : now Kefalari), a river 
in Bceotia, which descends from Mount Helicon, 
unites with the Olmius, and falls into the Lake 
Copais near Haliartus. [Its waters were sa- 
cred to the Muses.] 

Perne (TlepvTi), a little island off the coast of 
Ionia, opposite to the territory of Miletus, to 
which an earthquake united it. 

Pero {Tir)p6), daughter of Neleus and Chloris, 
was married to Bias, and celebrated for her 
beauty. [Vid. Melampus.] ■ 

Perperena (Tlepnepriva, and other forms), a 
small town of Mysia, south of Adramyttium, in 
the neighborhood of which there were copper 
mines and celebrated vineyards. It was said 
to be the place at which Thucydides died. 

Perperna or Perpenna (the former is the 
preferable form). 1. M., praetor B.C. 135, when 
he carried on war against the slaves in Sicily, 
and consul 130, when he defeated Aristonicus 
in Asia, and took him prisoner. He died near 
Pergamum on his return to Rome in 129. — 2. 
M., son of the last, consul 92, and censor 86. 
He is mentioned by the ancient writers as an 
extraordinary instance of longevity. He at- 
tained the age of ninety-eight years, and died 
in 49, the year in which the civil war broke out 
between Caesar and Pompey. He took no prom- 
inent part in the agitated times in which he 
lived. — 3. M. Perperna Vento, son of the last, 
joined the Marian party in the civil war, and 
was raised to the praJtorship. After the con- 
quest of Italy by Sulla in 82, Perperna fled to 
Sicily, which he quitted, however, upon the ar- 
rival of Pompey shortly afterward. On the 
death of Sulla in 78, Perperna joined the con- 
sul M. Lepidus in his attempt to overthrow the 
new aristocratical constitution, and retired with 
him to Sardinia on the failure of this attempt. 
Lepidus died in Sardinia in the following year, 
77, and Perperna, with the remains of his army, 
crossed over to Spain and joined Sertorius. 
Perperna was jealous- of the ascendency of Ser- 
torius, and, after serving under him some years, 
he and his friends assassinated Sertorius at a 
banquet in 72. His death soon brought the war 
to a close. Perperna was defeated by Pompey, 
was taken prisoner, and was put to death. 

[Perranthes, a steep mountain in Epirus, on 
the western declivity of which the city Ambra- 
eia was situated.] 

Perrh^ebi (H.ep'p'ailjoi or Tlcpadoi), a power- 
ful and warlike Pelasgic people, > ho, according 
to St'abo, migrated from Eubce. to the main 



PERSEPHONE. 

land, and settled in the districts of Hestiajotis 
and Pelasgiotis in Thessaly. Hence the north- 
ern part of this country is frequently called Per- 
rhaebia (n.ep()ai6ia, UepaiBia), though it nevei 
formed one of the regular Thessalian provinces. 
Homer places the Perrhaebi in the neighborhood 
of the Thessalian Dodon-a and the River Titare- 
sius ; and at a later time the name of Perrhaebia 
was applied to the district bounded by Macedo- 
nia and the Cambunian Mountains on the north, 
by Pindus on the west, by the Peneus on the 
south and southeast, and by the Peneus and 
Ossa on the east. The Perrhaebi were mem- 
bers of the Amphictyonic league. At an early 
period they were subdued by the Lapithae ; at 
the time of the Peloponnesian war they were 
subject to the Thessalians, and subsequently to 
Philip of Macedon ; but at the time of the Ro- 
man wars in Greece they appear independent 
of Macedonia. 

Perrhidje (IleffliSat), an Attic demus near 
Aphidna, belonging to the tribe Antiochis. 

Persabora or Perisabora (TlepaaSupa : now 
Anlar), a strongly-fortified city of Babylonia, on 
the western side of the Euphrates, at the point 
where the canal called Maarsares left the river. 

Pers^b. Vid. Persis. 

Perseus (JlEpaaloc), a Stoic philosopher, was 
a native of Cittium in Crete, and a disciple of 
Zeno. He lived for some years at. the court of 
Antigonus Gonatas, with whom he seems to 
have been in high favor. Antigonus appointed 
him to the chief command in Corinth, where he 
was slain when the city was taken by Aratus, 
B.C. 243. 

Perse {TLipari), daughter of Oceanus, and 
wife of Helios (the Sun), by whom she became 
the mother of iEetes and Circe. She is further 
called the mother of Pasiphae and Perses. Ho- 
mer and Apollonius Rhodius call her Perse, 
while others call her Perseis or Persea. 

Perseis, a name given to Hecate, as the 
daughter of Perses by Asteria. 

Persephone (Tlspae^ovn), called Proserpina 
by the Romans, the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) 
and Demeter (Ceres). In Homer she is called 
Persephonia (ttepoefoveLa) ; the form Persephone 
first occurs in Hesiod. • But, besides these forms 
of the name, we also find Persephassa, Pherse- 
phassa, Perscphatta, Phetsephatta, Pherrephassa, 
Pherephatta, and Phersephonia, for which various 
etymologies have been proposed. The Latin 
Proserpina is probably only a corruption of the 
Greek. In Attica she was worshipped under 
the name of Cora (Kopv, Ion. Kovprj), that is, 
the Daughter, namely, of Demeter (Ceres) ; and 
the two were frequently called The Mother and 
the Daughter (rj Mi/r^p Kat {] Kopri). Being the 
infernal goddess of death, she is also called a 
daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Styx. In Ar- 
cadia she was worshipped under the name (if 
Despcena, and was called a daughter of Posei- 
don (Neptune) Hippius and Demeter (Ceres), 
and said to have been brought up by the Titan 
Anytus. Homer describes her as the wife of 
Hades (Pluto), and the formidable, venerable, 
and majestic queen of the Shades, who rules 
over the souls of the dead, along with her hus- 
band. Hence she is called by later writers Juno 
Inferna, Averna, and Stygia ; and the Erinnyea 
are said to have been her daughters by Pluto. 

629 



PERSEPOLIS. 



PERSEUS 



Groves sacred to her are placed by Homer in 
the western extremity of the earth, on the fron- 
tiers of the lower world, which is itself called 
the house of Persephone (Proserpina). The 
story of her being carried off by Hades or Pluto 
against her will is not mentioned by Homer, 
who simply describes her as the wife and queen 
of Hades. Her abduction is first mentioned by 
Hesiod. The account of her abduction, which 
is the most celebrated part of her story, and the 
wanderings of her mother in search of her, and 
the worship of the two goddesses in Attica at 
the festival of the Eleusinia, are related under 
Demeter. In the mystical theories of the Or- 
phics, Persephone (Proserpina) is described as 
the all-pervading goddess of nature, who both 
produces and destroys every -thing ; and she is 
therefore mentioned along, or identified with, 
other mystic divinities, such as Isis, Rhea, Ge 
(Terra), Hestia, Pandora, Artemis (Diana), Hec- 
ate. This mystic Persephone is further said to 
have become by Zeus (Jupiter) the mother of 
Dionysus (Bacchus), Iacchus, Zagreus orSaba- 
zius. Persephone (Proserpina) frequently ap- 
pears in works of art. She is represented either 
with the grave and severe character of an in- 
fernal Juno, or as a mystical divinity with a 
sceptre and a little box, in the act of being car- 
ried off by Pluto. 

Persepolis (n£p<TE7roA(f, TlepaairroXic '■ in the 
Middle Ages, Istakhar : now Takhti-Jemshid, i. e., 
Throne of Jemshid, or Chil-Minar, i. e., Forty Pil- 
lars : large ruins), is the Greek name, probably 
translated from the Persian name, which is not 
recorded, of the great city which succeeded Pa- 
sargada as the capital of Persis and of the Per- 
sian empire. From the circumstance, however, 
of the conquest of the Babylonian empire talcing 
place about the time when Persepolis attained 
this dignity, it appears to have been seldom used 
, as the royal residence. Neither Herodotus, Xen- 
ophon, Gtesias, nor the sacred writers during 
the Persian period, mention it at all, though they 
often speak of Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana as 
the capitals of the empire. It is only from the 
Greek writers after the Macedonian conquest 
that we learn its rank in the empire, which ap- 
pears to have consisted chiefly in its being one 
of the two burial places of the kings (the other 
being Pasargada), and also a royal treasury ; for 
Alexander found in the palace immense riches, 
which were said to have accumulated from the 
time of Cyrus. Its foundation is sometimes as- 
cribed to Cyrus the Great, but more generally 
to his son Cambyses. It was greatly enlarged 
and adorned by Darius I. and Xerxes, and pre- 
served its splendor till after the Macedonian con- 
quest, when it was burned ; Alexander, as the 
story goes, setting fire to the palace with his 
own hand at the end of a revel, by the instiga- 
tion of the courtesan Thai's, B.C. 331. It was 
not, however, so entirely destroyed as some his- 
torians represent. It appears frequently in sub- 
sequent history, both ancient and medieval. It 
is now deserted, but its ruins are considerable, 
though too dilapidated to give any good notion 
of Persian architecture, and they are rich in cune- 
iform inscriptions. It was situated in the heart 
of Persis, in the part called Hollow Persis (koiXt} 
Xlipaic), not far from the border of the Carma- 
nian Desert, in a beautiful and healthy valley, 
630 



watered by the River Araxes (now Bend-Emir), ; 
and its tributaries the Medus and the Cyrus. 
The city stood on the northern side of the Arax- 
es, and had a citadel (the rains of which are 
still seen) built on the levelled surface of a rock, 
and inclosed by triple walls rising one above the 
other to the heights of sixteen, forty-eight, and |j 
sixty cubits, within which was the palace, with ; 
its royal sepulchres and treasuries. 

Perses (Heparin). 1. Son of the Titan Crius | 
and Eurybia, and husband of Asteria, by whom \ 
he became the father of Hecate. — 2. Son of Per- j 
seus and Andromeda, described by the Greeks j 
as the founder of the Persian nation. — 3. Son E 
of Helios (the Sun) and Perse, and brother of 
/Eetes and Circe. 

Perseus (Uenaevc), the famous. Argive hero, 
was a son of Jupiter (Zeus) and Danae, and a 
grandson of Acrisius. An oracle had told Acris- 
ius that he was doomed to perish by the hands ; 
of Danag's son, and he therefore shut up his \ 
daughter in an apartment made of brass or stone. 
But Jupiter (Zeus) having metamorphosed him- j 
self into a shower of gold, came down through I 
the roof of the prison, and became by her the | 
father of Perseus. From this circumstance Per- 
seus is sometimes called aurigena. As soon as 
Acrisius discovered that Danae had given birth I 
to a son, he put both mother and son into a 
chest, and threw them into the sea ; but Jupi- 
ter (Zeus) caused the chest to land in the island i 
of Seriphos, one of the Cyclades, where Dictys, ! 
a fisherman, found them, and carried them to 
Polydectes, the king of the country. They were j 
treated with kindness by Polydectes ; but the j 
latter having afterward fallen in love with Da- i 
nag, and finding it impossible to gratify his de- I 
sires in consequence of the presence of Perseus, 
who had meantime grown up to manhood, he 
sent Perseus away to fetch the head of Medu- 
sa, one of the Gorgons. Guided by Mercury 
(Hermes) and Minerva (Athena), Perseus first 
went to the Grasae, the sisters of the Gorgons, 
took from them their one tooth and their one i 
eye, and would not restore them until they 
showed him the way to the nymphs who pos- 1 
sessed the winged sandals, the magic wallet, 
and the helmet of Pluto (Hades), which rendered I 
the wearer invisible. Having received from the | 
nymphs these invaluable presents, from Mercury j 
(Hermes) a sickle, and from Minerva (Athena) j 
a mirror, he mounted into the air, and arrived i 
at the Gorgons, who dwelt near Tartessus on 
the coast of the ocean, whose heads were cover- 
ed, like those of serpents, with scales, and who 
had large tusks like boars, brazen hands, and 
golden wings. He found them asleep, and cut 
off the head of Medusa, looking at her figure 
through the mirror, for a sight of the monster 
herself would have changed him into stone. 
Perseus put her head into the wallet which he j 
carried on his back, and as he went away he 
was pursued by two other Gorgons ; but his 
helmet, which rendered him invisible, enabled 
him to escape in safety. Perseus then pro- 
ceeded to .•Ethiopia, where he saved and married 
Andromeda. Vid. Andromeda. Perseus is also 
said to have come to the Hyperboreans, by 
whom he was hospitably received, and to Atlas, 
whom he changed into the mountain of the same 
name by the Gorgon's head. On his return to 



PERSEUS. 



PERSIS. 



Seriphos, he found his mother with Dictys in a I 
| temple, whither they had fled from the violence 
of Polydectes. Perseus then went to the pal- 
ace of Polydectes, and metamorphosed him and 
all his guests, and, some say, the whole island, 
into stone. He then presented the kingdom to 
Dictys. He gave the winged sandals and the 
helmet to Mercury (Hermes), who restored them 
to the nymphs and to Pluto (Hades), and the 
head of Gorgon to Minerva (Athena), who placed 
it in the middle of her shield or breast-plate. 
Perseus then went to Argos, accompanied by 
Danae' and Andromeda. Acrisius, remembering 
the oracle, escaped to Larissa, in the country 
of the Pelasgians ; but Perseus followed him, in 
order to persuade him to return. Some writers 
state that Perseus, on his return to Argos, found 
Proetus, who had expelled his brother Acrisius, 
in possession of the kingdom ; and that Perseus 
slew Prcetus, and was afterward killed by Mega- 
penthes, the son of Prcetus. The more common 
tradition, however, relates, that when Teutami- 
das, king of Larissa, celebrated games in honor 
of his guest Acrisius, Perseus, who took part in 
them, accidentally hit the foot of Acrisius with 
the discus, and thus killed him. Acrisius was 
buried outside the city of Larissa, and Perseus, 
leaving the kingdom of Argos to Megapenthes, 
the son of Prcetus, received from him in ex- 
change the government of Tiryns. According 
to others, Perseus remained in Argos, and suc- 
cessfully opposed the introduction of the Bac- 
chic orgies. Perseus is said to have founded 
the towns ofMidea and Mycenae. By Androm- 
eda he became the father of Perses, Aieeeus, 
Sthenelus, Heleus, Mestor, Electryon, Gorgo- 
phone, and Autochthe. Perseus was worship- 
ped as a hero in several places. 

Perseus or Perses (Uepaevg), the last king 
of Macedonia, was the eldest son of Philip V., 
and reigned eleven years, from B.C. 178 to 168. 
Before his accession he persuaded his father to 
put to death his younger brother Demetrius, 
whom he suspected that the Roman senate in- 
tended to set up as a competitor for the throne 
on the death of Philip. Immediately after his 
accession he began to make preparations for 
war with the Romans, which he knew to be in- 
evitable, though seven years elapsed before act- 
ual hostilities commenced. The war broke out 
in 171. The first year of the war was marked 
by no striking action. The consul P. Licinius 
Crassus first suffered a defeat in Thessaly in 
an engagement between the cavalry of the two 
armies, but subsequently gained a slight ad- 
vantage over the king's troops. The second 
year of the war (170), in which the consul A. 
Hostilius Mancinus commanded, also passed 
over without any important battle, but was, on 
the whole, favorablr to Perseus. The third 
year (169), in which the consul Q. Marcius 
Philippus commanded, again produced no im- 
portant results. The length to which the war 
had been unexpectedly protracted, and the ill 
success of the Roman arms, had by this time 
excited a general feeling in favor of the Mace- 
donian monarch ; but the ill-timed avarice of 
Perseus, who refused to advance the sum of 
money which Eumenes, king of Pergamus, de- 
manded, deprived him of this valuable ally; and 
the same unseasonable niggardliness likewise 



deprived him of the services of twenty thousand 
Gaulish mercenaries, who had actually advanc- 
ed into Macedonia to his support, but retired on 
failing to obtain their stipulated pay. He was 
left to carry on the contest against Rome sin- 
gle-handed. The fourth year of the war (168) 
was also the last. The new consul, L.iEmilius 
Paulus, defeated Perseus with great loss in a 
decisive battle fought near Pydna, on June 22, 
168. Perseus took refuge in the island of Samo- 
thrace, where he shortly afterward surrendered 
with his children to the praetor Cn. Octavius 
When brought before ^Emilius, he is said to 
have degraded himself by the most abject sup- 
plications; but he was treated with kindness by 
the Roman general. The following year he 
was carried to Italy, where he was compelled 
to adorn the splendid triumph of his conqueror 
(November 30, 167), and afterward cast into a 
dungeon, from whence, however, the interces- 
sion of ^Emilius procured his release, and he 
was permitted to end his days in an honorable 
captivity at Alba. He survived his removal 
thither a few years, and died, according to some 
accounts, by voluntary starvation, while others, 
fortunately with less probability, represent him 
as falling a victim to the cruelty of his guards, 
who deprived him of sleep. Perseus had been 
twice married ; the name of his first wife, whom 
he is said to have killed with his own hand in 
a fit of passion, is not recorded ; his second, La- 
odice, was the daughter of Seleucus IV. Philo- 
pator. He left two children : a son, Alexander, 
and a daughter, both apparently by his second 
marriage, as they were mere children when car- 
ried to Rome. Besides these, he had adopted 
his younger brother Philip, who appears to have 
been regarded by him as the heir to his throne, 
and became the partner of his captivity. 

Persia. Vid. Persis. 

Persici Montes. Vid. Parsici Montes. 

Persicus Sinus, Persicum Mare (6 HepatKO^ 
ko/Ittoc, ts HepaLKT] -d-dXaaaa, and other forms : 
the Persian Gulf), is the name given by the 
later geographers to the great gulf of the Mare 
Erythraeum (now Indian Ocean), extending in a 
southeastern direction from the mouths of the 
Tigris, between the northeastern coast of Ara- 
bia and the opposite coast of Susiana, Persis, 
and Carmania, to the narrow strait formed by 
the long tongue of land which projects from the 
northern side of Oman in Arabia, by which strait 
it is connected with fhe more open gulf of the 
Indian Ocean called Paragon Sinus (now Gulf 
of Oman). The earlier Greek writers know 
nothing of it. Herodotus does not distinguish 
it from the Erythraean Sea. The voyage of 
Alexander's admiral Nearchus from the Indus 
to the Tigris made it better known, but still the 
ancient geographers in general give very inac- 
curate statements of its size and form. 

PERsiDEstnepcre/Jr/c, Hepav'ia6rjc),a patronym 
ic given to the descendants of Perses. 

Persis, and very rarely Persia (-h TXepaic, and 
rj UepaiKrj, sc. yfi, the fem. adjectives, the masc. 
being HepaiKoc, from the ethnic noun Flepanc, pi. 
Hepoai, fem. Uepaic, Latin Persa and Perses, 
pi. Persae : in modern Persian and Arabic, Fars 
or Farsistan, i. e., stan, land of, Fars— Old Per- 
sian pars, horse or horseman: Eng. Persia), orig- 
inally a small mountainous district of Westerri 

631 



PERSIS. 

Asia, lying on the northeastern side of the Per- 
sian Gulf, and surrounded on the other sides by 
mountains and deserts. On the northwest and 
north it was separated from Susiana, Media, 
and Parthia by the little river Oroatis or Orosis, 
and by Mons Parachoathras ; and on the east 
from Carmania by no definite boundaries in the 
Desert. The only level part of the country was 
the strip of sea-coast called Persis Paralia ; 
the rest was intersected with branches of Mons 
Parachoathras, the valleys between which were 
watered by several rivers, the chief of which 
were the Araxes, Cyrus, and Medus : in this 
part of the country, which was called Koile 
Persis, stood the capital cities Pasargada and 
Persepolis. The country has a remarkable 
variety of climate and of products ; the northern 
mountainous regions being comparatively cold, 
but with good pastures, especially for camels ; 
the middle slopes having a temperate climate, 
and producing abundance of fruit and wine ; and 
the southern strip of coast being intensely hot 
and sandy, with little vegetation except the 
palm-tree. The inhabitants were a collection 
of nomad tribes of the Indo-European stock, who 
called themselves by a name wtjich is given in 
Greek as Art^ei ('Apratot), and which, like the 
kindred Median name of Arii {'Apioi), signifies 
noble or honorable, and is applied especially to 
the true worshippers of Ormuzd and followers 
of Zoroaster : it was, in fact, rather a title of 
honor than a proper name ; the true collective 
name of the people seems to have been Paraca. 
According to Herodotus, they were divided into 
three classes or castes : first, the nobles or war- 
riors, containing the three tribes of the Pasar- 
qad jE, who were the most noble, and to whom 
the royal family of the Achasmenidae belonged, 
the Marphii, and the Maspii ; secondly, the ag- 
ricultural and other settled tribes, namely, the 
Panthialaei, Derusiaei, and Germanii ; thirdly, 
the tribes which remained nomadic, namely, the 
Daa?, Mardi, Dropici, and Sagartii, names com- 
mon to other parts of Western and Central Asia. 
The Persians had a close ethnical affinity to the 
Medes, and followed the same customs and re- 
.igion. Vid. Magi, Zoroaster. The simple and 
warlike habits which they cultivated in their na- 
tive mountains preserved them from the cor- 
rupting influences which enervated their Median 
brethren ; so that from being, as we find them 
at the beginning of their recorded history, the 
subject member of the Medo-Persian kingdom, 
they obtained the supremacy under Cyrus, the 
founder of the great Persian empire, B.C. 559. 
Of the Persian history before this date we know 
but little : the native poetical annalists of a later 
period are perfectly untrustworthy : the addi- 
tional light lately obtained from the Persian in- 
scriptions is, so far as it goes, confirmatory of 
the Greek writers, from whom, and from some 
small portions of Scripture, all our knowledge 
of ancient Persian history is derived. Accord- 
ing to these accounts, the Persians were first 
subjected by the Medes under Phraortes, about 
B.C. 688, at the time of the formation of the 
great Median empire ; but they continued to be 
governed by their own princes, the Achaemeni- 
dee. An account of the revolution, by which 
the supremacy was transferred to the Persians, 
''s given under Cyrus. At this time there ex- 
632 




PERSIS. 

1 1 

isted in Western Asia two other great king- ;1 
doms, the Lydian, which comprised nearly the j 
whole of Asia Minor, west of the River Halys, 
which separated it from the Medo-Persian ter- j. 
ritories, and the Babylonian, which, besides the 
Tigris and Euphrates valley, embraced Syria 
and Palestine. By the successive conquest of f 
these kingdoms, the dominions of Cyrus were 
extended on the west as far as the coasts of the f 
Euxine, the ^Egean, and the Mediterranean, and \. 
to the frontier of Egypt. Turning his arms in 
the opposite direction, he subdued Bactria, and 
effected some conquests beyond the Oxus, but 
fell in battle with the Massagetae. Vid. Cyrus. 
His son Cambyses added Egypt to the empire. 
Vid. Cambyses. Upon his death the Magian 
priesthood made an effort to restore the suprem- 
acy to the Medes (vid. Magi, S.merdis), which 
was defeated by the conspiracy of the seven El 
Persian chieftains, whose success conferred the 
crown upon Darius, the son of Hystaspes. This 
king was at first occupied with crushing rebell 
ions in every part of the empire, and with the i 
two expeditions against Scythia and Cyrena'ica, 
of which the former entirely failed, and the lat- i: 
ter was only partially successful. He conquer- 
ed Thrace, and on the east he added the valley 
of the Indus to the kingdom ; but in this quar- 
ter the power of Persia seems never to have 
been much more than nominal. The Persian :| 
empire had now reached its greatest extent, J 
from Thrace and Cyrena'ica on the west to the 
Indus on the east, and from the Euxine, the 
Caucasus (or, rather, a little below it), the Cas- 
pian, and the Oxus and Jaxartes on the north, 
to ^Ethiopia, Arabia, and the Erythraean Sea on 
the south, and it embraced, in Europe, Thrace 
and some of the Greek cities north of the Eux- 
ine ; in Africa, Egypt and Cyrena'ica ; in Asia, 
on the west, Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria, the sev- 
eral districts of Asia Minor, Armenia, Mesopo 
tamia, Assyria, Babylonia, Susiana, Atropatene, 
Great Media ; on the north, Hyrcania, Margi- 
ana, Bactriana, and Sogdiana ; on the east, the 
Paropamisus. Arachosia, and India (i. c, part of 
the Punjab and Scinde) ; on the south, Persis, j 
Carmania, and Gedrosia ; and in the centre of 
the eastern part, Parthia, Aria, and Drangiana. 
The capital cities of the empire were Babylon, 
Susa, Ecbatana in Media, and. though these 
were seldom, if ever, used as residences, Pasar- 
gada and Persepolis in Persia. (Vid. the sev- 
eral articles.) Of this vast empire Darius un- 
dertook the organization, and divided it into 
twenty satrapies, of which a full account is i 
given by Herodotus. For the other details ot 
his reign, and especially the commencement of 
the wars with Greece, vid. Darius. Of the re- 
maining period of the ancient Persian historj 
till the Macedonian conquest, a sufficient ab- 
stract will be found under the names of the sev- 1 
eral kings, a list of whom is now subjoined. 
(1.) Cyrus, B.C. 559-529 ; (2.) Cambyses, 529- 
522; (3.) Usurpation of the pseudo-S.uERDis, sev- 
en months, 522-521 ; (4.) Darius I., son of Hys* 
taspes, 521-485; (5.) Xerxes I , 485-465 ; (6.) 
Usurpation of Artabawus, seven months, 465- 
464 ; (7.) Artaxerxes 1. Longimanus, 464— 425 ; 
(8.) Xerxes II., two months; (9.) Soodianus, 
seven months, 425-424; (10.) Ochus, or Darius 
II. Nothus, 424-405 ; (11.) Artaxerxes II Mn&. 



PERSIUS FLACCUS. 



PETELTA. 



mon, 405-359 ; (12.) Ochus, or Artaxerxes III., 
359-338; (13,)Arses, 338-336; (14.)DariusIII. 
Codomannus, 336-331. Vid. Alexander. Here 
the ancient history of Persia ends as a king- 
dom ; but, as a people, the Persians proper, un- 
der the influence especially of their religion, 
preserved their existence, and at length regain- 
ed theii independence on the downfall of the 
Parthian empire. Vid. Sassanid/e. In reading 
the Roman poets, it must be remembered that 
•hey constantly use Persce as well as Medi as a 
genetal term for the nations east of the Euphra- 
tes and Tigris, and especially for the Parthians. 

Persius Flaccus, A., the poet, was a Roman 
fcnight connected by blood and marriage with 
persons of the highest rank, and was born at 
Volaterrae in Etruria on the 4th of December, 
A.D. 34. He received the first rudiments of 
education in his native town, remaining there 
until the age of twelve, and then removed to 
Rome, where he studied grammar under the 
celebrated Remmius Palaemon, and rhetoric un- 
der Verginius Flavius. He was afterward the 
pupil of Cornutus the Stoic, who became the 
guide, philosopher, and friend of his future life, 
and to whom he attached himself so closely 
that he never quitted his side. While yet a 
youth he was on familiar terms with Lucan, 
with Caesius Bassus the lyric poet, and with 
several other persons of literary eminence. He 
was tenderly beloved by the high-minded Pastus 
Thrasea, and seems to have been well worthy 
of such affection, for he is described as a virtu- 
ous and pleasing youth. He died of a disease 
of the stomach, on the 24th of November, A.D. 
f>2, before he had completed his twenty-eighth 
year. The extant works of Persius, who, we 
are told, wrote seldom and slowly, consist of 
six short satires, extending in all to six hundred 
and fifty hexameter lines, and were left in an 
unfinished state. They were slightly corrected 
after his death by Cornutus, while Caesius Bas- 
sus was permitted, at his own earnest request, 
to be the editor. In boyhood Persius had writ- 
ten some other poems, which were destroyed 
by the advice of Cornutus. Few productions 
have ever enjoyed more popularity than the Sat- 
ires ; but it would seem that Persius owes no) 
a little of his fame to a cause which naturally 
might have produced an effect directly the re- 
verse, we mean the multitude of strange terms, 
proverbial phrases, far-fetched metaphors, and 
abrupt transitions which every where embarrass 
our progress. The difficulty experienced in re- 
moving these impediments necessarily impress- 
es both the words and the ideas upon everyone 
who has carefully studied his pages, and hence 
no author clings more closely to our memory. 
The first satire is superior both in plan and ex- 
ecution to the rest ; Lnd those passages in the 
fifth, where Persius describes the process by 
which his own moral and intellectual faculties 
were expanded, are remarkable for their grace 
and beauty. The best editions are by Jahn, 
Lips., 1843, and by Heinrich, Lips., 1844. 

PertInax, Helvius, Roman emperor' from 
January 1st to March 28th, A.D. 193, was of 
humble origin, and rose from the post of centu- 
rion both to the highest military and civil com- 
mands in the reigns of M. Aurelius and Com- 
modus. On the murder of Commodus on the 



last day of September, 192, Pertinax, who w 
then sixty-six years of age, was reluctantly per 
suaded to accept the empire. He commenced 
his reign by introducing extensive reforms into 
the civil and military administration of the em- 
pire ; but the troops, who had been accustomed 
both to ease and license under Commodus, were 
disgusted with the discipline which he attempt- 
ed to enforce upon them, and murdered their 
new sovereign after a reign of two months and 
twenty-seven days. On his death the praetorian 
troops put up the empire to sale, which was pur- 
chased by M. Didius Salvius Julianus. Vid. p. 
256, b. 

Perusia (Perusinus : now Perugia), an an- 
cient city in the eastern part of Etruria, between 
the Lake Trasimenus and the Tiber, and one 
of the twelve cities of the Etruscan confeder- 
acy. It was situated on a hill, and was strongly 
fortified by nature and by art. In conjunction 
with the other cities of Etruria, it long resisted 
the power of the Romans, and at a later period 
it was made a Roman colony. It is memorable 
in the civil wars as the place in which L. Anto- 
nius, the brother of the triumvir, took refuge 
when he was no longer able to oppose Octavi- 
anus in the field, and where he was kept closely 
blockaded by Octavianus for some months, from 
the end of B.C. 41 to the spring of 40. Famine 
compelled it to surrender ; but one of its citi- 
zens having set fire to his own house, the flames 
spread, and the whole city was burned to the 
ground. The war between L. Antonius and 
Octavianus is known from the long siege of this 
town by the name of the Bellum Perusinum. It 
was rebuilt and colonized anew by Augustus, 
from whom it received the surname of Augusta. 
In the later time of the empire it was the most 
important city in all Etruria, and long resisted 
the Goths. Part of the walls and some of the 
gates of Perusia still remain. The best pre- 
served of the gates is now called Arco d'Au- 
gusto, from the inscription Avgvsta Pervsia 
over the arch ; the whole structure is at least 
sixty or seventy feet high. Several interesting 
tombs, with valuable remains of Etruscan art, 
have been discovered in the neighborhood of the 
city. 

Pescennius Niger. Vid. Niger. 

PessInus or Pesinus (Tleaoivovc, Heoivovc 
Tleoaivovvrios, fern. HeooivovvTic : ruins at Bala 
Hisar), a city of Asia Minor, in the southwest- 
ern corner of Galatia, on the southern slope of 
Mount Dindymus or Agdistis, was celebrated as 
a chief seat of the worship of Cybele, under the 
surname of Agdistis, whose temple, crowded 
with riches, stood on a hill outside the city. In 
this temple was a wooden (Livy says stone) 
image of the goddess, which was removed to 
Rome, to satisfy an oracle in the Sibylline books. 
Under Constantine the city was made the cap- 
ital of the province of Galatia Salutaris, but it 
gradually declined until the sixth century, after 
which it is no more mentioned. 

Petalia or Petalive (now Pctahus), an unin- 
habited and rocky island off the southwestern 
coast of Eubcea, at the entrance into the Euri- 
pus. 

Petelia or Petilia (HerriMa : Petellnus : now 
Strongoli), an ancient Greek town on the east- 
ern coast of Bruttium, founded, according to 

633 



PETENES. 

tradition, by Philoctetes. (Virg., Jin., iii., 402.) 
It was situated north of Croton, to whose terri- 
tory it originally belonged, but it was afterward 
conquered by the Lucanians. It remained faith- 
ful to the Romans, when the other cities of Brut- 
tinm revolted to Hannibal, and it was not till 
after a long and desperate resistance that it was 
taken by one of Hannibal's generals. It was 
repeopled by Hannibal with Bruttians ; but the 
Romans subsequently collected the remains of 
the former population, and put them again in 
possession of the town. 

[Petenbs. Vid. Petines.] 

Peteon (Hete6v : Hetsuvloc), a small town 
in Boeotia, of uncertain site, dependent upon 
Haliartus according to some, and upon Thebes 
according to others. 

Peteos (lUreuf), son of Orneus, and father 
of Menestheus, was expelled from Athens by 
iEgeus, and went to Phocis, where he founded 
Stiris. 

Petilius or Petillius. 1. Capitolinus. Vid. 
Capitomnus. — 2. Cerealis. Vid. Cerealis. — 

3. Spurinus. Vid. Spurinus. 

[Petines (Uercvnc) or Petenes, one of the 
Persian generals at the beginning of the war 
with Alexander : he was slain at the battle of 
the Granicus.] 

Petosiris (UeToaipic), an Egyptian priest and 
astrologer, generally named along with Nechep- 
sos, an Egyptian king. The two are said to be 
the founders of astrology. Some works on as- 
trology were extant under his name. Like our 
own Lilly, Petosiris became the common name 
for an astrologer. (Juv., vi., 580.) 

PetovIo or Pcetovio (now Pettau), a town in 
Pannonia Superior, on the frontiers of Noricum, 
and on the Dravus (now Brave), was a Roman 
colony with the surname Ulpia, having been 
probably enlarged and made a colony by Tra- 
jan or Hadrian. It was one of the chief towns 
of Pannonia, had an imperial palace, and was 
the head-quarters of a Roman legion. The an- 
cient town was probably on the right bank of 
the Drave, opposite the modern Pettau, as it is 
only on the former spot that inscriptions, coins, 
and other antiquities have been found. 

Petra {jj Xlirpa : TleTpalog, Petraeus, later Pe- 
trensis), the name of several cities built on 
rocks or in rocky places. 1. A small place in 
the Corinthian territory, probably on the coast, 
near the borders of Argolis. — 2. A place in Elis, 
not far from the city of Elis, of which some sup- 
pose it to have been the acropolis. The se- 
pulchral monument of the philosopher Pyrrho 
was shown here.— 3. (Now Casa della Pietra), 
also called Petr^a and Petrine (the people 
UerplvoL and Petrlni), an inland town o'f Sicily, 
on the road from Agrigentum to Panormus. — 

4. A town on the coast of Illyricum, with a bad 
harbor. — 5. A city of Pieria in Macedonia. — 
6. A fortress of the Maedi in Thrace. — 7. (PI. 
rreut), a place in Dacia, on one of the three 
great roads which crossed the Danube. — 8. In 
Pontus, a fortress built by Justinian, on a preci- 
pice on the sea-coast, between the rivers Ba- 
thys and Acinasis. — 9. In Sogdiana, near the 
Oxus (Q. Curt., vii., 11). — 10. By far the most 
celebrated of all the places of this name was 
Petra or Petr^e (now Wady-Musa), in Arabia 
Petreea, the capital first of the Idumaeans, and 

634 



PETRONIA. 

i afterward of the Nabathaoans. It is probably ' 
the same place which is called Selah (which 
means, like -nerpa, a rock) and Joktheel in the 
Old Testament. It lies in the midst of the 
mountains of Seir, at the foot of Mount Hor, 
I just half way between the Dead Sea and the 
i head of the ^Elanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, in a <f 
j valley, or rather ravine, surrounded by almost ' 
inaccessible precipices, which is entered by a l : 
narrow gorge on the east, the rocky walls of 
which approach so closely as sometimes hardly 
to permit two horsemen to ride abreast. On P 
the banks of the river which runs through this ? 
ravine stood the city itself, a mile in length and 
half a mile in breadth, between the sides of the 
valley, and some fine ruins of its public build- 
ings still remain. But this is not all : the rocks 
which surround, not only the main valley, but 
all its lateral ravines, are • completely honey- 
combed with excavations, some of which were 
tombs, some temples, and some private houses, 
at the entrances to which the surface of the j 
rock is sculptured into magnificent architectural j 
facades and other figures, whose details are 
often so well preserved as to appear but just I 
chiselled, while the effect is wonderfully height- 
ened by the brilliant variegated colors of the ! 
rock, where red, purple, yellow, sky-blue, black, 
and white are seen in distinct layers. These 
ruins are chiefly of the Roman period, when Pe- 
tra had become an important city as a centre j 
of the caravan traffic of the Nabathaeans. At i 
the time of Augustus, as Strabo learned from a 1 
friend who had resided there, it contained many I 
Romans and other foreigners, and was governed | 
by a native prince. It had maintained its inde- 
pendence against the Greek kings of Syria, and 
retained it under the Romans till the time of 
Trajan, by whom it was taken. It was the 
chief city of the whole country of Arabia Pe- 
traea, which probably derived its name from Pe- 
tra ; and under the later empire it was the capi- 
tal of Palasstina Tertia. 

Petreius, M., a man of great military experi- 
ence, is first mentioned in B.C. 62, when he 
served as legatus to the proconsul C. Antonius, 
and commanded the army in the battle in which 
Catiline perished. He belonged to the aristo- 
cratical party ; and in 55 he was sent into Spain 
along with L. Afranius as legatus ofPompey, to 
whom the provinces of the two Spains had been 
granted. Soon after the commencement of the 
civil war in 49, Caesar defeated Afranius and 
Petreius in Spain, whereupon the latter joined 
Pompey in Greece. After the loss of the battle 
of Pharsalia (48), Petreius crossed over to Af- 
rica, and took an active part in the campaign in 
46, which was brought to an end by the decisive 
defeat of the Pompeian army at the battle of 
Thapsus. Petreius then fled with Juba, and, 
despairing of safety, they fell by each other's 
hands. 

Petrinus (now Rocca di monti Ragoni), a 
mountain near Sinuessa, on the confines of La- 
tium and Campania, on which good wine was 
grown. 

PetrocorIi, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, in 
the modern Perigord. Their country contained 
iron mines, and their chief town was Vesunna 
(now Perigueux). 

[Petronia, daughter of a man of consular 



PETRONIUS, C. 



PILE/ X. 



tank, was first the wife ofVitellius, and subse- 
quently of Dolabella. By Vitellius she had a 
son Petronianus, whom his father put to death.] 

[Petronius, C. 1. Succeeded yElius Gallus in 
the government of Egypt, and carried on war in 
B.C. 22 against the ^Ethiopians, who had invad- 
ed Egypt under their queen Candace. Petronius 
not only drove back the ^Ethiopians, but took 
many of their towns. He was a friend of Her- 
od, and sent corn to Judaea when the latter 
country was visited by a famine. — 2. Turpilia- 
nus, consul A.D. 61 with C. Caesonius Paetus, 
succeeded Suetonius Paulinus as governor of 
Britain, but did nothing in that capacity, though 
he received the triumphal insignia in A.D. 65. 
He was put to death at the commencement of 
the reign of Galba.] 

Petronius, C. orT., an accomplished volup- 
tuary at the court of Nero. He was one of the 
chosen companions of Nero, and was regarded 
as director-in-chief of the imperial pleasures, the 
judge whose decision upon the merits of any 
proposed scheme of enjoyment was held as final 
{clegantiot arbiter). The influence thus acquir- 
ed excited the jealous suspicions of Tigellinus : 
he was accused of treason ; and believing that 
destruction was inevitable, he resolved to die as 
he had lived, and to excite admiration by the 
frivolous eccentricity of his end. Having caused 
his veins to be opened, he from time to time 
arrested the flow of blood by the application of 
bandages. During the intervals he conversed 
with his friends, and even showed himself in 
the public streets of Cumaj, where these events 
took place ; so that at last, when he sunk from 
exhaustion, his death (A.D. 66), although com- 
pulsory, appeared to be the result of natural and 
gradual decay. He is said to have dispatched 
in his last moments a sealed document to the 
prince, taunting him with his brutal excesses. 
A work has come down to us bearing the title 
Petronii Arbitri Satyricon, which, as it now ex- 
ists, is composed of a series of fragments, chiefly 
in prose, but interspersed with numerous pieces 
of poetry. It is a sort of comic romance, in 
which the adventures of a certain Encolpius and 
his companions in the south of Italy, chiefly in 
Naples or its environs, are made a vehicle for 
exposing the false taste and vices of the age. 
Unfortunately, the vices of the personages intro- 
duced are depicted with such fidelity that we 
are perpetually disgusted by the obscenity of 
the descriptions. The longest section is gener- 
ally known as the Sapper of Trimalchio, present- 
ing us with a detailed account of a fantastic 
banquet, such as the gourmands of the empire 
were wont to exhibit on their tables. Next in 
interest is the well-known tale of the Ephesian 
Matron. A great number of conflicting opinions 
have been formed by scholars with regard to the 
author of the Satyricon. Many suppose that he 
is the same person as the C. or T. Petronius 
mentioned above ; and though there are no 
proofs in favor of this hypothesis, yet there is 
good reason to believe that the work belongs to 
the first century, or, at all events, is not later 
than the reign of Hadrian. The best edition is 
by P. Burmannus, 4to, Traj. ad Rhen., 1709, and 
again Amst., 1743. 

[Petrosidius, L., a standard-bearer, diedfight- 
! ng bravely when Titurius Sabinus and Aurun- 



culeii •( Cotta were destroyed with their troops 
by Ambiorix, B.C. 54.] 

Peuce (Jink;? : now Piczina), an island in 
Mresia Inferior, formed by the two southern 
mouths of the Danube, of which the most south- 
ernly was also called Peuce, but more commonlj 
the Sacred Mouth. This island is of a triangu- 
lar form, and is said by the ancients to be as 
large as Rhodes. It was inhabited by the Peu 
clni, who were a tribe of the Bastarnae, and took 
their name from the island. 

Peucela, Peucelaotis (UsvKiXa, TlevnekaCiTie- 
now Pekheli or Fakholi), a city and district in the 
northwest of India intra Gangem, between the 
rivers Indus and Suastus. 

Peucestas (TievKeaTac), a Macedonian, and a 
distinguished officer of Alexander the Great. 
He had the chief share in saving the life of 
Alexander in the assault on the city of the Malli 
in India, and was afterward appointed by the 
king to the satrapy of Persia. In the division 
of the provinces after the death of Alexander 
(B.C. 323), he obtained the renewal of his gov- 
ernment of Persia. He fought on the side o 
Eumenes against Antigonus (317-316), but dis- 
played both arrogance and insubordination in 
these campaigns. Upon the surrender of Eu- 
menes by the Argyraspids, Peucestas fell into 
the hands of Antigonus, who deprived him of 
his satrapy. 

Peucetia. Vid. Apuli. 

Peucini. Vid. Peuce. 

[Phace ("ta/cj?), sister of Ulysses, according tc 
some accounts called Callisto.] 

Phacium ($u/aov : Qanievc : now Alifaka), 9 
mountain fortress of Thessaly, in the district 
Hestiaeotis, on the right bank of the Peneus, 
northeast of Limnaea. 

[Phacusa ($aKovoa)i the capital of the Nomos 
Arabia in Lower Egypt, portions of which were 
on both banks of the Nile, thirty-six miles from 
Pelusium. At this place the canal began which 
ran from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf. Tha 
ruins on this site still bear the name Tell Fa 
kus.~\ 

Phacussa (Qaicovaea: now Fecussa), an islam' 
in the ^Egean Sea, one of the Sporades. 

Ph^sea (4><ua), the name of the sow of Crom- 
myon in Megaris, which ravaged the neighbor- 
hood, and was slain by Theseus. 

Ph^eaces (QaiaKEc, ^airjuec), a fabulous people 
immortalized by the Odyssey, who inhabited the 
island Scheria (S^epi'a), situated at the extreme 
western part of the earth, and who were gov- 
erned by King Alcinous. Vid. Alcinous. They 
are described by Homer as a people fond of the 
feast, the lyre, and the dance, and hence their 
name passed into a proverb to indicate persons 
of luxurious and sensual habits. Thus a glut- 
ton is called Phceax by Horace (Ep., i., 15, 24). 
The ancients identified the Homeric Scheria 
with Corcyra, whence the latter is called by the 
poets Phaacia tellus ; but there is no sound ar- 
gument in favor of the identity of the two isl- 
ands, and it is better to regard Scheria as alto- 
gether fabulous. 

Phceax (4>aj'af), an Athenian orator and states- 
man, and a contemporary of Nicias and Alcibia- 
des. Some critics maintain that the extant 
speech against Alcibiades, commonly attributed 
to Andocides, was written by Phaeax. 

635 



PKLEDIMA. 

[Ph^edima {iaidifiTi), a Persian lady, daughter 
ofOtanes, was one of the wives of Cambyses 
and of Smerdis the magian. It was through her 
means that the false Smerdis was detected and 
exposed.] 

[Phjedimus {Qa'iSifios). 1. A king of the Si- 
donians, who hospitably received Menelaus on 
his return from Troy. — 2. A native of Bisanthe 
in Macedonia, or of Amastris in Paphlagonia, 
an epigrammatic poet, four of whose epigrams 
are contained in the Greek Anthology.] 

Ph.edon (Qaidcov), a Greek philosopher, was a 
native of El is, and of high birth, but was taken 
prisoner, probably about B.C. 400, and was 
brought to Athens. It is said that he ran away 
from his master to Socrates, and was ransomed 
by one of the friends of the latter. Phaedon was 
present at the death of Socrates, while he was 
still quite a youth. He appears to have lived in 
Athens some time after the death of Socrates, 
and then returned to Elis, where he became the 
founder of a school of philosophy. He was suc- 
ceeded by Plistanus, after whom the Elean school 
was merged in the Eretrian. The dialogue of 
Plato, which contains an account of the death 
of Socrates, bears the name of Phaedon. 

Phaedra {Qaidpa), daughter of Minos by Pasi- 
phae or Crete, and the wife of Theseus. She 
was the step-mother of Hippolytus, the son of 
Theseus, with whom she fell in love ; but hav- 
ing been repulsed by Hippolytus, she accused 
him to Theseus of having attempted her dis- 
honor. After the death of Hippolytus, his inno- 
cence became known to his father, and Phaedra 
made away with herself. For details, vid. Hip- 
polytus. 

Ph^edriades. Vid. Parnassus. 

Ph^edrias ($<u<5ptaf), a town in the south of 
Arcadia, southwest of Megalopolis, fifteen stadia 
from the Messenian frontier. 

[Ph^edrias ($at3pia(), one of the thirty tyrants 
in Athens, as the name is given in Xenophon ; 
the common reading in Demosthenes has Phaedi- 
mus] 

Phaedrus (*<z«5pof ). 1. An Epicurean philoso- 
pher, and the president of the Epicurean school 
during Cicero's residence in Athens, B.C. 80. 
He died in 70, and was succeeded by Patron. 
He was the author of a work on the gods (Tlepi 
iSeuv), of which an interesting fragment was dis- 
covered atHerculaneum in 1806, and published 
by Petersen, Hamb., 1833. Cicero was largely 
indebted to this work for the materials of the 
first book of the Be Natura Deorum. — 2. The 
Latin fabulist, of whom we know nothing but 
what is collected or inferred from his fables. 
He was originally a slave, and was brought 
from Thrace or Macedonia to Rome, where he 
learned the Latin language. As the title of his 
work is Phadri Aug. Liberti Fabula Msopia, we 
must conclude that he had belonged to Augus- 
tus, who manumitted him. Under Tiberius he 
appears to have undergone some persecution 
from Sejanus. The fables extant under the 
name of Phaedrus are ninety-seven in number, 
written in iambic verse, and distributed into five 
books. Most of the fables are transfusions of 
the^Esopian fables, or those which pass as such, 
into Latin verse. The expression is generally 
clear and concise, and the language, with some 
few exceptions, as pure and correct as we should 
636 



PHALACRA. 

expect from a Roman writer of the Augustan 
age. But Phaedrus has not escaped censure \ 
when he has deviated from his Greek model, and 
much of the censure is just. The best fables 1 
are those in which he has kept the closest to 
his original. Many of the fables, however, are 
not ^Esopian, as the matter clearly shows, for P 
they refer to historical events of a much later 
period (v., 1, 8 ; iii., 10) ; and Phaedrus himself, 
in the prologue to the fifth book, intimates that 
he had often used the name of iEsop only to 
recommend his verses. There is also another 
collection of thirty-two fables attributed to 
jEsop, and entitled Epitome Fabularum, which 
was first published at Naples in 1809, by Cas- 
sitti. Opinions are much divided as to the gen- 
uineness of this collection. The probability is, 
that the Epitome is founded on genuine Roman 
fables, which, in the process of transcription 
during many centuries, have undergone consid- 
erable changes. The last and only critical edi- 
tion of Phaedrus is by Orelli, Zurich, 1831. 

Ph^enarete. Vid. Socrates. 

Ph^enias. Vid. Phanias. 

Ph^estus (Qacurog : iaiario^. 1. A town in 
the south of Crete, near Gortyna, twenty sta- 
dia from the sea, with a port-town, Matala or 
Matalia, said to have been built by the Heraclid 
Phaestus, who came from Sicyon to Crete. The 
town is mentioned by Homer, but was destroyed 
at an early period by Gortyna. It was the birth- 
place of Epimenides, and its inhabitants were 
celebrated for their wit and sarcasm. — 2. A 
town of Thessaly, in the district Thessaliotis. 

Phaethon (Qaedov), that is, " the shining," 
occurs in Homer as an epithet or surname of 
Helios (the Sun), and is used by later writers as 
a proper name for Helios ; but it is more com- 
monly known as the name of a son of Helios by 
the Oceanid Clymene, the wife of Merops. The I 
genealogy of Phaethon, however, is not the same 
in all writers, for some call him a son of Clym- i 
enus, the son of Helios by Merope, or a son of 
Helios by Prote, or, lastly, a son of Helios by 
the nymph Rhode or Rhodos. He received the | 
significant name of Phaethon from his father, 
and was afterward presumptuous and ambitious 
enough to request his father to allow him for 
one day to drive the chariot of the sun across 
the heavens. Helios was induced by the en- 
treaties of his son and of Clymene to yield, but, 
the youth being too weak to check the horses, 
they rushed out of their usual track, and came 
so near the earth as almost to set it on fire. 
Thereupon Jupiter (Zeus) killed him with a flash 
of lightning, and hurled him down into the River 
Eridanus. His sisters, the Heliadcs or Phaeihon- 
tiades, who had yoked the horses to the chariot, 
were metamorphosed into poplars, and their 
tears into amber. Vid. Heliad^e. 

PhaethontIades. Vid. Heliad^e. 

Phaethusa. Vid. HeliaDjE. 

Phagres (<t>uyp)?c ! now Or/an or Or/ana), an 
ancient and fortified town of the Pierians in 
Macedonia, at the foot of Mount Pangaeon. 

[Phagrorion (<bayp£>pi.ov) or Phagroriopo- 
lis ($aypupiono2.ie), a city of Lower Egypt, 
near the canal extending from Phacusa to Ar- 
sinoe.] 

[Phalacra ($a?iUKpa and QaXaxpai), a city ot 
Cyrenaica, between Caenopolis and Marabma ; 



PHAL^ECUS. 



PHAN^E. 



according to Pliny, celebrated on account of its 
wine.] 

Phal^ecus (QdXaacoc). 1. Son of Onomar- 
ohus, succeeded his uncle Phayllus as leader of 
the Phocians in the Sacred War, B.C. 351. In 
order to secure his own safety, he concluded a 
treaty with Philip, by which he was allowed to 
withdraw intu the Peloponnesus with a body of 
eight thousand mercenaries, leaving the un- 
happy Phocians to their fate, 346. Phatecus 
now assumed the part of a mere leader of mer- 
cenary troops, in which character we find him 
engaging in various enterprises. He was slain 
at the siege of Cydonia in Crete. — 2. A lyric and 
epigrammatic poet, from whom the metre called 
Phalmcian took its name. Five of his epigrams 
aTe preserved in the Greek Anthology. His 
date is uncertain, but he was probably one of 
the principal Alexandrean poets. 

Phal^site ($a\aiaiai), a town in Arcadia, 
south of Megalopolis, on the road to Sparta, 
twenty stadia from the Laconian frontier. 

Phalanna {Q&Xavva : iaXavvaioc : now Kar- 
aijoli), a town of the Perrhaebi in the Thes- 
salian district of Hestiaeotis, on the left bank of 
the Peneus, not far from Tempe. 

Phalanthus ($a\avdoc), son of Aracus, was 
one of the Lacedaemonian Partheniae, or the off- 
spring of some marriages of disparagement, 
which the necessity of the first Messenian war 
had induced the Spartans to permit. (Vid. Diet, 
of Antiq., 'art. Partheni^.) As the Partheniae 
were looked down upon by their fellow-citizens, 
they formed a conspiracy under Phalanthus 
against the government. Their design having 
been detected, they went to Italy under the 
guidance of Phalanthus, and founded the city 
of Tarentum, about B.C. 708. Phalanthus was 
afterward driven out from Tarentum by a sedi- 
tion, and ended his days at Brundisium. 

Phalara (rd <fruXapa : Qahapevc), a town in 
the Thessalian district of Phthiotis, on the Sinus 
Maliacus, served as the harbor of Lamia. 

[Phalaris, one of the Trojan warriors who 
accompanied .Eneas to Italy : he was slain by 
Turnus.] 

Phalaris (bdXapic), ruler of Agrigentum in 
Sicily, has obtained a proverbial celebrity as a 
cruel and inhuman tyrant ; but we have scarcely 
any real knowledge of his life and history. His 
leign probably commenced about B.C. 570, and 
is said to have lasted sixteen years. He was 
a native of Agrigentum, and appears to have 
been raised by his fellow-citizens to some high 
office in the state, of which he afterward avail- 
ed himself to assume a despotic authority. He 
was engaged in frequent wars with his neigh- 
bors, and extended his power and dominion on 
all sides, though more frequently by stratagem 
than open force. He perished by a sudden out- 
break of the popular fury, in which it appears 
that Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron, must 
have borne a conspicuous part. No circum- 
stance connected with Phalaris is more cele- 
brated than the brazen bull in which he is said 
to have burned alive the victims of his cruelty, 
and of which we are told that he made the first 
experiment upon its inventor Perillus. This 
latter story has much the air of an invention of 
later (Rmes, but the fame of this celebrated en- 
gine of torture was inseparabl associated with 



the name of Phalaris as early as the time ol 
Pindar. (Pind., Pyth., i., 185.) That poet also 
speaks of Phalaris himself in terms which clear- 
ly prove that his reputation as a barbarous tyrant 
was then already fully established, and all sub- 
sequent writers, until a very late period, allude 
to him in terms of similar import. But in the 
later ages of Greek literature, there appears to 
have existed or arisen a totally different tradi- 
tion concerning Phalaris, which represented him 
as a man of a naturally mild and humane dispo- 
sition, and only forced into acts of severity or 
occasional cruelty by the pressure of circum- 
stances and the machinations of his enemies. 
Still more strange is it that he appears at the 
same time as an admirer of literature and phi- 
losophy, and the patron of men of letters. Such 
is the aspect under which his character is pre- 
sented to us in two declamations commonly as- 
cribed to Lucian, and still more strikingly in the 
well-known epistles which bear the name of 
Phalaris himself. These epistles are now re- 
membered chiefly on account of the literary con- 
troversy to which they gave rise, and the mas- 
terly dissertation in which Bentley exposed 
their spuriousness. They are evidently the 
composition of some sophist, though the pe- 
riod at which the forgery was composed can not 
now be determined. The first author who re- 
fers to them is Stobseus. The best edition is 
by Schaefer, Lips., 1823. 

Phalarium (QaMpiov), a fortress named afte r 
Phalaris, near the southern coast of Sicily, situ- 
ated on a hill forty stadia east of the River 
Himera. 

Phalasarna (ra iaXdaapva), a town on the 
northwestern coast of Crete. 

[Phalces ($aA/c??f), a Trojan warrior, slain 
before Troy by Antilochus.] 

Phalerum (<I>a/l;/po!; : Qcikripevc}, the most east- 
erly of the harbors of Athens, and the one 
chiefly used by the Athenians before the time 
of the Persian wars. Phalerum is usually de- 
scribed as the most easterly of the three har- 
bors in the peninsula of Piraeus ; but this ap- 
pears to be incorrect. The names of the three 
harbors in the peninsula were Piraeus, Zea, and 
Munychia ; while Phalerum lay southeast of 
these three, nearer the city, at Hagios Gcorgios. 
After the establishment by Themistocles of the 
three harbors in the peninsula of Piraeus, Phale- 
rum was not much used ; but it was connected 
with the city by means of a wall called the 
Phalerian Wall (fyaXripinbv retxoc). Paleron or 
Phalerus was also an Attic demus, containing 
temples of Jupiter (Zeus), Ceres (Demeter), and 
other deities. 

[Phalinus (<ba?iivoc), a Zacynthian, in the 
service of Tissaphernes ; after the battle of 
Cunaxa, B.C. 401, he accompanied the Persian 
heralds sent to the army of the ten thousand 
to require them to lay down their arms : he re- 
turned unsuccessful, having been unable to get 
any satisfactory answer from Clearchus.] 

PhalorIa (QaXupla), a fortified town of Thes- 
saly in Hestiaeotis, north of Tricca, on the left 
bank of the Peneus. 

Phan^e (idvai, 7] Zavala uupa : now Cape Mas~ 
j tico), the southern point of the island of Chios 
celebrated for its temple of Apollo and for its 
excellent wine. 

637 



PHANAG0R1A. 



PHARMACUSS.E. 



Phanagoria (iavayopcia, and other forms : 
ruins at Phanagori, near Taman, on the eastern 
side of the Straits of Kaffa), a Greek city, found- 
ed by a colony of Teians under Phanagoras, on 
the Asiatic coast of the Cimmerian Bosporus, 
[t became the great emporium for all the traffic 
between the coasts of the Palus Maeotis and the 
countries on the southern side of the Caucasus, 
and was chosen by the kings of Bosporus as 
their capital in Asia. It had a temple of Venus 
(Aphrodite) Apaturos, and its neighborhood was 
rich in olive-yards. In the sixth century A.D. 
it was destroyed by the surrounding barbarians. 

Phanarcea (<bavdpoia), a great plain of Pon- 
tus in Asia Minor, inclosed by the mountain 
chains of Paryadres on the east, and Lithrus 
and Ophlimus on the west, was the most fertile 
part of Pontus. 

[Phanes ($dvi/c), a Greek of Halicarnassus, 
in the service of Amasis, king of Egypt, whom 
he deserted, and went over to Cambyses, king 
of Persia ] 

Phanias or Phanias ($aviac, Qaiviac), of Ere- 
sos in Lesbos, a distinguished Peripatetic phi- 
losopher, the immediate disciple of Aristotle, 
and the contemporary, fellow-citizen, and friend 
of Theophrastus. He flourished about B.C. 336. 
Phanias does not seem to have founded a dis- 
tinct school of his own, but he was a most dili- 
gent writer upon every department of philoso- 
phy, as it was studied by the Peripatetics, espe- 
cially logic, physics, history, and literature. His 
works, all of which are lost, are frequently quot- 
ed by later writers. One of his works most fre- 
quently cited was a sort of chronicle of his na- 
tive city, bearing the title of TlpvT&vcic 'Epeaioc. 

Phanocles {$avon\fic) ) one of the best of the 
later Greek elegiac poets, probably lived in the 
time of Philip and Alexander the Great. He 
seems only to have written one poem, which 
was entitled "Epurcc t) Y^aXoi. The work was 
upon paderasleia ; but the subject was so treat- 
ed as to exhibit the retribution which fell upon 
those who addicted themselves to the practice. 
We still possess a considerable fragment from 
the opening of the poem, which describes the 
love of Orpheus for Calais, and the vengeance 
taken upon him by the Thracian women. The 
fragments of Phanocles are edited by Bach, Phi- 
Ictee, Hermesianactis, atque Phanoclis Reliquia, 
Halle, 1829 ; and by Schneidewin, Delectus Poes. 
Grac, p. 158. 

Phanodemus ($avod>iiioc), the author of one 
of those works on the legends and antiquities 
of Attica, known under the name of Atthides. 
His age and birth-place are uncertain, but we 
know that he lived before the time of Augustus, 
as he is cited by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. 
[The last edition of the fragments is in Miiller's 
Hist. Grace. Fragm., p. 366-370.] 

[Phanosthenes ( <bavoadii,r]c ), an Andrian, 
was intrusted by the Athenians in B.C. 407 with 
the command of four ships, and was sent to 
Andros tt succeed Conon on that station. On 
his way he fell in with two Thurian galleys, 
under the command of Dorieus, and captured 
them with their crews.] 

Phanote (now Gardhiki), a fortified town of 
Epirus in Chaonia, near the Illyrian frontier. 

Phantasia 'bavraaia), one of those numerous I 
mythical personages to whom Homer is said , 
638 



to have been indebted for his poems. She is 
said to have been an Egyptian, the daughter of 
Nicarchus, an inhabitant of Memphis, and to 
have written an account of the Trojan war and 
the wanderings of Ulysses. 

Phaon ($a<jv). 1. A boatman at Mytilene, 
is said to have been originally an ugly old man ; 
but, in consequence of his carrying Venus (Aph 
rodite) across the sea without accepting pay- 
ment, the goddess gave him youth and beauty 
After this Sappho is said to have fallen in love 
with him, and to have leaped from the Leuca- 
dian rock when he slighted her ; but this well- 
knoWn story vanishes at the first approach of 
criticism. Vid. Sappho. — [2. A freedman of the 
Emperor Nero, in whose villa in the neighbor- 
hood of the city Nero took refuge when the 
people rose against him, and where he met his 
death, A.D. 68.] 

PharjE ($apdc or $?jpai). 1. (Qapaievc or $a- 
pevc_), an ancient town in the western part of 
Achaea, and one of the twelve Achaean cities, 
was situated on the River Pierus, seventy stadia 
from the sea, and one hundred and fifty from 
Patrae. It was one of the states which took an 
active part in reviving the Achaean league in 
B.C. 281. Augustus included it in the territory 
of Patrae. — 2. (Qapa'trTic, §apaictT7]c, ^apdrric : 
now Kalamata), an ancient town in Messenia, 
mentioned by Homer, on the River Nedon, near 
the frontiers of Laconia, and about six miles 
from the sea. In B.C. 180 Pharae joined the 
Achaean league together with the neighboring 
towns of Thuria and Abia. It was annexed by 
Augustus to Laconia. — 3. Originally PHARis($d- 
pic : Qapnric, $apiaTr]c), a town in Laconia, in 
the valley of the Eurotas, south of Sparta. — 4. A 
town in Crete, founded by the Messenian Pharae. 

[Pharan ($apav), a city of Arabia Petraea, in 
the neighborhood of a promontory of the same 
name (now Faraun), between the two arms of the 
Sinus Arabicus, and which is now recalled to 
mind by the Wady Faran or Firan.} 

[Pharax ($upof). 1. One of the council of ten 
appointed by the Spartans in B.C. 418 to con- 
trol Agis. At the battle of Mantinea in that 
year, he restrained the Lacedaemonians from 
pressing too much on the defeated enemy, and 
so running the risk of driving them to despair. 
In B.C. 396 he laid siege with one hundred and 
twenty ships to Caunus, where Conon was sta- 
tioned, but was compelled to withdraw by the 
approach of a large force. — 2. A Spartan, sent 
to negotiate an alliance with Athens aoainst 
Thebes, B.C. 369.] 

Pharb-jethus (QdpGaidoc : ruins at Horbeyt ?), 
the capital of the Nomos Pharbaethites in Lower 
Egypt, lay south of Tanis, on the western side 
of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. 

Pharcadon (<bapKada>v), a town of Thessaly, 
in the eastern part of Hestiaeotis. 
Pharis. Vid. Pharse, No. 3. 
Pharmacuss^ (JkapfiaKovaoai). 1. Two small 
islands off the coast of Attica, near Salamis, in 
the Bay of Eleusis, now called Kyradhes or Mc- 
gali and Mihri Kyra : on one of them was shown 
the tomb of Circe. — 2. Pharmacusa (Qap/ta 
Kovaa), an island off the coast of Asia Minor, 
I one hundred and twenty stadia from Miletus, 
| where King Attalus died, and near which Julius 
i Caesar was taken prisoner by pirates when a 



PHARNABAZUS. 



PHASAELIS. 



very young man. The whole adventure is re- 
lated by Plutarch (Cas., 1, 2). 

Pharnabazus ($apva6a£o;), son of Pharnaces, 
succeeded his father as satrap of the Persian 
provinces near the Hellespont. In B.C. 411 and 
the following years, he rendered active assist- 
ance to the Lacedaemonians in their war against 
the Athenians. When Dercyllidas, and subse- 
quently Agesilaus, passed over into Asia to 
protect the Asiatic Greeks against the Persian 
power, we find Pharnabazus connecting himself 
with Conon to resist the Lacedaemonians. In 
374 Pharnabazus invaded Egypt in conjunction 
with Iphicrates, but the expedition failed, chiefly 
through the dilatory proceedings and the ex- 
cessive caution of Pharnabazus. The character 
of Pharnabazus is eminently distinguished by 
generosity and openness. He has been charg- 
ed, it is true, with the murder of Alcibiades ; but 
the latter probably fell by the hands of others. 
Vid. Alcibiades. 

Pharnaces ('iapvaKr/c). 1- King of Pontus, 
was the son of Mithradates IV., whom he suc- 
ceeded on the throne about B.C. 190. He car- 
ried on war for some years with Eumenes, king 
of Pergamus, and Ariarathes, king of Cappado- 
cia, but was obliged to conclude with them a 
disadvantageous peace in 179. The year of his 
death is uncertain ; it is placed by conjecture 
in 156. — 2. King of Pontus, or more properly of 
the Bosporus, was the son of Mithradates the 
Great, whom he compelled to put an end to his 
life in 63. Vid. Mithradates, No. 6. After the 
death of his father, Pharnaces hastened to make 
his submission to Pompey, who granted him the 
kingdom of the Bosporus with the titles of friend 
and ally of the Roman people. In the civil war 
between Caesar and Pompey, Pharnaces seized 
the opportunity to reinstate himself in his fa- 
ther's dominions, and made himself master of 
the whole of Colchis and the lesser Armenia. 
He defeated Domitius Calvinus, the lieutenant 
of Caesar in Asia, but was shortly afterward de- 
feated by Caesar himself in a decisive action 
near Zela (47). The battle was gained with 
such ease by Caesar, that he informed the sen- 
ate of his victory by the words Veni, vidi, vici. 
In the course of the same year Pharnaces was 
again defeated, and was slain by Asander, one 
of his generals, who hoped to obtain his mas- 
ter's kingdom. Vid. Asander. — [3. Father of 
Artabazus, who commanded the Parthians and 
Chorasmians in the expedition of Xerxes against 
Greece. — 4. Son of Pharnabazus, appears to 
have been satrap of the provinces of Asia,- near 
the Hellespont, as early as B.C. 430.— 5. A Per- 
sian of high rank, and brother-in-law of Darius 
Codomannus, was killed at the battle of the 
Granicus, B.C. 334.] 

Pharnacia (QapvaxU : now Khercsoun or Ke- 
rasunda), a flourishing city of Asia Minor, on the 
coast of Pontus Polemoniacus, was built near 
(some think on) the site of Cerasus, probably by 
Pharnaces, the grandfather of Mithradates the 
Great, and peopled by the transference to it of 
the inhabitants of Cotyora. It had a large com- 
merce and extensive fisheries, and in its neigh- 
borhood were the iron mines of the Chalybes. 
It was strongly fortified, and was used by Mith- 
radates in the war with Rome for the place of 
lelUjje of his harem. 



[Pharnaspes (^apvaarrrji), a Persian of the 
family of the Achaemenidae, was the father of Cas- 
sandane, a favorite wife of Cyrus the Great] 

[Pharnuchus (iapvovxoc). 1. An officer of 
Cyrus the elder, and one of the chiliarchs of hia 
cavalry in the war with Crcesus. After the con- 
quest of Babylon he was made satrap of the Hel- 
lespontine Phrygia and iEolis. — 2. One of the 
three commanders of the cavalry in the army of 
Xerxes. A fall from his horse occasioned his 
detention at Sardis while the Persians invaded 
Greece. By his order the horse's legs were cut 
off at the knees on the spot where he had thrown 
his master. — 3. A Lycian appointed by Alexan- 
der the Great to command the forces sent into 
Sogdiana against Spitamenes in B.C. 329.] 

Pharsalus {^dpaa"hog, Ion. •JupaiyAof : Qapaa- 
/Uof : now Pharsa or Fcrsala), a town in Thes- 
saly, in the district Thessaliotis, not far from 
the frontiers of Phthiotis, west of the River 
Enipeus, and on the northern slope of Mount 
Narthacius. It was divided into an old and 
new city, and contained a strongly-fortified 
acropolis. In its neighborhood, northeast of the 
town and on the other side of the Enipeus, was 
a celebrated temple of Thetis, called Thetidium. 
Near Pharsalus was fought the decisive battle 
between Caesar and Pompey, B.C. 48, which 
made Caesar master of the Roman world. It is 
frequently called the battle of Pharsalla, which 
was the name of the territory of the town. 

Pharus ($apof). 1. (Now Pharos or Raudhat- 
el-tin, i. e., Fig-garden), a small island off the 
Mediterranean coast of Egypt, mentioned by Ho- 
mer, who describes it as a whole day's sail dis- 
tant from^Egyptus, meaning probably, not Egypt 
itself, but the River Nile. When Alexander the 
Great planned the city of Alexandrea, on the 
coast opposite to Pharos, he caused the island 
to be united to the coast by a mole seven sta- 
dia in length, thus forming the two harbors of 
the city. Vid. Alexandrea. The island was 
chiefly famous for the lofty tower built upon it 
by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus for a light-house, 
whence the name of pharus was applied to all 
similar structures. It was in this island, too, 
that, according to the common story, the sev- 
enty translators of the Greek version of the Old 
Testament, hence called the Septuagint, were 
confined till their work was finished. The isl- 
and was well peopled according to Julius Cae- 
sar, but soon afterward Strabo tells us that it 
■was inhabited only by a few fishermen. — 2. (Now 
Lesina or Hvar), an island of the Adriatic, off 
the coast of Dalmatia, east of Issa, with a Greek 
city of the same name (ruins at Civita Vecohia), 
which was taken and destroyed by the Romans 
under ^Emilius Paulus, but probably rebuilt, as 
it is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of 
Pharia. 

[Pharus ($apof). 1. The helmsman of Mene- 
laus, from whom the island of Pharus at the 
mouth of the Nile was believed to have derived 
its name. — 2. A Rutulian, slain by .Eneas in 
Italy in the war with Turnus ] 

Pharusii (Jbapovoiot), a people in the interior 
(probably near the western coast) of Northern 
Africa, who carried on a considerable traffic with 
Mauretania. 

Phasa'elis ($<z<7a>7/Uf : now probably Ain-cl- 
Fusail), a city of Palestine, in the valley of the 

639 



PHASELIS. 



PHEMONOE 



jordan, north of Jericho, built by Herod the 
Great. 

Phaselis {$aan2.lc, §acT\Xnr\c : ruins at Tekro- 
va), an important sea-port town of Lycia, near 
the borders of Pamphylia, stood on the Gulf of 
Pamphylia, at the foot of Mount Solyma, in a 
narrow pass between the mountains and the 
sea. It was founded by Dorian colonists, and 
from its position, and its command of three fine 
harbors, it soon gained an extensive commerce. 
It did not belong to the Lycian confederacy, 
but had an independent government of its own. 
It became afterward the head-quarters of the 
pirates who infested the southern coasts of Asia 
Minor, and was therefore destroyed by P. Ser- 
vilius Isauricus ; and though the city was re- 
stored, it never recovered its importance. Pha- 
selis is said to have been the place at which 
the light, quick vessels called §aar\koi were first 
built, and the figure of such a ship appears on 
its coins. 

Phasis (*a<ri?). 1. (Now Fain or Rioni), a re- 
nowned river of the ancient world, rose in the 
Moschici Montes (or, according to others, in the 
Caucasus, where, in fact, its chief tributaries 
rise), and flowed westward through the plain of 
Colchis into the eastern end of the Pontus Eux- 
inus (now Black Sea), after receiving several af- 
fluents, the chief of which were the Glaucus and 
the llion : the name of the latter was sometimes 
transferred, as it now is, to the main river. It 
was navigable about thirty-eight miles above its 
mouth for large vessels, and for small ones 
further up, as far as Sarapana (now Sharapan), 
whence goods were conveyed in four days across 
the Moschici Montes to the River Cyrus, and so 
to the Caspian. It was spanned by one hundred 
and twenty bridges, and had many towns upon 
its banks. Its waters were celebrated for their 
purity and for various other supposed qualities, 
some of a very marvellous nature ; but it was 
most famous in connection with the story of 
the Argonautic expedition. Vid. Argonauts. 
Some of the early geographers made it the 
boundary between Europe and Asia ; it was aft- 
erward the northeastern limit of the kingdom 
of Pontus, and, under the Romans, it was re- 
garded as the northern frontier of their empire 
in Western Asia. Another notable circumstance 
connected with it is, that it has given name to 
the pheasant (phasianus, <j>aoiav6c, (paoiaviKoc 
opvic), which is said to have been first brought 
to Greece from its banks, where the bird is still 
found in great numbers. When the geography 
of these regions was comparatively unknown, it 
was natural that there should be a doubt as to 
the identification of certain celebrated names, 
and thus the name Phasis, like Araxes, is ap- 
plied to different rivers. The most important 
of these variations isXenophon's application of 
the name Phasis to the River Araxes in Ar- 
menia. (Anab., iv., 6.) — 2. Near the mouth of 
the river, on its southern side, was a town of 
the same name, founded and fortified by the 
Milesians as an emporium for their commerce, 
and used under the kings of Pontus and under 
the Romans as a frontier fort, and now a Russian 
fortified station, under the name of Pati. Some 
identify it with Sebastopolis, but most likely 
incorrectly. — 3. There was a river of the same 
name in the island of Taprobane (now Ceylon). 
640 



Phavoriwds. Vid. Favorinus. 
Phayllus {Quvlloc). 1. A celebrated athlete I 
of Crotona, who had thrice gained the victory 1 
at the Pythian games. He fought at the battle | 
of Salamis, B.C. 480, in a ship fitted out at his j 
own expense. — 2. A Phocian, brother of Ono- I 
marchus, whom he succeeded as general of the 
Phocians in the Sacred war, 352. He died in '; 
the following year, after a long and painful ill- 
ness. Phayllus made use of the sacred treas- 
ures of Delphi with a far more lavish hand than \ 
either of his brothers, and he is accused of be- ji 
stowing the consecrated ornaments upon his C 
wife and mistresses. 

Phazania (now Fezzan), a district of Libya I 
Interior. Vid. Garamantes. 

Phazemon (QaQiifiuv : now probably Marsi- 
wari), a city of Pontus in Asia Minor, northwest 
ofAmasia, and the capital of the western dis- 
trict of Pontus, called Phazemonltis ($atj)fiovl- 
ric), which lay on the eastern side of the Halys, < 
south of Gazelonitis, and was celebrated for its ii 
warm mineral springs. Pompey changed the 1 
name of the city to Neapolis, and the district [ 
was called Neapolltis ; but these names seem f 
to have been soon dropped. 

Phea {<keia, $£a, $eat : Qtaioc), a town on the 
frontiers of Elis and Pisatis, with a harbor situ- i 
ated on a promontory of the same name, and on 
the River Iardanus. In front of the harbor was 
a small island called Pheas (<bdac.) 

Pheca or Phecadum, a fortress in Thessaly, ' 
in the district Hestiaeotis. 

Phegeus (fyiiyevc). 1. King of Psophis in Ar- 
cadia, father of Alphesibcea or Arsinoe, of Prc- 
nous and Agenor, or of Temenus and Axion. j 
He purified Alcma;on after he had killed his f 
mother, and gave him his daughter Alphesiboea r 
in marriage. Alcmseon presented Alphesiboea 
with the celebrated necklace and peplus of Har- I 
monia ; but when Alcmaeon afterward wished 
to obtain them again for his new wife Callirrhoe, 
he was murdered by the sons of Phegeus, by | 
their father's command. Phegeus was himself 
subsequently put to death by the sons of Alc- 
maeon. For details, vid. Alcm^on. — [2. Son of 
Dares, priest of Vulcan (Hephaestus) in Troy, 
slain in the Trojan war byDiomedes. — 3. Name 
of two Trojan warriors, companions of ^Eneas, 
slain by Turnus in Italy.] 

[Phellias ($fAAt'ar), a little stream of Laco- 
nia, which empties into the Eurotas, south of 
Sparta.] 

[Phelloe (4>£AAdi7, near the'modern Zakhdi\ j 
a small town in the east of Achaia, forty stadia j 
inland from ^Egira, in a well-watered and well- j 
wooded district.] 

Phellus (4>E'AAof or 4>£/Uor : ^e^Xitvc : ruins j 
near Saaret), an inland city of Lycia, on a mount- 
ain between Xanthus and Antiphellus ; the lat- f 
ter having been at first the port of Phellus, but i ; 
afterward eclipsing it. 

Phellusa, a small island near Lesbos. 

Phemius (Qrjjuoc), a celebrated minstrel, son 
of Terpius, who entertained with his song the 
suitors in the palace of Ulysses in Ithaca. 

Phemonoe (*^oi'6?;), a mythical Greek poet- 
ess of the ante-Homeric period, was said tc ' 
have been the daughter of Apollo, and his first 
priestess at Delphi, and the inventor of the hex- 
ameter verse. There were poems which went 



PHENEUS. 



PHERON. 



under the name of Phemonoe, like the old re- 
ligious poems which were ascribed to Orpheus, 
Musaeus, and the other mythological bards. 

Pheneus (Qeveoq or <S?eve6c : ieveuTrjs '■ now 
Fonia), a town in the northeast of Arcadia, at 
the foot of Mount Cyllene, and on the River 
Aroanius. Its territory was called Pheneatis 
(•beveanc). There were extensive marshes in 
the neighborhood, the waters of which, though 
partly carried off by a subterraneous emissary, 
which was supposed to have been made by Her- 
cules, [sometimes collected, and formed a con- 
siderable lake]. The town was of great antiqui- 
ty. It is mentioned by Homer, and was said to 
have been built by an autochthon Pheneus. It 
contained a strongly-fortified acropolis, with a 
temple of Minerva (Athena) Tritonia ; and in 
the town itself were the tombs of Iphicles and 
Myrtilus, and temples of Mercury (Hermes) and 
Ceres (Demeter). 

Pher^s (<f>epa[ : $epawc : now Valestino), an 
ancient town of Thessaly, in the southeast of 
the Pelasgian plain, west of Mount Pelion, 
southwest of the Lake Bcebeis, and ninety sta- 
dia from its port-town Pagasae on the Pagasaean 
Gulf. Pheras is celebrated in mythology as the 
residence of Admetus, and in history on account 
of its tyrants, who extended their power over 
nearly the whole of Thessaly. Of these the 
most powerful was Jason, who was made Ta- 
gus or generalissimo of Thessaly about B.C. 
374. Jason was succeeded in<370 by his two 
brothers Polydorus and Polyphron. The former 
was soon after assassinated by Polyphron. The 
latter was murdered in his turn in 369 by his 
nephew Alexander, who was notorious for his 
cruelty, and who was put to death in 367 by his 
wife Thebe and her three brothers. At a later 
period we read that Phers was surrounded by a 
number of gardens and country houses. 

Pher^s. Vid. Phar^e. 

[Pheraulas ($epav2.ac ) is introduced by Xen- 
ophon in the Cyropaedia as a Persian of hum- 
ble birth, but a favorite with Cyrus, and distin- 
guished by qualities of body and mind which 
would not have dishonored the noblest rank. 
He is described as having become tired of the 
honors and elevation to which Cyrus had raised 
him, and as having voluntarily resigned them 
to lead a quiet and retired life such as he had 
before enjoyed.] 

[Phereclus (fyfyeic/toc), a son of Harmonides, 
is said to have built the ship in which Paris 
carried off Helen, and to have been slain in the 
Trojan war by Meriones.] 

Pherecrates ($£pf/cpar^f), of Athens, one of 
the best poets of the Old Comedy, was contem- 
porary with the comic poets Cratinus, Crates, 
Eupolis, Plato, and Aristophanes, being some- 
what younger than the first two, and somewhat 
older than the others/ He gained his first vic- 
tory B.C. 438, and he imitated the style of 
Crates, whose actor he had been. Crates and 
Pherecrates very much modified the coarse sat- 
ire and vituperation of which this sort of poetry 
had previously been the vehicle, and construct- 
ed their comedies on the basis of a regular plot, 
and with more dramatic action. Pherecrates 
did not, however, abstain altogether from per- 
sonal satire, for we see by the fragments of his 
plays that he attacked Alcibiades, the tragic 
41 



poet Melanthius, and others. He invented a 
new metre, which was named, after him, ue 
Pherccratean. The system of the verse is 

— _ IL w ^ — — which may be best explained 

as a choriambus, with a spondee for its base, 
and a long syllable for its termination. The 
metre is very frequent in the choruses of the 
Greek tragedians, and in Horace, as, for exam- 
ple, Grato Pyrrha sub antro. The extant titles 
of the plays of Pherecrates are eighteen. 

Pherecydes (Qepenvdrjc). 1. Of Syros, an isl- 
and in the iEgean, an early Greek philosopher, 
or rather theologian. He flourished about B.C. 
544. He is said to have obtained his knowledge 
from the secret books of the Phoenicians, and 
to have travelled in Egypt. Almost all the an- 
cient writers who speak of him state that he 
was the teacher of Pythagoras. According to 
a common tradition, he died of the lousy dis- 
ease, or Morbus Pediculosus ; though others 
give different accounts of his death. The most 
important subject which he is said to have 
taught was the doctrine of the Metempsycho- 
sis, or, as it is put by other writers, the doc- 
trine of the immortality of the soul. He gave 
an account of his views in a work which was 
extant in the Alexandrean period. It was writ- 
ten in prose, which he is said to have been the 
first to employ in the explanation of philosoph- 
ical questions. — 2. Of Athens, one of the most 
celebrated of the early Greek logographers. 
He lived in the former half of the fifth century 
B.C., and was a contemporary of Hellanicus 
and Herodotus. His principal work was a myth- 
ological history in ten books. It began with a 
theogony, and then proceeded to give an ac- 
count of the heroic age and of the great fami- 
lies of that time. His fragments have been col- 
lected by Sturz, Pherecydis Fragmenta, Lips., 
1824, second edition ; and by C. and T. Muller, 
in Fragmenta Historicum Gracorum,vo]. i. 

Pheres (bepry;). 1. Son of Cretheus and Ty- 
ro, and brother of iEson and Amythaon ; he was 
married to Periclymene, by whom he became 
the father of Admetus, Lycurgus, Idomene, and 
Periapis. He was believed to have founded 
the town of Pherae in Thessaly. — 2. Son of Ja- 
son and Medea. — 3. A follower of Pallas, fought 
on the side of ^Eneas against Turnus, and was 
slain by Halesus. 

Pheretiades (§cpr)Tiu5Tic), i. e., a son of Phe- 
res, is especially used as the name of Admetus. 

Pheretima (QzpeTifia), wife of Battus III., 
and mother of Arcesilaus III., successive kings 
of Cyrene. After the murder of her son by the 
Barcaeans (vid. Battiad^e, No. 6), Pheretima fled 
into Egypt to Aryandes, the viceroy of Darius 
Hystaspis, and representing that the death of 
Arcesilaus had been the consequence of his sub- 
mission to the Persians, she induced him to 
avenge it. On the capture of Barca by the Per- 
sian army, she caused those who had the prin- 
cipal share in her son's murder to be impaled, 
and ordered the breasts of their wives to be cut 
off. Pheretima then returned to Egypt, where 
she soon after died of a painful and loathsomn 
disease. 

Pheron or Pheros (bepuv, 4>£puf), king ol 
Egypt, and son of Sesostris. He was visited 
with blindness, an hereditary complaint, though, 

641 



PHIDIAS. 

according to the legend preserved in Herodo- 
tus, it was a punishment for his presumptuous 
impiety in throwing a spear into the waters of 
the Nile when it had overflowed the fields. By 
attending to the directions of an oracle he was 
cured ; and he dedicated an obelisk at Heliop- 
olis in gratitude for his recovery. Pliny tells 
us that this obelisk, together with another also 
made by him, but broken in its removal, was to 
be seen at Rome, in the Circus of Caligula and 
Nero, at the foot of the Vatican Hill. Pliny calls 
the Pheron of Herodotus Nuncoreus or Nen- 
coreus, a name corrupted, perhaps, from Me- 
nophtheus. Diodorus gives him his father's 
name, Sesoosis. Pheron is of course the same 
word as Pharaoh. 

Phidias ($ft<5«zf), the greatest sculptor and 
statuary of Greece. Of his personal history we 
possess but few details. He was a native of 
Athens, and the son of Charmides, and was 
born about the time of the battle of Marathon, 
B.C. 490. He began to work as a statuary 
about 464, and one of his first great works was 
the statue of Minerva (Athena) Promachus, 
which may be assigned to about 460. This 
work must have established his reputation ; but 
it was surpassed by the splendid productions 
of his own hand, and of others working under 
his direction, during the administration of Peri- 
cles. That statesman not only chose Phidias 
to execute the principal statues which were to 
be set up, but gave him the oversight of all the 
works of art which were to be erected. Of 
these works the chief were the Propylaea of the 
Acropolis, and, above all, the temple of Minerva 
(Athena) on the Acropolis, called the Parthenon, 
on which, as the central point of the Athenian 
polity and religion, the highest efforts of the 
best of artists were employed. There can be no 
doubt that the sculptured ornaments of this tem- 
ple, the remains of which form the glory of the 
British Museum, were executed under the im- 
mediate superintendence of Phidias ; but the 
colossal statue of the divinity, made of ivory 
and gold, which was inclosed within that mag- 
nificent shrine, was the work of the artist's own 
hand. The statue was dedicated in 438. Hav- 
ing finished his great work at Athens, he went 
to Elis and Olympia, which he was now invited 
to adorn. He was there engaged for about four 
or five years, from 437 to 434 or 433, during 
which time he finished his statue of the Olym- 
pian Jupiter (Zeus), the greatest of all his works. 
On his return to Athens he fell a victim to the 
jealousy against his great patron, Pericles, 
which was then at its height. The party op- 
posed to Pericles, thinking him too powerful to 
be overthrown by a direct attack, aimed at him 
in the persons of his most cherished friends, 
Phidias, Anaxagoras, and Aspasia. Vid. Peri- 
cles. Phidias was first accused of peculation, 
but this charge was at once refuted, as, by the 
advice of Pericles, the gold had been affixed to 
the statue of Minerva (Athena) in such a man- 
ner that it could be removed and the weight of 
it examined. The accusers then charged Phid- 
ias with impiety, in having introduced into the 
battle of the Amazons, on the shield of the 
goddess, his own likeness and that of Peri- 
3les. On this latter charge Phidias was thrown 
'nto prison, where he died from disease in 
642 



PHIDIAS. 

432. Of the numerous works executed by Phid- [ 
ias for the Athenians, the most celebrated was ? 
the statue of Minerva (Athena) in the Parthe- f 
non, to which reference has already been made. I 
This statue was of that kind of work which the I ! 
Greeks called chryselephantine, that is, the statue 
was formed of plates of ivory laid upon a core i 
of wood or stone, for the flesh parts, while the 
drapery and other ornaments were of solid gold, t 
The statue stood in the foremost and larger cham- j 
ber of the temple (prodomus). It represented * 
the goddess standing, clothed with a tunic reach- I 
ing to the ankles, with her spear in her left 
hand, and an image of Victory four cubits high L 
in her right : she was girded with the aegis, and I 
had a helmet on her head, and" her shield rested f, 
on the ground by her side. The height of the 
statue was twenty-six cubits, or nearly forty | 
feet, including the base. The eyes were of a k 
kind of marble, nearly resembling ivory, perhaps L 
painted to imitate the iris and pupil ; there is 'fj 
no sufficient authority for the statement which 
is frequently made that they were of precious j 
stones. The weight of the gold upon the statue, 1 
which, as above stated, was removable at pleas- [ 
ure, is said by Thucydides to have been forty 
talents (ii., 13). Still more celebrated than his [ 
statue of Minerva (Athena) was the colossal 
ivory and gold statue of Jupiter (Zeus), which '■ 
Phidias made for the great temple of this god, \ 
in the Altis or sacred grove at Olympia. This t j 
statue was regarded as the master-piece, not ■ 
only of Phidias, but of the whole range of Gre- I 
cian art ; and was looked upon not so much as | 
a statue, but rather as if it were the actual man- ; 
ifestation of the present deity. It was placed jj 
in the prodomus or front chamber of the temple, 
directly facing the entrance. ' It was only vis- L 
ible, however, on great festivals : at other times 
it was concealed by a magnificent curtain. The j 
god was represented as seated on a throne of 
cedar wood, adorned with gold, ivory, ebony, J 
stones, and colors, crowned with a wreath of 1 
olive, holding in his right hand an ivory and gold 
statue of Victory, and in his left hand support- [ 
ing a sceptre, which was ornamented with all L 
sorts of metals, and sut mounted by an eagle, j 
The throne was brilliant both with gold and | 
stones, and with ebony and ivory, and was or- I 
namented with figures both painted and sculp- j 
tured. The statue almost reached to the roof, 
which was about sixty feet in height. The idea \ 
which Phidias essayed to embody in this, his L 
greatest work, was that of the supreme deity [ 
of the Hellenic nation, no longer engaged in fj 
conflicts with the Titans and the Giants, but | 
having laid aside his thunderbolt, and enthroned 
as a conqueror, in perfect majesty and repose, | 
ruling with a nod the subject world. It is re- Q 
lated that when Phidias was asked what model 
he meant to follow in making his statue, he re- L 
plied that of Homer (7/., i., 528-530). The im- j, 
itation of this passage by Milton gives no small 
aid to the comprehension of the idea (Paradise 
Lost, hi., 135-137): 

" Thus while God spoke, ambrosial fragrance fill'd 
All hearen, and in the blesseit spirits elect 
Sense of new joy ineffable diffused." 

The statue was removed by the Emperor Theo 
dosius I. to Constantinople, where it was de- , 
I stroyed by a fire in A.D. 475. The disfiiymis* j 



« 



PHIDIPPIDL'S. 



PHILADELPHIA. 



ing character of the art of Phidias was ideal 
beauty, and that of the sublimcst order, especially 
in the representation of divinities, and of sub- 
jects connected with their worship. While on 
the one hand he set himself free from the stiff 
and unnatural forms which, by a sort of religious 
precedent, had fettered his predecessors of the 
archaic or hieratic school, he never, on the other 
hand, descended to the exact imitation of any 
human model, however beautiful ; he never rep- 
resented that distorted action, or expressed that 
I vehement passion, which lie beyond the limits 
j of repose ; nor did he ever approach to that al- 
most meretricious grace, by which some of his 
greatest followers, if they did riot corrupt the 
art themselves, gave the occasion for its cor- 
ruption in the hands of their less gifted and 
spiritual imitators. 

Phidippides or Philippides (Qeidnriri&jis, $1- 
At7nrt<5j?c), a courier, was sent by the Athenians 
to Sparta in B.C. 490 to ask for aid against the 
Persians, and arrived there on the second day 
from his leaving Athens. On his return to 
Athens, he related that on his way to Sparta he 
had fallen in with Pan on Mount Parthenium, 
near Tegea, and that the god had bid him ask 
the Athenians why they paid him no worship, 
| though he had been hitherto their friend, and 
I ever would be so. In consequence of this rev- 
elation, they dedicated a temple to Pan after 
the battle of Marathon, and honored him thence- 
forth with annual sacrifices and a torch-race. 

[Phidippus ($ddiinroc), a son of Thessalus, 
the Heraclid, and brother of Antiphus, led the 
warriors of the Sporades in thirty ships against 
Troy.] 

Phidon ($£«5<jv). 1. Son of Aristodamidas, 
and king of Argos, restored the supremacy of 
Argos over Cleonaj, Phlius, Sicyon, Epidaurus, 
Tri£zen, and iEgina, and aimed at extending 
his dominions over the greater part of the Pelo- 
ponnesus. The Pisans invited him, in the 
eighth Olympiad (B.C. 748), to aid them in ex- 
cluding the Eleans from their usurped presi- 
dency at the Olympic games, and to celebrate 
them jointly with themselves. The invitation 
quite fell in with the ambitious pretensions of 
Phidon, who succeeded in dispossessing the 
Eleans and celebrating the games along with 
the Pisans ; but the Eleans not long after de- 
feated him, with the aid of Sparta, and recov- 
ered their privilege. Thus apparently fell the 
power of Phidon ; but as to the details of the 
struggle we have no information. The most 
memorable act of Phidon was his introduction 
of copper and silver coinage, and a new scale 
of weights and measures, which, through his 
influence, became prevalent in the Peloponne- 
sus, and ultimately throughout the greater por- 
tion of Greece. Tht scale in question was 
known by the name of the ^Eginetan, and it is 
usually supposed that the coinage of Phidon was 
struck in ^Egina ; but there seems good reason 
for believing that what Phidon did was done in 
Argos, and nowhere else ; that " Phidonian 
measures" probably did not come to bear the 
specific name of the ^Eginetan until there was 
another scale in vogue, the Euboic, from which 
to distinguish them ; and that both the epithets 
were derived, not from the place where the 
cale first originated, but from ",he people whose 



commercial activity tended to make them most 
generally known, in the one case the ^Egine- 
tans, in the other case the inhabitants of Chal- 
cis and Eretria. — 2. An ancient Corinthian leg- 
islator of uncertain date. 

Phigalia {QiyaXia, iiyi'iktia, $iyaAea : <&tya- 
hevg : now Paolitza), at a later time called Phi- 
alia, a town in the southwestern corner of Ar 
cadia, on the frontiers of Messenia and Elis, 
and upon the River Lymax. It was taken by 
the Spartans B.C. 559, but was afterward re- 
covered by the Phigalians with the help of the 
Oresthasians. It is frequently mentioned in 
the later wars of the Achaean and ^Etolian 
leagues. Phigalia, however, owes its celebrity 
in modern times to the remains of a splendid 
temple in its territory, situated about six miles 
northeast of the town at Bassae on Mount Coty- 
lum. This temple was built by Ictinus, the con- 
temporary of Pericles and Phidias, and the arch- 
itect, along with Callicrates, of the Parthenon 
at Athens. It was dedicated to Apollo Epi- 
curius, or the Deliverer, because the god had 
delivered the country from the pestilence during 
the Peloponnesian war. Pausanias describes 
this temple as the most beautiful one in all Pel- 
oponnesus after the temple of Minerva (Athena) 
at Tegea. Most of the columns are still stand- 
ing: In 1812 the frieze Tound the interior of 
the inner cella was discovered, containing a se- 
ries of sculptures in alto-relievo, representing 
the combat of the Centaurs and the Lapitha?, 
and of the Greeks and the Amazons. Their 
height is a little more than two feet, and their 
total length is one hundred feet. They were 
found on the ground under the spot which they 
originally occupied, and were much injured by 
their fall, and by the weight of the ruins lying 
upon them. They were purchased for the Brit- 
ish Museum in 1814, where they are still pre- 
served, and are usually known by the name of 
the Phigalian Marbles. They are some of the 
most interesting and beautiful remains of an- 
cient art in this country. 

Phila (4>('Aa), daughter of Antipater, the re- 
gent of Macedonia, is celebrated as one of the 
noblest and most virtuous women of the age in 
which she lived. She was married to Craterus 
in B.C. 322, and after the death of Craterus, 
who survived his marriage with her scarcely a 
year, she was again married to the young De- 
metrius, the son of Antigonus. She shared 
with her husband his various vicissitudes of 
fortune ; but when he was expelled from Mac- 
edonia in 287, she put an end to her own life 
at Cassandrea, unable to bear this unexpected 
reverse. She left two children by Demetrius : 
Antigonus, surnamed Gonatas, who became 
king of Macedonia ; and a daughter, Stratonice, 
married first to Seleucus, and afterward to his 
son Antiochus. 

Phila (4>i'Aa : $i2.aloc, QiXarrjc). 1. A town 
of Macedonia, in the province Pieria, situated 
on a steep hill on the Peneus, between Dium 
and Tempe, and at the entrance into Thessaly, 
built by Demetrius II., and named after his 
mother Phila. — 2. An island off the southern 
coast of Gaul, one of the Stoechades. 

[Philadelphia {$ikad£7i(beia, now Allah-sheh , 
i. e., city of God). 1. A city of Lydia, on the 
Cogamus, at the foot of Mount Tmolus, was 

643 



PHILADELPHIA 



PHILEMON. 



rounded by Attalus Philadelphia, brother of Eu- 
menes, king of Pergamus. The place suffered 
repeatedly from violent shocks of earthquakes, 
and, in consequence, had, by the time of Strabo, 
become almost deserted. Tacitus mentions it 
among the towns restored by Tiberius, after a 
more than ordinary calamity of this kind. Phila- 
delphia was one of the Seven Churches of Asia 
mentioned in the Apocalypse. At a later period 
it made a gallant resistance to the Turks, but 
was finally subdued by Bajazet in A.D. 1390. — 
2. (In the Old Testament, Rabbath-Ammon or 
Rabbah), the capital of the Ammonites, situ- 
ated on the further side of the Jordan, taken 
from them by David. It was called Philadelphia 
from Ptolemy Philadelphus, and is frequently 
mentioned by this name in Greek and Roman 
writers. Vid. Rabbatamana.] 

Philadelphus (QiMdeZfog), a surname of 
Ptolemaeus II., king of Egypt (vid. Ptolem^us), 
and of Attalus II. of Pergamus. Vid. Attalus. 

[PHiLiE (bikai), an island in the Nile, to the 
south of Elephantine, and the southernmost 
point of Egypt, inhabited in common by Egyp- 
tians and ^Ethiopians. The island was cover- 
ed with temples and other splendid structures, 
for it was sacred to Isis, and in the little island 
Abatos (q. v.) close to it was the tomb of Osi- 
ris: from the magnificent ruins still existing in 
the island, it is now called Djesiret-el-Birleh, i. 
e-, " Temple-island."] 

Phil^ni (itXaivoi), two brothers, citizens of 
Carthage, of whom the following story is told : 
A dispute having arisen between the Carthagini- 
ans and Cyrenaeans about their boundaries, it 
was agreed that deputies should start at a fixed 
time from each of the cities, and that the place 
of their meeting, wherever it might be, should 
thenceforth form the limit of the two territories. 
The Philaeni were appointed for this service on 
the part of the Carthaginians, and advanced 
much further than the Cyrenaean party. The 
Cyrenaeans accused them of having set forth be- 
fore the time agreed upon, but at length con- 
sented to accept the spot which they had reach- 
ed as a boundary line, if the Philaeni would sub- 
mit to be buried alive there in the sand. Should 
they decline the offer, they were willing, they 
said, on their side, if permitted to advance as 
far as they pleased, to purchase for Cyrene an 
extension of territory by a similar death. The 
Philaeni accordingly then and there devoted 
themselves for their country in the way pro- 
posed. The Carthaginians paid high honors to 
their memory, and erected altars to them where 
they had died ; and from these, even long after 
all traces of them had vanished, the place still 
continued to be called "The Altars of the Phi- 
laeni." Our main authority for this story is Sal- 
lust, who probably derived his information from 
African traditions during the time that he was 
proconsul of Numidia, and at least three hund- 
red years after the event. We can not, there- 
fore, accept it unreservedly. The Greek name 
by which the heroic brothers have become known 
to us — $ilaivoi, or lovers of praise — seems 
clearly to have been framed to suit the tale. 

[Phil^us ($i'A<nof), a son of the Telamonian 
Ajax and Tecmessa, from whom the Attic de- 
mus of Philaidae derived its name.] 

Philagrius (itAaypiof), a Greek medical writ- 
644 



er, born in Epirus, lived after Galen and belore 
Oribasius, and therefore probably in the third 
century after Christ. He wrote several works, 
of which, however, only a few fragments re- 
main. 

Philajimon (§rtd/ufiuv), a mythical poet and 
musician of the ante-Homeric period, was said 
to have been the son of Apollo and the nymph 
Chione,orPhilonis,orLeuconoe. By the nymph 
Agriope, who dwelt on Parnassus, he became 
the father of Thamyris and Eumolpus. He is 
closely associated with the worship of Apollo at 
Delphi, and with the music of the cithara. He 
is said to have established the choruses of girls, 
who, in the Delphian worship of Apollo, sang 
hymns in which they celebrated the births of 
Latona (Leto), Diana (Artemis), and Apollo. 
Pausanias relates that in the most ancient mu- 
sical contests at Delphi, the first who conquered 
was Chrysothemis of Crete, the second was 
Philammon, and the next after him his son 
Thamyris. 

Philargyrius Junius, or Philargyrus, or Ju- 
nilius Flagrius, an early commentator upon 
Virgil, who wrote upon the Bucolics and Georg- 
ics. His observations are less elaborate than 
those of Servius, and have descended to us in a 
mutilated condition. The period when he flour- 
ished is altogether uncertain. They are printed 
in the edition of Virgil byBurmann ; [and in the 
edition of the commentaries of Servius by H. A. 
Lion, Gbttingen, 1825-26.] 

Phile or Philes, Manuel (Mavovy/. 6 <J>(Ai7f), 
a Byzantine poet, and a native of Ephesus, was 
born about A.D. 1275, and died about 1340. His 
poem, Dc Animalium Proprictalc, chiefly extract- 
ed from jElian, is edited byDe Paw, Traj. Rhen., I 
1739 ; [and with a revised text byLehrs andDiib- 
ner in the Bucolici Giasci, forming part of Di- 
dot's Bibliotheca Graeca, Paris, 1846 ;] and his 
other poems on various subjects are edited by 
Wernsdorf, Lips., 1768. 

Phileas (*(Af'af). 1. A Greek geographer of 
Athens, whose time can not be determined with j 
certainty, but who probably belonged to the older 
period of Athenian literature. He was the au- 
thor of a Periplus, which was divided into two 
parts, one on Asia, and the other on Europe. — 
[2. Of Tarentum, having been sent as ambassa- 
dor to Rome, he persuaded his countrymen, who 
were there detained as hostages, to make their 
escape, which they effected by his aid ; but, hav- 
ing been overtaken at Terracina, they were 
brought back to Rome, scourged, and thrown 
from the Tarpeian rock.] 

Philemon (fct^/zuv). 1. An aged Phrygian 
and husband of Baucis. Once upon a time, 
Jupiter (Zeus) and Mercury (Hermes), assum- 
ing the appearance of ordinary mortals, visited 
Phrygia ; but no one was willing to receive the 
strangers, until the hospitable hut of Philemon 
and Baucis was opened to them, where the two 
gods were kindly treated. Jupiter (Zeus) re- 
warded the good old couple by taking them to 
an eminence, while all the neighboring district 
was visited with a sudden inundation. On that 
eminence Jupiter (Zeus) appointed them the 
guardians of his temple, and allowed them both 
to die at the same moment, and then meta- 
morphosed them into trees. — 2. An Athenian 
poet of the New Comedy, was the son of Da- 



PHILESIUS. 



PHILINUS. 



tnon, and a native of Soli in Cilicia, but at an 
early age went to Athens, and there received 
the citizenship. He flourished in the reign of 
Alexander, a little earlier than Menander, whom, 
however, he long survived. He began to ex- 
hibit about B.C. 330. He was the first poet of 
the New Comedy in order of time, and the sec- 
ond in celebrity ; and he shares with Menander 
the honor of its invention, or, rather, of reduc- 
ing it to a regular form. Philemon lived nearly 
one hundred years. The manner of his death is 
differently related : some ascribing it to excess- 
ive laughter at a ludicrous incident ; others to 
joy at obtaining a victory in a dramatic contest; 
while another story represents him as quietly 
called away by the goddesses whom he served 
in the midst of the composition or representa- 
tion of his last and best work. Although there 
can be no doubt that Philemon was inferior to 
Menander as a poet, yet he was a greater favor- 
ite with the Athenians, and often conquered his 
rival in the dramatic contests. Vid. Menander. 
The extant fragments of Philemon display much 
liveliness, wit, eloquence, and practical knowl- 
edge of life. His favorite subjects seem to have 
been love intrigues, and his characters were the 
standing ones of the New Comedy, with which 
Plautus and Terence have made us familiar. 
The number of his plays was ninety-seven ; the 
number of extant titles, after the doubtful and 
spurious ones are rejected, amounts to about 
fifty-three ; but it is very probable that some of 
these should be assigned to the younger Phile- 
mon. The fragments of Philemon are printed 
with those of Menander by Meineke, Berlin, 1823, 
8vo, in his Fragments, Comicorum GrcBcorum, 
Berol., 1841 ; [and byFr. Diibner at the end of 
the Aristophanes in Didot's Bibliotheca Graeca, 
Paris, 1836.] — 3. The younger Philemon, also a 
poet of the New Comedy, was a son of the for- 
mer, in whose fame nearly all that belongs to 
him has been absorbed, so that, although he was 
the author of fifty-four dramas, there are only 
two short fragments, and not one title, quoted 
expressly under his name. — 4. The author of a 
Aef£/cdv TexvoXoywov, the extant portion of which 
was first edited by Burney, Lond., 1812, and aft- 
erward by Osann, Berlin, 1821. The author in- 
forms us that his work was intended to take the 
place of a similar lexicon by the grammarian 
Hyperechius. The work of Hyperechius was 
arranged in eight books, according to the eight 
different parts of speech. Philemon's lexicon 
was a meagre epitome of this work, and the part 
of it which is extant consists of the first book 
and the beginning of the second. Hyperechius 
lived about the middle of the fifth century of our 
era, and Philemon may probably be placed in 
the seventh. 

[Philesius {fyikriaios), an Achaean, an officer 
in the army of Cyrus the younger, and, after the 
treacherous capture of Clearchus and the other 
generals by Tissaphernes, was chosen in the 
place of Menon. He was selected with Sophae- 
netus, as being the two oldest generals, to con- 
duct the older men, the women and children, 
and the sick from Trapezus by sea. He is men- 
tioned also in the Anabasis on several subse- 
quent occasions.] 

Philet^erus (^ikiraipoc)- 1- Founder of the 
kingdom of Pergamus, was a native of Tieium 



in Paphlagonia, and a eunuch. He is first men- 
tioned in the service of Docimus, the general ol 
Antigonus, from which he passed into that of 
Lysimachus, who intrusted him with the charge 
of the treasures which he had deposited in the 
strong fortress of Pergamus. Toward the end 
of the reign of Lysimachus he declared in favor 
of Seleucus, and, after the death of the latter 
(B.C. 280), he took advantage of the disorders 
in Asia to establish himself in virtual independ- 
ence. At his death he transmitted the govern- 
ment of Pergamus, as an independent state, to 
his nephew Eumenes. He lived to the age of 
eighty, and died apparently in 263.. — 2. An Athe- 
nian poet of the Middle Comedy. Some said he 
was the third son of Aristophanes, but others 
maintained that it was Nicostratus. He wrote 
twenty-one plays. [The fragments are collect- 
ed by Meineke, Comic. Grac. Fragm., vol. i., p. 
640-5, edit, minor.] 

Philetas (<J>£?.77rdf), of Cos, the son of Tele- 
phus, a distinguished Alexandrcan poet and 
grammarian, flourished during the reign of the 
first Ptolemy, who appointed him tutor of his 
son, Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. His death may 
be placed about B.C. 280. Philetas seems to 
have been naturally of a very weak constitution, 
which at last broke down under excessive study 
He was so remarkably thin as to become an 
object for the ridicule of the comic poets, who 
represented him as wearing leaden soles to his 
shoes, to prevent his being blown away by a 
strong wind. His poetry was chiefly elegiac. 
Of all the writers in that department, he was 
esteemed the best after Callimachus, to whom 
a taste less pedantic than that of the Alexan- 
drean critics would probably have preferred him ; 
for, to judge by his fragments, he escaped the 
snare of cumbrous learned affectation. These 
two poets formed the chief models for the Ro- 
man elegy ; nay, Propertius expressly states, in 
one passage, that he imitated Philetas in pref- 
erence to Callimachus. The elegies of Philetas 
were chiefly amatory, and a large portion of 
them was devoted to the praises of his mistress 
Bittis, or, as the Latin poets give the name, 
Battis. Besides his poems, Philetas wrote in 
prose on grammar and criticism. His most im 
portant grammatical work was entitled "Araxra 
The fragments of Philetas have been collected 
by Bach, with those of Hermesianax and Pha- 
nocles, Halis Sax., 1829. 

Phileus, an eminent Ionian architect, built 
the Mausoleum, in conjunction with Satyrus, 
and the temple of Minerva (Athena) Polias at 
Priene. The date of the erection of the Mau- 
soleum was soon after B.C. 353, the year in 
which Mausolus died ; that of the temple at 
Priene must have been about twenty years later. 

[Philiades {Qikiadrjc), a Messenian, father of 
Neon and Thrasylochus, the partisans of Philip 
of Macedon. It is probable that Philiades him 
self was attached to the same party, as he is 
mentioned by Demosthenes in terms of con- 
tempt and aversion.] 

[Philinna (Silivva) or Phimne (QcMv?)). . 1. 
A female dancer of Larissa in Thessaly, was the 
mother of Arrhidasus by Philip of Macedon. — 
2. Mother of the poet Theocritus.] 

Philinits (QMvoc). 1. A Greek of Agrigen- 
tum, accompanied Hannibal in his carrpaigns 

645 



PHILIPPI. 



PHILIPPUS. 



against Rome, and wrote a history of the Punic 
wars, in which he exhibited much partiality 
toward Carthage. — 2. An Attic orator, a con- 
temporary of Demosthenes and Lycurgus. He 
is mentioned by Demosthenes in his oration 
against Midias, who calls him the son of Nicos- 
tratus, and says that he was trierarch with him. 
Three orations of Philinus are mentioned by 
the grammarians. — 3. A Greek physician, born 
in the island of Cos, and the reputed founder 
of the sect of the Empirici, probably lived in the 
third century B.C. He wrote a work on part 
of the Hippocratic collection, and also one on 
botany. 

Philippi (itXnnroi : $j/lj7r7rCTf, QilmTrrioioc, 
§t7amrrjv6c : now Filibah or Felibejik), a cele- 
brated city in Macedonia adjecta (vid, p. 464, a), 
\vas situated on a steep height of Mount Pan- 
gaeus, and on the River Gangas or Gangites, 
between the rivers Nestus and Strymon. It 
was founded by Philip on the site of an ancient 
town Crenides (Kprjvkhc), a colony of the Tha- 
sians, who settled here oh account of the val- 
uable gold mines in the neighborhood. Philippi 
is celebrated in history in consequence of the 
victory gained here by Octavianus and Antony 
over Brutus and Cassius, B.C. 42, and as the 
place where the Apostle Paul first preached the 
Gospel in Europe, A D. 53. The church at 
Philippi soon became one of the most important 
of the early Christian churches : one of Saint 
Paul's Epistles is addressed to it. It was made 
a Roman colony by Octavianus after the vic- 
tory over Brutus and Cassius, under the name 
of Colonia Augusta Julia Philippcnsis ; and it 
continued to be under the empire a flourishing 
and important city. Its sea-port was Datum or 
Datus on the Strymonic Gulf. 

Philippides {iikinmdrn). 1. Vid. Phidippi- 
des. — 2. Of Athens, the son of Philocles, is men- 
tioned as one of the six principal comic poets 
of the New Comedy by the grammarians. He 
flourished about B.C. 323. Philippides seems 
to have deserved the rank assigned to him, as 
one of the best poets of the New Comedy. He 
attacked the luxury and corruptions of his age, 
defended the privileges of his art, and made use 
of personal satire with a spirit approaching to 
that of the Old Comedy. His death is said to 
have been caused by excessive joy at an unex- 
pected victory : similar tales are told of the 
deaths of other poets, as, for example, Sopho- 
cles, Alexis, and Philemon. The number of his 
dramas is stated at forty-five. There are fif- 
teen titles extant. [The fragments of his plays 
are collected by Meineke, vol. ii., p. 1116-24, 
edit, minor.] 

Phimppopolis ($i?Limr6no?iic : now Philippo- 
■poli), an important town in Thrace, founded by 
Philip of Macedon on the site of a place previ- 
ously called Eumolpias or Poneropolis. It was 
situated in a large plain southeast of the Hebrus, 
on a hill with three summits, whence it was 
sometimes called Trimontium. Under the Ro- 
man empire it was the capital of the province 
of Thraeia in its narrower sense, and one of the 
most important towns in the country. 

Philippus (HXcttkoc). I. Minor historical per- 
sons. 1. Son of Alexander I. of Macedonia, and 
brother of Perdiccas II., against whom he re- 
belled in conjunction with Derdas. The rebels 
646 



were aided by the Athenians, B.C. 432.-2. Son 
of Herod the Great, king of Judea, by his wife 
Cleopatra, was appointed by his father's will 
tetrarch of Ituraea and Trachonitis, the sover- 
eignty of which was confirmed to him by the 
decision of Augustus. He continued to reign 
over the dominions thus intrusted to his charge 
for thirty-seven years (B.C. 4-A.D. 34). He 
founded the city of Caesarea, surnamed Paneas, 
but more commonly known as Caesarea Philippi, 
near the sources of the Jordan, which he named 
in honor of Augustus. Vid. C^sarea, No. 2. — 
3. Son of Herod the Great by Mariamne, whose 
proper name was Herodes Philippus. He must 
not be confounded with the preceding Philip. 
He was the first husband of Herodias, who aft- 
erward divorced him, contrary to the Jewish 
law, and married his half-brother, Herod Anti- 
pas. It is Herod Philip, and not the preceding, 
who is meant by the Evangelists (Matt., xiv., 3 ; 
Mark, vi., 17; Luke, iii., 19) when they speak 
of Philip, the brother of Herod. 

II. Kings of Macedonia. 

I. Son of Argaeus, was the third king, accord- 
ing to Herodotus and Thucydides, who, not 
reckoning Caranus and his two immediate suc- 
cessors (Ccenus and Thurimas or Turimmas), 
look upon Perdiccas I. as the founder of the 
monarchy. Philip left a son, named Aeropus, 
who succeeded him. — II. Youngest son of 
Amyntas II. and Eurydice, reigned B.C. 359- 
336. He was born in 382, and was brought up I 
at Thebes, whither he had been carried as a 
hostage by Pelopidas, and where he received a 
most careful education. Upon the death of his I 
brother Perdiccas III., who was slain in battle 
against the Illyrians, Philip obtained the gov- 
ernment of Macedonia, at first merely as regent ! 
and guardian to his infant nephew Amyntas ; 
but at the end of a few months he was enabled i 
to set aside the claims of the young prince, and I 
to assume for himself the title of king. Mace- 
donia was beset by dangers on every side. Its 
territory was ravaged by the Illyrians on the 
west, and the Paeonians on the north, while 
Pausanias and Argaeus took advantage of the 
crisis to put forward their pretensions to the I 
throne. Philip was fully equal to the emergen- i 
cy. By his tact and eloquence he sustained the 
failing spirits of the Macedonians, while at the 1 
same time he introduced among them a stricter 
military discipline, and organized their army on 
the plan of the phalanx. He first turned his jj 
arms against Argaeus, the most formidable of 
the pretenders, since he was supported by the 
Athenians. He defeated Argaeus in battle, and 
then concluded a peace with the Athenians. 
He next attacked the Paeonians, whom he re- 
duced to subjection, and immediately afterward i 
defeated the Illyrians in a decisive battle, and 
compelled them to accept a peace, by which 
they lost a portion of their territory. Thus in 
the short period of one year, and at the age of 
twenty-four, had Philip delivered himself from 
his dangerous position, and provided for the se- 
curity of his kingdom. But energy and talents 
such as his were not satisfied with mere secu- 
rity, and henceforth his views were directed, 
not to defence, but to aggrandizement. His first 



II 



PHILIPPUS 

efforts were directed to obtain possession of 
I the various Greek cities upon the Macedonian 
coast. Soon after his accession he had with- 
drawn his garrison from Amphipolis, and had 
declared it a free city, because the Athenians 
i had supported Argaeus with the hope of recov- 
ering Amphipolis, and his continuing to hold 
the place would have interposed difficulties in 
the way of a peace with Athens, which was 
at that time an object of great importance 
to him. But he had never meant seriously to 
abandon this important town; and accordingly, 
having obtained pretexts for war with the Am- 
phipolitans, he laid siege to the town, and gain- 
ed possession of it in 358. The Athenians 
had sent no assistance to Amphipolis, because 
Philip, in a secret negotiation with the Athe- 
nians, led them to believe that he was willing 
to restore the city to them when he had taken 
it, and would do so on condition of their mak- 
ing him master of Pydna. After the capture 
of Amphipolis, he proceeded at once to Pydna, 
which seems to have yielded to him without 
a struggle, and the acquisition of which, by 
his own arms, and not through the Athenians, 
gave him a pretext for declining to stand by 
his secret engagement with them. The hos- 
tile feeling which such conduct necessarily ex- 
cited against him at Athens made it most im- 
nortant for him to secure the good will of the 
powerful town of Olynthus, and to detach the 
Olynthians from the Athenians. Accordingly, 
he gave to the Olynthians the town of Potidaea, 
which he took from the Athenians in 356. Soon 
after this he attacked and took a settlement of 
the Thasians, called Crenides, and, having in- 
troduced into the place a number of new col- 
onists, he named it Philippi after himself. One 
great advantage of this acquisition was, that it 
put him in possession of the gold mines of the 
district. From this point there is for some time 
a pause in the active operations of Philip. In 
352 he took Methone after a lengthened siege, 
in the course of which he himself lost an eye. 
The capture of this place was a necessary pre- 
liminary in any movement toward the south, 
lying as it did between him and the Thessalian 
border. He now marched into Thessaly to aid 
the Aleuadae against Lycophron, the tyrant of 
Phera;. The Phocians sent a force to support 
Lycophron, but they were defeated by Philip, 
and their general Onomarchus slain. This vic- 
tory gave Philip the ascendency in Thessaly. 
He established at Pherae what he wished the 
Greeks to consider a free government, and then 
advanced southward to Thermopylae. The pass, 
however, he found guarded by a strong Athe- 
nian force, and he was compelled, or at least 
thought it expedient, to retire. He now turned 
his arms against Thrace, and succeeded in es- 
tablishing his ascendency in that country also. 
Meanwhile Philip's movements in Thessaly had 
opened the eyes of Demosthenes to the real 
danger of Athens and Greece, and his first Phil- 
ippic (delivered in 352) was his earliest attempt 
to rouse his countrymen to energetic efforts 
against their enemy ; but he did not produce 
much effect upon the Athenians. In 349 Philip 
commenced his attacks on the Chalcidian cities. 
Olynthus, in alarm, applied to Athens for aid, 
and Demosthenes, in his three Olynthiac ora- 



PHILIPPUS. 

tions. roused the people to efforts against the 
common enemy, not very vigorous at first, and 
fruitless in the end. In the course of three 
years Philip gained possession of all the Cha' 
cidian cities, and the war was brought to a con 
elusion by the capture of Olynthus itself in 347. 
In the following year (346) he concluded peace 
with the Athenians, and straightway marched 
into Phocis, and brought the Phocian war to an 
end. The Phocian cities were destroyed, and 
their place in the Amphiotyonic council was 
made over to the king of Macedonia, who was 
appointed also, jointly with the Theban's and 
Thessalians, to the presidency of the Pythian 
games. Ruling as he did over a barbaric na- 
tion, such a recognition of his Hellenic charac- 
ter was of the greatest value to him, especially 
as he looked forward to an invasion of the Per- 
sian empire in the name of Greece, united un- 
der him in a great national confederacy. Dur- 
ing the next few years Philip steadily pursued 
his ambitious projects. From 342 to 340 he 
was engaged in an expedition in Thrace, and 
attempted to bring under his power all the Greek 
cities in that country. In the last of these years 
he laid siege to Perinthus and Byzantium ; but 
the Athenians, who had long viewed Philip's 
aggrandizement with fear and alarm, now re- 
solved to send assistance to these cities. Pho- 
cion was appointed to the command of the arm- 
ament destined for this service, and succeeded 
in compelling Philip to raise the siege of both 
the cities (339). Philip now proceeded to carry 
on war against his northern neighbors, and 
seemed to give himself no further concern about 
the affairs of Greece. But meanwhile his hire- 
lings were treacherously promoting his designs 
against the liberties of Greece. In 339 the Am- 
phictyons declared war against the Locrians of 
Amphissa for having taken possession of a dis- 
trict of the sacred land ; but as the general 
they had appointed to the command of the Am- 
phictyonic army was unable to effect any thing 
against the enemy, the Amphictyons, at their 
next meeting in 337, conferred upon Philip the 
command of their army. Philip straightway 
marched throughThermopylae and seized Elatea. 
The Athenians heard of his approach with alarm ; 
they succeeded, mainly through the influence 
of Demosthenes, in forming an alliance with the 
Thebans ; but their united army was defeated 
by Philip in the month of August, 338, in the 
decisive battle of Chaeronea, which put an end 
to the independence of Greece. Thebes paid 
dear for her resistance, but Athens was treated 
with more favor than she could have expected. 
Philip now seemed to have withinjiis reach the 
accomplishment of the great object of his am- 
bition, the invasion and conquest of the Per- 
sian empire. In a congress held at Corinth, 
which was attended by deputies from every 
Grecian state with the exception of Sparta, war 
with Persia was determined on, and the king 
of Macedonia was appointed to command the 
forces of the national confederacy. In 337, 
Philip's marriage with Cleopatra, the daughter 
of Attalus, one of his generals, led to the most 
serious disturbances in his family. Olympias 
and Alexander withdrew in great indignation 
from Macedonia ; and though they returned 
home soon afterward, they continued to be on 

647 



PHILIPPUS. 

n jstile terms with Philip. Meanwhile, his prep- 
arations for his Asiatic expedition were not 
neglected, and early in 336 he sent forces into 
Asia, under Parmenion, to draw over the Greek 
cities to his cause. But in the summer of this 
year he was murdered at a grand festival which 
he held at JEgas, to solemnize the nuptials of 
his daughter with Alexander of Epirus. His 
murderer was a youth of noble blood, named 
Pausanias, who stabbed him as he was walking 
in the procession. The assassin was immedi- 
ately .pursued and slain by some of the royal 
guards. His motive for the deed is stated by Ar- 
istotle to have been private resentment against 
Philip, to whom he had complained in vain of a 
gross outrage offered to him by Attalus. Olym- 
pias and Alexander, however, were suspected 
of being implicated in the plot. Vid. Olympias. 
Philip died in the forty-seventh year of his age 
and the twenty-fourth of his reign, and was suc- 
ceeded by Alexander the Great. Philip had a 
great number of wives and concubines. Be- 
sides Olympias and Cleopatra, we may men- 
tion, 1. his first wife Audata, an Illyrian prin- 
cess, and the mother of Cynane ; 2. Phila, sister 
of Derdas and Machatas, a princess of Elymi- 
otis ; 3. Nicesipolis of Pherae, the mother of 
Thessalonica ; 4. Philinna of Larissa, the mother 
of Arrhidaeus ; 5. Meda, daughter of Cithelas, 
king of Thrace ; 6. Arsinoe, the mother of Ptol- 
emy I., king of Egypt, with whom she was preg- 
nant when she married Lagus. To these nu- 
merous connections temperament as well as 
policy seems to have inclined him. He was 
strongly addicted, indeed, to sensual enjoyment' 
of every kind ; but his passions, however strong, 
were always kept in subjection to his interests 
and ambitious views. He was fond of science 
and literature, in the patronage of which he ap- 
pears to have been liberal ; and his apprecia- 
tion of great minds is shown by his connection 
with Aristotle. In the pursuit of his political 
objects he was, as we have seen, unscrupulous, 
and ever ready to resort to duplicity and corrup- 
tion ; but when we consider his humanity and 
generous clemency, we may admit that he does 
not appear to disadvantage, even morally speak- 
ing, by the side of his fellow-conquerors of man- 
kind. — III. The name of Philip was bestowed 
by the Macedonian army upon Arrhidaeus, the 
bastard son of Philip II., when he was raised 
to the throne after the death of Alexander 
the Great. He accordingly appears in the list 
of Macedonian kings as Philip III. For his 
life and reign, vid. Aekhid^eus. — IV. Eldest son 
of Cassander, whom he succeeded on the throne 
B.C. 296. He reigned only a few months, and 
was carried off by a consumptive disorder. — V. 
Son of Demetrius II., reigned B.C. 220-178. He 
was only eight years old at the death of his fa- 
ther Demetrius (229), and the sovereign power 
was consequently assumed by his uncle Antigo- 
nus Doson, who, though he certainly ruled as 
king rather than merely as guardian of his neph- 
ew, was faithful to the interests of Philip, to 
whom he transferred the sovereignty at his 
death in 220, to the exclusion of his own chil- 
dren. Philip was only seventeen years old at 
the time of his accession, but he soon stiowed 
that he possessed ability and wisdom superior 
to his years. In consequence of the defeat of 
648 



PHILIPPUS. 

the Achasans and Aratus by the ^Etolians, the 
former applied for aid to Philip. This was js 
granted ; and for the next three years Philip 
conducted with distinguished success the war i 
against the iEtolians. This war, usually called 
the Social war, was brought to a conclusion in 
217, -and at once gained for Philip a distinguish- ': 
ed reputation throughout Greece, while his clem- 
ency and moderation secured him an equal meas- 
ure of popularity. But a change came over his > 
character soon after the close of the Social war. Is 
He became suspicious and cruel ; and having I 
become jealous of his former friend and coun- 
sellor Aratus, he caused him to be removed by 
a slow and secret poison in 213. Meantime he !'• 
had become engaged in war with the Romans. 
In 215 he concluded an alliance with Hannibal ; |: 
but he did not prosecute the war with any ac- 
tivity against the Romans, who on their part 
were too much engaged with their formidable 
adversary in Italy to send any powerful arma- r 
ment against the Macedonian king. In 211 the 
war assumed a new character in consequence | 
of the alliance entered into by the Romans 
with the iEtolians. It was now carried on with ' : 
greater vigor and alternate success; but as Phil- 
ip gained several advantages over the ^Etolians, 
the latter people made peace with Philip in 205. 
In the course of the same year the Romans like- 
wise concluded a peace with Philip, as they 
were desirous to give their undivided attention f 1 
to the war in Africa. It is probable that both i;' 
parties looked upon this peace as little more 
than a suspension of hostilities. Such was t 
clearly the view with which the Romans had I 
accepted it ; and Philip not only proceeded to 
carry out his views for his own aggrandizement 
in Greece, without any regard to the Roman al- 
liances in that country, but he even sent a body 
of auxiliaries to the Carthaginians in Africa, 
who fought at Zama under Hannibal. As soon 
as the Romans had brought the second Punic 
war to an end, they again declared war against 
Philip, 200. This war lasted between three j 
and four years, and was brought to an end by 
the defeat of Philip by the consul Flamininus at 
the battle of Cy noscephala? in the autumn of 197. 
Vid. Flamininus. By the peace finally granted 
to Philip (196), the king was compelled to aban- 
don all his conquests, both in Europe and Asia, ! 
surrender his whole fleet to the Romans, and 
limit his standing army to five thousand men, | 
besides paying a sum of one thousand talents. 
Philip was now effectually humbled, and en- 
deavored to cultivate the friendship of the all- 
powerful republic. But toward the end of his 
reign he determined to try once more the for- 
tune of war, and began to make active prepara- 
tions for this purpose. His declining years \ 
were embittered by the disputes between his 
sons Perseus and Demetrius ; and the former, f 
by forged letters, at length persuaded the king 
that Demetrius was plotting against his life, j 1 
and induced him to consent to the execution of 
the unhappy prince. Philip was struck with the 
deepest grief and remorse when he afterward 
discovered the deceit that had been practiced 
upon him. He believed himself to be haunted 
by the avenging spirit of Demetrius, and died 
shortly after, imprecating curse* upon Perseus. 
His death took place in 179, in the fifty-ninth f 



PHILIPPUS. 



PHILISCUS. 



year of his age, after a reign of nearly forty-two 
years. 

III. Family of the Marcii Philippi. 
1. Q. Marcius Philippus, praetor 188, with 
Sicily as his province, and consul 186, when he 
carried on war in Liguria with his colleague 
Sp. Postumius Albinus. He was defeated by 
the enemy in the country of the Apuani, and the 
recollection of his defeat was preserved by the 
name of the saltus Marcius. In 169 Philippus 
was consul a second time, and carried on the 
war in Macedonia against Perseus, but accom- 
plished nothing of importance. Vid. Perseus. 
In 164 Philippus was censor with L. iEmilius 
Paulus, and in his censorship he set up in the 
city a new sun-dial. — 2. L. Marcius Philippus, 
was a tribune of the plebs 104, when he brought 
forward an agrarian law, and was consul in 91 
with Sex. Julius Caesar. In this year Philip- 
pus, who belonged to the popular party, op- 
posed with the greatest vigor the measures of 
the tribune Drusus, who at first enjoyed the full 
confidence of the senate. But his opposition 
was all in vain ; the laws of the tribune were 
carried. Soon afterward Drusus began to be 
regarded with mistrust and suspicion ; Philip- 
pus became reconciled to the senate, and on his 
proposition a senatus consulturn was passed, 
declaring all the laws of Drusus to be null and 
void, 9S having been carried against the auspi- 
ces. Vid. Drusus. In the civil wars between 
Marius and Sulla, Philippus took no part. He 
survived the death of Sulla ; and he is men- 
tioned afterward as one of those who advocated 
sending Pompey to conduct the war in Spain 
against Sertorius. Philippus was one of the 
most distinguished orators of his time. (Hor., 
Epist., i., 7, 46.) As an orator he was reck- 
oned only inferior to Crassus and Antonius. 
He was a man of luxurious habits, which his 
wealth enabled him to gratify : his fish-ponds 
were particularly celebrated for their magnifi- 
cence and extent, and are mentioned by the 
ancients along with those of Lucullus and Hor- 
tensius. Besides his son, L. Philippus, who is 
spoken of below, he had a step-son, Gellius Pub- 
licola. Vid. Publicola. — 3. L. Marcius Philip- 
pus, son of the preceding, was consul in 56. 
Upon the death of C. Octavius, the father of 
Augustus, Philippus married his widow Atia, 
and thus became the step-father of Augustus. 
Philippus was a timid man. Notwithstanding 
his close connection with Caesar's family, he re- 
mained neutral in the civil wars ; and after the 
assassination of Caesar, he endeavored to dis- 
suade his step-son, the young Octavianus, from 
accepting the inheritance which the dictator had 
left him. He lived till his step-son had acquired 
the supremacy of the Roman world. He re- 
stored the temple of Hercules and the Muses, 
and surrounded it with a colonnade, which is 
frequently mentioned under the name of Porti- 
cus Philippi. (Clari monimenta Philippi, Ov., 
Fast, vi., 801.) 

IV. Emperors of Rome. 
1. M. Julius Philippus I., Roman emperor 
A.D. 244-249, was an Arabian by birth, and en- 
tered the Roman army, in which he rose to high 
rank. He accompanied Gordianus III. in his 



expedition against the Persians ; and upon ttift 
death of the excellent Misitheus (vid. Misith- 
eus), he was promoted to the vacant office of 
praetorian praefect. He availed himself of the 
influence of his high office to excite discontent 
among the soldiers, who at length assassinated 
Gordian, and proclaimed Philippus emperor, 244. 
Philippus proclaimed his son Caesar, concluded 
a disgraceful peace with Sapor, founded the city 
of Philippopolis, and then returned to Rome. 
In 245 he was engaged in prosecuting a suc- 
cessful war against the Carpi on the Danube. 
In 248, rebellions, headed by Iotapinus and Ma- 
rinus, broke out simultaneously in the East and 
in Moesia. Both pretenders speedily perished, 
but Decius, having been dispatched to recall 
the legions on the Danube to their duty, was 
himself forcibly invested with the purple by the 
troops, and compelled by them to march upon 
Italy. Philippus, having gone forth to encoun- 
ter his rival, was slain near Verona either in 
battle or by his own soldiers. The great do- 
mestic event of the reign of Philippus was the 
exhibition of the secular games, which were 
celebrated with even more than the ordinary 
degree of splendor, since Rome had now, ac- 
cording to the received tradition, attained the 
thousandth year of her existence (A.D. 248) — 

2. M. Julius Philippus II., son of the foregoing, 
was a boy of seven at the accession (244) of 
his father, by whom he was proclaimed Caesar, 
and three years afterward (247) received the 
title of Augustus. In 249 he was slain, accord- 
ing to Zosimus, at the battle of Verona, or mur- 
dered, according to Victor, at Rome by the prae- 
torians, when intelligence arrived of the defeat 
and death of the emperor. 

V. Literary. 

I. Of Medma, in the south of Italy, a Greelc 
astronomer, and a disciple of Plato. His ob- 
servations, which were made in the Pelopon- 
nesus and in Locris, were used by the astron- 
omers Hipparchus, Geminus the Rhodian, and 
Ptolemy. — 2. Of Thessalonica, an epigrammat- 
ic poet, who, besides composing a large num- 
ber of epigrams himself, compiled one of the 
ancient Greek Anthologies. The whole num- 
ber of epigrams ascribed to him in the Greek 
Anthology is nearly ninety ; but of these, six 
(Nos. 36-41) ought to be ascribed to Lucillius, 
and a few others are manifestly borrowed from 
earlier poets, while others are mere imitations. 
The Anthology ('AvdoTioyla) of Philip, in imita- 
tion of that of Meleager, and as a sort of sup- 
plement to it, contains chiefly the epigrams of 
poets who lived in, or shortly before, the time 
of Philip. The earliest of these poets seems to 
be Philodemus, the contemporary of Cicero, and 
the latest Automedon, who probably flourished 
under Nerva. Hence it is inferred that Philip 
flourished under Trajan. 

Philiscus (QcMokoi). 1. An Athenian poet 
of the Middle Comedy, of whom little is known. 
He must have flourished about B.C. 400, or a 
little later, as his portrait was painted by Par- 
rhasius. — 2. Of Miletus, an orator or rhetorician, 
and the disciple of Isocrates, wrote a life of the 
orator Lycurgus, and an epitaph on Lysias. — 

3. Of yEgina, a cynic philosopher, was the dis- 
ciple of Diogenes the Cynic, and the teacher of 

649 



FHILISCUS. 



PHILO. 



4i xander in grammar. — 4. Of Corcyra, a dis- 
<i'i,'j;uished tragic poet, and one of the seven 
whu formed the Tragic Pleiad at Alexandrea, 
was also a priest of Bacchus (Dionysus), and in 
t'l&t character he was present at the coronation 
piocession of Ptolemy Philadelphus in B.C. 284. 
He wrote forty-two dramas. — 5. Of Rhodes, a 
sculptor, several of whose works were placed 
in the temple of Apollo, adjoining the portico 
of Octavia at Rome. One of these statues was 
that of the god himself : the others were Lato- 
na and Diana, the nine Muses, and another 
statue of Apollo, without drapery. He proba- 
bly lived about B.C. 146. The group of Muses, 
found in the villa of Cassius at Tivoli, is sup- 
posed by some to be a copy of that of Philiscus. 
Others take the beautiful statue at Florence, 
known as the Apollino, for the naked Apollo of 
Philiscus. 

[Philiscus (^ik'tano;), a native of Abydus, 
sent in B.C. 368 into Greece by Ariobarzanes to 
effect a reconciliation between theThebans and 
Lacedaemonians, but he did not fully succeed in 
bringing about the object of his mission. On 
his return to Asia he made himself master of 
a number of Greek states, over which he exer- 
cised a tyrannical sway, till he was at length 
assassinated at Lampsacus by Thersagoras and 
Execestus.] 

Philistine Fosse. Vid. Padus. 

Philistion (QiXiotiuv). 1. Of Nicaea orMag- 
nesia, a mimographer, who flourished in the 
time of Augustus, about A.D. 7. He was an 
actor as well as a writer of mimes, and is said 
to have died of excessive laughter. — 2. A phy- 
sician, born either at one of the Greek towns in 
Sicily, or at Locri Epizephyrii in Italy, was tutor 
to the physician Chrysippus of Cnidos, and the 
astronomer and physician Eudoxus, and there- 
fore must have lived in the fourth century B.C. 

Philistus (QiXtoroc), a Syracusan, son of Ar- 
chonides or Archomenides, was born probably 
about B.C. 435. He assisted Dionysius in ob- 
taining the supreme power, and stood so high 
in the favor of the tyrant that the latter intrust- 
ed him with the charge of the citadel of Syra- 
cuse ; but at a later period he excited the jeal- 
ousy of the tyrant by marrying, without his con- 
sent, one of the daughters of his brother Lep- 
tines, and was in consequence- banished from 
Sicily. He at first retired to Thurii, but after- 
ward established himself at Adria, where he 
composed the historical work which has given 
celebrity to his name. He was recalled from 
exile by the younger Dionysius soon after his 
accession, and quickly succeeded in establishing 
his influence over the mind of the latter. He 
exerted all his efforts to alienate Dionysius 
from his former friends, and not only caused 
Plato to be sent back to Athens, but ultimately 
succeeded in effecting the banishment of Dion 
also. Philistus was unfortunately absent from 
Sicily when Dion first landed in the island, and 
made himself master of Syracuse, B.C. 356. 
He afterward raised a powerful fleet, with which 
he gave battle to the Syracusans, but having 
been defeated, and finding himself cut off from 
all hopes of escape, he put an end to his own life 
to avoid falling into the hands of his enraged 
countrymen. Philistus wrote a history of Sicily, 
which was one of the most celebrated historical 
650 



works of antiquity, though, unfortunately, only a 
few fragments of it have come down to us. It 
consisted of two portions, which might be re- 
garded either as two separate works, or as parts 
of one great whole, a circumstance which ex- 
plains the discrepancies in the statements of the 
number of books of which it was composed. 
The first seven books comprised the general his 
tory of Sicily, commencing from the earliest 
times, and ending with the capture of Agrigen- 
tum by the Carthaginians, B.C. 406. The sec- 
ond part, which formed a sequel to the first, con- 
tained the history of the elder Dionysius in foui 
books, and that of the younger in two : the lat- 
ter was necessarily imperfect. In point of 
style, Philistus is represented by the concurrent 
testimony of antiquity as imitating and even 
closely resembling Thucydides, though still fall 
ing far short of his great model. The frag- 
ments of Philistus have been collected by Goel- 
ler in an appendix to his work, Be Situ et Origine 
Syracusarum, Lips., 1818, and by C.Miiller, in the 
Fragmenta Historicorum Gmcorum, Paris, 1841. 

Philo 1. An Academic philosopher, 

was a native of Larissa and a disciple of Clito- 
machus. After the conquest of Athens by Mith- 
radates he removed to Rome, where he settled 
as a teacher of philosophy and rhetoric, and had 
Cicero as one of his hearers. — 2. Byblius, also 
called Herennius Byblius, a Roman grammari- 
an, and a native of Byblus in Phoenicia, as his 
patronymic indicates, was born about the time 
of Nero, and lived to a good old age, having 
written of the reign of Hadrian. He wrote 
many works, which are cited by Suidas and oth- 
ers, but his name is chiefly memorable by his 
translation of the writings of the Phoenician 
Sanchuniathon, of which considerable fragments 
have been preserved by Eusebius. Vid. San- 
chuniathon. — 3. Of Byzantium, a celebrated 
mechanician, and a coniemporary of Ctesibius, 
flourished about B.C. 146. He wrote a work on 
military engineering, of which the fourth and 
fifth books have come down to us, and are print- 
ed in the Veterum Mathematicorum Opera of 
Thevenot, Paris, 1693. There is also attributed 
to this Philo a work On the Seven Wonders of the 
World, but this work must have been written 
at a later time. The seven wonders are the 
Hanging Gardens, the Pyramids, the Statue of 
Jupiter Olympius, the Walls of Babylon, the Co- 
lossus of Rhodes, the Temple of Diana (Artemis) 
at Ephesus, and, we may presume from the pro- 
oemium, the Mausoleum ; but the laot is en- 
tirely wanting, and we have only a fragment of 
the Ephesian temple. Edited by Orelli, Lips., 
1816. — 4. JuDiEus, the Jew, was born at Alex- 
andrea, and was descended from a priestly fam- 
ily of distinction. He had already reached an 
advanced age, when he went to Rome (A.D. 40) 
on an embassay to the Emperor Caligula, in or- 
der to procure the revocation of the decree 
which exacted from the Jews divine homage to 
the statue of the emperor. We have no other 
particulars of the life of Philo worthy of record. 
His most important works treat of the books of 
Moses, and are generally cited under different 
titles. His great object was to reconcile the 
sacred Scriptures with the doctrines of the 
Greek philosophy, and to point out the con- 
formity between the two. He maintained that 



PHILO, Q. PUBLILIUS. 



PHILOCTETES. 



the fundamental truths of Greek philosophy were 
derived from the Mosaic revelation, and in or- 
der to make the latter agree more perfectly with 
the former, he had recourse to an allegorical in- 
terpretation of the books of Moses*, Philo may 
therefore be regarded as a precursor of the Neo- 
Platonic philosophy. The best edition of his 
work* is by Mangey, Lond., 1742, 2 vols. fol. — 
5. A Megarian philosopher, was a disciple of 
Diodorus Cronus, and a friend of Zeno. — 6. Of 
Tarsus in Cilicia, a celebrated physician, fre- 
quently quoted by Galen and others. — 7. Art- 
ists. (1.) Son of Antipater, a statuary who 
lived in the time of Alexander the Great, and 
made the statue of Hepheestion, and also the 
statue of Jupiter (Zeus) Ourios, which stood on 
the shore of the Black Sea, at the entrance of 
the Bosporus, near Chalcedon, and formed an 
important landmark for sailors. It was still per- 
fect in the time of Cicero (in Verr., iv., 58), and 
the base has been preserved to modern times, 
bearing an inscription of eight elegiac verses. — 
(2.) A very eminent architect at Athens in the 
time of the immediate successors of Alexander. 
He built for Demetrius Phalereus, about B.C. 
318, the portico of twelve Doric columns to the 
great temple at Eleusis. He also constructed 
for the Athenians, under the administration of 
Lycurgus, a basin (armamentarium) in the Pirae- 
us, in which one thousand ships could lie. This 
work, which excited the greatest admiration, 
was destroyed in the taking of Athens by Sulla. 

Philo, Q. Publilius, a distinguished general 
in the Samnite wars, and the author of one of 
the great reforms in the Roman constitution. He 
was consul B.C. 339, with Ti. iEmilius Mamer- 
cinus, and defeated the Latins, over whom he 
triumphed. In the same year he was appointed 
dictator by his colleague ^Emilius Mamercinus, 
and, as such, proposed the celebrated Publilia. 
Leges, which abolished the power of the patri- 
cian assembly of the curias, and elevated the 
plebeians to an equality with the patricians for 
all practical purposes. (Vid. Diet. ofAnliq., art. 
Publill* Leges.) In 337 Philo was the first 
plebeian praetor, and in 332 he was censor with 
Sp. Postumius Albinus. In 327 he was consul 
a second time, and carried on war in the south 
of Italy. He was continued in the command 
for the following year with the title of procon- 
sul, the first instance in Roman history in which 
a person was invested with proconsular power. 
He took Palaepolis in 326. In 320 he was con- 
sul a third time, with L. Papirius Cursor, and 
carried on the war with success against the 
Samnites. 

Philo, Veturius. 1. L., consul B.C. 220 
with C. Lutatius Catulus ; dictator 217, for the 
purpose of holding the comitia ; and censor 210 
with P. Licinius Crassus Dives, and died while 
holding this office. — 2. L., praetor 209, with Cis- 
alpine Gaul as his province. In 207 he served 
under Claudius Nero and Livius Salinator in the 
campaign against Hasdrubal. In 206 he was 
consul with Q. Caecilius Metellus, and, in con- 
junction with his colleague, carried on the war 
against Hannibal in Bruttium. He accompanied 
Scipio to Africa, and after the battle of Zama, 
202, was sent to Rome to announce the news 
of Hannibal's defeat. 

PhiloohaKes (JbiXoxapric), a distinguished 



painter, mentioned by Pliny, is supposed by the 
modern writers on art to be the same person as 
the brother of yEschines, of whose artistic per- 
formances Demosthenes speaks contemptuous- 
ly, but whom Ulpian ranks with the most dis- 
tinguished painters. 

[Philocharidas (iiloxapidac), a Lacedaemo- 
nian of distinction, son of Eryxidaidas, employ- 
ed on several embassies during the Pelopon- 
nesian war.] 

Philochorus (Qikoxopog), a celebrated Athe- 
nian writer, chiefly known by his Atthis, or work 
on the legends, antiquities, and history of Attica. 
He was a person of considerable importance in 
his native city, and was put to death by Antigo^ 
nus Gonatas when the latter obtained possession 
of Athens, about B.C. 260. His Atthis consist- 
ed of seventeen books, and related the history 
of Attica from the earliest times to the reign 
of Antiochus Theos, B.C. 261. The work is 
frequently quoted by the scholiasts, lexicogra- 
phers, as well as other later authors. He also 
wrote many other works, the titles of which are 
preserved by Suidas and the grammarians. The 
fragments of Philochorus have been published 
by Siebelis, Lips., 1811, and by Muller, Paris 
1841. 

Philocles (QlXokKtis). 1. An Athenian tragic 
poet, the sister's son of iEschylus ; his father's 
name was Philopithes. He is said to have com- 
posed one hundred tragedies. In the general 
character of his plays he was an imitator of 
^Eschylus ; and that he was not unworthy of 
his great master, may be inferred from the fact 
that he gained a victory over Sophocles, when 
the latter exhibited his (Edipus Tyrannus, B.C. 
429. Philocles was frequently ridiculed by the 
comic poets. — [2. An Athenian officer, joined 
with Conon in command of the Athenian fleet 
after the battle of the Arginusas. He was of a 
cruel disposition, and was the author of the 
proposal for the mutilation of the prisoners taken 
in an intended naval battle. Having fallen into 
the hands of Lysander at the battle of iEgos- 
potami in B.C. 405, he was put to death by him. 
— 3. An officer and friend of Philip V. of Mace- 
donia, by whom he was employed in several 
embassies, and who intrusted to him the task 
of succoring Eretria against the Romans and 
others. He subsequently allowed himself to be 
bribed to make a false report against Demetrius, 
the son of Philip {vid. Philippus V.), and so 
caused his death : for this he was tortured and 
put to death by Philip.] 

Philocrates (<bt?iOKpuTiic), an Athenian ora- 
tor, was one of the venal supporters of Philip in 
opposition to Demosthenes. 

Philoctetes ($i7lokttitj]c), a son of Pcea& 
(whence he is called Pa.antiad.es, Ov., Met., xiii., 
313) and Demonassa, the most celebrated archer 
in the'Trojan war. He led the warriors from Me- 
thone, Thaumaeia, Melibcea, and Olizon, against 
Troy, in seven ships. But on his voyage thither 
he was left behind by his men in the island of 
Lemnos, because he was ill of a wound which 
he had received from the bite of a snake ; and 
Medon, the son of O'ileus andRhene, undertook 
the command of his troops. This is all that the 
Homeric poems relate of Philoctetes, with the 
addition that he returned home in safety ; bu 
the cyclic and tragic poets have added numer- 

651 



PHILOCVPRUS. 



PHILONIDES 



ous details to the story. Thus they relate tha. 
he was the friend and armor-bearer of Her- 
cules, who instructed him in the use of the bow, 
and who bequeathed to him his bow, with the 
poisoned arrows. These presents were a re- 
ward for his having erected and set fire to the 
pile on Mount CEta, where Hercules burned 
himself. Philoctetes was also one of the suit- 
ors of Helen, and thus took part in the Trojan 
war. On his voyage to Troy, while staying in 
the island of Chryse, he was bitten by a snake. 
This misfortune happened to him when he was 
showing to the Greeks the altar of Minerva 
(Athena) Chryse, or while he was looking at the 
tomb of Troilus in the temple of Apollo Thym- 
braeus, or as he was pointing out to his com- 
panions the altar of Hercules. According to 
some accounts, the wound in his foot was not 
inflicted by a serpent, but by his own poisoned 
arrows. The wound is said to have become 
ulcerated, and to have produced such an intol- 
erable stench, that the Greeks, on the advice of 
Ulysses, abandoned Philoctetes, and left him 
alone on the solitary coast of Lemnos. He re- 
mained in this island till the tenth year of the 
Trojan war, when Ulysses and Diomedes [ac- 
cording to Sophocles, Ulysses and Neoptolemus] 
came to fetch him to Troy, as an oracle had de- 
clared that the city could not be taken without 
the arrows of Hercules. He accompanied these 
heroes to Troy, and on his arrival Apollo sent 
him into a deep sleep, during which Machaon 
(or Podalirius, or both, or ^Esculapius himself) 
cut out the wound, washed it with wine, and 
applied healing herbs to it. Philoctetes was 
thus cured, and soon after slew Paris, where- 
upon Troy fell into the hands of the Greeks. 
On his return from Troy he is said to have been 
cast upon the coast of Italy, where he settled, 
and built Petelia and Crimissa. In the latter 
place he founded a sanctuary of Apollo Alaeus, 
to whom he dedicated his bow. 

[Philooypbus (QMicvTrpoe), father of Aristo- 
cyprus, king of Soli in Cyprus, contemporary 
and friend of Solon, who celebrated his praises 
in an elegiic poem.] 

Philodemus (3>iAd(%(oc), of Gadara in Pales- 
tine, an Epicurean philosopher and epigram- 
matic poet, contemporary with Cicero. The 
Greek Anthology contains thirty- four of his epi- 
grams, which are chiefly of a light and amatory 
character, and which quite bear out Cicero's 
statements concerning the licentiousness of his 
matter and the elegance of his manner. (Cic. 
in Pis., 28, 29.) Philodemus is also mentioned 
by Horace (Sat., i., 2, 121). 

[Philodemus (^iXudr/fio^). 1. Of the borough 
ofPaeania, father-in-law of the orator iEschines. 
— 2. An Argive, sent by Hieronymus, king of 
Syracuse, to Hannibal in B.C. 215 to propose 
an alliance. In B.C. 212, when Marcellus was 
besieging Syracuse, Philodemus was governor 
of the fort Euryalus on Epipolas, and this he 
surrendered to the Romans on condition that 
he and his garrison should be allowed to depart 
uninjured to join Epicydes in Achradina.] 

[Philcetius ("h/Wrtof), the celebrated cow- 
herd of Ulysses, frequently mentioned in the 
Odyssey : he recognized Ulysses on his return 
to Ithaca, and, along with Eumaeus, aided bim 
.n overcoming the suitors." 
652 



Philolaus (Md/laof), a distinguished Pytha- 
gorean philosopher, was a native of Croton or 
Tarentum. He was a contemporary of Soc- 
rates, and the instructor of Simmias and Cebes 
at Thebes, inhere he appears to have lived many 
years. Pythagoras and his earliest successors 
did not commit any of their doctrines to writ 
ing ; and the first publication of the Pyroago 
rean doctrines is pretty uniformly attributed to 
Philolaus. He composed a work on the Pytha- 
gorean philosophy in three books, which Plato is 
said to have procured at the cost of one hund- 
red minae through Dion of Syracuse, who pur- 
chased it from Philolaus, who was at the time 
in deep poverty. Other versions of the story 
represent Plato as purchasing it himself from 
Philolaus or his relatives when in Sicily. Plato 
is said to have derived from this work the great- 
er part of his Timaeus. [Several fragments of 
this work, in the Doric dialect, have been pre- 
served, and these have been collected and edit- 
ed by Boeckh, Berlin, 1819.] 

[Philomedusa (biXofikdovaa), wife of Areith- 
ous and mother of Menesthius.] 

Philomela (Qi^o/ii/Aa), daughter of King Pan- 
dion in Attica, who, being dishonored by her 
brother-in-law Tereus, was metamorphosed into 
a nightingale. The story is given underTsREus. 

[Philomelides (QiXofj.ri'kddric, properly son of 
Philomela), a king in Lesbos, who compelled his 
guests to wrestle with him, was vanquished by 
Ulysses.] 

Philomelium or Philomelum (QtWofitiXiov, or, 
in the Pisidian dialect, iiTio^ni^ .- $i?.ofir]?uvc, 
Philomelensis or Philomeliensis ; probably Ak- 
Shehr, ruins), a city of Phrygia Paroreios, on the 
borders of Lycaonia and Pisidia, said to have 
been named from the numbers of nightingales 
in its neighborhood. It is mentioned several 
times by Cicero. According to the division of 
the provinces under Constantine, it belonged to 
Pisidia. It is still found mentioned at the time 
of the Crusades by the name of Philomene. 

Philomelus (^jAd^Aof), a general of the Pho- 
cians in the Phocian or Sacred war, was the 
person who persuaded his countrymen to seize 
the temple of Delphi, and to apply the riches of 
the temple to the purpose of defending them- 
selves against the Amphictyonic forces, B.C. 
357. He commanded the Phocians during the 
early years of the war, but was slain in battle 
in 353. He was succeeded in the command by 
his brother Onomarchus. 

Philonides (fiiluvldrit), an Athenian poet of 
the Old Comedy, who is, however, better known 
on account of his connection with the literary 
history of Aristophanes. It is generally stated 
that Philonides was an actor of Aristophanes, 
who is said to have committed to him and to 
Callistratus his chief characters ; but the best 
modern critics have shown that this is an erro- 
neous statement, and that the true state of the 
case is, that several of the plays of Aristophanes 
were brought out in the names of Callistratus 
and Philonides. We learn from Aristophanes 
himself, not only the fact that he brought out 
his early plays in the names of other poets, but 
also his reasons for so doing. In the Parabasis 
of the Knights (v., 514), he states that he had 
pursued this course, not from want of thought, 
but from a sense of the difficulty of his prof'es- 



ntflLONOME. 

sion, and from a fear that he might suffer from 
that fickleness of taste which the Athenians 
had shown toward other poets, as Magnes, 
Crates, and Cratinus. It appears that Aris- 
tophanes used the name of Philonides, proba- 
bly, for the Clouds, and certainly for the Wasps, 
the Proagon, the Amphiaraus, and the Frogs. 
The Dmtaleis, the Babylonians, the Acharnians, 
the Birds, and the Lysistrata were brought out 
in the name of Callistratus. Of the extant 
plays of Aristophanes, the only ones which he 
's known to have brought out in his own name 
are the Knights, the Peace, and the Plutus. 

Philonome. Vid. Tenes. 

Philopoemen (§i'Aoirolfi7)v), of Megalopolis in 
Arcadia, one of the few great men that Greece 
roduced in the decline of her political inde- 
pendence. The great object of his life was to 
infuse among the Achaeans a military spirit, 
and thereby to establish their independence on 
a firm and lasting basis. He was the son of 
Craugis, a distinguished man at Megalopolis, 
and was born about B.C. 252. He lost his fa- 
ther at an early age, and was brought up by 
Oleander, an illustrious citizen of Mantinea, who 
had been obliged to leave his native city, and 
had taken refuge at Megalopolis. He received 
instruction from Ecdemus and Demophanes, 
both of whom had studied the Academic phi- 
losophy under Arcesilans. At an early age he 
became distinguished by his love of arms and 
his bravery in war. His name, however, first 
occurs in history in B.C. 222, when Megalopolis 
was taken by Cleomenes, and in the following 
year (221) he fought with conspicuous valor at 
the battle of Sellasia, in which Cleomenes was 
completely defeated. In order to gain addi- 
tional military experience, he soon afterward 
sailed to Crete, and served for some years in 
the wars between the cities of that island. On 
his return to his native country, in 210, he was 
appointed commander of the Achaean cavalry ; 
and in 208 he was elected strategus, or general 
of the Achaean league. In this year he defeat- 
ed Machanidas, tyrant of Lacedaemon, and slew 
him in battle with his own hand. In 201 he 
was again elected general of the league, when 
he defeated Nabis, who had succeeded Machan- 
idas as tyrant of Lacedaemon. Soon afterward 
Pnilopcemen took another voyage to Crete, and 
assumed the command of the forces of Gortyna. 
He did not return to Peloponnesus till 194. He 
was made general of the league in 192, when 
he again defeated Nabis, who was slain in the 
course of the year by some jEtolian mercena- 
ries. Philopoemen was re-elected general of 
the league several times afterward ; but the 
state of Greece did not afford him much further 
opportunity for the display of his military abili- 
ties. The Romans were now, in fact, the mas- 
ters of Greece, and Philopoemen clearly saw 
that it would be an act of madness to offer open 
resistance to their authority. At the same time, 
as the Romans still recognized in words the in- 
dependence of the league, Philopoemen offered 
a resolute resistance to all their encroachments 
upon the liberties of his country, whenever he 
could do so without affording them any pretext 
for war. In 188, when he was general of the 
league, he took Sparta, and treated it with the 
greatest severity. He razed the walls and for- 



PHILOSTRATUS. 

tifications of the city, abolished the institutions 
of Lycurgus, and compel'ed the citizens to adopt 
the Achaean laws in their stead. In 183 the 
Messenians revolted from the Achaean league. 
Philopoemen, who was general of the league for 
the eighth time, hastily collected a body of cav- 
alry, and pressed forward to Messene. He fell 
in with a large body of Messenian troops, by 
whom he was taken prisoner and carried to 
Messene. Here he was thrown into a dungeon, 
and was compelled by Dinocrates to drink pois* 
on. The news of his death filled the whole of 
Peloponnesus with grief and rage. An assem- 
bly was immediately held at Megalopolis ; Ly- 
cortas was chosen general ; and in the follow- 
ing year he invaded Messenia, which was laid 
waste far and wide ; Dinocrates and the chiefs 
of his party were obliged to put an end to their 
lives. The remains of Philopoemen were con- 
veyed to Megalopolis in solemn procession ; and 
the urn which contained the ashes was carried 
by the historian Polybius. His remains were 
then interred at Megalopolis with heroic honors, 
and soon afterward statues of him were erect- 
ed in most of the towns belonging to the Achae- 
an league. 

Philostephanus {fyikooreipavog), of Cyrene, 
an Alexandrean writer of history and geogra- 
phy, the friend or disciple of Callimachus, flour- 
ished under Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, about B. 

C. 249. 

Philostorgius {QikooTopyioc), a native of Bo- 
rissus in Cappadocia, was born about A.D. 358. 
He wrote an ecclesiastical history, from the 
heresy of Arius in 300 down to 425. Philos- 
torgius was an Arian, which is probably the 
reason why his work has not come down to us. 
It was originally in twelve books ; and we still 
possess an abstract of it, made by Photius. 

Philostratus {QMoTpaToc), the name of a 
distinguished family of Lemnos, of which there 
are mentioned three persons in the history of 
Greek literature. 1. Son of Verus, taught at 
Athens ; but we know nothing about him, with 
the exception of the titles of his works, given 
by Suidas. He could not, however, have lived 
in the reign of Nero, according to the statement 
of Suidas, since his son was not born till the 
latter part of the second century. — 2. Flavius 
Philostratus, son of the preceding, and the 
most eminent of the three, was born about A. 

D. 182. He studied and taught at Athens, and 
is usually called the Athenian, to distinguish 
him from the younger Philostratus (No. 3), who 
more usually bears the surname of the Lem- 
nian. Flavius afterward removed to Rome, 
where we find him a member of the circle of 
literary men whom the philosophic Julia Dom- 
na, the wife of Severus, had drawn around her. 
It was at her desire that he wrote the life of 
Apollonius. He was alive in the reign of the 
Emperor Philippus (244-249). The following 
works of Philostratus have come down to us : 
1. The Life of Apollonius of Tyana (ra ec rov 
Tvavea 'AnoMuviov), in eight books. Vid. Apol 
lonius, No. 7. 2. Lives of the Sophists (Bi'ov 
SodtoTuv), in two books, contains the historj 
of philosophers who had the character of being 
sophists, and of those who were in reality soph- 
ists. It begins with the life of Gorgias, and 
comes down to the contemporaries of Philostra- 

653 



PHILOTAS. 

tus in the reign of Philippus. 3. Herolca or 
Heroicus ('Hpou/m, 'HpuiKoc), is in the form of a 
dialogue, and gives an account of the heroes en- 
gaged in the Trojan war. 4. Imagines (Einovec), 
in two books, contains an account of various 
paintings. This is the author's most pleasing 
work, exhibiting great richness of fancy, power, 
and variety of delineation, and a rich exuber- 
ance of style. 5. Epistolce ('E7rt<rroA<u'), seven- 
ty-three in number, chiefly amatory. The best 
editions of the collected works of Philostratus 
are by Olearius, Lips., 1709, and by Kayser, 
Turic, 1844. — 3. Philostratus the younger, 
usually called the Lemnian, as mentioned above, 
was a son of Nervianus and of a daughter of 
Flavius Philostratus, but is erroneously called 
by Suidas a son-in-law of the latter. He en- 
joyed the instructions of his grandfather and 
of the sophist Hippodromus, and had obtained 
sufficient distinction at the early age of twenty- 
four to receive exemption from taxes. He visit- 
ed Rome, but he taught at Athens, and died in 
Lemnos. He wrote several works, and, among 
others, one entitled Imagines, in imitation of his 
grandfather's work with the same title, of which 
a portion is still extant. 

Philotas (4>iAwraf). [1. A Macedonian, fa- 
ther of Parmenion, the general of Alexander 
the Great.] — 2. Son of Parmenion, enjoyed a 
high place in the friendship of Alexander, and 
in the invasion of Asia obtained the chief com- 
mand of the fratpoi, or native Macedonian cav- 
alry. He served with distinction in the battles 
of the Granicus and Arbela, and also on other 
occasions ; but in B.C. 330, while the army was 
in Drangiana, he was accused of being privy to 
a plot which had been formed by a Macedonian, 
named Dimnus, against the king's life. There 
was no proof of his guilt ; but a confession was 
wrung from him by the torture, and he was 
stoned to death by the troops, after the Mace- 
donian custom. Vid. Parmenion. — [3. A Mace- 
donian officer in the service of Alexander the 
Great, received the government of Gilicia in 
the distribution of provinces after the death of 
Alexander. In B.C. 321 he was deprived of 
his government by Perdiccas, but was employed 
elsewhere by that general, as he still continued 
attached to the party of Perdiccas, and after the 
death of the regent united with Alcetas, Atta- 
lus, and their partisans in the contest against 
Antigonus, into whose power he finally fell.] 

PhilotImus (QMtiuoc). 1. An eminentGreek 
physician, pupil of Praxagoras, and fellow-pupil 
of Herophilus, lived in the fourth and third cen- 
turies B.C. — [2. A freedman of Cicero, or rather 
of Terentia, had the chief management of Cic- 
ero's property.] 

Philoxenus {<ki\6%evoc). 1. A Macedonian 
officer of Alexander the Great, received the 
government of Cilicia from Perdiccas in 321. — 
2. Of Cythera, one of the most distinguished 
dithyrambic poets of Greece, was born B.C. 435, 
and died 380, at the age of fifty-five. He was 
reduced to slavery in his youth, and was bought 
by the lyric poet Melanippides, by whom he was 
educated in dithyrambic poetry. After residing 
some years at Athens, he went to Syracuse, 
where he speedily obtained the favor of Dionys- 
ius, and took up his abode at his court. But 
soon afterward he offended Dionysius, and was 
054 



PHILUS, FURIUS. 

cas into prison ; an act of oppression wniou 
most writers ascribe to the wounded vanity of 
the tyrant, whose poems Philoxenus not only 
refused to praise, but, on being asked to revise 
one of them, said that the best way of correct- 
ing it would be to draw a black line through the 
whole paper. Another account ascribes his dis- 
grace to too close an intimacy with the tyrant's 
mistress Galatea ; but this looks like a fiction, 
arising out of a misunderstanding of the object 
of his poem entitled Cyclops or Galatea. After 
some time he was released from prison, and re- 
stored outwardly to the favor of Dionysius ; but 
he finally left his court, and is said to have spent 
the latter part of his life in Ephesus. Of the 
dithyrambs of Philoxenus, by far the most im- 
portant was his Cyclops or Galatea, the loss of 
which is greatly to be lamented. Philoxenus 
also wrote another poem, entitled Deipnon 
(Aeinvov), or the Banquet, which appears to have 
been the most popular of his works, and of which 
we have more fragments than of any other. 
This poem was a most minute and satirical de- 
scription of a banquet, and the subject of it was 
furnished by the luxury of the court of Dionys- 
ius. Philoxenus was included in the attacks 
which the comic poets made on all the musicians 
of the day, for their corruptions of the simpli- 
city of the ancient music ; but we have abund- 
ant testimony to the high esteem in which he 
was held both during his life and after his death. 
[His fragments are collected by Bippart in Phi- 
loxeni, Timothei, Telestis Bithyr. Rcliquia, Lips., 
1843 ] — 3. The Leucadian, lived at Athens 
about the same time as Philoxenus of Cythera, 
with whom he is frequently confounded by the 
grammarians. Like his more celebrated name- 
sake, the Leucadian was ridiculed by the poets 
of the Old Comedy, and seems to have spent a 
part of his life in Sicily. The Leucadian was a 
most notorious parasite, glutton, and effeminate 
debauchee ; but he seems also to have had great 
wit and good humor, which made him a favor- 
ite at the tables which he frequented. — 4. A 
celebrated Alexandrean grammarian, whotaught 
at Rome, and wrote on Homer, on the Ionic 
and Laconian dialect, and several other gram- 
matical works, among which was a Glossary, 
which was edited by H. Stephanus, Paris, 1573. 
— 5. An Egyptian surgeon, who wrote several 
valuable volumes on surgery. He must have 
lived in or before the first century after Christ. 
— 6 A painter ofEretria, the disciple of Nicom- 
achus, who painted for Cassander a battle of 
Alexander with Darius. 

Philus, Furius. 1. P., was consul B.C. 223 
with C. Flaminius, and accompanied his col- 
league in his campaign against the Gauls in the 
north of Italy. He was praetor 216, when he 
commanded the fleet, with which he proceeded 
to Africa. In 214 be was censor with M. Atili 
us Regulus, but died at the beginning of the 
following year. — 2. L., consul 136, received 
Spain as his province, and was commissioned 
by the senate to deliver up to the Numantines 
C. Hostilius Mancinus, the consul of the pre- 
ceding year. Philus, like his contemporaries 
Scipio Africanus the younger and Lselius, was 
fond of Greek literature and refinement. He 
is introduced by Cicero as one of the speakers 
in his dialogue Dc Republka 



PH1LYLLITJS 



PHLIUS. 



Philyllius (*£AuAA(of), an Athenian comic 
poet, belongs to the latter part of the Old Com- 
edy and the beginning of the Middle. 

[Philyra {fyiXvpa), a daughter of Oceanus, 
and the mother of Chiron by Saturn (Cronus).] 

Philyreis (QiTivpjjLc : probably the little isl- 
and off Cape Zefreh, east of Kerasunt-Ada), an 
island off the northern coast of Asia Minor 
Pontus), east of the country of the Mosynceci, 
and near the promontory of Zephyrium (now 
Zefreh), where Chiron was nurtured by his 
mother Philyra. 

Philyres (iilvpee), a people on the coast of 
Pontus, in the neighborhood of the island Phi- 
lyreis. 

Phineus (fiiveic). 1. Son of Belus and An- 
chinoe, and brother of Cepheus. He was slain 
by Perseus. For details, vid. Andromeda and 
Perseus. — 2. Son of Agenor, and king of Sal- 
mydessus in Thrace. He was first married to 
Cleopatra, the daughter of Boreas and Orithyia, 
by whom he had two children, Oryithus (Oar- 
thus) and Crambis ; but their names are differ- 
ent in the different legends : Ovid calls them 
Polydectus and Polydorus. Afterward he was 
married to Idasa (some call her Dia, Eurytia, or 
Idothea), by whom he again had two sons, 
Thynus and Mariandynus. Phineus was a blind 
soothsayer, who had received his prophetic 
powers from Apollo ; but the cause of his blind- 
ness is not the same in all accounts. He is 
most celebrated on account of his being tor- 
mented by the Harpies, who were sent by the 
gods to punish him on account of his cruelty 
toward his sons by the first marriage. His 
second wife falsely accused them of having 
made an attempt upon her virtue, whereupon 
Phineus put out their eyes, or, according to 
others, exposed them to be devoured by wild 
beasts, or ordered them to be half buried in the 
earth, and then to be scourged. Whenever a 
meal was placed before Phineus, the Harpies 
darted down from the air and carried it off ; 
later writers add that they either devoured the 
food themselves, or rendered it unfit to be eaten. 
When the Argonauts visited Thrace, Phineus 
promised to instruct them respecting their voy- 
age if they would deliver him from the mon- 
sters. This was done by Zetes and Calais, the 
sons of Boreas, and brothers of Cleopatra. 
Vid. p. 91, a. Phineus now explained to the 
Argonauts the further course they had to take, 
and especially cautioned them against the Sym- 
plegades. According to another story, the Ar- 
gonauts, on their arrival at Thrace, found the 
sons of Phineus half buried, and demanded their 
liberation, which Phineus refused. A battle 
thereupon ensued, in which Phineus was slain 
by Hercules. The latter also delivered Cleo- 
patra from her confinement, and restored the 
kingdom to the sons of Phineus ; and on their 
advice he also sent the second wife of Phineus 
back to her father, who ordered her to be put 
to death. Some traditions, lastly, state that 
Phineus was killed by Boreas, or that he was 
carried off by the Harpies into the country of 
the Bistones or Mijchessians. Those accounts 
in which Phineus is stated to have put out the 
eyes of his sons, add that they had their sight 
restored to them by the sons of Boreas or by 
iEsculapius. 



Phinopolis (Qivonolic), a town in Thrace, ok 
the Pontus Euxinus, near the entrance to the 
Bosporus. ' 

Phintias (itvriac). 1. A Pythagorean, the 
friend of Damon, who was condemned to die 
by Dionysius the elder. For de'tails, vid. Da- 
mon. — 2'. Tyrant of Agrigentum, who establish- 
ed his power over that city during the period 
of confusion which followed the death of Aga- 
thocles (B.C. 289). He founded a new city on 
the southern coast of Sicily, to which he gave 
his own name, and whither he removed all the 
inhabitants from Gela, which he razed to the 
ground. 

Phintonis Insula (now Isola di Figo), an isl- 
and between Sardinia and Corsica. 

Phlegethon ("Heye'&ji'), i- e., the flaming, a 
river in the lower world, in whose channel flow- 
ed flames instead of water. 

Phlegon (Qliywv), a native of Tralles in 
Lydia, was a freedman of the Emperor Hadrian, 
whom he survived. The only two works of 
Phlegon which have come down to us are a 
small treatise on wonderful events (Tlepi davfea- 
oiav), and another short treatise on long-lived 
persons (Uepl (laxpoltiav), which gives a list of 
persons in Italy who had attained the age of a 
hundred years and upward. Besides these two 
works Phlegon wrote many others, of which the 
most important was an account of the Olympi- 
ads in seventeen books, from 01. 1 to 01. 229 
(A.D. 137). The best edition of Phlegon is by 
Westermann in his Paradoxographi, Brunsvig. 
1839. 

Phlegra. Vid. Pallene. 

PhlegrjEi Campi (to. <tXeypala ireSia, or r; 
§\eypa : now Solfatara), the name of the vol- 
canic plain extending along the coast of Cam- 
pania from Cumae to Capua, so called because 
it was believed to have been once on fire. It 
was also named Laborias or Laborinus Campus, 
either on account of its great fertility, which 
occasioned its constant cultivation, or on ac- 
count of the frequent earthquakes and internal 
convulsions to which it was exposed. 

Phlegyas (QXeyvac), son of Mars (Ares) and 
Chryse the daughter of Halmus, succeeded Ete- 
ocles in the government of Orchomenos in Bceo- 
tia, which he called after himself Phlegyantis. 
He was the father of Ixion and Coronis, the 
latter of whom became by Apollo the mother 
of ^Esculapius. Enraged at this, Phlegyas set 
fire to the temple of the god, who killed him 
with his arrows, and condemned him to severe 
punishment in the lower world. Phlegyas is 
represented as the mythical ancestor of the race 
of the Phlegyae, a branch of the Minyae, who 
emigrated from Orchomenos in Bceotia and set- 
tled in Phocis. 

PhliasTa. Vid. Phlius. 

Phlius (4'AioOc, -ovvtoc : Hiaaioc), the chief 
town of a small province in the northeast of 
Peloponnesus, whose territory Phliasia (QAia- 
g'lo) was bounded on the north by Sicyonia, on 
the west by Arcadia, on the east by the terri- 
tory of Cleonas, and on the south by that of Ar- 
gos. The greater part of this country was oc- 
cupied by mountains, called Ccelossa, Carnea- 
tes, Arantinus, and Tricaranon. According to 
Strabo, the most ancient town in the country 
was Araethyrea, which the inhabitants deserted, 

655 



PHLYA. 



PHOCION. 



ana afterward founded Phlius ; while Pausarnas 
says nothing about a migration, but relates that 
the town was first called Arantia from its found- 
er Aras, an autochthon, afterward Araethyrea 
from the daughter of Aras, and finally Phlius, 
from Phlius, a grandson of Temenus. Phlius 
was originally inhabited by Argives. It after- 
ward passed into the hands of the Dorians, with 
whom part of the Argive population intermin- 
gled, while part migrated to Samos and Clazo- 
menae. During the greater part of its history 
it remained faithful to Sparta. 

[Phlya ($/W?7 : QXvevc), an Attic demus be- 
longing to the tribe Cecropis, but at a later time 
to the tribe Ptolemais.] 

Phlygonium (iXvyoviov), a small town in 
Phocis, destroyed in the Phocian war. 

PHoaffiA (4>tkcua : QuKaevc, Phocaeensis : the 
ruins called Karaja-Fokia, i. e., Old Fokia, south- 
west of Fouges or New Fokia), the northernmost 
of the Ionian cities on the western coast of 
Asia Minor, stood at the western extremity of 
the tongue of land which divides the Sinus 
Elaiticus (now Gulf of Fouges) on the north 
from the Sinus Hermaeus (now Gulf of Smyrna) 
on the south. It was said to have been found- 
ed by Phocian colonists under Philogenes and 
Damon. It was originally within the limits of 
/Eolis, in the territory of Cyme ; but the Cy- 
maeans voluntarily gave up the site for the new 
city, which was soon admitted into the Ionian 
confederacy on the condition of adopting cecists 
of the race of Codrus. Admirably situated, and 
possessing two excellent harbors, Naustathmus 
and Lampter, Phocaea became celebrated as a 
great maritime state, and especially as the 
founder of the most distant Greek colonies 
toward the west, namely, Massilia in Gaul, and 
the still more distant, though far less celebrated, 
city of Maenaca in Hispania Baetica. After the 
Persian conquest of Ionia, Phocaea had so de- 
clined that she could only furnish three ships 
to support the great Ionian revolt ; but the 
spirit of her people had not been extinguished ; 
when the common cause was hopeless, and their 
city was besieged by Harpalus, they embarked, 
to seek new abodes in the distant west, and 
bent their course to their colony of Alalia in 
Corsica. During the voyage, however, a por- 
tion of the emigrants resolved to return to their 
native city, which they restored, and which re- 
covered much of its prosperity, as is proved by 
the rich booty gained by the Romans when they 
plundered it under the praetor ^Emilius, after 
which it does not appear as a place of any con- 
sequence in history. Care must be taken not 
to confound Phocaea with Phocis, or the ethnic 
adjectives of the former QuKaevc and Phocaeen- 
sis with those of the latter, §o>Kevc and Phocen- 
sis : some of the ancient writers themselves 
have fallen into such mistakes. It should be 
observed, also, that the name of Phocaean is 
often used with reference to Massilia ; and, by 
an amusing affectation, the people of Marseilles 
still call themselves Phocaeans. 

[Phocarum Insula ($uk£>v vfjooe, now Tiran, 
near the Promontorium Dsjerm), i. e., island of 
6eals, an island of the Arabicus Sinus off the 
coast of Arabia.] 

[Phooas (4>£jKuf ), emperor of Constantinople 
from A.D. 602-610. He was a native of Cap- 
656 



padocia, of base extraction. For some time he 
was groom to Priscus, and at the time of hia 
accession he held the humble office of centurion. 
His brutal courage raised him to the throne, 
which he disgraced by his infamous and tyran- 
nical conduct. His reign was one of defeat, 
disaster, internal dissension, and sanguinary ex- 
ecutions. He was finally dethroned and mur- 
dered by Heraclius, who succeeded him on the 
throne.] 

Phocion ($u/c('ui>), the Athenian general ar.tl 
statesman, son of Phocus, was a man of humble 
origin, and appears to have been born in B.C. 
402. He studied under Plato and Xenocrates. 
He distinguished himself for the first time under 
his friend Chabrias, in 376, at the battle of 
Naxos ; but he was not employed prominently 
in any capacity for many years afterward. In 
354 (according to others in 350) he was sent 
into Eubcea in the command of a small force, 
in consequence of an application from Plutar- 
chus, tyrant of Eretria ; and he was subsequent- 
ly employed on several occasions in the war 
between the Athenians and Philip of Macedon. 
He frequently opposed the measures of Demos- 
thenes, and recommended peace with Philip ; 
but he must not be regarded as one of the mer- 
cenary supporters of the Macedonian monarch. 
His virtue is above suspicion, and his public 
conduct was always influenced by upright mo- 
tives. When Alexander was marching upon 
Thebes in 335, Phocion rebuked Demosthenes 
for his invectives against the king ; and after 
the destruction of Thebes, he advised the Athe- 
nians to comply with Alexander's demand for 
the surrender of Demosthenes and other chief 
orators of the anti-Macedonian party. This 
proposal was indignantly rejected by the peo- 
ple, and an embassy was sent to Alexander, 
which succeeded in deprecating his resentment 
According to Plutarch, there were two embas- 
sies, the first of which Alexander refused to re- 
ceive, but to the second he gave a gracious au- 
dience and granted its prayer, chiefly from re- 
gard to Phocion, who was at the head of it. 
Alexander ever continued to treat Phocion with 
the utmost consideration, and to cultivate his 
friendship. He also pressed upon him valuable 
presents ; but Phocion persisted in refusing his 
presents, begging the king to leave him no less 
honest than he found him, and only so far avail- 
ed himself of the royal favor as to request the 
liberty of certain prisoners at Sardis, which was 
immediately granted to him. After Alexan- 
der's death, Phocion opposed vehemently, and 
with all the caustic bitterness which character- 
ized him, the proposal for war with Antipater. 
Thus, to Hyperides, who asked him tauntingly 
when he would advise the Athenians to go to 
war, he answered, " When I see the young will- 
ing to keep their ranks, the rich to contribute 
of their wealth, and the orators to abstain from 
pilfering the public money." When the Pirceus 
was seized by Alexander, the son of Polysper- 
chon, in 318, Phocion was suspected of having 
advised Alexander to take this step ; where- 
upon, being accused of treason by Agnonides, 
he fled, with several of his friends, to Alexan- 
der, who sent them with letters of recommend 
ation to his father Polysperchon. The latter, 
willing to sacrifice them as a peace-offering to 



phocis. 



PHOCY LIDES. 



the Athenians, sent them back to Athens for 
the people to deal with them as they would. 
Here Phocion was sentenced to death. To the 
last, he maintained his calm, and dignified, and 
somewhat contemptuous bearing. When some 
wretched man spat upon him as he passed to 
the prison, " Will no one," said he, " check this 
fellow's indecency?" To one who asked him 
whether he had any message to leave for his 
son Phocus, he answered, "Only that he bear 
no grudge against the Athenians." And when 
the hemlock which had been prepared was 
found insufficient for all the condemned, and 
the jailer would not furnish more until he was 
paid for it, " Give the man his money," said 
Phocion to one of his friends, " since at Athens 
one can not even die for nothing." He perish- 
ed in 317, at the age of eighty-five. The Athe- 
nians are said to have repented of their con- 
duct. A brazen statue was raised to the mem- 
ory of Phocion, and Agnonides was condemned 
to death. Phocion was twice married, and his 
second wife appears to have been as simple and 
frugal in her habits as himself ; but he was less 
fortunate in his son Phocus, who, in spite of 
his father's lessons and example, was a thor- 
ough profligate. As for Phocion himself, our 
commendation of him must be almost wholly 
confined to his private qualities. His fellow- 
citizens may have been degenerate, but he 
made no effort to elevate them. 

Phocis (7 $o/«'f : $u/c^ff Horn., §uic£eg Herod., 
iuKelg Attic, Phocenses by the Romans), a coun- 
try in Northern Greece, was bounded on the 
north by the Locri Epicnemidii and Opuntii, on 
the east by Boeotia, on the west by the Locri 
Ozolae and Doris, and on the south by the Co- 
rinthian Gulf. At one time it possessed a nar- 
row strip of country on the Euboean Sea, with 
the sea-port Daphnus, between the territory of 
the Locri Epicnemidii and Locri Opuntii. It 
was a mountainous and unproductive country, 
and owes its chief importance in history to the 
fact of its possessing the Delphic oracle. Its 
chief mountain was Parnassus, situated in the 
interior of the country, to which, however, Cne- 
mis on its northern frontier, Cirphis south of 
Delphi, and Helicon on the southeastern front- 
ier, all belonged. The principal river in Phocis 
was the Cephisus, the valley of which con- 
tained almost the only fertile land in the coun- 
try, with the exception of the celebrated Cris- 
saean plain in the southwest, on the borders of 
the Locri Ozolae. Among the earliest inhab- 
itants of Phocis we find mentioned Leleges, 
Thracians, Abantes, and Hyantes. Subsequent- 
ly, but still in the ante-historical period, the 
Phlegyae, an Achaean race, a branch of the Min- 
yae at Orchomenos, took possession of the coun- 
try ; and from this time the main bulk of the 
population continued to be Achaean, although 
there were Dorian settlements at Delphi and 
Bulis. The Phocians are said to have derived 
their name from an eponymous ancestor Pho- 
cus (vid. Phocus), and they are mentioned un- 
der this name in the Iliad. The Phocians played 
no conspicuous part in Greek history till the 
time of Philip of Macedon ; but at this period 
they became involved in a war, called the 
Phocian or Sacred war, in which the principal 
states of Greece took part. The Thebans had 
42 



long been inveterate enemies of the Phocians , 
and as the latter people had cultivated a por- 
tion of the Crissaean plain, which the Amphic- 
tyons had declared in B.C. 585 should lie waste 
forever, the Thebans availed themselves of this 
pretext to persuade the Amphictyons to impose 
a fine upon the Phocians, and upon their refu- 
sal to pay it, the Thebans further induced the 
council to declare the Phocian land forfeited to 
the god at Delphi. Thus threatened by the Am- 
phictyonic council, backed by the whole power 
of Thebes, the Phocians were persuaded by 
Philomelus, one of their citizens, to seize Del- 
phi, and to make use of the treasures of the 
temple for the purpose of carrying on the war. 
They obtained possession of the temple in B.C. 
357. The war which ensued lasted ten years, 
and was carried on with various success on 
each side. The Phocians were commanded 
first by Philomelus, B.C. 357-353, afterward 
by his brother Onomarchus, 353-352, then by 
Phayllus, the brother of the two preceding, 
352-351, and finally by Phal^cus, the son of 
Onomarchus, 351-346. The Phocians received 
some support from Athens, but their chief de 
pendence was upon their mercenary troops, 
which the treasures of the Delphic temple en- 
abled them to hire. The Amphictyons and the 
Thebans, finding at length that they were un- 
able with their own resources to subdue the 
Phocians, called in the assistance of Philip of 
Macedon, who brought the war to a close in 
346. The conquerors inflicted the most signal 
punishment upon the Phocians, who were re- 
garded as guilty of sacrilege. All their towns 
were razed to the ground with the exception 
of Abae, and the inhabitants distributed in vil- 
lages, containing no more than fifty inhabit- 
ants. The two votes which they had in the 
Amphictyonic council were taken away and 
given to Philip. 

Phocra (QoKpa), a mountain of Northern Af- 
rica, in Mauretania Tingitana, apparently on 
the western bank of the Mulucha, between the 
chains of the Great and Little Atlas. 

Phocus ($<jkoc). 1. Son of Ornytion of Cor- 
inth, or, according to others, of Neptune (Posei- 
don), is said to have been the leader of a colony 
from Corinth into the territory of Tithorea and 
Mount Parnassus, which derived from him the 
name of Phocis. — 2. Son of ^Eacus and the Ne- 
reid Psamathe, husband of Asteria or Astero- 
dia, and father of Panopeus and Crissus. He 
was murdered by his half-brothers Telamon 
and Peleus. Vid. Peleus. According to some 
accounts, the country of Phocis derived its 
name from him. — 3. Son of Phocion. Vid. Pho- 
cion. 

Phocylides ("i'wCT/U'tSi/c), of Miletus, an Io- 
nian poet, contemporary with Theognis, was 
born B.C. 560. His poetry was chiefly gnomic, 
and the few fragments of it which we possess 
display that contempt for birth and station, and 
that love for substantial enjoyment, which al- 
ways marked the Ionian character. These frag- 
ments, which are eighteen in number, are in- 
cluded in all the chief collections of the lyric 
and gnomic poets. Some of these collections 
contain a didactic poem, in two hundred and 
seventeen hexameters, entitled ^oirnjta vovOen- 
kov, to which the name of Phocylides is attach- 

657 



1 



PHCEBE. 

ed, but which is mdoubtedly a forgery, made 
ince the Christian era. 

Phcebe ($cu'67?). 1. Daughter of Uranus (Cce- 
lus) and Ge (Terra), became by Coeus the moth- 
er of Asteria and Leto (Latona). — 2. A surname 
of Artemis (Diana) in her capacity as the god- 
dess of the moon (Luna), the moon being re- 
garded as the female Phcebus or sun. — 3. Daugh- 
ter of Tyndareos and Leda, and a sister of Cly- 
taenmestra. — 4. Daughter of Leucippus, and sis- 
ter of Hilaira, a priestess of Athena (Minerva), 
was carried off with her sister by the Dioscuri, 
and became by Pollux (Polydeuces) the mother 
of Mnesileos. 

[Phcebeum (§ol6ewv, in Hdt. $oi.6ij'iov), a place 
in the neighborhood of Sparta and not far from 
Therapne, with a sanctuary of the Dioscuri, 
where the ephebi offered sacrifices to Enya- 
lius.] 

Phcebidas ($oi6C6ac), a Lacedaemonian, who, 
in B.C. 382, was appointed to the command of 
the troops destined to re-enforce his brother Eu- 
damidas, who had been sent against Olynthus. 
On his way Phcebidas halted at Thebes, and 
treacherously made himself master of the Cad- 
mea. The Lacedaemonians fined PhGeoidas one 
hundred thousand drachmas, but nevertheless 
kept possession of the Cadmea. In 378 he was 
left by Agesilaus as harmost at Thespiae, and 
was slain in battle by the Thebans. 

Phccbds ($otfof), the Bright or Pure, occurs 
in Homer as an epithet of Apollo, and is used 
to signify the brightness and purity of youth. 
At a later time, when Apollo became connected 
with the Sun, the epithet Phoebus was a.oO ap- 
plied to him as the Sun-god. 

PhcenIce ($oivck7i : Phoenicia is only found in 
a doubtful passage of Cicero j $oi'vif, pi. QoivUec, 
fem. Qoiviaoa, Phoenix, Phoenlces : also, the adj. 
Punlcus, though used specifically in connection 
with Carthago, is etymologically equivalent to 
$otvif, by the well-known interchange of oi and 
ii : now forming parts of the pashalics of Acre 
and Aleppo), a country of Asia, on the coast of 
Syria, extending from the River Eleutherus 
Jnow Nahr-el-Kebir) on the north to below Mount 
Carmel on the south, and bounded on the east 
by Ccelesyria and Palestine. (Sometimes, 
though rarely, the name is extended to the 
whole western coast of Syria and Palestine). 
It was a mountainous strip of coast-land, not 
more than ten or twelve miles broad, hemmed 
in between the Mediterranean and the chain of 
Lebanon, whose lateral branches, running out 
into the sea in bold promontories, divided the 
country into valleys, which are well watered by 
rivers flowing down from Lebanon, and are ex- 
tremely fertile. Of these rivers, the most im- 
portant are, to one going from north to south, 
the Eleutherus (now Nahr-el-Kebir) ; the Sab- 
baticus (now Arka) ; the river of Tripolis (now 
Kadisha) ; the Adonis (now Nahr-Ibrahim), south 
of Byblus ; the Lycus (now Nahr-el-Kelb), north 
of Berytus ; the Magoras (now Nahr-Beirut), by 
Berytus ; the Tamyras (now Nahr-el-Damur), 
between Berytus and Sidon ; the Leo, or Bos- 
trenus (now Nahr-el-Auly), north of Sidon ; the 
great river (now Litany and Kasimiyeh) which 
flows from Heliopolis south-southwest through 
Coelesyria, and then, turning westward, falls 
into the sea north of Tyre, and which some 
(553 



PHCENICE. 

call, but without sufficient authority, the Leon- 
tes ; the Belus or Pagida (now Numan or Rah- 
win) by Ptolemai's, and the Kishon (now Kishon) 
north of Mount Carmel. Of the promontories 
referred to, omitting a number of less important 
ones, the chief were, Theu-prosopon (now Ra- 
sesh-Shukah), between Tripolis and Byblus, Pro- 
montorium Album (now Ras-el-Abiad, i. e., While 
Cape), south of Tyre, and Mount Carmel, be- 
sides those occupied by the cities of Tripolis, 
Byblus, Berytus, Sidon, Tyrus, and Ptolemai's. 
This conformation of the coast and the position 
of the country rendered it admirably suited for 
the home of great maritime states ; and accord- 
ingly we find the cities of Phoenicia at the head, 
both in time and importance, of all the naval 
enterprise of the ancient world. For the his- 
tory of those great cities, vid. Sidon, Tyrds, 
and the other articles upon them. As to the 
country in general, there is some difficulty about 
the origin of the inhabitants and of their name. 
In the Old Testament the name does not occur ; 
the people seem to be included under the gen- 
eral designation of Canaanites, and they are 
also named specifically after their several cit- 
ies, as the Sidonians, Giblites (from Gebal, i. e., 
Byblus), Sinites, Arkites, Arvadites, &c. The 
name ^olvlkv is first found in Greek writers as 
early as Homer, and is derived by some from 
the abundance of palm-trees in the country 
(^oi'vif, the date-palm), and by others from the 
purple-red (folvi^), which was obtained from a 
fish on the coasts, and was a celebrated article 
of Phoenician commerce ; besides the mythical 
derivation from Phoenix, the brother of Cadmus. 
The people were of the Semitic (Syro-Arabian) 
race, and closely allied to the Hebrews, and 
they are said to have dwelt originally on the 
shores of the Erythraean Sea. Their language 
was a dialect of the Aramaic, closely related 
to the Hebrew and Syriac. Their written char- 
acters were the same as the Samaritan or Old 
Hebrew ; and from them the Greek alphabet, 
and through it most of the alphabets of Europe, 
were undoubtedly derived ; hence they were 
regarded by the Greeks as the inventors of let- 
ters. Other inventions in the sciences and arts 
are ascribed to them, such as arithmetic, as- 
tronomy, navigation, the manufacture of glass, 
and the coining , of money. That, at a very 
early time, they excelled in the fine arts, is 
clear from the aid which Solomon received from 
Hiram, king of Tyre, in the building and the 
sculptured decorations of the temple at Jerusa- 
lem, and from the references in Homer to Si- 
donian artists. Respecting Phoenician litera- 
ture, we know of little beyond the celebrated 
work of Sanchcniathon. In the sacred his- 
tory of the Israelitish conquest of Canaan, in 
that of the Hebrew monarchy, and in the ear- 
liest Greek poetry, we find the Phoenicians al- 
ready a great maritime people. Early formed 
into settled states, supplied with abundance of 
timber from Lebanon, and placed where the car- 
I avans from Arabia and the East came upon the 
Mediterranean, they carried over to the coasts 
of this sea the products of those countries, as 
j well as of their own, which was rich in metals, 
j and the shores of which furnished the materials 
' of glass and the purple-fish already mentioned, 
j Their voyages and their settlements extended 



] 



PHCENICE. 

ieyond the Pillars of Hercules, to the western 
coasts of Africa and Spain, and even as far as 
our own islands. Vid. Britannia, p. 149, a. 
Within the Mediterranean they planted numer- 
ous colonies, on its islands, on the coast of Spain, 
and especially on the northern coast of Africa, 
the chief of which was Carthago ; they had 
also settlements on the Euxine and in Asia 
Minor. In the eastern seas we have records 
of their voyages to Ophir, in connection with 
the navy of Solomon, and to the coasts of Af- 
rica under the kings of Egypt. Vid. Africa, p. 
I 27, b. They were successively subdued by the 
! Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Macedonians, 
| and Romans ; but neither these conquests, nor 
the rivalry of Carthage, entirely ruined their 
commerce, which was still considerable at the 
Christian era ; on the contrary, their ships form- 
ed the fleet of Persia and the Syrian kings, and 
partly of the Romans. Vid. Sidon, Tyrus, &c. 
Under the Romans, Phoenice formed a part of 
the province of Syria ; and under the Eastern 
empire, it was erected, with the addition of 
I Coelesyria, into the province of Phoenice Liba- 
nesia or Libanensis. 

Phcenice {ioiviarj). 1. (Now Finiki), an im- 
portant commercial town on the coast of the 
| Epirus, in the district Chaonia, fifty-six miles 
northwest of Buthrotum, in the midst of a 
marshy country. It was strongly fortified by 
Justinian. — 2. A small island off Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, belonging to the Stcechades. 

Phcenicium Make (to Qowlkiov neTiayos : 2f- 
Soviri dahaGoa), the part of the Mediterranean 
which washes the coast of Phcenice. 

Phcenicus (ioivcKovg : Qocvlkovvtioc, Qoivl- 
Kovooioe). 1. Also Phcenix ($otV(f), a harbor 
on the south of Crete, visited by St. Paul dur- 
ing his voyage to Rome. (Acts, xxvii., 12.) — 
[2. A harbor on the south coast of Messenia, 
opposite the CEnussae Insulae.] — 3. A sea-port 
of the island of Cythera. — 4. (Now Chesmeh or 
Egri Lima.nl), a harbor of Ionia, in Asia Minor, 
at the foot of Mount Mimas. — 5. (Ruins at De- 
liktash), a flourishing city in the south of Lycia, 
on Mount Olympus, with a harbor below it. It 
is often called Olympus. Having become, un- 
der the Romans, one of the head-quarters of 
the pirates, who celebrated here the festival and 
mysteries of Mithras, it was destroyed by Ser- 
vilius Isauricus. 

Phcenicusa. Vid. ^Eolue Insulje. 
Phcenix ('toivif). 1. Son of Agenor by Agri- 
ope or Telephassa, and brother of Europa, but 
Homer makes him the father of Europa. Being 
sent by his father in search of his sister, who 
was carried off by Jupiter (Zeus), he settled in 
the country, which was called after him Phoe- 
nicia. — 2. Son of Amyntor by Cleobule or Hip- 
podamia, and king of the Dolopes, took part in 
I the Calydonian hunt. His father Amyntor neg- 
lected his legitimate wife, and attached himself 
to a mistress, whereupon Cleobule persuaded 
her son to seduce her rival. When Amyntor 
discovered the crime, he cursed Phcenix, who 
shortly afterward fled to Peleus. Peleus re- 
ceived him kindly, made him the ruler of the 
country of the Dolopes, on the frontiers of 
Phthia, and intrusted to him his son Achilles, 
whom he was to educate. He afterward ac- 
companied Achilles on his expedition against 



PHOLTJS. 

Troy. According to another tradition, Phcenix 
did not dishonor his father's mistress, but she 
merely accused him of having made improper 
overtures to her, in consequence of which his 
father put out his eyes. But Peleus took him 
to Chiron, who restored to him his sight. Phce- 
nix, moreover, is said to have called the son of 
Achilles Neoptolemus, after Lycomedes had call- 
ed him Pyrrhus. Neoptolemus was believed to 
have buried Phcenix at E'ion in Macedonia or at 
Trachis in Thessaly. — 3. A fabulous bird Phce- 
nix, which, according to a tale related to Herod- 
otus (ii., 73) at Heliopolis in Egypt, visited that 
place once in every five hundred years, on his 
father's death, and buried him in the sanctuary 
of Helios. For this purpose the Phcenix was 
believed to come from Arabia, and to make an 
egg of myrrh as large as possible ; this egg he 
then hollowed out and put into it his father, 
closing it up carefully, and the egg was believed 
then to be of exactly the same weight as before. 
This bird was represented as resembling an 
eagle, with feathers partly red and partly golden. 
It is further related, that when his life drew to 
a close, he built a nest for himself in Arabia, to 
which he imparted the power of generation, so 
that after his death a new phcenix rose out of 
it. As soon as the latter was grown up, he, 
like his predecessor, proceeded to Heliopolis in 
Egypt, and burned and buried his father in the 
temple of Helios. According to a story which 
has gained more currency in modern times, the 
Phcenix, when he arrived at a very old age 
(some say five hundred, and others one thousand 
four hundred and sixty-one years), committed 
himself to the flames. Others, again, state that 
only one Phcenix lived at a time, and that when 
he died a worm crept forth from his body, and 
was developed into a new Phcenix by the heat 
of the sun. His death, further, took place in 
Egypt after a life of seven thousand and six 
years. Another modification of the same story 
relates, that when the Phoenix arrived at the 
age of five hundred years, he built for himself 
a funeral pile, consisting of spices, settled upon 
it, and died. Out of the decomposing body he 
then rose again, and, having grown up, he 
wrapped the remains of his old body up in myrrh, 
carried them to Heliopolis, and burned them 
there. Similar stories of marvellous birds oc- 
cur in many parts of the East, as in Persia the 
legend of the bird Simorg, and in India that of 
the bird Semendar. 

Phcenix (Qolvii;), a small river in the south- 
east of Thessaly, flowing into the Asopus neai 
Thermopylae. 

Phcenix. Vid. Phcenicus, No. 1. 

Phceti^e or Phytia (Qoireiai, Qoir'iai, Qvria, 
Thuc), a town in Acarnania, oh a hill west of 
Stratus. 

Pholegandros (QoteyavSpos : now Folykan- 
dro), an island in the /Egean Sea, one of the 
smaller Cyclades, between Melos and Sicinos. 

Pholoe ($0X0)7 : now Olono), a mountain form- 
ing the boundary between Arcadia and Elis, 
being a southern continuation of Mount Ery 
manthus, in which the rivers Selleis and Ladon 
took their origin. It is mentioned as one of the 
seats of the Centaurs. Vid. Pholus. 

Pholus (*6Aof). 1. A Centaur, a sen of Si 
lenus and the nymph Melia. He was accident 

659 



PHORBANTIA. 

ally slain by one of the poisoned arrows of Her- 
cules. The mountain, between Arcadia and 
Elis, where he was buried, was called Pholoe 
after him. The details of his story are given 
on p. 357, a. — [2. A follower of ./Eneas, slain by 
Turnus in Italy.] 

PHORBANTIA. Vid. ^Egates. 

Phorbas ($6p6a(). 1. Son of Lapithes and 
Orsinome, and brother of Periphas. The Rho- 
dians, in pursuance ,of an oracle, are said to 
have invited him into their island to deliver it 
from snakes, and afterward to have honored 
him with heroic worship. From this circum- 
stance he was called Ophiuchus, and is said by 
some to have been placed among the stars. 
According to another tradition, Phorbas went 
from Thessaly to Olenos, where Alector, king 
of Elis, made use of his assistance against Pe- 
lops, and shared his kingdom with him. Phor- 
bas then gave his daughter Diogenia in mar- 
riage to Alector, and he himself married Hyr- 
mine, a sister of Alector, by whom he became 
the father of Augeas and Actor. He is also de- 
scribed as a bold boxer, and is said to have 
plundered the temple of Delphi along with the 
Phlegyse, but to have been defeated by Apollo. 
— [2. A Lesbian, father of Diomede, whom 
Achilles carried off.— 3. A Trojan, father of J 11- 
oneus. — 4. Of Syene, son of Methion, confeder- 
ate of Phineus. — 5. One of the followers of 
iEneas, whose form was assumed by the god 
of Sleep to deceive Palinurus.] 

Phorcides, Phorcydes, or Phorcynides, that 
is, the daughters of Phorcus and Ceto, or the 
Gorgons and Graeae. Vid. Gorgones and Gr^^e. 

Phorcus, Phorcys, or Phorcyn ($6p/cor, $6p- 
kv$, *op/cw). 1. A sea-deity, is described by 
Homer as " the old man of the sea," to whom 
a harbor in Ithaca was dedicated, and is called 
the father of the nymph Thoosa. Later writers 
call him a son of Pontus and Ge (Terra), and a 
brother of Thaumas, Nereus, Eurybia, and Ceto. 
By his sister Ceto he became the father of the 
Graeae and Gorgones, the Hesperian dragon, and 
the Hesperides ; and by Hecate or Cratais, he 
was the father of Scylla. — 2. Son of Phaenops, 
commander of the Phrygians of Ascania, assist- 
ed Priam in the Trojan war, but was slain by 
Ajax. — [3. A Rutulian, father of seven sons, 
who fought on the side of Turnus against ^Eneas 
on his arrival in Italy.] 

Phormion (fiopfiiuv). 1. A celebrated Athe- 
nian general, the son of Asopius. He distin- 
guished himself particularly in the command of 
an Athenian fleet in the Corinthian Gulf, where 
with far inferior forces he gained some brilliant 
victories over the Peloponnesian fleet in B.C. 
429. In the ensuing winter he landed on the 
coast of Acarnania, and advanced into the in- 
terior, where he also gained some successes. 
He was a man of remarkably temperate habits, 
and a strict disciplinarian. — 2. A peripatetic 
philosopher of Ephesus, of whom is told the 
story that he discoursed for several hours be- 
fore Hannibal on the military art and the duties 
of a general. When his admiring auditory asked 
Hannibal what he thought of him, the latter re- 
plied, that of all the old blockheads whom he 
had seen, none could match Phormion. 

Phormis orPaoRMus ($op<u(f, «$6ppof), a native 
»f Maenalus in Arcadia, removed to Sicily, where 
660 



1 

PHOTIUS. 

! he became int;.inate with Gelon, whose children 
he educated. He distinguished himself as asol- 

| dier, both under Gelon and Hieron his brother. 

i In gratitude for his martial successes, he dedi- I 
cated gifts to Jupiter (Zeus) at Olympia, and to 
Apollo at Delphi. He is associated by Aristotle 
with Epicharmus as one of the originators of 
comedy, or of a particular form of it. 

Phoroneus (iopavevg), son of Inachus and 
the Oceanid Melia or Archia, was a brother of 
JEgialeus and the ruler of Argos. He was mar- 
ried to the nymph Laodice, by whom he became 
the father of Niobe, Apis, and Car. According 
to other writers, his sons were Pelasgus, Iasus, 
and Agenor, who, after their father's death, di- 
vided the kingdom of Argos among themselves. 
Phoroneus is said to have been the first who of- 
fered sacrifices to Juno (Hera) at Argos, and to 
have united the people, who until then had lived 
in scattered habitations, into a city, which was 
called after him, aarv bopuviubv. The patro- 
nymic Phoronides is sometimes used for Ar- , 
gives in general, and especially to designate ' 
Amphiaraus and Adrastus. 

Phoronis {§opuvL£), a surname of Io, being 
according to some a descendant, and according 
to others a sister of Phoroneus. 

Photius (4><i™of), patriarch of Constantinople 
in the ninth century, played a distinguished part 
in the political and religious history of his age. , 
After holding various high offices in the Byzan- 
tine court, he was, although previously a lay- 
man, elected patriarch of Constantinople in A. 
D. 858, in place of Ignatius, who had been de- 
posed by Bardas, who was all-powerful at the 
court of his nephew Michael III., then a minor. 1 
The patriarchate of Photius was a stormy one, 
and full of vicissitudes. The cause of Ignatius 
was espoused by the Romish Church, and Pho- , 
tius thus became one of the great promoters of 
the schism between the Eastern and Western 
Churches. In 867, Photius was himself de- 
posed by the Emperor Basil I., and Ignatius was : 
restored ; but on the death of Ignatius in 877, 
Photius, who had meantime gained the favor of 
Basil, was again elevated to the patriarchate. 
On the death of Basil in 886, Photius was ac- 
cused of a conspiracy against the life of the I 
new emperor Leo VI., and was banished to a 
monastery in Armenia, where he seems to have 
remained till his death. Photius was one of the 
most learned men of his time, and in the midst 
of a busy life found time for the composition of 
numerous works, several of which have come 
down to us. Of these the most important is 
entitled Myriobiblon scu Bibliothcca (MvpiofiifiAov 
i? BiBfaodi/KTi). It may be described as an ex- 
tensive review of ancient Greek literature by a 
scholar of immense erudition and sound judg- 
ment. It is an extraordinary monument of lit- 
erary energy, for it was written while the au- 
thor was engaged in an embassy to Assyria, at 
the request of Photius's brother Tarasius, who 
desired an account of the books which Photius 
had read in his absence. It contains the analy- 
ses of, or extracts from, two hundred and eighty 
volumes ; and many valuable works are only 
known to us from the account which Photius 
has given of them. The best edition of this 
work is by Bekker, Berlin, 1824-1825. Photius 
was also the author uf a Nonwcanon, and of a 



PHRAATA. 



PHRYGIA. 



Lexicon or Glossary, which has reached us in a 
very imperfect state. It was first published by 
Hermann, Lips., 1808, and subsequently at Lon- 
don, 1822, from the papers of Porson. Photius 
likewise wrote many theological works, some 
of which have been published, and others still 
remain in MS. 

Phraata (tu Qpuara, and other forms), a great 
city of Media Atropatene, the winter residence 
of the Parthian kings, especially as a refuge in 
time of war, lay southeast of Gaza, near the 
River Amardus. The mountain fortress of Vera 
(Oifpa), which • was besieged by Antony, was 
probably the same place. 

Phraataces, king of Parthia. Vid. Arsaces, 
No. 16. 

Phraates, the names of four kings of Parthia. 
Vid. Arsaces, Nos. 5, 7, 12, 15. 

[Phradmon (<bpu&jxuv), of Argos, a statuary, 
whom Pliny places, as the contemporary of 
Polycletus, Myron, &c, at 01. 90, B.C. 420.] 

[Phragandje, a people of Thrace, on the bor- 
ders of Macedonia.] 

Phranza or Phranzes, (ipavr^ij or ^pavr^fjc), 
the last and one of the most important Byzan- 
tine historians, was frequently employed on im- 
portant public business by Constantine XIII., 
the last emperor of Constantinople. On the 
capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, 
Phranza was reduced to slavery, but succeeded 
in making his escape. He subsequently retired 
to a monastery, where he wrote his Chronicon. 
This work extends from 1259 to 1477, and is the 
most valuable authority for the history of the 
author's time, especially for the capture of Con- 
stantinople. It is edited by Alter, Vienna, 1796, 
and by Bekker, Bonn, 1838. 

Phraortes {vpaopTqc), second king of Media, 
and son of Deioces, whom he succeeded, reigned 
from B.C. 656 to 634. He first conquered the 
Persians, and then subdued the greater part of 
Asia, but was at length defeated and killed while 
laying siege to Ninus (Nineveh), the capital of 
the Assyrian empire. He was succeeded by his 
son Cyaxares. 

[Phrasaortes {^paaaoprrjc), son of Rheo- 
mithres, a Persian, who was appointed by Alex- 
ander the Great satrap of the province of Per- 
sia Proper, B.C. 331. He died during the expe- 
dition of the king to India.] 

[Phratagune (ipara-yuvvi)), a wife of Darius 
L, king of Persia, whose two children by this 
monarch fell at the battle of Thermopylae.] 

[Piirataph ernes (QparaQepvTic), leader of the 
Parthians, Hyrcanians, and Tapurians in the 
army of Darius at Gaugamela. He came after 
the death of Darius to Alexander, when the lat- 
ter entered Hyrcania, and made his submission 
to him. He proved himself on several occa- 
sions worthy of confidence, so that Alexander 
gave back to him his satrapies Parthia and Hyr- 
cania. In the division of the provinces B.C. 323, 
he still retained Hyrcania.] 

Phricium (bpUiov), a mountain in the east of 
Locris, near Thermopylae. 

Phriconis. Vid. Cyme, Larissa, II., 2. 

Phrixa ($p<fa, *pi'f<u, Qplljai: now Paleofa- 
naro), a town of Elis in Triphylia, on the bor- 
ders of Pisatis, was situated upon a steep hill 
on the River Alpheus, and was thirty stadia 
from Olympia. It was founded by the Min- 



yae, and is said to have derived its name fiom 
Phrixus. 

Phrixus (^pj'fof), son of Athamas and Ne- 
phele, and brother of Helle. In consequence of 
the intrigues of his step-mother Ino, he was to 
be sacrificed to Jupiter (Zeus) ; but Nephele res- 
cued her two children, who rode away through 
the air upon the ram with the golden fleece, the 
gift of Mercury (Hermes). Between Sigeum 
and the Chersonesus, Helle fell into the sea, 
which was called after her, the Hellespont ; but 
Phrixus arrived in safety in Colchis, the king- 
dom of yEetes, who gave him his daughter Chal- 
ciope in marriage. Phrixus sacrificed the ram 
which had carried him to Jupiter (Zeus) Phyx- 
ius or Laphystius, and gave its fleece to ^etes, 
who fastened it to an oak-tree in the grove of 
Mars (Ares). This fleece was afterward car- 
ried away by Jason and the Argonauts. Vid. 
Jason. By Chalciope Phrixus became the fa- 
ther of Argus, Melas, Phrontis, Cytisorus, and 
Presbon. Phrixus either died of old age in the 
kingdom of vEetes, or was killed by JEetes in 
consequence of an oracle, or returned to Orcho- 
menus, in the country of the Minyans. 

Phrixus (<I>pi;of), a river in Argolis, which 
flows into the Argolic Gulf between Temeniurn 
and Lerna. 

[Phronima {^povifiri), daughter of Etearchus, 
king of Axus in Crete, was, at the instigation 
of her step-mother, cast into the sea, but was 
saved, and afterward married to Polymnestus, 
to whom she bore Battus ] 

[Phrontis (Qpovric). 1. Son of Onetor, pilot 
of the ship of Menelaus. — 2. Wife of Paiithous] 

Phrygia Mater, a name frequently given to 
Cybele, because she was especially worshipped 
in Phrygia. 

Phrygia {Qpvyia : $pi5f, pi. $pvyec, Phryx, 
Phryges), a country of Asia Minor, which was 
of very different extent at different periods. 
According to the division of the provinces un- 
der the Roman empire, Phrygia formed the 
eastern part of the province of Asia, and was 
bounded on the west by Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, 
on the south by Lycia and Pisidia, on the east 
by Lycaonia (which is often reckoned as a part 
of Phrygia) and Galatia (which formerly belong- 
ed to Phrygia), and on the north by Bithynia. 
With reference to its physical geography, it 
formed the western part (as Cappadocia did the 
eastern) of the great central table-land of Asia 
Minor, supported by the chains of Olympus on 
the north and Taurus on the south, and break- 
ing on the west into the ridges which separate 
the great valleys of the Hermus, the Meander, 
&c, and which forms the headlands of the west- 
ern coast. This table-land itself was intersect- 
ed by mountain chains, and watered by the up- 
per courses and tributaries of the rivers just 
mentioned in its western part, and in its north 
em part by those of the Rhyndacus and Sanga- 
rius. These parts of the country were very 
fertile, especially in the valley of the Sangarius, 
but in the south and east the streams which de- 
scend from Taurus los.3 themselves in extensive 
salt marshes and salt lakes, some of which are 
still famous, as in ancient times, for their man- 
ufactures of salt. The Phrygians were a dis- 
tinct and remarkable people, whose origin is 
one of the most difficult problems of antiquity. 

661 



PHRYGIA. 



PHRYNICHUS. 



They claimed a very high antiquity ; and ac- 
cording to the amusing account given by He- 
rodotus of the absurd experiment of Psammeti- 
chus, king of Egypt, on the first spontaneous 
speech of children, they were thought to have 
been proved the most ancient of people. Else- 
where Herodotus mentions a Macedonian tra- 
dition that the Phryges formerly dwelt in Ma- 
cedonia, under the name of Briges; and later 
writers add that they passed over into Asia 
Minor one hundred years after the Trojan war. 
They are, however, mentioned by Homer as 
already settled on the banks of the Sangarius, 
where later writers tell us of the powerful 
Phrygian kingdom of Gordius and Midas. Al- 
though any near approach to certainty is hope- 
less, it would seem that they were a branch of 
the great Thracian family, settled, in times of 
unknown antiquity, in the northwest of Asia 
Minor, as far as the shores of the Hellespont 
and Propontis, and perhaps of the Euxine, and 
that the successive migrations of other Thra- 
cian tribes, as the Thyni, Bithyni, Mysians, 
and Teucrians, drove them further inland, till, 
from this cause, and perhaps, too, by the con- 
quests of the Phrygian kings in the opposite di- 
rection, they reached the Halys on the east and 
the Taurus on the south. They w T ere not, how- 
ever, entirely displaced by the Mysians and Teu- 
crians from the country between the shores of 
the Hellespont and Propontis and Mounts Ida 
and Olympus, where they continued side by 
side with the Greek colonies, and where their 
name was preserved in that of the district un- 
der all subsequent changes, namely, Phbygia 
Minor or Phrygia Hellespontus. The king- 
dom of Phrygia was conquered by Croesus, and 
formed part of the Persian, Macedonian, and 
Syro-Grecian empires ; but, under the last, the 
northeastern part, adjacent to Paphlagonia and 
the Halys, was conquered by the Gauls, and 
formed the western part of Galatia ; and a part 
west of this, containing the richest portion of 
the country, about the Sangarius, was subject- 
ed by the kings of Bithynia : this last portion 
was the object of a contest between the kings 
of Bithynia and Pergamus, but at last, by the 
decision of the Romans, it was added, under the 
name of Phrygia Epictetus ($. iiriKTijToc, i. e., 
the acquired Phrygia), to the kingdom of Per- 
gamus, to which the whole of Phrygia was as- 
signed by the Romans, after the overthrow of 
\ntiochus the Great in B.C. 190. With the 
rest of the kingdom of Pergamus, Phrygia pass- 
ed to the Romans by the testament of Attalus 
HI., and thus became a part of the province of 
Asia, B.C. 130. As to the distinctive names: 
the inland district usually understood by the 
name of Phrygia, when it occurs alone, was 
also called Great Phrygia, or Phrygia Proper, 
in contradistinction to the Lesser Phrygia, or 
Phrygia on the Hellespont ; and of this Great 
or Proper Phrygia, the northern part was call- 
ed, as just stated, Phrygia Epictetus, and the 
southern part, adjacent to the Taurus, was call- 
ed, from its position, Phrygia Parorios (<i>. irapo- 
oeioc). At the division of the provinces in the 
fourth century, the last-mentioned part, also 
called Phrygia Pisidica, was assigned to Pisid- 
ia, and the southwestern portion, about the 
Maeander, to Caria ; and the remainder was di- 
662 



j vided into Phrygia Salutaris on the east, with 
I Synnada for its capital, and Phrygia Pacatiana 
on the west, extending north and south from 
I Bithynia to Pamphylia. Phrygia was rich in 
I products of every kind. Its mountains furnish- 
ed gold and marble ; its valleys oil and wine ; 
the less fertile hills in the west afforded pasture 
for sheep, whose wool was highly celebrated ; 
and even the marshes of the southeast furnish- 
ed abundance of salt. In connection with the 
early intellectual culture of Greece, Phrygia is 
highly important. The earliest Greek music, 
especially that of the flute, was borrowed in 
part, through the Asiatic colonies, from Phrygia, 
and one of the three musical modes was called 
the Phrygian. With this country also were 
closely associated the orgies of Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus), and of Cybele, the mother of the gods, 
the Phrygia Mater of the Roman poets. After 
the Persian conquest, however, the Phrygians 
seem to have lost all intellectual activity, and 
they became proverbial among the Greeks and 
Romans for submissiveness and stupidity. It 
should be observed that the Roman poets con- 
stantly use the epithet Phrygian as equivalent 
to Trojan. 

Phryne ($pvv?j), one of the most celebrated 
Athenian helaera?, was a native of Thespiae in 
Bceotia. Her beauty procured for her so much 
wealth that she is said to have offered to re- 
build the walls of Thebes, after they had been 
destroyed by Alexander, if she might be allow- 
ed to put up this inscription on the walls : 
"Alexander destroyed them, but Phryne, the 
hetaera, rebuilt them." She had among her ad- 
mirers many of the most celebrated men of the 
age of Philip and Alexander, and the beauty of 
her form gave rise to some of the greatest works 
of art. The most celebrated picture of Apelles, 
his "Venus Anadyomene"(uii. Apelles), is said 
to have been a representation of Phryne, who, 
at a public festival at Eleusis, entered the sea 
with dishevelled hair. The celebrated Cnidian 
Venus of Praxiteles, who was one of her lovers, 
was taken from her. 

Phrynichus {fypvvixoc). 1. An Athenian, and 
one of the early tragic poets, is said to have 
been the disciple of Thespis. He gained his 
first tragic victory in B.C. 511, twenty-four 
years after Thespis (535), twelve years after 
Chcerilus (523), and twelve years before .iEsehy- 
lus (499) ; and his last in 476, on which occa- 
sion Themistocles was his choragus, and record- 
ed the event by an inscription. Phrynichus 
probably went, like other poets of the age, to 
the court of Hiero, and there died. In all the 
accounts of the rise and development of trage- 
dy, the chief place after Thespis is assigned to 
Phrynichus, and the improvements which he 
introduced in the internal poetical character of 
the drama entitle him to be considered as the 
real inventor of tragedy. For the light, ludi- 
crous, Bacchanalian stories of Thespis, he sub- 
stituted regular and serious subjects, taken 
either from the heroic age, or the heroic deeds 
which illustrated the history of his own time. 
In these he aimed, not so much to amuse the 
audience as to move their passions ; and so 
powerful vvas the effect of his tragedy on the 
capture of Miletus, that the audience burst into 
tears, and fined the poet one thousand drachmae. 



PHRYNNIS. 



PHYLE. 



because he had exhibited the sufferings of a 
Kindred people, and even passed a law that no 
one should ever again make use of that drama. 
To the light mimetic chorus of Thespis he add- 
ed the sublime music of dithyrambic choruses. 
Aristophanes more than once contrasts these 
ancient and beautiful melodies with the involved 
refinements of later poets. Phrynichus was the 
first poet who introduced masks, representing 
female persons in the drama. He also paid par- 
ticular attention to the dances of the chorus. 
In the dramaof Phrynichus, however, the chorus 
still retained the principal place, and it was re- 
served for^Eschylus and Sophocles to bring the 
dialogue and action into their due position. 
[The few fragments of Phrynichus are given by 
Wagner in Trag. Grac. Fragm. (in Didot's Bibl. 
Graca), p. 10-16.] — 2. A distinguished comic 
poet of the Old Comedy, was a contemporary 
of Eupolis, and flourished B.C. 429. [The frag- 
ments are given by Meineke, Com. Grxc. Frag., 
i., 228-40, ed. minor.] — 3. A Greek sophist and 
grammarian, described by some as an Arabian, 
and by others as a Bithynian, lived under M. 
Aurelius and Commodus. His great work was 
entitled lotpiartKri Uapaaxevrj, in thirty-seven 
books, of which we still possess a fragment, 
published by Bekker, in his Anecdo/a Graca, 
Berol., 1814, vol. i. He also wrote a Lexicon 
of Attic words ('EKAoyri frn/iuTov nal ovo/xdruv 
'AttlkCiv), which is extant : the best edition is 
by Lobeck, Lips., 1830. 

Phrynnis (Qpvvvic) or Phrynis ($p0ixf), a 
celebrated dithyrambic poet, of the time of the 
Peloponnesian war, was a native of Mytilene, 
but flourished at Athens. His innovations, ef- 
feminacies, and frigidness are repeatedly at- 
tacked by the comic poets. Among the innova- 
tions which he is said to have made was the 
addition of two strings to the heptachord. He 
was the first who gained the victory in the 
musical contests established by Pericles, in con- 
nection with the Panathenaic festival, probably 
in B.C. 445. 

[Phrynon (fypvvuv), an Athenian, who had 
been an Olympian victor, and was celebrated 
for his strength and courage, commanded the 
Athenian forces in their contest with the Myti- 
leneans for the possession of Sigeum. He en- 
gaged in single combat with Pittacus (vid. Pit- 
tacus), who entangled him in a net, and then 
dispatched him with a trident and a dagger, just 
as the retiarii afterward fought at Rome.] 

Phthia. Vid. Phthiotis. 

Phthiotis (bdiuric : $6iutj;c), a district in the 
southeast of Thessaly, bounded on the south by 
the Maliac Gulf, and on the east by the Pagasasan 
Gulf, and inhabited by Acheeans. Vid. Thes- 
salia. Homer calls it Phthia {$dtv), and men- 
tions a city of the same name, which was cele- 
brated as the residence of Achilles. Hence the 
poets call Achilles Phthius heros, and his father 
Peleus Phthius rex. 

Phthira (ra idipa, ideipuv opoc), a mountain 
of Caria, forming a part or a branch of Latmus, 
inhabited by a people called <bdipec. 

Phthirophagi ($deipoij>dyoi, i. e., eaters of lice, 
[or, according to another derivation, caters of 
pine-cones (from <p6cip, the fruit of the tt'ltvc <j>6ei- 
po<j>6poc) as the Budini (Hdt., iv., 109). Vid. 
Ritter, Vorhalle, p. 459]), a Scythian people near 



the Caucasus, or, according to some, beyond the 
River Rha, in Sarmatia Asiatica. 

Phya. Vid. Pisistratvs. 

Phycus ($vkovc : now Ras-Sem or Ras-el- 
Kazat), a promontory on the coast of Cyrenaica, 
a little west of Apollonia and northwest of Cy- 
rene. It is the northernmost headland of Lib- 
ya east of the Lesser Syrtis, and the nearest 
point of this coast to t hat of Europe, the distance 
from Phycus to Tsnarum, the southern prom- 
ontory of Peloponnesus, being two hundred and 
eight miles. There was a small town of the 
same name on the headland. 

Phylace {^vaukti). 1. A small town of Thes- 
saly in Phthiotis, southeast of Eretria, and east 
of Enipeus, on the northern slope of Mount 
Othrys. It was the birth-place of Protesilaus. 
— 2. A. town of Epirus in Molossia. — 3. A town 
in Arcadia, near the sources of the Alpheus, on 
the frontiers of Tegea and Laconia. 

Phylacus ($vAanoc). I. Son of Deion and Dio- 
mede, and husband of Periclymene or Clymene. 
the daughter of Minyas, by whom he became 
the father of Iphiclus and Alcimede. He was 
believed to be the founder of the town of Phy- 
lace, in Thessaly. Either from his name or 
that of the town, his descendants, Phylacus, 
Iphiclus, and Protesilaus, are called Phylacida. 
— [2. A Trojan warrior, slain by Leitus. — 3. A 
Delphian hero, to whom a sanctuary was dedi- 
cated at Delphi. — 4. Son of Histiseusof Samos.] 

Phylarchus (QvAapxoc), a Greek historical 
writer, and a contemporary of Aratus, was prob- 
ably a native of Naucratis in Egypt, but spent 
the greater part of his life at Athens. His great 
work was a history in twenty-eight books, which 
embraced a period of fifty-two years, from the 
expedition of Pyrrhus into Peloponnesus, B.C. 
272, to the death of Cleomenes, 220. Phylar- 
chus is vehemently attacked by Polybius, who 
charges him with falsifying history through his 
partiality to Cleomenes, and his hatred against 
Aratus and the Achaeans. The accusation is 
probably not unfounded, but it might be retort- 
ed with equal justice upon Polybius, who has 
fallen into the opposite error of exaggerating 
the merits of Aratus and his party, and depre- 
ciating Cleomenes. The style of Phylarchus 
appears to have been too oratorical and declam- 
atory ; but it was, at the same time, lively and 
attractive. The fragments of Phylarchus have 
been collected by Lucht, Lips., 1836 ; by BrUck- 
ner, Vratisl., 1838 ; and by Miiller, Fragm. His- 
tor. Grac, Paris, 1840. 

Phylas (QvAac). 1. King of the Dryopes, 
was attacked and slain by Hercules because he 
had violated the sanctuary of Delphi. By his 
daughter Midea, Hercules became the father of 
Antiochus. — 2. Son of Antiochus, and grandson 
of Hercules and Midea, was married to Deiphile, 
by whom he had two sons, Hippotas and There 
— 3. King of Ephyra in Thesprotia, and the fa- 
ther of Polymele and Astyoche, by the latter of 
whom Hercules was the father of Tlepolemus. 

Phyle ($iAj7 : $vAaGtoc : now Fdi), a demus 
in Attica, and a strongly fortified place, belong- 
ing to the tribe Q3neis, was situated on the con- 
fines of Bceotia, and on the southwestern slope 
of Mount Parnes. It is memorable as the place 
which Thrasybulus and the Athenian patriots 
seized soon after the end of the Peloponnesian 

663 



PHYLEUS. 

war, B.C. 404, and whence they directed their 
operations against the thirty tyrants at Athens. 

Phyleus ($uAewf), son of Augeas, was ex- 
pelled oy his father from Ephyra because he 
gave evidence in favor of Hercules. {Vid. p. 
357, b.) He then emigrated to Dulichium. By 
Ctimene or Timandra he became the father of 
Meges, who is hence called Phylides. 

[Phyllidas (OoAAftfaf), a Theban, secretary 
to the polemarchs who held office under Spartan 
protection, after the seizure of the Cadmea by 
Phoebidas. He was a secret enemy of the new 
government, and contributed greatly to the suc- 
cess of the plot formed by Pelopidas for the 
liberation of his country from Spartan tyranny.] 

Phyllis. Vid. Demophon, No. 2. 

Phyllis (§v\\ic), a district in Thrace south 
of the Strymon, near Mount Pangaeus. 

[Phyllis, the nurse of Domitian, whom she 
buried after his assassination.] 

Phyllds ("fcii/Uof : now Petrino), a town of 
Thessaly, in the district Thessaliotis, north cf 
Metropolis. 

[Phylo (<S>v?i6), one of the female attendants 
of Helen ] 

Physca (ivana), a town of Macedonia, in the 
district Eordaea. 

Physcon. Vid. PToiEM^ns. 

Physcus {Qvokoi;). 1. A city of the Ozolian 
Locrians in Northern Greece. — 2. (Now Paitch- 
shin), a town on the southern coast of Caria, in 
the Rhodian territory, with an excellent harbor, 
which was used as the port of Mylasa, and was 
the landing-place for travellers coming from 
Rhodes. — 3. (Now Odomeh), an eastern tribu- 
tary of the Tigris in Lower Assyria. The town 
of Opis stood at its junction with the Tigris. 

Phyt^eum (Quraiov : ivralog), a town in iEto- 
lia, southeast of Thermum, on the Lake Tri- 
chonis. 

PlCENI. Vid. PlCENUM. 
Picbntes. Vid. PlCENUM. 
Picentia (Picentinus : now Vicenza), a town 
in the south of Campania, at the head of the 
Sinus Paestanus, and between Salernum and 
the frontiers of Lucania, the inhabitants of 
which were compelled by the Romans, in con- 
sequence of their revolt to Hannibal, to abandon 
their town and live in the neighboring villages. 
Between the town and the frontiers of Lucania, 
there was an ancient temple of the Argive Juno, 
said to have been founded by Jason, the Argo- 
naut. The name of Picentini was not confined 
to the inhabitants of Picentia, but was given to 
the inhabitants of the whole coast of the Sinus 
Paestanus, from the promontory of Minerva to 
the River Silarus. They were a portion of the 
Sabine Picentes, who were transplanted by the 
Romans to this part of Campania after the con- 
quest of Picenum, B.C. 268, at which time they 
founded the town of Picentia. 

Picentini. Vid. Picentia and Picenum. 
Picenum (Picentes, sing. Picens, more rarely 
Picentini and Piceni), a country in Central Ita- 
ly, was a narrow strip of land along the west- 
ern coast of the Adriatic, and was bounded on 
the north by Umbria, from which it was sepa- 
rated by the River iEsis, on the west by Um- 
bria and the territory of the Sabines, and on 
tne south by the territory of the Marsi and Ves- 
ting from which it was separated by a range of 
«64 



PICTOR, FABIUS. 

hills and by the River Matrinus. It is said to 
have derived its name from the bird picus, 
which directed the Sabine immigrants into the 
land, or from a mythical leader Picus : some 
modern writers connect the name with the 
Greek Tvev/cfj, a pine-tree, on account of the pine- 
trees growing in the country on the slopes of 
the Apennines ; but none of these etymologies 
can be received. Picenum formed the fifth re- 
gion in the division of Italy made by Augustus. 
The country was traversed by a number of hills 
of moderate height, eastern offshoots of the 
Apennines, and was drained by several small 
rivers flowing into the Adriatic through the 
valleys between these hills. The country was 
upon the whole fertile, and was especially cel- 
ebrated for its apples ; but the chief employ- 
ment of the inhabitants was the feeding of 
cattle and swine. The Picentes, as already 
remarked, were Sabine immigrants ; but the 
population of the country appears to have been 
of a mixed nature. The Umbrians were in pos- 
session of the land when it was conquered by 
the Sabine Picentes, and some of the Umbrian 
population became intermingled with their Sa- 
bine conquerors. In addition to this, the south 
ern part of the country was for a time in pos- 
session of the Liburnians, and Ancona was oc- 
cupied by Greeks from Syracuse. In B.C. 299 
the Picentes made a treaty with the Romans ; 
but having revolted in 269, they were defeated 
by the consul Sempronius Sophus in the follow- 
ing year, and were obliged to submit to the Ro- 
man supremacy. A portion of the people was 
transplanted to the coast of the Sinus Paesta- 
nus, where they founded the town Picentia. 
Vid. Picentia. Two or three years afterward 
the Romans sent colonies to Firmum and Cas>- 
trum Novum in Picenum, in order to secure 
their newly-conquered possession. The Picen- 
tes fought with the other Socii against Rome 
in the Social or Marsic war (90-89), and receiv- 
ed the Roman franchise at the close of it. 

Pictavi. Vid. Pictones. 

Picti, a people inhabiting the northern part of 
Britain, appear to have been either a tribe of 
the Caledonians, or the same people as the Cal- 
edonians, though under another name. They 
were called Picti by the Romans, from their 
practice of painting their bodies. They are first 
mentioned by the rhetorician Eumenius in an 
oration addressed to Constantius Chlorus, A.D. 
296 ; and after this time their name frequently 
occurs in the Roman writers, and often in con- 
nection with that of the Scoti. In the next cen 
tury we find them divided into two tribes, the 
Dicaledonae orDicaledones.and the Vecturiones 
or Vecturones. At a still later period their prin- 
cipal seat was in the northeast of Scotland. 

Pictones, subsequently Pictavi, a powerful 
people on the coast of Gallia Aquitanica, whose 
territory extended north as far as the Liger 
(now Loire), and east probably as far the River 
Creuse. Their chief town was Limonum, sub- 
sequently Pictavi (now Poitiers). 

Pictor, Fabius. 1. C, painted the temple 
of Salus, which the dictator C. Junius Brutus 
Bubulcus contracted for in his censorship, B.C. 
307, and dedicated in his dictatorship, 302. 
This painting, which must have been on the 
walls of the temple, was probably a representa 



PICUMNUS. 

'j tion of the battle which Bubulcus had gained 
against the Samnites. This is the earliest Ro- 
man painting of which we have any record. It 
was preserved till the reign of Claudius, when 
rtie temple was destroyed by fire. It\ conse- 
quence of this painting, G. Fabius received the 
surname of Pictor, which was borne by his de- 
scendants. — 2. C, son of No. 1, consul 269. — 
3. N. (i. c, Numerius), also son of No. 1, con- 
sul 266. — 4. Q., son of No.^, was the most an- 
cient writer of Roman history in prose. He 
served in the Gallic war 225, and also in the 
| second Punie war. His history, which was 
written in Greek, began with the arrival of 
^Eneas in Italy, and came down to his own 
time. Hence Polybius speaks of him as one 
! of the historians of the second Punic war. [A 
few fragments of the history of Pictor are col- 
lected by Krause in Fragmenta Historicorum 
Lat., p. 52-63.]— 5. Q., praetor 189, and flamen 
Quirinalis. — 6. Ser., is said by Cicero to have 
been well skilled in law, literature, and antiqui- 
ty. He lived about B.C. 150. He appears to 
be the same as the Fabius Pictor who wrote a 
work De Jure Pontificio, in several books. He 
probably wrote Annals likewise in the Latin 
language, since Cicero {de Orat., ii., 12) speaks 
j of a Latin annalist Pictor, whom he places after 
! Cato, but before Piso ; which corresponds with 
j the time at which Ser. Pictor lived, but could 
not apply to Q. Pictor, who lived in the time 
of the second Punic war. 

Picumnus and Pilumnus, two Roman divin- 
ities, were regarded as two brothers, and as the 
beneficent gods of matrimony in the rustic re- 
igion of the ancient Romans. A couch was 
prepared for them in the house in which there 
was a newly-born child. Pilumnus was be- 
lieved to ward off all sufferings from the infant 
with his pilum, with which he taught to pound 
the grain ; and Picumnus, who, under the name 
of Sterquilinius, was believed to have discov- 
ered the use of manure for the fields, conferred 
upon the infant strength and prosperity. Hence 
ooth were also looked upon as the gods of good 
deeds, and were identified with Castor and Pol- 
lux. When Danae landed in Italy, Picumnus 
is said to have built with her the town of Ar- 
<lea, and to have become by her the father of 
Daunus. 

Picus {Hlkoc), a Latin prophetic divinity, is 
described as a son of Saturnus or Sterculus, as 
the husband of Canens, and the father of Fau- 
nus. In some traditions he was called the first 
king of Italy. He was a famous soothsayer and 
augur, and as he made use in his prophetic art 
of a picus (a woodpecker), he himself was also 
called Picus. He was represented in a rude 
and primitive manner as a wooden pillar with 
a woodpecker on the top of it, but afterward 
as a young man with a woodpecker on his 
I head. The whole legend of Picus is founded 
on the notion that the woodpecker is a prophet- 
ic bird, sacred to Mars. Pomona, it is said, 
was beloved by him, and when Circe's love for 
him was not requited, she changed him into a 
woodpecker, who, however, retained the pro- 
phetic powers which he had formerly possessed 
as a man. 

[Pidvtes (Uidirnc), of Percote, an ally of the 
Trojans, was slain by Ulysses.] 



PILIA. 

[Pielus (IlteAof), son of Pyrrhus and An- 
dromache, brother of Molossus and Pergamus.] 

Pieria {Yliepia : Iliepec). 1. A narrow slip of 
country on the southeastern coast of Macedo- 
nia, extending from the mouth of the Peneus in 
Thessaly to the Haliacmon, and bounded on the 
west by Mount Olympus and its offshoots. A 
portion of these mountains was called by the 
ancient writers Pierus, or the Pierian Mount- 
ain. The inhabitants of this country, the Pie- 
res, were a Thracian people, and are celebrated 
in the early history of Greek poetry and music, 
since their country was one of the earliest seats 
of the worship of the Muses, and Orpheus is said 
to have been buried there. After the establish- 
ment of the Macedonian kingdom in Emathia 
in the seventh century B.C., Pieria was con- 
quered by the Macedonians, and the inhabitants 
were driven out of the country. — 2. A district 
in Macedonia, east of the Strymon near Mount 
Pangaeum, where the Pierians settled, who had 
been driven out of their original abodes by the 
Macedonians, as already related. They pos- 
sessed in this district the fortified towns of 
Phagres and Pergamus. — 3. A district on the 
northern coast of Syria, so called from the 
Mountain Pieria, a branch of the Amanus, a 
name given to it by the Macedonians after their 
conquest of the East. In this district was the 
city of Seleucia, which is distinguished from 
other cities of the same name as Seleucia in 
Pieria. 

Pierides (Tlieptdec). 1. A surname of the 
Muses,- which they derived from Pieria, near 
Mount Olympus, where they were first worship- 
ped among the Thracians. Some derived the 
name from an ancient king Pierus, who is said 
to have emigrated from Thrace into Bceotia, 
and to have established their worship at Thes- 
piae. Pieris also occurs in the singular. — 2. 
The nine daughters of Pierus, king of Emathia 
(Macedonia), whom he begot by Euippe or An- 
tiope, and to whom he gave the names of the 
nine Muses. They afterward entered into a 
contest with the Muses, and, being conquered, 
they were metamorphosed into birds called Co- 
lymbas, Iyngx, Cenchris, Cissa, Chloris, Aca- 
lanthis, Nessa, Pipo, and Dracontis. 

Pierus (ITtcpof). 1. Mythological. Vid. Pie- 
rides. — 2. A mountain. Vid. Pieria, No. 1. 

Pietas, a personification of faithful attach- 
ment, love, and veneration among the Romans. 
At first she had only a smdll sanctuary at Rome, 
but in B.C. 191 a larger one was built. She is 
represented on Roman coins as a matron throw- 
ing incense upon an altar, and her attributes 
are a stork and children. She is sometimes 
represented as a female figure offering her 
breast to an aged parent. 

Pietas Julia. Vid. Pola. 

Pigres (Tliyorjc), of Halicarnassus, either the 
brother or the son of the celebrated Artemisia, 
queen of Caria. He is said to have been the 
author of the Margites, and the Batrachomyo- 
machia. 

[Pig rum Mare, called by the Greeks 6 Kpo- 
vioc 'tticeavoe, the names under which the Arctic 
or Frozen Ocean was known to the ancients.] 

Pilia, the wife of T. Pomponius Atticus, to 
whom she was marrn d on the 12th of Februa- 
ry, B.C. 56. In the summsr of the following 

665 



PILORUS. 



PINDARUS. 



jear she bore her husband a daughter, who sub- 
sequently married Vipsanius Agrippa. 

Pilorus (IIt'A<jpo?), a town of Macedonia in 
Chalcidice, at the head of the Singitic Gulf. 

PlLUMNDS. Vill. PlCUMNUS. 

Pimple a (Uifinlcia), a town in the Macedo- 
nian province of Pieria, sacred to the Muses, 
who were hence called Pimpleides. 

[Pimprama (Ui/nrpa/ia), the capital city of the 
Adra'istas, a tribe in the northwest of India in- 
tra Gangem.] 

Pinara (ra TlLvapa : Tlivapevc : ruins at Pina- 
ra or Minara), an inland city of Lycia, some dis- 
tance west of the River Xanthus, at the foot of 
Mount Cragus. Here Pandarus was worship- 
ped as a hero. 

Pinaria Gens, one of the most ancient pa- 
trician gentes at Rome, traced its origin to a 
time long previous to the foundation of the city. 
The legend related that when Hercules came 
into Italy, he was hospitably received on the 
spot where Rome was afterward built by the 
Potitii and the Pinarii, two of the most distin- 
guished families in the country. The hero, in 
return, taught them the way in which he was 
to be worshipped ; but as the Pinarii were not 
at hand when the sacrificial banquet was ready, 
and did not come till the entrails of the victim 
were eaten, Hercules, in anger, determined that 
the Pinarii should in all future time be excluded 
from partaking of the entrails of the victims, 
and that in all matters relating to his worship 
they should be inferior to the Potitii. These 
two families continued to be the hereditary 
priests of Hercules till the censorship of App. 
Claudius (B.C. 312), who purchased from the 
Potitii the knowledge of the sacred rites, and 
intrusted them to public slaves ; whereat the 
god was so angry that the whole Potitia gens, 
containing twelve families and thirty grown-up 
men, perished within a year, or, according to 
other accounts, within thirty days, and Appius 
himself became blind. The Pinarii did not 
share in the guilt of communicating the sacred 
knowledge, and therefore did not receive the 
same punishment as the Potitii, but continued 
in existence to the latest times. It appears that 
the worship of Hercules by the Potitii and Pi- 
narii was a sacrum gentilitium belonging to these 
gentes, and that in the time of Appius Claudius 
these sacra privata were made sacra publica. The 
Pinarii were divided into the families of Mamer- 
cinus, Natta, Posca, Rksca, and Scarpus, but none 
of them obtained sufficient importance to require 
a separate notice. 

Pinarius, L. [1. The commander of the Ro- 
man garrison at Enna in the second Punic war, 
B.C. 214, suppressed with vigor an attempt at 
insurrection which the inhabitants made.] — 2. 
The great-nephew of the dictator C. Julius Ca- 
sar, being the grandson of Julia, Caesar's eldest 
sister. In the will of the dictator, Pinarius was 
named one of his heirs along with his two oth- 
er great-nephews, C. Octavius and Q. Pedius, 
Octavius obtaining three fourths of the prop- 
erty, and the remaining fourth being divided 
between Pinarius and Pedius. [Pinarius after- 
ward served in the army of the triumvirs in the 
war against Brutus and Cassius.] 

Pinarcs (Uwapoc), a river of Cilicia, rising in 
Mons Amanus, and falling into the Gulf of Issus 
666 



near Issus, between the mouth of the Pyramus 
and the Syrian frontier. 

PiNDARus(f[n;<5apof). 1 The greatest lyric poet 
of Greece, was born either at Thebes or at Cy- 
noscephalse, a village in the territory of Thebes, 
about B.C. 522. His family was one of the 
noblest in Thebes, and seems also to have been 
celebrated for its skill in music. The father oi 
uncle of Pindar was a flute-player, and Pindar 
at an early age received instruction in the art 
from the flute-playef Scopelinus. But the youth 
soon gave indications of a genius for poetry, 
which induced his father to send him to Athens 
to receive more perfect instruction in the art. 
Later writers tell us that his future glory as a 
poet was miraculously foreshadovved by a swarm 
of bees which rested upon his lips while he was 
asleep, and that this miracle first led him to 
compose poetry. At Athens Pindar became the 
pupil of Lasus of Hermione, the founder of the 
Athenian school of dithyrambic poetry. Here- 
turned to Thebes before he completed his twen- 
tieth year, and is said to have received instruc- 
tion there from Myrtis and Corinna of Tanagra, ; 
two poetesses who then enjoyed great celeb- ' 
rity in Boeotia. With both these poetesses Pin- 
dar contended for the prize in the musical con- i 
tests at Thebes ; and he is said to have been 
defeated five times by Corinna. Pindar com- 
menced his professional career as a poet at an 
early age, and was soon employed by different i 
states and princes in all parts of the Hellenic i 
world to compose for them choral songs for 
special occasions. He received money and pres 
ents for his works ; but he never degenerated 
into a common mercenary poet, and he contin- j 
ued to preserve to his latest days the respect of 
all parts of Greece. He composed poems for 
Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, Alexander, son of i 
Amyntas, king of Macedonia, Theron, tyrant of 
Agrigentum, Arcesilaus, king of Cyrene, as well 
as for many free states and private persons. He 
was courted especially by Alexander, king of 
Macedonia, and Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse ; and 
the praises which he bestowed upon the formei 
are said to have been the chief reason which led j 
his descendant, Alexander, the son of Philip, to 
spare the house of the poet when he destroyed 
the rest of Thebes. Pindar's stated residence 
was at Thebes, though he frequently left home | 
in ordeT to witness the great public games, and i 
to visit the states and distinguished men who 
courted his friendship and employed his serv- 
ices. Thus about B.C. 473 he visited the court j 
of Hieron at Syracuse, where he remained four 
years. He probably died in his eightieth year 
in 442. The only poems of Pindar which have 
come down to us entire are his Epinicia, or tri- 
umphal odes. But these were but a small por- 
tion of his works. Besides his triumphal odes, i 
he wrote hymns to the gods, paeans, dithyrambs, 
odes for processions (Trpocodca), songs of maid- 
ens (Ttapdcveia), mimic dancing songs {ynopxh- 
fiara), drinking-songs (cr/coAia), dirges (dpf/voi), 
and encomia (iynunia), or panegyrics on princes. 
Of these we have numerous fragments. Mpst 
of them are mentioned in the well-known lines 
of Horace (Carm., iv., 2) : 

" Seu per audaces nova dithyrambos 
Verba devolvit, numerisque fertur 
Lege solutis : 



PINDASUS. 



PTR.EEUS. 



Sen de is (hymns and paa?is) regesve 

(encomia) canit, deorum 
Sanguinem 

SiVe quos Elea domum reducit 
Palma coelestes (the Epinicia) : . . . 
Flebili sponsae juvenemve raptum 
Plorat" (the dirges). 

m all of these varieties Pindar equally excelled, 
as we see from the numerous quotations made 
from them by the ancient writers, though they 
are generally of too fragmentary a kind to allow 
us to form a judgment respecting them. Our 
estimate of Pindar as a poet must be formed 
almost exclusively from his Epinicia, which were 
composed in commemoration of some victory in 
the public games. The Epinicia are divided into 
four books, celebrating respectively the victories 
gained in the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and 
Isthmian games. In order to understand them 
properly, we must bear in mind the nature of the 
occasion for which they were composed, and the 
object which the poet had in view. A victory 
gained in one of the four great national festivals 
conferred honor not only upon the conqueror 
and his family, but also upon the city to which 
he belonged. It was accordingly celebrated 
with great pomp and ceremony. Such a cele- 
bration began with a procession to a temple, 
where a sacrifice was offered, and it ended with 
a banquet and the joyous revelry, called by the 
Greeks comus (nu/ioc). For this celebration a 
poem was expressly composed, which was sung 
by a chorus. The poems were sung either dur- 
ing the procession to the temple, or at the comus 
at the close of the banquet. Those of Pindar's 
Epinician odes which consist of strophes with- 
out epodes were sung during the procession, but 
the majority of them appear to have been sung 
at the comus. In these odes Pindar rarely de- 
scribes the victory itself, as the scene was fa- 
miliar to all the spectators, but he dwells upon 
the glory of the victor, and celebrates chiefly 
either his wealth (o\6oc) or his skill (apery) : his 
wealth, if he had gained the victory in the char- 
iot-race, since it was only the wealthy that 
could contend for the prize in this contest ; his 
skill, if he had been exposed to peril in the con- 
test. The metres of Pindar are too extensive 
and difficult a subject to admit of explanation in 
the present work. No two odes possess the 
same metrical structure. The Doric rhythm 
chiefly prevails, but he also makes frequent use 
of theiEolian and Lydian as well. The best edi- 
tions of Pindar are by Bockh, Lips., 1811-1821, 2 
vols. 4to, and by Dissen, Gotha, 1830, 2 vols. 8vo, 
of which there is a second edition by Schneide- 
win, Gotha, 1843, seq. — [2. Under the name of 
Pindarus there exists a Latin poem in hexame- 
ter verse, commonly called Epitome Iliados Ho- 
meri. Wernsdorf tried to prove that the name 
of the author was Pentadius, from which Pin- 
darus was a corruption, but this idea he after- 
ward abandoned ; Bahr thinks the poem must 
have been composed in the third or fourth cen- 
tury A.D. ; it is published by Wernsdorf in Poetce 
Latini Minores, vol. iv., pt. ii., and separately, with 
the notes of Theod. Van Kooten, by H. Weytingh, 
Lugd. Bat., 1809.— 3. The freedman of C. Cas- 
sius Longinus, put an end to his master's life 
at the request of the latter after the loss of the 
battle of Philippi.] 
Pindasus (IlMaaoc), a southern branch of 



Mount Temnus in Mysia, extending to the ElaT- 
tic Gulf, and containing the sources of the River 
Cetius. 

[Pindenissus (Pindenissita; in pi. ; now, ac- 
cording to Von Hammer, Schahmaran), a city of 
Cilicia, besieged and taken by Cicero during his 
administration of the province of Cilicia.] 

Pindus (Tliv6"or-). 1. A lofty range of mount- 
ains in Northern Greece, a portion of the great 
back-bone which runs through the centre of 
Greece from north to south. The name of Pin- 
dus was confined to that part of the chain whicn 
separates Thessaly and Epirus, and its most 
northerly and also highest part was called Lac- 
mon. — 2. One of the four towns of Doris, near 
the sources of a small river of the same name, 
which flowed through Locris into the Cephisus. 

[Pineus. Vid. Pinnes'.] 

Pinna (Pinnensis : now Civita diPenna), the 
chief town of the Vestini at the foot of the Ap- 
ennines, surrounded by beautiful meadows. 

Pinnes, Pinneus, or Pineus, was the son of 
Agron, king of Illyria, by his first wife Triteuta. 
At the death of Agron (B.C. 231), Pinnes, who 
was then a child, was left in the guardianship of 
his step-mother Teuta, whom Agron had mar- 
ried after divorcing Triteuta. When Teuta was 
defeated by the Romans, the care of Pinnes de- 
volved upon Demetrius of Pharos ; but when 
Demetrius, in his turn, made war against the 
Romans and was defeated, Pinnes was placed 
upon the throne by the Romans, but was com- 
pelled to pay tribute. 

[Pintia (Jlwria : now Valladolid), a city of the 
Vaccaei in Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on 
the road from Asturica to Csesaraugusta.] 

Pintu aria (Tlivrovapla : now Teneriffe), one 
of the Insula Fortdnat-si (now Canary Islands) 
off the western coast of Africa, also called Con- 
vallis, and, from the perpetual snowon its peak, 
Nivaria. 

[Pionia (Ylwvia : Pionites), a city in the in- 
terior of Mysia, on the River Satnioi's, north- 
west of Antandrus, and northeast of Gargara, 
said to have derived its name from Pionis, a de- 
scendant of Hercules.] 

Piraeus or Piraeus (Tleipaievc: now Porto Le- 
one or Porto Dracone). 1. The most important of 
the harbors of Athens, was situated in the penin- 
sula about five miles southwest of Athens. This 
peninsula, which is sometimes called by the gen- 
eral name of Piraeus, contained three harbors, 
Piraeus proper on the western side, by far the 
largest of the three, Zea on the eastern side, 
separated from Piraeus by a narrow isthmus, 
and Munychia (now Pharnari) still further to the 
east. The position of Piraeus and of the Athe- 
nian harbors has been usually misunderstood. 
In consequence of a statement in an ancient 
scholiast, it was generally supposed that the 
great harbor of Piraeus was divided into three 
smaller harbors, Zea for corn vessels, Aphrodis- 
ium for merchant ships in general, and Can- 
tharus for ships of war ; hut this division of the 
Piraeus is now rejected by the best topogra- 
phers. Zea was a harbor totally distinct from 
the Piraeus, as is stated above ; the northern 
portion of the Piraeus seems to have been used 
by the merchant vessels, and the Cantharus, 
where the ships of war were stationed, was on 
the southern side of the harbor, near the en 

667 



PIRAEUS. 



PIS^E. 



trance. It was through the suggestion of The- 
mistocles that the Athenians were induce*, to 
make use of the harbor of Pirseeus. Before 
the Persian wars their principal harbor was Pha- 
lerum, which was not situated in the Piraean 
peninsula at all, but lay to the east of Munychia. 
Vid. Phalerum. At the entrance of the harbor 
of Piraeeus there were two promontories, the 
one on the right hand called Alcimus (" A^Kifioc), 
on which was the tomb of Themistocles, and 
;he other on the left called Eetionea ('HeTiuveia), 
m which the Four Hundred erected a fortress. 
The entrance of the harbor, which was narrow 
by nature, was rendered still narrower by two 
mole-heads, to which a chain was attached to 
prevent the ingress of hostile ships. The town 
or demus ofPiraeeuswas surrounded with strong 
fortifications by Themistocles, and was connect- 
ed with Athens by means of the celebrated Long 
Walls under the administration of Pericles. 
(Vid. p. 122, a.) The town possessed a consid- 
erable population, and many public and private 
buildings. The most important of its public 
buildings were the Agora Hippodamia, a tem- 
ple of Jupiter (Zeus) Soter, a large stoa, a the- 
atre, the Phreattys or tribunal for the admirals, 
the arsenal, the docks, &c. — [2. Piraeus, an open, 
roadstead on the eastern coast of Oorinthia, near 
the Promontory Spiraeum, close to the borders of 
the territory of Epidaurus, where, in the twenti- 
eth year of the Peloponnesian war, the Atheni- 
ans blockaded a part of the Peloponnesian fleet.] 

[Piraeus (Tldpaioc), son of Clytius in Ithaca, 
a friend of Telemachus.] 

Pirene (Ueiprivri), a celebrated fountain at 
Corinth, which, according to tradition, took its 
origin from Pirene, a daughter of CEbalus, who 
here melted away into tears through grief for 
the loss of her son Cenchrias. At this fountain 
Bellerophon is said to have caught the horse 
Pegasus. It gushed forth from the rock in the 
Acrocorinthus, was conveyed down the hill by 
subterraneous conduits, and fell into a marble 
basin, from which the greater part of the town 
was supplied with water. The fountain was 
celebrated for the purity and salubrity of its wa- 
ter, and was so highly valued that the poets fre- 
quently employed its name as equivalent to that 
of Corinth itself. 

PiresLe (Ueipeaia't), probably the same as the 
Iresi^; of Livy, a town of Thessaly, in the dis- 
trict Thessaliotis, on the left bank of the Pe- 
neus. 

Pirithous (XlapWooc), son oflxion or Jupiter 
(Zeus) by Dia, was king of the Lapithae in Thes- 
saly, and married to Hippodamia, by whom he 
became the father of Polypoetes. When Pirith- 
ous was celebrating his marriage with Hippo- 
damia, the intoxicated centaur Eurytion or Eu- 
rytus carried her off, and this act occasioned 
the celebrated fight between the Centaurs and 
Lapithae, in which the Centaurs were defeated. 
Pirithoiis once invaded Attica, but when Theseus 
came forth to oppose him, he conceived a warm 
admiration for the Athenian king, and from this 
time a most intimate friendship sprung up be- 
tween the two heroes. Theseus was present 
at. the wedding of Pirithous, and assisted him in 
his battle against the Centaurs. Hippodamia 
afterward died, and each of the two friends re- 
solved to wed a daughter of Jupiter (Zeus) 



With the assistance of Pirithous, Theseus car- 
ried off Helen from Sparta, and placed her at 
Aphidnae, under the care of ^Ethra. Pirithoiis 
was still more ambitious, and resolved to carry 
off Persephone (Proserpina), the wife of the king 
of the lower world. Theseus would not desert 
his friend in the enterprise, though he knew the 
risk which they ran. The two friends accord- 
ingly descended to the lower world, but they 
were seized by Pluto (Hades) and fastened to a 
rock, where they both remained till Hercules 
visited the lower world. Hercules delivered 
Theseus, who had made the daring attempt only 
to please his friend, but Pirithous remained for- 
ever in torment (amalorem trecentas Pirithoum co- 
hibent catena, Hor., Carrn. iii., 4, 80). Pirithoiis 
was worshipped at Athens, along with Theseus, 
as a hero. 

[Pirous (rie/poof), son of Imbrasus, a leader 
of the Thracians, in alliance with the Trojans, 
slain by Thoas.] 

Pirus (Uelpoc), Pierus (Utepoc), or Achelous, 
the chief river of Achaia, which falls into the 
Gulf of Patrae near Olenus. 

Pirust^e, a people in Illyria, exempted from 
taxes by the Romans because they deserted 
Gentius and passed over to the Romans. 

Pisa (Ilio-a : TliaaTTis), the capital of Pisatis 
[TIloutlc), the middle portion of the province of 
Elis in Peloponnesus. Vid. Elis. In the most 
ancient times Pisatis formed a union of eight 
states, of which, in addition to Pisa, we find 
mention of Salmone, Heraclea, Harpinna, Cyce- 
sium, and Dyspontium. Pisa itself was situa- 
ted north of the Alpheus, at a very short dis- 
tance east of Olympia, and, in consequence of 
its proximity to the latter place, was frequently 
identified by the poets with it. The history of 
the Pisatae consists of their struggle with the 
Eleans, with whom they contended for the pres- 
idency of the Olympic games. The Pisatae ob- 
tained this honor in the eighth Olympiad (B.C. 
I18) with the assistance of Phidon, tyrant of 
Argos, and also a second time in the thirty- 
fourth Olympiad (644) by means of their own 
king Pantaleon. In the fifty-second Ofympiad 
(572) the struggle between the two tribes was 
brought to a close by the conquest and destruc- 
tion of Pisa by the Eleans. So complete was 
the destruction of the city, that not a trace of it 
was left in later times ; and some persons, as 
we learn from Strabo, even questioned whether 
it had ever existed, supposing that by the name 
of Pisa the kingdom of the Pisatae was alone 
intended. The existence, however, of the city 
does not admit of dispute. Even after the de- 
struction of the city, the Pisatae did not relin- 
quish their claims ; and in the one hundred and 
fourth Olympiad (364), they had the presidency 
of the Olympic games along with the Arcadians, 
when the latter people were making war with 
the Eleans. 

Pis^e, more rarely Pisa (Pisanus : now Pisa), 
one of the most ancient and important of the 
cities of Etruria, was situated at the confluence 
of the Arnus and Ausar (now Serchio), about six 
miles from the sea ; but the latter river altered 
its course in the twelfth century, and now flows 
into the sea by a separate channel. According 
to some traditions, Pisa; was founded by the 
companions of Nestor, the inhabitants of Pisa 



PISANDER. 



pisistratim. 



in Elis, W' .io were driven apon the coast of Italy 
un their return from Troy, whence the Roman 
puets give the Etruscan town the surname 
of Alphea. This legend, however, like many 
others, probably arose from the accidental simi- 
larity of the names of the two cities. It would 
seem that Pisa was originally a Pelasgic town, 
that it afterward passed into the hands of the 
Ligyae, and from them into those of the Etrus- 
cans. It then became one of the twelve cities 
of Etruria, and was, down to the time of Au- 
gustus, the most northerly city in the country. 
Pisa is frequently mentioned in the Ligutian 
wars as the head-quarters of the Roman legions. 
In B.C. 180 it was made a Latin colony, and 
appears to have been colonized again in the 
time of Augustus, since we find it called in in- 
scriptions Colonia Julia Pisana. Its harbor, 
called Portus Pisanus, at the mouth of the Ar- 
nus, was much used by the Romans ; and in the 
time of Strabo the town of Pisa was still a place 
of considerable importance on account of the 
marble-quarries in its neighborhood, and the 
quantity of timber which it yielded for ship- 
building. About three miles north of the town 
were mineral springs, cdMe&Aqua Pisana, which 
were less celebrated in antiquity than they are 
at the present day. There is scarcely a vestige 
of the ancient city in the modern Pisa. 

Pisander (Tleiucivfipor). [1. Son of Maemalus, 
a leader of the Myrmidons before Troy. — 2. Son 
of Antimachus, brother of Hippolochus, a Tro- 
jan warrior, slain by Agamemnon. — 3. Another 
Trojan warrior, slain by Menelaus.] — 4. Son of 
Polyctor, and one of the suitors of Penelope. — 
5. An Athenian, of the demus of Acharnae, lived 
in the time of the Peloponnesian war, and was 
attacked by the comic poets for his rapacity and 
cowardice. In 412 he comes before us as the 
chief ostensible agent in effecting the revolu- 
tion of the Four Hundred. In all the measures 
of the new government, of which he was a 
member, he took an active part ; and when The- 
ramenes and others withdrew from it, he sided 
with the more violent aristocrats, and was one 
of those who, on the counter-revolution, took 
refuge with Agis at Decelea. His property was 
confiscated, and it does not appear that he ever 
returned to Athens. — 6. A Spartan, brother-in- 
law of Agesilaus II., who made him admiral of 
the fleet in 395. In the following year he was 
defeated and slain in the sea-fight off Cnidus, 
against Conon and Pharnabazus. — 7. A poet of 
Camirus in Rhodes, flourished about B.C. 648- 
645. He was the author of a poem in two 
books on the exploits of Hercules, called Hera- 
clea ('Hpdfc^eta). The Alexandrean gramma- 
rians thought so highly of the poem that they 
received Pisander, as well as Antimachus and 
Panyasis, into the epic canon together with 
Homer and Hesiod. Only a few lines of it have 
been preserved. In the Greek Anthology we 
find an epigram attributed to Pisander of Rhodes, 
perhaps the poet of Camirus. [The few re- 
maining fragments are published by Dubner 
among the Poelat Epici Minores, Paris, 1840.] — 
8. A poet of Laranda, in Lycia or Lycaonia, was 
the son of Nestor, and flourished in the reign 
of Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235). He wrote 
a poem, called 'HputKai deoyapiiai, which prob- 
ably treated of the marriages of gods and god- 



desses with mortals, and of the heroic progeny 
thus produced. 

Pisatis. Vid. Pisa. 

Pisaurum (Pisaurensis : now Pesaro), an an- 
cient town of Umbria, near the mouth of the 
River Pisaurus (now Foglia), on the road to 
Ariminum. It was colonized by the Romans in 
B.C. 186, and probably colonized a second time 
by Augustus, since it is called in inscriptions 
Colonia Julia Felix. 

Pisaurus. Vid. Pisaurum. 

Pisgah. Vid. Nebo. 

Pisidia (f/ TIiaidiKT) : Tlioidrjc, pi. Uim6ai, also 
Heiaidai, ILiaeidai, and TliaidtKoc, PisiDA,pl. Pisi- 
vm, anc. Peisid^e), an inland district of Asia 
Minor, bounded by Lycia and Pamphylia on the 
south, Cilicia on the southeast, Lycaonia and 
Isauria (the latter often reckoned a part of Pi- 
sidia) on the east and northeast, Phrygia Paro- 
reios on the north, where the boundary varied 
at different times, and was never very definite, 
and Caria on the west. It was a mountainous 
region, formed by that part of the main chain 
of Mount Taurus which sweeps round in a semi- 
circle parallel to the shore of the Pamphylian 
Gulf, the strip of shore itself, at the foot of 
the mountains, constituting the district of Pam- 
phylia. The inhabitants of the mountains were 
a warlike aboriginal people, related apparently 
to the Isaurians and Cilicians. They maintain- 
ed their independence, under petty chieftains, 
against all the successive rulers of Asia Minor. 
The Romans never subdued the Pisidians in 
their mountain fortresses, though they took 
some of the towns on the outskirts of their 
country ; for example, Antiochia, which was 
made a colony with the Jus Italicum. In fact, 
the northern part, in which Antiochia stood, 
had originally belonged to Phrygia, and was 
more accessible and more civilized than the 
mountains which formed the proper country of 
the Pisidians. Nominally, the country was con- 
sidered a part of Pamphylia till the new sub- 
division of the empire under Constantine, when 
Pisidia was made a separate province. The 
country is still inhabited by wild tribes, among 
whom travelling is dangerous, and it is there- 
fore little known. Ancient writers say that it 
contained, amid its rugged mountains, some 
fertile valleys, where the olive flourished ; and 
it also produced the gum storax, some medic- 
inal plants, and salt. On the southern slope of 
the Taurus, several rivers flowed through Pi- 
sidia and Pamphylia into the Pamphylian Gulf, 
the chief of which were the Cestrus and the 
Catarrhactes ; and on the north the mountain 
streams form some large salt lakes, namely, 
Ascania (now Hoiran and Egerdir) south of 
Antiochia, CaraFius or Pusgusa (now Bei Shchr 
or Kereli) southeast of the former, and Trogitis 
(now Soghla) further to the southeast in Isau- 
ria. Special names were given to certain dis- 
tricts, which are sometimes spoken of as parts 
of Pisidia, sometimes as distinct countries, 
namely, Cibyratis, in the southwest along the 
north of Lycia, and Cabalia, the southwestern 
corner of Cibyratis itself ; Milyas, the district 
east of Cibyratis, northeast of Lycia, and north- 
west of Pamphylia, and Isauria, in the east of 
Pisidia, on the borders of Lycaonia. 

Pisist rItidje {Utiaio-TpaTiiai), the legitimate 

669 



PISISTRATUS. 



PISISTRATUS. 



sons of Pisistiatus. The name is used some- 
times to indicate only Hippias and Hipparchus, 
and sometimes in a wider application, em- 
bracing the grandchildren and near connections 
of Pisistratus (as by Herod., viii., 52, referring 
to a time when both Hippias and Hipparchus 
were dead). 

Pisistratus (UEiaiaTpaTo;), the youngest son 
of Nestor and Anaxibia, was a friend of Telem- 
achus, and accompanied him on his journey from 
Pylos to Menelaus at Sparta. 

Pisistratus (ReiaiuTpaToc), an Athenian, son 
of Hippocrates, was so named after Pisistratus, 
the youngest son of Nestor, since the family of 
Hippocrates was of Pylian origin, and traced 
their descent to Neleus, the father of Nestor. 
The mother of Pisistratus (whose name we do 
not know) was cousin-gennan to the mother of 
Solon. Pisistratus grew up equally distinguish- 
ed for personal beauty and for mental endow- 
ments. The relationship between him and So- 
lon naturally drew them together, and a close 
friendship sprang up between them. He as- 
sisted Solon by his eloquence in persuading the 
Athenians to renew their struggle with theMe- 
garians for the possession of Salamis, and he 
afterward fought with bravery in the expedi- 
tion which Solon led against the island. When 
Solon, after the establishment of his constitu- 
tion, retired for a time from Athens, the old 
rivalry between the parties of the Plain, the 
Highlands, and the Coast broke out into open 
feud. The party of the Plain, comprising chief- 
ly the landed proprietors, was headed by Lycur- 
gus ; that of the Coast, consisting of the wealth- 
ier classes not belonging to the nobles, by Mega- 
cles, the son of Alcmeeon ; the party of the High- 
lands, which aimed at more of political freedom 
and equality than either of the two others, was 
tne one at the head of which Pisistratus placed 
himself, because they seemed the most likely 
to be useful in the furtherance of his ambitious 
designs. His liberality, as well as his military 
and oratorical abilities, gained him the support 
of a large body of citizens. Solon, on his re- 
turn, quickly saw through the designs of Pisis- 
tratus, who listened with respect to his advice, 
though he prosecuted his schemes none the less 
diligently. When Pisistratus found his plans 
sufficiently ripe for execution, he one day made 
his appearance in the agora with his mules and 
his own person exhibiting recent wounds, pre- 
tending that he had been nearly assassinated by 
his enemies as he was riding into the country. 
An assembly of the people was forthwith call- 
ed, in which one of his partisans proposed that 
a body-guard of fifty citizens, armed with clubs, 
should be granted to him. It was in vain that 
Solon opposed this ; the guard was given him. 
Tti&u^h the neglect or connivance of the peo- 
ple, Pisistratus took this opportunity of rais- 
ing a much larger force, with which he seized 
the citadel, B.C. 560, thus becoming what the 
Greeks called Tyrant of Athens. Having se- 
cured to himself the substance of power, he 
made no further change in the constitution or 
in the laws, which he administered ably and 
well. His first usurpation lasted but a short 
time. Before his power was firmly rooted, the 
factions headed by Megacles and Lycurgus com- 
bined, and Pisistratus was compelled to evacu- 
670 



ate Athens. He remained in banishment six 
years. Meantime the factions of Megacles and 
Lycurgus revived their old feuds, and Megacles 
made overtures to Pisistratus, offering to rein- 
state him in the tyranny if he would connect 
himself with him by receiving his daughter in 
marriage. The proposal was accepted by Pisis- 
tratus, and the following stratagem was devised i 
for accomplishing his restoration, according to 
the account of Herodotus. A damsel named 
Phya, of remarkable stature and beauty, was 
dressed up as Minerva (Athena) in a full suit of 
armor, and placed in a chariot, with Pisistratus 
by her side. The chariot was then driven to- 
ward the city, heralds being sent on before to 
announce that Minerva (Athena) in person was 
bringing back Pisistratus to her Acropolis. The 
report spread rapidly, and those in the city be- 
lieving that the woman was really their tutela- 
ry goddess, worshipped her, and admitted Pisis- 
tratus. Pisistratus nominally performed his part 
of the contract with Megacles ; but, in conse- i 
quence of the insulting manner in which he ' 
treated his wife, Megacles again made common | 
cause with Lycurgus, and Pisistratus was a sec- 
ond time compelled to evacuate Athens. He \ 
retired to Eretria in Euboea, and employed the 
next ten years in making preparations to regain 
his power. At the end of that time he invaded 
Attica with the forces he had raised, and also 
supported by Lygdamis of Naxos with a con- 
siderable body of troops. He defeated his op- 
ponents near the temple of Minerva (Athena) j 
at Pallene, and then entered Athens without 
opposition. Lygdamis was rewarded by being 
established as tyrant of Naxos, which island < 
Pisistratus conquered. Vid. Lygdamis. Hav- 
ing now become tyrant of Athens for the third 
time, Pisistratus adopted measures to secure j 
the undisturbed possession of his supremacy. 
He took a body of foreign mercenaries into his 
pay, and seized as hostages the children of sev 
eral of the principal citizens, placing them in 
the custody of Lygdamis in Naxos. He main- 
tained at the same time the form of Solon's in- 
stitutions, only taking care, as his sons did after 
him, that the highest offices should always be 
held by some member of the family. He not ! 
only exacted obedience to the laws from his 
subjects and friends, but himself set the exam- 
ple of submitting to them. On one occasion he 
even appeared before the Areopagus to answer 
a charge of murder, which, however, was not 
prosecuted. Athens was indebted to him for 
many stately and useful buildings. Among | 
these may be mentioned a temple to the Pyth- 
ian Apollo, and a magnificent temple to the 
Olympian Jupiter (Zeus), which remained un- 
finished for several centuries, and was at length 
completed by the Emperor Hadrian. Besides i 
these, the Lyceum, a garden with stately build- 
ings a short distance from the city, was the 
work of Pisistratus, as also the fountain of the 
Nine Springs. Pisistratus also encouraged lit- 
erature in various ways. It was apparently un- 
der his auspices that Thespis introduced at Ath- 
ens his rude form of tragedy (B.C. 535), and I 
that dramatic contests were made a regular 
part of the Attic Dionysia. It is to Pisistratus 
that we owe -the first written text of the whole 
of the poems of Homer, which, without his care 



PISO. 



PISO. 



I would most likely now exist only in a few dis- 
jointed fragments. Vid. Homerus. Pisistratus 
is also said to have been the first person in 
Greece who collected a library, to which he 
generously allowed the public access. By his 
first wife Pisistratus had two sons, Hippias and 
Hipparchus. By his second wife, Timonassa, 
he had also two sons, Iophon and Thessalus, 
who are rarely mentioned. He had also a bas- 
tard son, Hegesistratus, whom he made tyrant 
of Sigeum, after taking that town from the Myt- 
llenaeans. Pisistratus died at an advanced age 
in 527, and was succeeded in the tyranny by his 
eldest son Hippias ; but Hippias and his broth- 
er Hipparchus appear to have administered the 
affairs of the state with so little outward dis- 
tinction, that they are frequently spoken of as 
though they had been joint tyrants. They con- 
tinued the government on the same principles 
as their father. Thucydides (vi., 54) speaks in 
terms of high commendation of the virtue and 
intelligence with which their rule was exer- 
cised till the death of Hipparchus. Hipparchus 
inherited his father's literary tastes. Several 
distinguished poets lived at Athens under the 
patronage of Hipparchus, as, for example, Simo- 
nides of Ceos, Anacreon of Teos, Lasus of Her- 
mione, and Onomacritus. After the murder of 
Hipparchus in 514, an account of which is given 
under Hakmodius, a great change ensued in 
the character of the government. Under the 
influence of revengeful feelings and fears for his 
own safety, Hippias now became a morose and 
suspicious tyrant. He put to death great num- 
bers of the citizens, and raised money by ex- 
traordinary imposts. His old enemies the Alc- 
maeonidae, to whom Megacles belonged, availed 
themselves of the growing discontent of the cit- 
izens ; and after one or two unsuccessful at- 
tempts, they at length succeeded, supported by 
a large force under Cleomenes, in expelling the 
Pisistratidae from Attica. Hippias and his con- 
nections retired to Sigeum in 510. The family 
of the tyrants was condemned to perpetual ban- 
ishment, a sentence which was maintained even 
in after times, when decrees of amnesty were 
passed. Hippias afterward repaired to the court 
of Darius, and looked forward to a restoration 
to his country by the aid of the Persians. He 
accompanied the expedition sent under Datis 
and Artaphernes, and pointed out to the Per- 
sians the plain of Marathon as the most suita- 
ble place for their landing. He was now (490) 
of great age. According to some accounts, he 
fell in the battle of Marathon ; according to oth- 
ers, he died at Lemnos on his return. Hippias 
was th§ only one of the legitimate sons of Pisis- 
tratus who had children ; but none of them at- 
tained distinction. 

Piso, Calpuenius, the name of a distinguish- 
ed plebeian family. The name of Piso, like 
many other Roman cognomens, is connected 
with agriculture, the noblest and most honor- 
able pursuit of the ancient Romans : it comes 
from the verb pisere or pinsere, and refers to the 
pounding or grinding of corn. 1. Was taken 
prisoner at the battle of Cannae, B.C. 216 ; was 
praetor urbanus211, and afterward commanded 
as propraeter in Etruria 210. Piso in his pfae- 
torship proposed to the senate that the Ludi 
Apollinares, which had been exhibited for the 



first time in the preceding year (212), should be 
repeated, and should be celebrated in future an- 
nually. The senate passed a decree to this ef- 
fect. The establishment of these games by 
their ancestor was commemorated on coins bj 
the Pisones in later times. — 2. C, son of No. 
1, was praetor 186, and received Further Spain 
as his province. He returned to Rome in 184, 
and obtained a triumph for a "victory he had 
gained over the Lusitani and Celtiberi. He waa 
consul in 180, and died during his consulship. 

Pisones with the agnomen Cctsoninus. 
3. L., received the agnomen Caesoninus be- 
cause he originally belonged to the Caesonia 
gens. He was praetor in 154, and obtained the 
province of Further Spain, but was defeated by 
the Lusitani. He was consul in 148, and was 
sent to conduct the war against Carthage ; he 
was succeeded in the command in the following 
year by Scipio. — 4. L., son of No. 3, consul 112 
with M. Livius Drusus. In 107 he served as 
legatus to the consul, L. Cassius Longinus, who 
was sent into Gaul to oppose the Cimbri and 
their allies, and he fell together with the con- 
sul in the battle, in which the Roman army was 
utterly defeated by the Tigurini in the territory 
of the Allobroges. This Piso was the grandfa- 
ther of Caesar's father-in-law, a circumstance 
to which Caesar himself alludes in recording his 
own victory over the Tigurini at a later time. 
(Caes., B. G., i., 7, 12.)— 5. L., son of No. 4, 
never rose to any of the offices of state, and is 
only known from the account given of him by 
Cicero in his violent invective against his son. 
He married the daughter of Calventius, a na- 
tive of Cisalpine Gaul, who came from Placen- 
tia and settled at Rome ; and hence Cicero calls 
his son, in contempt, a semi-Placentian. — 6. L., 
son of No. 5, was an unprincipled debauchee 
and a cruel and corrupt magistrate. He is first 
mentioned in 59, when he was brought to trial 
by P. Clodius for plundering a province, of which 
he had the administration after his praetorship, 
and he was only acquitted by throwing himself 
at the feet of the judges. In the same year 
Caesar married his daughter Calpurnia ; and 
through his influence Piso obtained the consul- 
ship for 58, having for his colleague A. Gabinius, 
who was indebted for the honor to Pompey. 
Both consuls supported Clodius in his measures 
against Cicero, which resulted in the banish- 
ment of the orator. The conduct of Piso in 
support of Clodius produced that extreme re- 
sentment in the mind of Cicero which he dis- 
played against Piso on many subsequent occa- 
sions. At the expiration of his consulship Piso 
went to his province of Macedonia, where he 
remained during two years (57 and 56), plun- 
dering the province in the most shameless man- 
ner. In the latter of these years the senate re- 
solved that a successor should be appointed , 
and in the debate in the senate which led to 
his recall, Cicero attacked him in the most un- 
measured terms in an oration which has come 
down to us (De Provinciis Consularibus). Piso, 
on his return (55), complained in the senate of 
the attack of Cicero, and justified the adminis- 
tration of his province, whereupon Cicero re- 
iterated his charges in a speech which is like 
wise extant (In Pisonem). Cicero, howevei 

671 



PISO. 



PISO. 



did not venture to bring to trial the father- .a- 
law of Caesar. In 50 Piso was censor with Ap. 
Claudius Pulcher. On the breaking out of the 
civil war (49) Piso accompanied Pompey in his 
flight from the city ; and although he did not go 
with him across the sea, he still'kept aloof from 
Caesar. He subsequently returned to Rome, 
and remained neutral during the civil war. 
After Caesar's death (44) Piso at first opposed 
Antony, but is afterward mentioned as one of 
his partisans. — 7. L., son of No. 6, was consul 
in 15, and afterward obtained his province of 
Pamphylia ; from thence he was recalled by 
Augustus in 11, in order to make war upon the 
Thracians, who had attacked the province of 
Macedonia. He was appointed by Tiberius 
praefectus urbi. While retaining the favor of 
the emperor, without condescending to servility, 
he at the same time earned the good-will of his 
fellow-citizens by the integrity and justice with 
which he governed the city. He died in A.D. 
32, at the age of eighty, and was honored by a 
decree of the senate with a public funeral. It 
was to this Piso and his two sons that Horace 
addressed his epistle on the Art of Poetry. 

Pisones with the agnomen Frvgi. 
8. L., received from his integrity and con- 
scientiousness the surname of Frugi, which is 
perhaps nearly equivalent to our " man of hon- 
or." He was tribune of the plebs 149, in which 
year he proposed the first law for the punish- 
ment of extortion in the provinces. He was 
consul in 133, and carried on war against the 
slaves in Sicily. He was a staunch supporter 
of the aristocratical party, and offered a strong 
opposition to the measures of C. Gracchus. 
Piso was censor, but it is uncertain in what 
year. He wrote Annals, which contained the 
history of Rome from the earliest period to the 
age in which Piso himself lived. — 9. L., son of 
No. 8, served with distinction under his father 
in Sicily in 133, and died in Spain about 111, 
whither he had gone as propraetor. — 10. L., son 
of No. 9, was a colleague of Verres in the prae- 
torship 74, when he thwarted many of the un- 
righteous schemes of the latter. — 11. C, son of 
No. 10, married Tullia, the daughter of Cicero, 
in 63, but was betrothed to her as early as 67. 
He was quaestor in 58, when he used every ex- 
ertion to obtain the recall of his father-in-law 
from banishment ; but he died in 57, before Cic- 
ero's return to Rome. He is frequently men- 
tioned by Cicero in terms of gratitude on ac- 
count of the zeal which he had manifested in 
his behalf during his banishment. 

Pisones without an agnomen. 
12. C, consul 67, belonged to the high aris- 
tocratical party, and in his consulship opposed 
with the utmost vehemence the law of the trib- 
une Gabinius for giving Pompey the command 
of the war against the pirates. In 66 and 65 
Piso administered the province of Narbonese 
Gaul as proconsul, and while there suppressed 
an insurrection of the Allobroges. In 63 he 
was accused of plundering the province, and 
was defended by Cicero. The latter charge 
was brought against Piso at the instigation of 
Caesar ; and Piso, in revenge, implored Cicero, 
out without success, to accuse Taesar as one of 
672 



the conspirators of Catiline. — 13. M., usual!) 
called M. Pupius Piso, because he was adopted 
by M. Pupius when the latter was an old man 
He retained, however, his family name Piso 
just as Scipio, after his adoption by Metellus 
was called Metellus Scipio. Vid. Metellus, 
No. 15. On the death of L. Cinna in 84, Piso 
married his wife Annia. In 83 he was appoint- 
ed quaestor to the consul L. Scipio; but he 
quickly deserted this party, and went over to 
Sulla, who compelled him to divorce his wife 
on account of her previous connection with 
Cinna. After his praetorship, the year of which 
is uncertain, he received the province of Spain 
with the title of proconsul, and on his return to 
Rome in 69, enjoyed the honor of a triumph. 
He served in the Mithradatic war as a legatus 
of Pompey. He was elected consul for 61 
through the influence of Pompey. In his con- 
sulship Piso gave great offence to Cicero by 
not asking the orator first in the senate for his 
opinion, and by taking P. Clodius under his pro- 
tection after his violation of the mysteries of 
the Bona Dea. Cicero revenged himself on 
Piso by preventing him from obtaining the prov- 
ince of Syria, which had been promised him. 
Piso, in his younger days, had so high a repu- 
tation as an orator, that Cicero was taken to 
him by his father in order to receive instruc- 
tion from him. He belonged to the Peripatetic 
school in philosophy, in which he received in- 
structions from Staseas. — 14. Cn., a young no- 
ble who had dissipated his fortune by his ex- 
travagance and profligacy, and therefore joined 
Catiline in what is usually called his first con- 
spiracy (66). (For details, vid. p. 183, a.) The 
senate, anxious to get rid of Piso, sent him into 
Nearer Spain as quaestor, but with the rank and 
title of propraetor. His exactions in the prov- 
ince soon made him so hateful to the inhabit- 
ants that he was murdered by them. It was, 
however, supposed by some that he was mur- 
dered at the instigation of Pompey or of Cras- 
sus. — 15. Cn., fought against Caesar in Africa 
(46), and after the death of the dictator joined 
Brutus and Cassius. He was subsequently par- 
doned, and returned to Rome ; but he disdain- 
ed to ask Augustus for any of tne honors of the 
state, and was, without solicitation, raised to 
the consulship in 23. — 16. Cn., son of No. 15, 
inherited all the pride and haughtiness of his 
father. He was consul B.C. 7, and was eent 
by Augustus as legate into Spain, where he 
made himself hated by his cruelty and avarice. 
Tiberius, after his accession, was chiefly jealous 
of Germanicus, his brother's son ; and accord- 
ingly, when the eastern provinces were assign- 
ed to Germanicus in A.D. 18, Tiberius conferred 
upon Piso the command of Syria, in order that 
the latter might do every thing in his power tc 
thwart and oppose Germanicus. Plancina, the 
wife of Piso, was also urged on by Livia, the 
mother of the emperor, to vie with and annoy 
Agrippina. Germanicus and Agrippina were 
thus exposed to every species of insult and op- 
position from Piso and Plancina ; and when 
Germanicus fell ill in the autumn of 19, he be- 
lieved that he had been poisoned by them. Piso. 
on his return to Rome (20), was accused of mur- 
dering Germanicus ; the matter was investi- 
gated by the senate ; but before the investiga 



PISON. 



PITTACUS. 



tioti came to an end, Piso was found one morn- 
ing in his room with his throat cut, and his 
sword lying by his side. It was generally sup- 
posed that, despairing of the emperor's protec- 
tion, he put an end to his own life ; but others 
believed that Tiberius dreaded his revealing his 
secrets, and accordingly caused him to be put 
to death. The powerful influence of Livia se- 
cured the acquittal of Plancina. — 17. C, the 
leader of the well-known conspiracy against 
Nero in A.D. 65 Piso himself did not form 
| the plot ; but as soon as he had joined it, his 
great popularity gained him many partisans. 
He possessed most of the qualities which the 
Romans prized, high birth, an eloquent address, 
liberality, and affability ; and he also displayed 
a sufficient love of magnificence and luxury to 
suit the taste of the day, which would not have 
tolerated austerity of manner or character. The 
conspiracy was discovered by Milichus, a freed- 
man of Flavius Scevinus, one of the conspira- 
tors. Piso thereupon opened his veins, and 
thus died. There is extant a poem in two 
hundred lines, containing a panegyric on a cer- 
tain Calpurnius Piso, who is probably the same 
person as the leader of the conspiracy against 
Nero. — 18. L., surnamed Licinianus, was the 
son of M. Licinius Crassus Frugi, and was 
adopted by one of the Pisones. On the acces- 
sion of Galba to the throne, he adopted as his 
son and successor Piso Licinianus ; but the lat- 
ter only enjoyed the distinction four days, for 
Otho, who had hoped to receive this honor, in- 
duced the prastorians to rise against the em- 
peror. Piso fled for refuge into the temple of 
Vesta, but was dragged out by the soldiers, and 
dispatched at the threshold of the temple, A. 
D. 69. 

[Pison {Yleiauv), one of the thirty tyrants at 
Athens, to gratify his cupidity was the author 
of cruel and oppressive enactments against the 
metoeci.] 

Pistor, that is, the baker, a surname of Jupi- 
ter at Rome, which is said to have arisen in the 
following manner. When the Gauls were be- 
sieging Rome, the god suggested to the besieged 
the idea of throwing loaves of bread among the 
enemies, to make them believe that the Ro- 
mans had plenty of provisions, and thus caused 
them to give up the siege. 

Pistokia or Pistorium (Pistoriensis : nowPij- 
toia), a small place in Etruria, on the road from 
Luca to Florentia, rendered memorable by the 
defeat of Catiline in its neighborhood. 

[Pistyrus (Tliorvpog), a place of trade in the 
interior of Thrace, near a salt-lake of consider- 
able circuit.] 

Pitana. Vid. Sparta. 

Pitane (JliravTi : now Sanderli), a sea-port 
town of Mysia, on the coast of the Elaitic Gulf, 
at the mouth of the Evenus, or, according to 
some, of the Ca'icus ; almost destroyed by an 
earthquake under Titus. It was the birth-place 
of the Academic philosopher Arcesilaus. 

Pithecusa. Vid. ^Enaria. 

Pitho (TJeidu), called Suada or Suadela by 
the Romans, the personification of Persuasion. 
She was worshipped as a divinity at Sicyon, 
where she was honored with a temple in the 
agora. Pitho also occurs as a surname of Ve- 
nus (Aphrodite), whose worship was said to 
4.Z 



have been introduced at Athens by Theseus, 
when he united the country communities into 
towns. At Athens the statues of Pitho and 
Venus (Aphrodite) Pandemos stood close to- 
gether, and at Megara the' (statue of Pitho stood 
in the temple of Venus (Aphrodite), so that the 
two divinities must be conceived as closely con- 
nected, or the one, perhaps, merely as an attri- 
bute of the other. 

[Pitholaus (IlfifldAaof), one of the three 
brothers-in-law and murderers of Alexander of 
Pherae. In B.C. 352 Pitholaus and his brother 
Lycophron were expelled from Pheraa by Philip 
of Macedon ; but Pitholaus re-established him- 
self in the tyranny, and was again driven out 
by Philip, B.C. 349.] 

Pithon (TUduv, also lleWuv and Tlvduv). 1. 
Son of Agenor, a Macedonian officer of Alex- 
ander the Great. He received from Alexander 
the government of part of the Indian provinces, 
in which he was confirmed after the king's 
death. In B.C. 316 he received from Antigo- 
nus the satrapy of Babylon. He afterward 
fought with Demetrius against Ptolemy, and 
was slain at the battle of Gaza, 312. — 2. Son 
of Crateuas or Crateas, a Macedonian officei 
of Alexander, who is frequently confounded 
with the preceding. After Alexander's death 
he received from Perdiccas the satrapy of Me- 
dia. He accompanied Perdiccas on his expedi- 
tion to Egypt (331), but he took part in the 
mutiny against Perdiccas, which terminated in 
the death of the latter. Pithon rendered im- 
portant service to Antigonus in his war against 
Eumenes ; but after the death of Eumenes, he 
began to form schemes for his own aggrandize- 
ment, and was accordingly put to death by An- 
tigonus, 316. 

Pitinum (Pitinas, -atis). 1. (Now Pitino), a 
municipium in the interior of Umbria, on the 
River Pisaurus, whence its inhabitants are call- 
ed in inscriptions Pitinates Pisanrcnses. The 
town also bore the surname Mergens. — 2. A 
town in Picenum, on the road from Castrum 
Novum to Prifernum. 

Pittacus (HiTTaiwc), one of those early cul- 
tivators of letters who were designated as " the 
Seven Wise Men of Greece," was a native of 
Mytilene in Lesbos, and was born about B.C. 
652. He was highly celebrated as a warrior, 
a statesman, a philosopher, and a poet. He is 
first mentioned in public life as an opponent 
of the tyrants of Mytilene. In conjunction with 
the brothers of Alceeus, he overthrew and killed 
the tyrant Melanchrus, B.C. 612. In 606 he 
commanded the Mytilenaeans in their war with 
the Athenians for the possession of Sigeum, on 
the coast of the Troad, and signalized himself 
by killing in single combat Phrynon, the com- 
mander of the Athenians. This feat Pittacus 
performed by entangling his adversary in a net, 
and then dispatching him with a trident and a 
dagger, exactly after the fashion in which the 
gladiators called retiarii long afterward fought 
at Rome. This war was terminated by the 
mediation of Periander, who assigned the dis- 
puted territory to the Athenians ; but the inter- 
nal troubles of Mytilene still continued. The 
supreme power was fiercely disputed between 
a succession of tyrants, and the aristocratic 
party, headed by Alcieus and his brother Anti- 

673 



PITTHEUS. 

menidas ; and the latter were driven into exile. I 
As the exiles tried to effect their return by- 
force of arms, the popular party chose Pittacus 
as their ruler, with absolute power, under the 
title of JEsymnetcs (alavuviirrjg). He held this 
office for ten years (589-579), and then volun- 
tarily resigned it, having by his administration 
restored order to the state, and prepared it for 
vVe safe enjoyment of a republican form of gov- 
ernment. He lived in great honor at Mytilene 
for ten years after the resignation of his gov- 
ernment, and died in 569, at an advanced age. 
Of the proverbial maxims of practical wisdom 
which were current under the names of the 
seven wise men of Greece, two were ascribed 
to Pittacus, namely, Xa?.cirdv eaBXov ejipevai, 
and Kaipov yvudi. 

Pittheus (Xlirdevc), king of Troezene, was 
son of Pelops and Dia, father of JSthra, and 
grandfather and instructor of Theseus. When 
Theseus married Phaedra, Pittheus took Hippo- 
lytus into his house. His tomb and the chair 
on which he had sat in judgment were shown 
at Trcezene down to a late time. He is said to 
have taught the art of speaking, and even to 
have written a book upon it. iEthra, as his 
daughter, is called Pittheis. • 

Pityia {Tlirveia : now probably Shamelik), a 
town mentioned by Homer, in the north of Mys- 
ia, between Parium and Priapus, evidently 
named from the pine forests in its neighborhood. 

Pityonesus {iliTvovTjfjoz : now Anghistri), an 
island off the coast of Argolis. 

PItyus (Ultvovc : now probably Pitzunda), a 
Greek city in Sarmatia Asiatica, on the north- 
eastern coast of the Euxine, three hundred and 
sixty stadia northwest of Dioscurias. In the 
time of Strabo it was a considerable city and 
port. It was afterward destroyed by the neigh- 
boring tribe of the Heniochi, but it was restored, 
and long served as an important frontier fort- 
ress of the Roman empire. 

Pityosa, PiTYossA(lIiri;o£i<7a, Tltrvovaaa, con- 
tracted from TUTvoeaoa, fem. of mrvdeic), i. e., 
abounding in pine-trees. 1. The ancient name 
of Lampsacus, Salamis, and Chios. — 2. A small 
island in the Argolic Gulf. — 3. The name of 
two islands off the southern coast of Spain, 
west of the Baleares. The larger of them was 
called Ebusus (now Iviza), the smaller Ophiussa 
(now Formentera) : the latter was uninhabited. 

Pixodarus (Tl^udapoc), prince or king of Ca- 
na, was the youngest of the three sons of Hec- 
atomnus, all of whom successively held the sov- 
ereignty of Carta. Pixodarus obtained posses- 
sion of the throne by the expulsion of his sister 
Ada, the widow and successor of her brother 
Idrieos, and held it 'vithout opposition for five 
years, B.C. 340-335 He was succeeded by 
his son-in-law Orontobates. 

Placentia (Placentinus : now Piacenza), a 
Roman colony in Cisalpine Gaul, founded at the 
same time as Cremona, B.C. 219. It was situ- 
ated in the territory of the Anamares, on the 
right bank of the Po, not far from the mouth of 
the Trebia, and on the road from Mediolanum 
to Parma. It was taken and destroyed by the 
Gauls in 200, but was soon rebuilt by the Ro- 
mans, and became an important place. It con- 
tinued to be a flourishing town down to the 
time of the Goths. 
674 



PLANCUS. 

II 

PlacIa (JTAaniri, Ion. : TU.aKinvog), an ancient 
Pelasgian settlement in Mysia, east of Cyzicus, 
at the foot of Mount Olympus, seems to have 
been early destroyed. 

Placidia, Galla. Vid. Galla. 

[Placidus, Julius, the tribune of a cohort ol 
Vespasian's army, who dragged Vitellius out 
of the lurking-place in which he had concealed 
himself] 

Placitus, Sex., the author of a short Latin 
work entitled De Medicina (or Medicamentis) ez 
Animalibus, consisting of thirty-four chapters, 1 
each of which treats of some animal whose 
body was supposed to possess certain medical 
properties. As might be expected, it contains 
numerous absurdities, and is of little or no value 
or interest. The date of the author is uncer- f 
tain, but he is supposed to have lived in the 
fourth century after Christ. The work is print- 
ed by Stephanus in the Medico, Artis Principcs, 
Paris, fol., 1567, and elsewhere. 

Placus (TLXaKoc), a mountain of Mysia, above 
the city of Thebe : not in the neighborhood of i 
Placia, as the resemblance of the names had 
led some to suppose. 

Planaria (now probably Canaria, Canary), 
one of the islands in the Atlantic called FOR- 
TUNATE. 

Plana si a. 1. (Now Pianosa), an island be- 
tween Corsica and the coast of Etruria, to 
which Augustus banished his grandson Agrippa | 
Postumus.— 2. An island off the southern coast 
of Gaul, east of the Stoechades. 

PLANCIADES, FtJLGENTIUS. Vid. Fplgentius. 

Plancina, Munatia, the wife of Cneius Piso, 
who was appointed governor of Syria in A.D. [ 
18. While her husband used every effort to 1 
thwart Germanicus, she exerted herself equally 
to annoy and insult Agrippina. She was en- 
couraged in this conduct by Livia, the mother 
of the emperor, who saved her from condemna- 
tion by the senate vtfhen she was accused along 
with her husband in 20. (Vid. Piso, No. 16.) 
She was brought to trial again in 33, a few years H 
after the death of Livia ; and, having no longer f 
any hope of escape, she put an end to her life. 

Plancius, On., first served in Africa under 
the propraetor A. Torquatus, subsequently in 
B.C. 68 under the proconsul Q. Metellus in f 
Crete, and next in 62 as military tribune in the j 
army of C. Antonius in Macedonia. In 58 he 
was quaestor in Macedonia under the propraetor 1 
L. Appuleius, and here he showed great kind- * 
ness to Cicero when the latter came to this ^ 
province during his banishment. He was trib- j 
une of the plebs in 56, and was elected curule 
aedile with A. Plotius in 54. But before Plan- 
cius and Plotius entered upon their office, they 
were accused by Juventius Laterensis and L. 
Cassius Longinus of the crime of sodaliiium, or 
the bribery of the tribes by means of illegal as- 1 
sociations, in accordance with the Lex Licinia, 
which had been proposed by the consul Licinius 
Crassus in the preceding year. Cicero defend- 
ed Plancius in an oration still extant, and ob- 
tained his acquittal. Plancius espoused the j 
Pompeian party in the civil wars, and after 
Caesar had gained the supremacy, lived in exile 
in Corcyra. 

Plancus, Munatius, the name of a distin 
guished plebeian "amily. The surname Plancas 



! 



PLANCUS, MUNATIUS. 

i signified a person having flat splay feet without 
any bend in them. 1. L., was a friend of Julius 
Caesar, and served under him both in the Gallic 
and the civil wars. Caesar, shortly before his 
death, nominated him to the government of 
Transalpine Gaul for B.C. 44, with the excep- 
tion of the Narbonese and Belgic portions of 
the province, and also to the consulship for 42, 
with D. Brutus as his colleague. After Caesar's 
death Plancus hastened into Gaul, and took pos- 
session of his province. Here he prepared at 
first to support the senate against Antony ; but 
when Lepidus joined Antony, and their united 
forces threatened to overwhelm Plancus, the 
latter was persuaded by Asinius Pollio to fol- 
low his example, and to unite with Antony and 
Lepidus. Plancus, during his government of 
Gaul, founded the colonies of Lugdunum and 
Raurica. He was consul in 42, according to 
the arrangement made by Caesar, and he subse- 
quently followed Antony to Asia, where he re- 
mained for some years, and governed in suc- 
cession the provinces of Asia and Syria. He 
deserted Antony in 32, shortly before the break- 
ing out of the civil war between the latter and 
Octavianus. He was favorably received by 
Octavianus, and continued to reside at Rome 

| during the remainder of his life. It was on his 
proposal that Octavianus received the title of 
Augustus in 27; and the emperor conferred 
upon him the censorship in 22, with Paulus 
^Emilios Lepidus. Both the public and pri- 
vate life of Plancus was stained by numerous 
vices. One of Horace's.odes (Carm., i., 7) is 
addressed to him. — 2. T., surnamed Bursa, 

| brother of the former, was tribune of the plebs 

i B.C. 52, when he supported the views of Pom- 
pey, who was anxious to obtain the dictatorship. 
With this object he did every thing in his pow- 
erto increase the confusion which followed upon 
the death of Clodius. At the close of the year, as 
soon as his tribunate had expired, Plancus was 
accused by Cicero of Vis, and was condemned. 
After his condemnatioo Plancus went to Raven- 
na in Cisalpine Gaul, where he was kindly re- 
ceived by Caesar. Soon after the beginning of 
the civil war he was restored to his civic rights 
by Caesar, but he appears to have taken no part 
in the civil war. After Caesar's death Plancus 
fought on Antony's side in the campaign of Mu- 
tina. He was driven out of Pollentia by Pon- 
tius Aquila, the legate of D. Brutus, and in his 
flight broke his leg. — 3. Cn., brother of the two 
preceding, praetor elect 44, was charged by Cae- 
sar in that year with the assignment to his sol- 
diers of lands at Buthrotum in Epirus. As At- 
ticus possessed property in the neighborhood, 
Cicero commended to Plancus with much ear- 
nestness the interests of his friend. He was 
praetor in 43, and was allowed by the senate to 
join his brother Lucius (No. 1) in Transalpine 

! Gaul. — 4. L. Plautius Plancus, brother of the 
three preceding, was adopted by a L. Plautius, 
and therefore took his praenomen as well as no- 
men, but retained his original cognomen, as was 
the case with -Metellus Scipio {vid. Metellus, 
No. 15) and Pupius Piso. Vid. Piso, No. 13. 
Before his adoption his praenomen was Caius. 
He was included in the proscription of the tri- 
umvirs, 43, with the consent of his brother Lu- 
cius, and was put to death. 



PLANUDES MAXIMUS. 

Planudes Majimus, was one of the most 
learned of the Constantinopolitan monks of the 
last age of the Greek empire, and was greatly 
distinguished as a theologian, grammarian, and 
rhetorician ; but his name is now chiefly inter- 
esting as that of the compiler of the latest of 
those collections of minor Greek poems, which 
were known by the names of Garlands or An- 
thologies (S-eyavoi, 'AvdoTioyiai). Planudes flour- 
ished at Constantinople in the first half of the 
fourteenth century, under the emperors An- 
dronicus II. and III. Palaeologi. In A.D. 1327 
he was sent by Andronicus If. as ambassador 
to Venice. As the Anthology of Planudes was 
not only the latest compiled, but was also that 
which was recognized as The Greek Anthology, 
until the discovery of the Anthology of Constan- 
tinus Cephalas, this is chosen as the fittest place 
for an account of the Literary History of the 
Greek Anthology. 1. Materials. The various col- 
lections, to which their compilers gave the name 
of Garlands and Anthologies, were made up of 
short poems, chiefly of an epigrammatic char- 
acter, and in the elegiac metre. The earliest 
examples of such poetry were furnished by the 
inscriptions on monuments, such as those erect- 
ed to commemorate heroic deeds, the statues of 
distinguished men, especially victors in the pub- 
lic games, sepulchral monuments, and dedica- 
tory offerings in temples (avadi'/ftara) ; to which, 
may be added oracles and proverbial sayings. 
At an early period in the history of Greek lit- 
erature, poets of the highest fame cultivated 
this species of composition, which received its 
most perfect development from the hand of Si- 
monides. Thenceforth, as a set form of poetry, 
it became a fit vehicle for the brief expression 
of thoughts and sentiments on any subject ; un- 
til at last the form came to be cultivated for its 
own sake, and the literati of Alexandrea and 
Byzantium deemed the ability to make epigrams 
an essential part of the character of a scholar. 
Hence the mere trifling, the stupid jokes, and 
the wretched personalities which form so large 
a part of the epigrammatic poetry contained in 
the Greek Anthology. — 2. The Garland of Me- 
leager. At a comparatively early period in the 
history of Greek literature, various persons col- 
lected epigrams of particular classes, and with 
reference to their use as historical authorities ; 
but the first person who made such a collection 
solely for its own sake, and to preserve epi- 
grams of all kinds, was Meleager, a cynic phi- 
losopher of Gadara, in Palestine, about B.C. 60. 
His collection contained epigrams by forty-six 
poets, of all ages of Greek poetry, up to the most 
ancient lyric period. He entitled it The Gar- 
land (I,Te(j>avoc), with reference to the common 
comparison of small beautiful poems to flowers. 
The same idea is kept up in the word Antholo- 
gy {uvdoXoyia), which was adopted by the next 
compiler as the title of his work. The Garland 
of Meleager was arranged in alphabetical order, 
according to the initial letters of the first, line 
of each epigram. — 3. The Anthology of Philip 
of Thessalonica was compiled in the time of 
Trajan, avowedly in imitation of the Garland 
of Meleager, and chiefly with the view of add- 
ing to that collection the epigrams of more re- 
cent writers. — 4. Diogenianus, Straton, and Di- 
ogenes Laertius. Shortly after Philip, in the 

675 



PLANUDES MAXIMUS. 



PLA 1 0. 



reign a Hadrian, the learned grammarian, Di- 
ogenianus of Heraclea, compiled an Anthology, 
which is entirely lost. It might have been well 
if the same fate had befallen the very polluted 
collection of his contemporary, Straton of Sar- 
dis. About the same time Diogenes LaSrtius 
collected the epigrams which are interspersed 
in his lives of the philosophers, into a separate 
book. — 5. Agathias Scholasticus, who lived in 
the time of Justinian, made a collection entitled 
KvkXoc ETTiypafifiaTav. It was divided into sev- 
en books, according to subjects. The poems 
included in it were those of recent writers, and 
chiefly those of Agathias himself and of his con- 
temporaries, such as Paulus Silentiarius and 
Macedonius. — 6. The Anthology of Constantinus 
Ccphalas, or the Palatine Anthology . Constan- 
tinus Cephalas appears to have lived about four 
centuries after Agathias, and to have flouiished 
in the tenth century, under the Emperor Con- 
stantinus Porphyrogenitus. The labors of pre- 
ceding compilers may be viewed as merely sup- 
plementary to the Garland of Meleager ; but the 
Anthology of Constantinus Cephalas was an en- 
tirely new collection from the preceding An- 
thologies and from original sources. Nothing 
is known of Constantine himself. The MS. of 
the Anthology was discovered by Salmasius in 
1606, in the library of the Electors Palatine at 
Heidelberg. It was afterward removed to the 
Vatican, with the rest of the Palatine library 
(1623), and has become celebrated under the 
names of the Palatine Anthology and the Vati- 
can Codex of the Greek Anthology. This MS. 
was restored to its old home at Heidelberg after 
the peace of 1815. — 7. The Anthology of Pla- 
nudes is arranged in seven books, each of which 
except the fifth and seventh, is divided into 
chapters according to subjects, and these chap- 
ters are arranged in alphabetical order. The 
contents of the books are as follows : 1. Chief- 
ly eTTideiKTiiid, that is, displays of skill in this 
species of poetry, in ninety-one chapters. 2 
Jocular or satiric ((tkotttiku), chaps. 53. 3. Se- 
pulchral (eniTvfi6ia), chaps. 32. 4. Inscriptions 
on statues of athletes and other works of art, de- 
scriptions of places, &c, chaps. 33. 5. The Ec- 
phrasis of Christodorus, and epigrams on stat- 
ues of charioteers in the Hippodrome at Con- 
stantinople. 6. Dedicatory (avadrj/iar ma), chaps 
27. 7. Amatory (kpuriKa). Planudes did little 
more than abridge and rearrange the Anthology 
of Constantinus Cephalas. Only a few epigrams 
are found in the Planudean Anthology which are 
not in the Palatine. The best editions of the 
Greek Anthology are by Brunck and Jacobs 
Brunck's edition, which appeared under the ti- 
tle of Analecta Veterum Poetarum Gracorum, Ar- 
gentorati, 1772-1776, 3 vols. 8vo, contains the 
whole of the Greek Anthology, besides some 
poems which are not properly included under 
that title. Brunck adopted a new arrangement ; 
he discarded the books and chapters of the early 
Anthology, placed together all the epigrams of 
each poet, and arranged the poets themselves 
in chronological order, placing those epigrams 
the authors of which were unknown, under the 
separate head of udio-ivoTa. Jacobs's edition is 
founded upon Brunck's, but is much superior, 
and ranks as the standard edition of the Greek 
Anthology. It is ia 13 vols. Svo., namt-'Y, fc~ 
676 



volumes of the Text, one of Indices, and three 
of Commentaries, divided into eiqlit parts, Lips., 
1795-1814. After the restoration of the MS. 
of the Palatine Anthology to the Tj diversity of 
Heidelberg, Jacobs published a separaie edition 
of the Palatine Anthology, Lips., 1813-1817, 3 
vols. 

Plat^ea, more commonly Plat^^e (Wiiirata, 
TlTiaraiai : THaraiavc), an ancient city of Bceotia, 
on the northern slope of Mount Cithajron, not 
far from the sources of the Asopus, and on the 
frontiers of Attica. It was said to have been 
founded by Thebes, and its name was com- 
monly derived from Plateea, a daughter of Aso- 
pus. The town, though not large, played an 
important part in Greek history, and experienced 
many striking vicissitudes of fortune. At an 
early period the Plateeans deserted the Breotian 
confederacy, and placed themselves under the 
protection of Athens ; and when the Persians 
invaded Attica in B.C. 490, they sent one thou- 
sand men to the assistance of the Athenians, 
and had the honor of fighting on their side at 
the battle of Marathon. Ten years afterward 
(480) their city was" destroyed by the Persian 
army under Xerxes at the instigation of the 
Thebans, and the place was still in ruins in the 
following year (479), when the memorable bat- 
tle was fought in their territory in which Mar- 
donius was defeated and the independence of 
Greece secured. In consequence of this vic- 
tory, the territory of Platasse was declared in- 
violable, and Pausanias and the other Greeks 
swore to guarantee its.independence. The sanc- 
tity of the city was still further secured by its 
being selected as the. place in which the great 
festival of the Eleutheria was to be celebrated 
in honor of those Greeks who had fallen in the 
war. (Vid.Dict.of Antiq., art. Eleutheria.) The 
Platseans further received from the Greeks ttie 
large sum of eighty talents. Plataeae row en- 
joyed a prosperity of fifty years ; but in the 
third year of the Peloponnesian war (129) the 
Thebans persuaded the Spartans to attack the 
town, and after a siege of two years at length 
succeeded in obtaining possession of the place 
(427). Platasa? was now razed to the ground, 
but was again rebuilt after the peace of Antal- 
cidas (387). It was destroyed the third time 
by its inveterate enemies, the Thebans, in 374. 
It was once more restored under the Macedo- 
nian supremacy, and continued in existence till 
a very late period. Its walls were rebuilt by 
Justinian. 

Platamodes (Ularafjuinc : now Aja Kyria- 
ki), a promontory in the west of Messenia. 

Platana, -dm, -us (Tl'Xa.Tavn, TDmtovov, ll?,ti- 
ravoc), a fortress in Phoenicia, in a narrow pass 
between Lebanon and the sea, near the River 
Damuras or Tamyras (now Bamur). 

Platea (EMorta, also -da, -eiai, -at'a), an isl- 
and on the coast of Cyrenaica, in Northern Af- 
rica, the first place taken possession of by the 
Greek colonists under Battus. Vid. Cyrenaica. 

Plato (Xl}.druv). 1. The comic poet, was a 
native of Athens, contemporary .with Aristoph- 
anes, Phrynichus, Eupolis, and Pherecrates, and 
flourished from B.C. 428 to 389. He ranked 
among the very best poets of the Old Comedy. 
From the expressions of the grammarians, and 
from the large numbsr of fragments which are 



PLATO. 



PLATU. 



preserved, it is evident that his plays were only 
I second in popularity to those of Aristophanes. 
Purity of language, refined sharpness of wit, 
and a combination of the vigor of the Old Com- 
edy with the greater elegance of the Middle and 
the New, were his chief characteristics. Sui- 
das gives the titles of thirty of his dramas, [The 
fragments of his comedies are contained in Mei- 
neke's Comic. Graze. Fragm., vol. i., p. 357-401, 
edit, minor.] — 2. The philosopher, was the son 
of Ariston and Perictione or Potone, and was 
born at Athens either in B.C. 429 or 428. Ac- 
j cording to others, he was born in the neighbor- 
ing island of ^Egina. His paternal family boast- 
! ed of being descended from Codrus ; his mater- 
nal ancestors of a relationship with Solon. Pla- 
j to himself mentions the relationship of Criti- 
as, his maternal uncle, with Solon. Originally, 
we are told, he was named after his grandfa- 
ther Aristocles, but in consequence of the flu- 
ency of his speech, or, as others have it, the 
breadth of his chest, he acquired that name un- 
der which alone we know him. One story made 
him the son of Apollo ; another related that bees 
settled upon the lips of the sleeping child. He 
is also said to have contended, when a youth, 
in the Isthmian and other games, as well as to 
have made attempts in epic, lyric, and dithy- 
| rambic poetry, and not to have devoted himself 
to philosophy till a later time, probably after 
Socrates had drawn him within the magic cir- 
cle of his influence. Plato was instructed in 
grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most 
distinguished teachers of that time. At an early 
age he had become acquainted, through Craty- 
lus,with the doctrines of Heraclitus, and through 
other instructors with the philosophical dogmas 
cf the Eleatics and of Anaxagoras. In his twen- 
! tteth year he is said to have betaken himself 
to Socrates, and became one of his most ar- 
dent admirers. After the death of Socrates 
(399) he withdrew to Megara, where he proba- 
bly composed several of his dialogues, especial- 
ly those of a dialectical character. He next 
went to Cyrene, through friendship for the math- 
ematician Theodoras, and is said to have visited 
afterward Egypt, Sicily, and the Greek cities in 
Lower Italy, through his eagerness for knowl- 
edge. The more distant journeys of Plato into 
the interior of Asia, to the Hebrews, Babylo- 
nians, and Assyrians, to the Magi and Persians, 
are mentioned only by writers on whom no re- 
liance can be placed. That Plato, during his res- 
idence in Sicily, became acquainted, through 
Dion, with the elder Dionysius, but very soon 
fell out with the tyrant, is asserted by credible 
witnesses. But more doubt attaches to the 
story, which relates that he was given up by the 
tyrant to the Spartan ambassador Pollis, by him 
sold into jEgina, and set at liberty by the Cy- 
renian Anniceris. Plato is said to have visited 
Sicily when forty years old, consequently in 389. 
After his return he began to teach, partly in the 
gymnasium of the Academy and its shady av- 
enues, near the city, between the exterior Ce- 
ramicus and the hill Colonus Hippius, and partly 
in his garden, which was situated at Colonus. 
He taught gratuitously, and without doubt main- 
ly in the form of lively dialogue ; yet on the more 
difficult parts of his doctrinal system he probabiy 
delivered also connected lectures. The more 



narrow circle of his disciples assembled them- 
selves in his garden at common simple meals, 
and it was probably to them alone that the in 
scription, said to have been set up over the 
vestibule of the house, " Let no one enter who 
is unacquainted with geometry," had reference. 
From this house came forth his nephew Speu- 
sippus, Xenocrates of Chalcedon, Aristotle, Her- 
aclides Ponticus, Hestianis of Perinthus, Philip- 
pus the Opuntian, and others, men from the most 
distant parts of Greece. To the wider cnclrj 
of those who, without attaching themselves to 
the more narrow community of the school, 
sought instruction and incitement from him, 
such distinguished men as Ch'abrias, Iphicrates, 
Timotheus, Phocion, Hyperides, Lycurgus, and 
Isocrates are said to have belonged. Whether 
Demosthenes was of the number is doubtful. 
Even women are said to have attached them- 
selves to him as his disciples. Plato's occupa- 
tion as an instructor was twice interrupted by 
his voyages to Sicily : first when Dion, probably 
soon after the death of the elder Dionysius, per- 
suaded him to make the attempt to win the 
younger Dionysius to philosophy ; the second 
time, a few years later (about 360), when the 
wish of his Pythagorean friends, and the invita- 
tion of Dionysius to reconcile the disputes which 
had broken out between him and his step-uncle 
Dion, brought him back to Syracuse. His ef- 
forts were both times unsuccessful, and he owed 
his own safety to nothing but the earnest inter- 
cession of Archytas. That Plato cherished the 
hope of realizing, through the conversion of Dio- 
nysius, his idea of a state in the rising city of 
Syracuse, was a belief pretty generally spread 
in antiquity, and which finds some confirmation 
in the expressions of the philosopher himself, 
and of the seventh Platonic letter, which, though 
spurious, is written with the most evident ac- 
quaintance with the matters treated of. With 
the exception of these two visits to Sicily, Plato 
was occupied from the time when he opened the 
school in the Academy in giving instruction and 
in the composition of his works. He died in the 
eighty-second year of his age, B.C. 347. Ac- 
cording to some, he died while writing ; accord- 
ing to others, at a marriage feast. According 
to his last will, his garden remained the property 
of the school, and passed, considerably increased 
by subsequent additions, into the hands of the 
Neo-Platonists, who kept as a festival his birth- 
day as well as that of Socrates. Athenians and 
strangers honored his memory by monuments. 
Still he had no lack of enemies and enviers. 
He was attacked by contemporary comic poets, 
as Theopompus, Alexis, Cratinus the younger, 
and others, by one-sided Socratics, as Antisthe- 
nes, Diogenes, and the later Megarics, and also 
by the Epicureans, Stoics, certain Peripatetics, 
and later writers eager for detraction. Thus 
even Antisthenes and Aristoxenus charged him 
with sensuality, avarice, and sycophancy ; and 
others with vanity, ambition, and envy toward 
other Socratics, Protagoras, Epicharmus, and 
Philolaus. — The Writings of Plato. These 
writings have come down to us complete, and 
have always been admired as a model of the 
union of artistic perfection with philosophical 
acuteness and depth. They are in the form of 
di ilogue ; but Plato was not the first writer who 

677 



PLATO. 



PLATO. 



employed this style of composition for philosoph- 
ical instruction. Zeno the Eleatic had already 
written in the form of question and answer. 
Alexamenus the Teian and Sophron in the 
mimes had treated ethical subjects in the form 
of dialogue. Xenophon.^Eschines, Antisthenes, 
Euclides, and other Socratics also had made use 
of the dialogistic form ; but Plato has handled 
(his form not only with greater mastery than 
any one who preceded him, but, in all probabil- 
ity, with the distinct intention of keeping by this 
very means true to the admonition of Socrates, 
not to communicate instruction, but to lead to 
the spontaneous discovery of it. The dialogues 
of Plato are closely connected with one another, 
and various arrangements of them have been 
proposed. Schleiermacher divides them into 
three series or classes. In the first he consid- 
ers that the germs of dialectic and of the doc- 
trine of ideas begin to unfold themselves in all 
the freshness of youthful inspiration ; in the 
second, those germs develop themselves further 
by means of dialectic investigations respecting 
the difference between common and philosoph- 
ical acquaintance with things, respecting notion 
and knowledge (dd£a and kntarij/n]) ; in the third 
they receive their completion by means of an 
objectively scientific working out, with the sep- 
aration of ethics and physics. The first series 
embraces, according to Schleiermacher, thePhce- 
drus, Lysis, Protagoras, Laches, Charmides, Eu- ' 
thyphron, and Parmenides ; to which may be add- 
ed as an appendix, the Apologia, Crito, Ion, Hip- 
pias Minor, Hipparchus, Minos, and Alcibiades II. 
The second series contains the Gorgias, Thecete- 
tus, Meno, Eulhydemus, Cratylus, Sophistes, Polit- 
icus, Symposium, Phado, and Philebus ; to which 
may be added as an appendix, the Theages, 
Erasloz, Alcibiades I., Menexenus, Hippias Major, 
and Clitophon. The third series comprises the 
Republic, Timaus, Critias, and the Laws. This 
arrangement is perhaps the best that has hith- 
erto been made of the dialogues, though open to 
exception in several particulars. The genuine- 
ness of several of the dialogues has been ques- 
tioned, but for the most part on insufficient 
grounds. The Epinomis, however, is probably 
to be assigned to a disciple of Plato, the Minos 
and Hipparchus to a Socratic. The second Alci- 
biades was attributed by ancient critics to Xeno- 
phon. The Anlerastoz and Clitophon are proba- 
bly of much later origin. The Platonic letters 
were composed at different periods : the oldest 
of them, the sevent h and eighth, probably by dis- 
ciples of Plato. The dialogues Demodocus, Sisy- 
phus, Eryxias, Axiochus, and those on justice and 
virtue, were with good reason regarded by an- 
cient critics as spurious, and with them may be 
associated the Hipparchus, Theages, and the Def- 
initions. The genuineness of the first Alcibia- 
des seems doubtful. The smaller Hippias, the 
Ion, and theMenexcnus, on the other hand, which 
are assailed by many modern critics, may very 
well maintain their ground as occasional com- 
positions of Plato. — The Philosophy op Plato. 
The nature of this work will allow only a few 
brief remarks upon this subject. The attempt 
to combine poetry and philosophy (the two funda- 
mental tendencies of the Greek mind) gives to 
the Platonic dialogues a charm which irresisti- 
bly attracts us, though we may have but a defi- 
678 



cient comprehension of their subject matter 
Plato, like Socrates, was penetrated with the j 
idea that wisdom is the attribute of the God- 
head ; that philosophy, springing from the im 
pulse to know, is the necessity of the intellectual 
man, and the greatest of the blessings in which 
he participates. When once we strive after j 
Wisdom with the intensity of a lover, she be- 
comes the true consecration and purification of I 
the soul, adapted to lead us from the night-like j 
to the true day. An approach to wisdom, how- 
ever, presupposes an original communion with 
Being, truly so called ; and this communion 
again presupposes the divine nature or immor- 
tality of the soul, and the impulse to become like 
the Eternal. This impulse is the love which 
generates in Truth, and the develi pmer ( of it 
is termed Dialectics. Out of the philosophical 
impulse which is developed by Dialectics, not 
only correct knowledge, but also correct action, 
springs forth. Socrates's doctrine respecting the 
unity of virtue, and that it consists in true, vigor- 
ous, and practical knowledge, is intended to be 
set forth in a preliminary manner in the Prota- 
goras and the smaller dialogues attached to it | 
They are designed, therefore, to introduce a 
foundation for ethics, by the refutation of the j 
common views that were entertained of morals 
and of virtue ; for although not even the words 
ethics and physics occur in Plato, and even dia- 
lectics are not treated of as a distinct and sep- j 
arate province, yet he must rightly be regarded 
as the originator of the three-fold division of 
philosophy, inasmuch as he had before him the 
decided object to develop the Socratic method 
into a scientific system of dialectics, that should 
supply the grounds of our knowledge as well as 
of our moral action (physics and ethics), and 
therefore he separates the general investiga- 
tions on knowledge and understanding, at least 
relatively, from those which refer to physics and 
ethics. Accordingly, the Theaetetus, Sophistes, 
Parmenides, and Cratylus, are principally dia- 
lectical ; the Protagoras, Gorgias, Politicus, Phi- 
lebus, and the Politics, principally ethical; while 
the Timseus is exclusively physical. Plato's 
dialectics and ethics, however, have been more 
successful than his physics. Plato's doctrine 
of ideas was one of the most prominent parts I 
of his system. He maintained that the exist- I 
ence of things, eognizable only by means of | 
conception, is their true essence, their idea. 1 
Hence he asserts that to deny the reality of 
ideas is to destroy all scientific research. He de- 
parted from the original meaning of the wore 
idea (namely, that of form or figure), inasmuch 
as he understood by it the unities (hathc, /iovd- 
6ec) which lie at the basis of the visible, the 
changeable, and which can only be reached by 
pure thinking. He included under the expres- 
sion idea every thing stable amid the changes |l 
of mere phenomena, all really existing and un- 
changeable definitudes, by which the changes 
of things and our knowledge of them are con- 
ditioned, such as the ideas of genus and species, 
the laws and ends of nature, as also the prin- 
ciples of cognition and of mcral action, and the 
essences of individual, concrete, thinking souls. 
His system of ethics was founded upon his dia- 
lectics, as is remarked above. Hence he as 
serted that, not being in a condition to grasp the 



PLATOR 



PLAUTUS. 



'dea of the good with full distinctness, we are 
able to approximate to it only so far as we ele- 
vate the power of thinking to its original purity. 
The best editions of the collected works of Plato 
are by Bekker, Berol., 1816-1818 ; by Stall- 
baum, Gotha, 1827, seq., [not yet completed] ; 
and by Orelli and others, Turic., 1839, 4to. 

[Plator. 1. The commander of Oreum for 
Philip, betrayed the town to the Romans, B.C. 
207. — 2. The brother of Gentius, the Illyrian 
king, called Plator by Livy, but Pleuratus by 
Polybius. Vid. Pleuratus. — 3. Of Dyrrhachium, 
was slain by Piso, proconsul in Macedonia B.C. 
57, although he had been hospitably received in 
the house of Plator.] 

Plautia Gens, a plebeian gens at Rome. The 
name is also written Plotius, just as we have 
both Clodius and Claudius. The gens was di- 
vided into the families of Hypsaus, Proculus, 
Silvanus, Venno, Venox; and although several 
members of these families obtained the consul- 
ship, none of them are of sufficient importance 
to require a separate notice. 

Plautianus, FulvIus, an African by birth, the 
fellow-townsman of Septimius Severus. He 
served as prefect of the praetorium under this 
emperor, who loaded him with honors and 
wealth, and virtually made over much of the 
imperial authority into his hands. Intoxicated 
by these distinctions, Plautianus indulged in the 
| most despotic tyranny, and perpetrated acts of 
cruelty almost beyond belief. In A.D. 202 his 
daughter Plautiila was married to Caracalla ; 
but having discovered the dislike cherished by 
Caracalla toward both his daughter and himself, 
and looking forward with apprehension to the 
downfall which awaited him upon the death of 
the sovereign, he formed a plot against the life 
both of Septimius and Caracalla. His treach- 
ery was discovered, and he was immediately 
put to death, 203. His daughter Plautiila was 
banished first to Sicily, and subsequently to 
Lipara, where she was treated with the greatest 
harshness. After the murder of Geta in 212, 
Plautiila was put to death by order of her hus- 
band. 

Plautilla. Vid. Plautianus. 

Plautius. 1. A., a man of consular rank, 
who was sent by the Emperor Claudius in A.D. 
43 to subdue Britain. He remained in Britain 
four years, and subdued the southern part of the 
island. He obtained an ovation on his return 
to Rome in 47. — 2. A Roman jurist, who lived 
about the time of Vespasian, and is cited by sub- 
sequent jurists. 

Plautus, the most celebrated comic poet of 
Rome, was a native of Sarsina, a small village 
in Umbria. He is usually called M. Accius Plau- 
tus, but his real name, as an eminent modern 
scholar has shown, was T. Maocius Plautus. 
The date of his birth is uncertain, but it may 
be placed about B.C. 254. He probably came 
to Rome at an early age, since he displays such 
a perfect mastery of the Latin language, and an 
acquaintance with Greek literature, which he 
could hardly have acquired in a provincial town. 
"Whether he ever obtained the Roman franchise 
is doubtful. When he arrived at Rome he was 
in needy circumstances, and was first employed 
in the service of the actors. With the money 
he had saved in this inferior station he left 



Rome and set up in business, but his specula 
tions failed ; he returned to Rome, and his ne- 
cessities obliged him to enter the service of a 
baker, who employed him in turning a handmill. 
While in this degrading occupation he wrote 
three plays, the sale of which to the managers 
of the public games enabled him to quit his 
drudgery and begin his literary career. He was 
then probably about thirty years of age (224), 
and accordingly commenced writing comedies 
a few years before the breaking out of the sec- 
ond Punic war. He continued his literary oc- 
cupation for about forty years, and died in 184, 
when he was seventy years of age. His con- 
temporaries at first were Livius Andronicus and 
Naevius, afterward Ennius and Caecilius : Ter- 
ence did not rise into notice till almost twenty 
years after his death. During the long time 
that he held possession of the stage, he was 
always a great favorite of the people ; and he 
expressed a bold consciousness of his own pow- 
ers in the epitaph which he wrote for his tomb, 
and which has come down to us : 

" Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, comcedia luget 
Scena deserta, dein risus, Indus jocusque 
Et numeri innumeri simul omnes collacrumarunt." 

Plautus wrote a great number of comedies, 
and in the last century of the republic there 
were one hundred and thirty plays which bore 
his name. Most of these, however, were not 
considered genuine by the best Roman critics. 
There were several works written upon the sub- 
ject ; and of these the most celebrated was the 
treatise of Varro, entitled Qu/zst.iones Plaulina. 
Varro limited the undoubted comedies of the 
poet to twenty-one, which were hence called 
the Fabula. Varroniance. These Varronian com- 
edies are the same as those which have come 
down to our own time, with the loss of one. 
At present we possess only twenty comedies 
of Plautus ; but there were originally twenty- 
one in the manuscripts, and the Vidularia, which 
was the twenty-first, and which came last in 
the collection, was torn off from the manuscript 
in the Middle Ages. The titles of the twenty- 
one Varronian plays are, 1. Amphitruo. 2. Asi- 
naria. 3. Aulularia. 4. Captivi. 5- Curculio. 
6. Casina. 7. Cistellaria. 8. Epidicus. 9. Bac- 
chides. 10. Mostellaria. 11. Mcna.ch.mi. 12. 
Miles. 13. Mercator. 14. Pseudolus. 15. Pa- 
nulus. 16. Persa. 17. Rudens. 18. Stichus. 
19. Trinummus . 20. Truculentus. 21. Vidu- 
laria. This is the order in which they occur ir. 
the manuscripts, though probably not the one 
in which they were originally arranged by Varro. 
The present order is evidently alphabetical ; the 
initial letter of the title of each play is alone re- 
garded, and no attention is paid to those which 
follow: hence we find Captivi, Curculio, Casina, 
Cistellaria : Mostellaria, Mena.ch.mi, Miles, Mer- 
cator : Pseudolus, Panulus, Persa. The play of 
the Bacchides forms the only exception to the 
alphabetical order. It was probably placed afterr 
the Epidicus by some copyist, because he had 
observed that Plautus, in the Bacchides (ii., 2, 
36), referred to the Epidicus as an earlier work. 
The names of the comedies are either taken 
from some leading character in the play, or from 
some circumstance which occurs in it : those 
titles ending in aria are adjectives, giving a 
general description of the play : thus Asinaria 



PLAUTUS. 

is the " Ass-Comedy." The comedies of Plau- 
fcns enjoyed unrivalled popularity among the 
Romans, and continued to be represented down 
to the time of Diocletian. The continued popu- 
larity of Plautus through so many centuries was 
owing, in a great measure, to his being a na- 
tional poet. Though he founds his plays upon 
Urenk models, the characters in them act, speak, 
and joke like genuine Romans, and he thereby 
secured the sympathy of his audience more com- 
pletely than Terence could ever have done. 
Whether Plautus borrowed the plan of all his 
plays from Greek models, it is impossible to say. 
The Cistellaria, Bacchides, Poznulus, and Stichus 
were taken from Menander, the Casino, and Ru- 
dens from Diphilus, and the Mercator and the 
Trinummus from Philemon, and many others 
were undoubtedly founded upon Greek originals. 
But in all cases Plautus allowed himself much 
greater liberty than Terence ; and in some in- 
stances he appears to have simply taken the 
leading idea of the play from the Greek, and to 
have filled it up in his own fashion. It has been 
inferred from a well-known line of Horace 
{Epist., ii., 1, 58), " Plautus ad exemplar Siculi 
properare Epicharmi," that Plautus took great 
pains to imitate Epicharmus. But there is no 
correspondence between any of the existing 
plays of Plautus and the known titles of the 
comedies of Epicharmus ; and the verb prope- 
rare probably has reference only to the liveliness 
and energy of Plautus's style, in which he bore 
a resemblance to the Sicilian poet. It was, 
however, not only with the common people that 
Plautus was a favorite ; educated Romans read 
and admired his works down to the latest times. 
Cicero (De Off., i., 29) places his wit on a par 
with that of the old Attic comedy, and St. Jerome 
used to console himself with the perusal of the 
poet after spending many nights in tears on ac- 
count of his past sins. The favorable opinion 
which the ancients entertained of the merits 
of Plautus has been confirmed by the judgment 
of the best modern critics, and by the fact that 
several of his plays have been imitated by many 
of the best modern poets. Thus the Amphitnw 
has been imitated by Moliere and Dryden, the 
Aulularia by Moliere in his Avare, the Mostel- 
laria by Regnard, Addison, and others, the Me- 
nachmi by Shakspeare in his Comedy of Errors, 
the Trinummus by Lessing in his Schatz, and 
so with others. Horace (De Arte Poet., 270), 
indeed, expresses a less favorable opinion of 
Plautus ; but it must be recollected that the 
taste of Horace had been formed by a different 
school of literature, and that he disliked the 
ancient poets of his country. Moreover, it is 
probable that the censure of Horace does not 
refer to the general character of Plautus's po- 
etry, but merely to his inharmonious verses and 
to some of his jests. The text of Plautus has 
come down to us in a very corrupt state. It 
contains many lacuna? and interpolations. Thus 
the Aulularia has lost its conclusion, the Bac- 
chides its commencement, &c. Of the present 
complete editions, the best are by Bothe, Lips., 
1834, 2 vols. 8vo, and by Weise, Quedlinb., 
1837-1838, 2 vols. 8vo, [2d edition, 1847-48, 
2 vols. 8vo] ; but Ritschl's edition, of which the 
first volume only has yet appeared (Bonn., 1849), 
will far surpass all others. 
680 



PLETJRON. 

Plavis (now Piave), a river in Venetia, in the 
north of Italy, which fell into the Sinus Ter- 
gestinus. 

Pleiades (HAeiuSec- or TLe/it uiSec ), the Pleiads, 
are usually called the daughters of Atlas and 
PleTone, whence they hear the name of the At- 
lantides. They were called Vcrgilice by the Ro- 
mans. They were the sisters of the Hyades, 
and seven in number, six of whom are described 
as visible, and the seventh as invisible. Some 
call the seventh Sterope, and relate that she be- 
came invisible from shame, because she alone 
among her sisters had had intercourse with a 
mortal man ; others call her Electra, and make 
her disappear from the choir of her sisters on 
account of her grief at the destruction of the 
house of Dardanus. The Pleiades are said to 
have made away with themselves from grief at 
the death of their sisters, the Hyades, or at the 
fate of their father Atlas, and were afterward 
placed as stars at the back of Taurus, where 
they formed- a cluster resembling a bunch of 
grapes, whence they were sometimes called 
fjorpvc. According to another story, the Plei- 
ades were virgin companions of Diana (Arte- 
mis), and, together with their mother Pleione, 
were pursued by the hunter Orion in Breotia ; 
their prayer to be rescued from him was heard 
by the gods, and they were metamorphosed into 
doves (ne?.eiu(hc), and placed among the stars. 
The rising of the Pleiades in Italy was about 
the beginning of May, and their setting about 
the beginning of November. Their names are ' 
Electra, Maia, Taygete, Alcyone, CelEeno, Ster- 
ope, and Merope. 

Pleione (Tllrilovq), a daughter of Oceanus 
and mother of the Pleiades by Atlas. Vii 
Atlas and Pleiades. 

[Pleminius, Q., propraetor and legatus of 
Scipio Africanus, was sent in B.C. 205 against 
the town of Locri, in Southern Italy, which still 
continued in the possession of the Carthagin- 
ians. He took the town, of which he was left 1 
governor by Scipio ; but his treatment of the 
inhabitants was so cruel that they sent to Rome 
to make complaint, and the senate ordered his 
return ; he was thrown into prison B.C. 204, 
but died before his trial came on.] 

Plemmyrium [UXefj/xvptov : now Punta di Gi- \ 
gante), a promontory on the southern coast of 
Sicily, immediately south of Syracuse. 

Pleumoxii, a small tribe in Gallia Belgica, 
subject to the Nervii. 

Pleuratus [TVktvpaToc). 1. King of Illyria, 
was the son of Scerdilai'das. His name occurs 
as an ally of the Romans in the second Punic 
war, and in their subsequent wars in Greece. 
— [2. A brother of Gentius, and son of the pre- 
ceding. Vid. Plator. He was put to death 
by Gentius in order that the king might himself 
marry a daughter of Monunius, who had been j 
betrothed to Pleuratus. — 3. A son of Gentius, 
king of Illyria, who was taken prisoner, together 
with his father, and carried captive to Rome, 
— 4. An Illyrian exile, of whose services Per- 
seus, king of Macedonia, availed himself on hi3 
embassies to Gentius, king of Illyria, in B.C 
169.] 

Pleuron (Tl?ievpuv : HTievpuvioc), an ancient 
city in ^Etolia, and along with Calydon the most 
important in the country, was situated at a lit 



PLINIUS. 

tie distance from the coast, northwest from the 
mouth of the Evenus, and on the southern slope 
of Mount Aracynthus or Curius. It was originally 
inhabited by theCuretes. This ancient city was 
abandoned by its inhabitants, when Demetrius 
Poliorcetes laid waste the surrounding country, 
and anew city was built under the same name to 
the west of the.aneient one. The two cities are 
distinguished by geographers under the names 
of Old Pleuron and New Pleuron respectively. 

Plinius. 1. C. PliniUs Secundus, the cele- 
brated author of the Historia Naturalis, and fre- 
quently called Pliny the elder, was born A.D. 
23, either at Verona or Novum Comum (now 
Como), in the north of Italy. But whichever 
was the place of his biith, it is certain that his 
family belonged to Novum Comum, since the 
estates of the elder Pliny were situated there, 
the younger Pliny was born there, and several 
inscriptions found in the neighborhood relate to 
various members of the family. He came to 
Rome while still young, and being descended 
from a family of wealth and distinction, he had 
the means at his disposal for availing himself 
of the instruction of the best teachers to be 
found in the imperial city. At the age of about 
twenty-three he went to Germany, where he 
served under L. Pompenius Secundus, of whom 
he afterward wrote a memoir, and was appoint- 
ed to the command of a troop of cavalry (pr<z- 
fectus al<z). It appears from notices of his own 
that he travelled over most of the frontier of 
Germany, having visited the Cauei, the sources 
of the Danube, &c. It was in the intervals 
snatched from his military duties that he com- 
posed his treatise de. Jaculatione equestri. At 
the same time he commenced a history of the 
Germanic wars, which he afterward completed 
in twenty books. He returned to Rome with 
Pomponius (52), and applied himself to the 
study of jurisprudence. He practiced for some 
time as a pleader, but does not seem to have 
distinguished himself very greatly in that ca- 
pacity. The greater part of the reign of Nero 
he spent in retirement, chiefly, no doubt, at his 
native place. It may have been with a view 
to the education of his nephew that he com- 
posed the work entitled Studiosus, an extensive 
treatise in three books, occupying six volumes, 
in which he marked out the course that should 
be pursued in the training of a young orator, 
from the cradle to the completion of his educa- 
tion and his entrance into public life. During 
the reign of Nero he wrote a grammatical work 
in eight books, entitled Dubius Sermo ; and to- 
ward the close of the reign of this emperor he 
was appointed procurator in Spain. He was 
here in 71, when his brother-in-law died, leav- 
ing his son, the younger Pliny, to the guardian- 
ship of his uncle, who, on account of his ab- 
sence, was obliged to intrust the care of him to 
Virginius Rufus. Pliny returned to Rome in 
the reign of Vespasian, shortly before 73, when 
he adopted his nephew. He had known Ves- 
pasian in the Germanic wars, and the emperor 
received him into the number of his most inti- 
mate friends. It was at this period of his life 
that he wrote a continuation of the history of 
Aufidius Bassus, in thirty-one books, carrying 
the narrative down to his own times. Of his 
manner of life at this period an interesting ac- 



PLINIUS. 

count has been preserved by his nephew (Epis't., 
iii., 5). It was his practice to begin to spend 
a portion of the night in studying by can- 
dle-light, at the festival of the Vulcanalia (to- 
ward the end of August), at first at a late hour 
of the night, in winter at one or two o'clock in 
the morning. Before it was light he betook 
himself to the Emperor Vespasian, and after 
executing such commissions as he might be 
charged with, returned home and devoted the 
time which he still had remaining to study. 
After a slender meal, he would, in the summer- 
time, lie in. the sunshine while some one read 
to him, he himself making notes and extracts. 
He never read any thing without making ex- 
tracts in this way, for he used to say that there 
was no book so bad but that some good might 
be got out of it. He would then take a cold 
bath, and after a slight repast sleep a very lit- 
tle, and then pursue his studies till the time of 
the coena. During this meal some book was 
read to, and commented on by him. At table, 
as might be supposed, he spent but a short time. 
Such was his mode of life when in the midst 
of the bustle and confusion of the city. When 
in retirement in the country, the time spent in 
the bath was nearly the only interval not allot- 
ted to study, and that he reduced to the nar- 
rowest limits ; for during all the process of 
scraping and rubbing he had some book read to 
him, or himself dictated. When on a journey 
he had a secretary by his side with a book and 
tablets. By this incessant application, perse- 
vered in throughout life, he amassed an enor- 
mous amount of materials, and at his death left 
to his nephew one hundred and sixty volumina 
of notes (electoritm comrnentarii), written ex- 
tremely small on both sides. With some reason 
might his nephew say that, when compared with 
Pliny, those who had spent their whole lives in 
literary pursuits seemed as if they had spent 
them in nothing else than sleep and idleness. 
From the materials which he had in this way 
collected he compiled his celebrated Historia 
Naturalis, which he published about 77. The de- 
tails of Pliny's death are given in a letter of the 
younger Pliny to Tacitus (Ep.,vl, 16). He per- 
ished in the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius, 
which overwhelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
in 79, being fifty-six years of age. He was at the 
time stationed at Misenum in the command of 
the Roman fleet ; and it was his anxiety to ex- 
amine more closely the extraordinary phsenom 
enon, which led him to sail to Stabiae, where 
he landed and perished. The only work of 
Pliny which has come down to us is his Histo- 
ria Naturalis. By Natural History the ancients 
understood more than modern writers would 
usually include in the subject. It embraced 
astronomy, meteorology, geography, mineralo- 
gy, zoology, botany — in short, every thing that 
does not relate to the results of human skill or 
the products of human faculties. Pliny, how- 
ever, has not kept within even these extensive 
limits. He has broken in upon the plan implied 
by the title of the work, by considerable digres- 
sions on human inventions and institutions 
(book vii.), and on the history of the fine arts 
(xxxv.-xxxvii.). Minor digressions on similar 
topics are also interspersed in various parts of 
the work, the arrangement of which in othei 

681 



PLINIUS. 



PLINIUS. 



respects exhibits but little scientific discrimina- 
tion. It comprises, as Pliny says in the pref- 
ace, twenty thousand matters of importance, 
drawn from about two thousand volumes. It 
is divided into thirty-seven books, the first of 
which consists of a dedicatory epistle to Titus, 
followed by a table of contents of the other 
books. When it is remembered that this work 
was not the result of the undistracted labor of 
a life, but written in the hours of leisure secured 
from active pursuits, and that, too, by the author 
of other extensive works, it is, to say the least, 
a wonderful monument of human industry. It 
may easily be supposed that Pliny,'with his in- 
ordinate appetite for accumulating knowledge 
out of books, was not the man to produce a 
scientific work of any value. He was not even 
an original observer. The materials which he 
worked up into his huge encyclopedic compila- 
tion were almost all derived at second-hand, 
though doubtless he has incorporated the re- 
sults of his own observation in a larger number 
of instances than those in which he indicates 
such to be the case. Nor did he, as a compiler, 
show either judgment or discrimination in the 
selection of his materials, so that in his accounts 
the true and the false are found intermixed. 
His love of the marvellous, and bis contempt 
for human nature, lead him constantly to intro- 
duce what is strange or wonderful, or adapted 
to illustrate the wickedness of man r -and the un- 
satisfactory arrangements of Providence. His 
work is of course valuable to us from the vast 
number of subjects treated of, with regard to 
many of which we have no other sources, of in- 
formation. But what he tells us is often unin- 
telligible, from his retailing accounts of things 
with which he was himself personally unac- 
quainted, and of which he in consequence gives 
no satisfactory idea to the reader. Though a 
writer on zoology, botany, and mineralogy, he 
has no pretensions to be called a naturalist. 
His compilations exhibit scarcely a trace of 
scientific arrangement ; and frequently it can 
be shown that he does not give the true sense 
of.the authors whom he quotes and translates, 
giving not uncommonly wrong Latin names to 
the objects spoken of by his Greek authorities. 
The best editions of Pliny's Natural History, 
with a commentary, are by Hardouin (Paris, 
1685, 5 vols. 4to ; second edition 1723, 3 vols, 
fol.), and by Panckoucke (Paris, 1829-1833, 20 
vols.), with a French translation and notes by 
Cuvier and other eminent scientific and literary 
men of France. The most valuable critical 
edition of the text of Pliny is by Sillig (Lips., 
1831-1836, 5 vols. 12mo).— 2. C. Plinius Cjb- 
cilius Secondus, frequently called Pliny the 
younger, was the son of C. Caecilius, and of 
Plinia, the sister of the elder Pliny. He was 
born at Comum in A.D. 61 ; and having lost 
his father at an early age, he was adopted by 
his uncle, as has been mentioned above. His 
education was conducted under the care of his 
uncle, his mother, and his tutor, Virginius Ru- 
fus. From his youth he was devoted to letters. 
In his fourteenth year he wrote a Greek trage- 
dy. He studied eloquence under Quintilian. 
His acquirements finally gained him the repu- 
tation of being one of the most learned men of 
the age , and his friend Tacitus, the historian, 
682 



had the same honorable distinction. He was 
also an orator. In his nineteenth year he began 
to speak in the forum, and he was frequently 
employed as an advocate before the court of the 
Centumviri and before the Roman senate. He 
filled numerous offices in succession. While a 
young man he served in Syria as tribunus mili- 
tum, and was there a hearer of the stoic Eu- 
phrates and of Artemidorus. He was subse- 
quently quajstor Caesaris, praetor in or about 93, 
and consul 100, in which year he wrote his 
Panegyricus, which is addressed to Trajan. In 
103 he was appointed propraetor of the province 
Pontica, where he did not stay quite two years. 
Among his other functions he also discharged 
that of curator of the channel and the banks of 
the Tiber. He was twice married. His sec- 
ond wife was Calpurnia, the grand-daughter of 
Calpurnius Fabatus, and an accomplished wom- 
an ; she was considerably younger than hei 
husband, who has recorded her kind attentions 
to him. He had no children by either wife 
born alive. The life of Pliny is chiefly known 
from his letters. So far as this evidence shows, 
he was a kind and benevolent man, fond of lit- 
erary pursuits, and of building on and improving 
his estates. He was rich, and he spent liber- 
ally. He was a kind master to his slaves. 
His body was feeble, and his health not good. 
Nothing is known as to the time of his death. 
The extant works of Pliny are his Panegyricus 
and the ten books of his Epistola. The Pane- 
gyricus is a fulsome eulogium on Trajan ; it is 
of small value for the information which it con- 
tains about the author himself and his times. 
Pliny collected his own letters, as appears from 
the first letter of the first book, which looks 
something like a preface to the whole collection. 
It is not an improbable conjecture that he may 
have written many of his letters with a view 
to publication, or that when he was writing 
some of them the idea of future publication was 
in his mind. However, they form a very agree- 
able collection, and make us acquainted with 
many interesting facts in the life of Pliny and 
that of his contemporaries. The letters from 
Pliny to Trajan and the emperor's replies are 
the most valuable part of the collection : they 
form the whole of the tenth book. The letter 
on the punishment of the Christians (x., 97), and 
the emperor's answer (x., 98), have furnished 
matter for much remark. The fact of a person 
admitting himself to be a Christian was suffi- 
cient for his condemnation ; and the punish- 
ment appears to have been death. The Chris- 
tians, on their examination, admitted nothing 
further than their practice of meeting on a fixed 
day before it was light, and singing a hymn to 
Christ, as God (quasi Deo) ; their oath (what- 
ever Pliny may mean by sacramentum) was not 
to bind them to any crime, but to avoid theft, 
robbery, adultery, breach of faith, and denial of 
a deposit. Two female slaves, who were said 
to be deaconesses (ministm), were put to the 
torture by Pliny, but nothing unfavorable to the 
Christians could be got out of them : the gov- 
ernor could detect nothing except a perverse 
and extravagant superstition (supcrslitionem pra- 
vam el immodicam). Hereupon he asked the 
emperor's advice, for the contagion of the su 
perstition was spreading ; yet he thought tha 



P_i.NTHINE. 



PLOTINUS. 



it might be stopped. The emperor, in his reply, 
approves of the governor's conduct, as explain- 
ed in his letter, and observes that no general 
rule can be laid down. Persons supposed to be 
Christians are not to be sought for : if they are 
accused and the charge is proved, they are to 
be punished ; but if a man denied the charge, 
and could prove its falsity by offering his pray- 
ers to the heathen gods (diis nostris), however 
suspected he may have been, he shall be ex- 
cused in respect of his repentance. Charges of 
accusation {libelli), without the name of the in- 
formant or accuser, were not to be received, as 
they had been : it was a thing of the worst ex- 
ample, and unsuited ^o the age. One of the 
. best editions of the Epistolce and Panegyricus is 
by Scliaefer, Lips., 1805. The best editions. of 
the Epistola are by Cortius and Longolius, Am- 
sterdam, 1734, and by Gierig, Lips., 1800. 

Pmnthine (Uhivdivri), a city of Lower Egypt, 
on the bay called from it Sinus Plinthinetes 
(TlXivdivr/TT/c noXnoc), was the westernmost city 
of Egypt (according to its narrower limits) on 
the frontier of Marmarica. It stood a little north 
of Taposiris (now Abousir). 

Plistarchus (Tl^eiarapxoi)- 1. King of Sparta, 
was the son and successor of Leonidas, who 
was killed at Thermopyte B.C. 480. He reign- 
ed from 480 to 458, but, being a mere child at the 
time of his father's death, the regency was as- 
sumed by his cousin Pausanias. It appears 
that the latter continued to administer affairs in 
the name of the young king till his own death, 
about 467. — [2. Son of Antipater, brother of 
Cassander, the Macedonian king.] 

Plisthenes (JlXeicdivrjc; ), son of Atreus, and 
husband of Asrope or Eriphyle, by whom he 
became the father of Agamemnon, Menelaus, 
and Anaxibia ; but Homer makes the latter the 
children of Atreus. Vid. Agamemnon, Atreus. 

Pi.istia (no wPrestia), a village inSamnium, in 
the valley between Mount Tifata and Taburnus. 

PlistSanax or Plistonax (UXeLOTOuva!;, UXel- 
oruva!;), king of Sparta, was the eldest son of 
the Pausanias who conquered at Plataeae, B.C. 
479. On the death of Plistarchus in 458, with- 
out issue, Plistoanax succeeded to the throne, 
being yet a minor. He reigned from 458 to 
408. In 445 he invaded Attica, but the prema- 
ture withdrawal of his army from the enemy's 
territory exposed him to the suspicion of hav- 
ing been bribed by Pericles. He was punished 
by a heavy fine, which he was unable to pay, 
and was therefore obliged to leave his country. 
He remained nineteen years in exile, taking up 
his abode near the temple of Jupiter (Zeus), on 
Mount Lycaeus in Arcadia, and having half his 
house within the sacred precincts, that he might 
enjoy the benefit of the sanctuary. During this 
period his son Pausanias, a minor, reigned in 
his stead. The Spartans at length recalled him 
in 426, in obedience to the injunctions of the 
Delphic oracle. But he was accused of having 
tampered with the Pythian priestess to induce 
her to interpose for him, and his alleged impiety 
in this matter was continually assigned by his 
enemies as the cause of all Sparta's misfortunes 
in the war, and therefore it was that he used 
all his influence to bring about peace with 
Athens in 421. He was succeeded by his son 
Pausanias. 



Plistus {TLXeigtoq : now Xeropotamo), a smaL 
river in Phocis, which rises in Mount Parnas- 
sus, flows past Delphi, where it receives the 
small stream Castalia, and falls into the Cris- 
Scean Gulf near Cirrha. 

Plotina, Pompeia, the wife of the Emperor 
Trajan, and a woman of extraordinary meril 
and virtue. As she had no children, she per- 
suaded her husband to adopt Hadrian. She 
died in the reign of Hadrian, who honored hei 
memory by mourning for her nine days, by build- 
ing a temple in her honor, and by composing 
hymns in her praise. 

Plotinopolis ( XlXurLvoTioli;), a town in 
Thrace, on the road frorr Trajanopolis to Ha- 
drianopolis, founded by Trajan, and named in 
honor of his wife Plotina. 

Plotinus (TIXutlvoc), the originator of the 
Neo-Platonic system, was born at Lycopolis, in 
Egypt, about A.D. 203. The details of his life 
have been preserved by his disciple Porphyry 
in a biography which has come down to us. 
From him we learn that Plotinus began to study 
philosophy in his twenty-eighth year, and re- 
mained eleven years under the instruction of 
Ammonius Saccas. In his thirty-ninth year he 
joined the expedition of the Emperor Gordian 
(242) against the Persians, in order to become 
acquainted with the philosophy of the Persians 
and Indians. After the death of Gordian he 
fled to Antioch, and from thence to Rome (244). 
For the first ten years of his residence at Rome 
he gave only oral instructions to a few friends ■ 
but he was at length induced in 254 to commii 
his instructions to writing. In this manner, 
when, ten years later (264), Porphyry came to 
Rome and joined himself to Plotinus, twenty- 
one books of very various contents had been 
already composed by him. During the six years 
that Porphyry lived with Plotinus at Rome, the 
latter, at the instigation of Amelius and Por- 
phyry, wrote twenty-three books on the subjects 
which had been discussed in their meetings, to 
which nine books were afterward added. Of 
the fifty-four books of Plotinus, Porphyry re- 
marks that the first twenty-one books were of 
a lighter character, that only the twenty-three 
following were the production of the matured 
powers of the author, and that the other nine, 
especially the four last, were evidently writ- , 
ten with diminished vigor. The correction of 
these fifty-four books was committed by Ploti- 
nus himself to the care of Porphyry. On ac- 
count of the weakness of his sight, Plotinus 
never read them through a lecond time, to say 
nothing of making corrections ; intent simply 
upon the matter, he was alike careless of orthog- 
raphy, of the division of the syllables, and the 
clearness of his hand-writing. The fifty-four 
books were divided by Porphyry into six En- 
neads, or sets of nine books. Plotinus was elo- 
quent in his oral communications, and was said 
to be very clever in finding the appropriate 
word, even if he failed in accuracy on' the whole. 
Besides this, the beauty of his person was in- 
creased when discoursing ; his countenance 
was lighted up with genius, and covered with 
small drops of perspiration. He lived on the 
scantiest fare, and his hours of sleep were re- 
stricted to the briefest time possible. He was 
| regarded with admiration and respect not only 

683 



PLOTIUS. 



PLUTARCHUS. 



by men of science like the philosopheis Ame- 
lius, Porphyry, the physicians Paulinus, Eusto- 
chius, and Zethus the Arab, but even by sena- 
,ors and other statesmen. He enjoyed the favor 
of the Emperor Gallienus, and the Empress 
Salonina, and almost obtained from them the 
rebuilding of two destroyed towns in Campania, 
with the view of their being governed according 
to the laws of Plato. He died at Puteoii in 
262. | The philosophical system of Plotinus is 
founded upon Plato's writings, with the addition 
of various tenets drawn from the Oriental phi- 
losophy and religion. He appears, however, to 
avoid studiously all reference to the Oriental 
origin of his tenets ; he endeavors to find them 
all under the veil of the Greek mythology, and 
points out here the germ of his own philosoph- 
ical and religious convictions. Plotinus is not 
guilty of that commixture and falsification of 
the Oriental mythology and mysticism which is 
found in Iamblichus, Proclus, and others of the 
Neo-Platonic school. The best edition of the 
Enneads of Plotinus is by Creuzer, Oxonii, 1835, 
3 vols. 4to. 

Plotius, whose full name was Marius Plo- 
tius Sacerdos, a Latin grammarian, the au- 
thor of De Metris Liber, probably lived in the 
fifth or sixth century of the Christian era. His 
work is published by Putschius in the Gram- 
matics Latince Auctores, Hannov., 1605, and by 
Gaisford in the Scriptores Latini Ret Metrics, 
Oxon., 1837. 

[Plotius Gallus, of Lugdunum, the first who 
taught rhetoric at Rome in the Latin language. 
He met with great success, and had a large num- 
ber of auditors, among whom was Cicero.] 
[Plotius Tucca. Vid. Tucca.] 
Plutarchus (nXovTapxos). 1. Tyrant of Ere- 
tria in Euboea, whom the Athenians assisted in 
B.C. 354 against his rival, Callias of Chalcis. 
The Athenian army was commanded by Pho- 
cion, who defeated Callias at Tamynae ; but 
Phocion, having suspected Plutarchus of treach- 
ery, expelled him from Eretria. — 2. The biog- 
rapher and philosopher, was born at Chaeronea 
in Boeotia. The year of his birth is not known ; 
but we learn from Plutarch himself that he was 
studying philosophy under Ammonius at the 
time when Nero was making his progress 
through Greece, in A.D. 66 ; from which we 
may assume that he was a youth or a young 
man at that time. He spent some time at 
Rome, and in other parts of" Italy ; but he tells 
us that he did not learn the Latin language in 
Italy, because he was occupied with public com- 
missions, and in giving lectures on philosophy ; 
and it was late in life before he busied himself 
with Roman literature. He was lecturing at 
Rome during the reign of Domitian, but the 
statement of Suidas that Plutarch was the pre- 
ceptor of Trajan ought to be rejected. Plutarch 
spent the later years of his life at Chaeronea, 
where he discharged various magisterial offices, 
and held a priesthood. The time of his death 
is unknown. The work which has immortal- 
ized Plutarch's name is his Parallel Lives (Bt'ot 
IlapdAA^Aot) of forty-six Greeks and Romans. 
The forty-six Lives are arranged in pairs ; each 
pair contains the life of a Greek and a Roman, 
and is followed by a comparison of the two men : 
in a few pairs the compar son is omitted or lost. 
684 



Rd seems to have considered each pair of Lives 
and the Parallel as making one book (BiC?.iov). 
The forty-six Lives are the following : 1. The-, 
seus and Romulus ; 2. Lycurgus and Numa ; 3. 
Solon and Valerius Publicola ; 4. Themistocles 
and Camillus ; 5. Pericles and Q. Fabius Maxi- 
mus ; 6. Alcibiades and Coriolanus ; 7. Timo- 
leon and ^Emilius Paulus ; 8. Pelopidas and 
Marcellus ; 9. Aristides and Cato the Elder ; 
10. Philopcemen and Flamininus ; 11. Pyrrhus 
and Marius; 12. Lysander and Sulla; 13. Cimon 
andLucullus; 14. Nicias and Crassus ; 15. Eu- 
menes and Sertorius ; 16. Agesilaus and Pom- 
peius ; 17. Alexander and Caesar ; 18. Phocion 
and Cato the younger ; 19. Agis and Cleome- 
nes, and Tiberius and Caius Gracchi ; 20. De- 
mosthenes and Cicero; 21. Demetrius Polior- 
cetes and M. Antonius ; 22. Dion and M. Ju- 
nius Brutus. There are also the Lives of Ar- 
taxerxes Mnemon, Aratus, Galba, and Otho, 
which are placed in the editions after the forty- 
six lives. Perhaps no work of antiquity has 
been so extensively read in modern times as 
Plutarch's Lives. The reason of their popu- 
larity is, that Plutarch has rightly conceived the 
business of a biographer: his biography is true 
portraiture. Other biography is often a dull, 
tedious enumeration of facts in the order of 
time, with perhaps a summing up of charactei 
at the end. The reflections of Plutarch are nei- 
ther impertinent nor trifling ; his sound good 
sense is always there ; his honest purpose is 
transparent ; his love of humanity warms the 
whole. His work is and will remain, in spite 
of all the fault that can be found with it by plod- 
ding collectors of facts and small critics, the 
book of those who can nobly think, and dare, 
and do. The best edition of the Lives is by 
Sintenis, Lips., 1839-1846, 4 vols. 8vo. Plu- 
tarch's other writings, above sixty in number, 
are placed under the general title of Moralia, or 
Ethical works, though some of them are of a 
historical and anecdotical character, such as the 
essay on the malignity {icanorideia) of Herodo- 
tus, which neither requires nor merits refuta- 
tion, and his Apophthegmata, many of which 
are of little value. Eleven of these essays are 
generally classed among Plutarch's historical 
works : among them also are his Roman Ques- V 
tions or Inquiries, his Greek Questions, and the 
Lives of the Ten Orators. But it is likely 
enough that several of the essays which are in- 
cluded in the Moralia of Plutarch are not by 
him. At any rate, some of them are not worth 
reading. The best of the essays included among 
the Moralia are of a different stamp. There is 
no philosophical system in these essays : pure 
speculation was not Plutarch's province. His 
best writings are practical, and their merits con 
sist in the soundness of his views on the ordi- 
nary events of human life, and in the benevo- 
lence of his temper. His " Marriage-Precepts" 
are a sample of his good sense and of his hap- 
piest expression. He rightly appreciated the 
importance of a good education, and he gives 
much sound advice on the bringing up of chil- 
dren. The best edition of the Moralia is by 
Wyttenbach : it consists of six volumes of text 
(Oxon., 1795-1800) and two volumes of notes 
(Oxon., 1810-1821), [4to, or 14 vols., text and 
notes, 8vo, with a copious index Graecitatis, 



PLUT-O. 



POLEMON. 



2 vols 8vo, Oxon., 1830.] The best editions 
of all the works of Plutarch are by Reiske, 
Lips., 1774-1782, 12 vols. 8vo, and by Hutten, 
1791-1805, 14 vols. 8vo. — 3. The younger, was 
a son of the last, and is supposed by some to 
have been the author of several of the works 
which pass usually for his father's, as, e. g., the 
Apophthegmata. — 4. An Athenian, son of Nes- 
torius, presided with distinction over the Neo- 
Platonic school at Athens in the early part of 
the fifth century, and was surnamed the Great. 
He numbered among his disciples Syrianus of 
Alexandrea, who succeeded him as head of the 
school, and Proclus ofLycia. He wrote com- 
mentaries, which are lost, on the " Timasus" 
of Plato, and on' Aristotle's treatise "On the 
Soul." He died at an advanced age, about A.D. 
430. 

Pluto or Pluton (ILWruv), the giver of 
wealth, at first a surname of Hades, the god of 
the lower world, and afterward used as the real 
name of the god. In the latter sense it first oc- 
curs in Euripides. An account of the god is 
given under Hades. 

Plutus (IKoOroc), sometimes called Pluton, 
the personification of wealth, is described as a 
son of Iasion and Demeter (Ceres). Vid. Iasion. 
Zeus (Jupiter) is said to have deprived him of 
sight, that he might not bestow his favors on 
righteous men exclusively, but that he might 
distribute his gifts blindly, and without any re- 
gard to merit. At Thebes there was a statue 
ofTyche or Fortune, at Athens one of Irene or 
Peace, and at Thespiae one of Athena (Minerva) 
Ergane, and in each of these cases Plutus was 
represented as the child of those divinities, sym- 
bolically expressing the sources of wealth. He 
seems to have been commonly represented as a 
boy with a Cornucopia. 

Pluvialia (WiOviTuha, Ptol. : now probably 
Ferro), one of the islands in the Atlantic called 
Fortunate. 

Pluvius, i. e., the sender of rain, a surname of 
Jupiter among the Romans, to whom sacrifices 
were offered during long-protracted droughts. 

Pnvtag5ras (UvvTayopar). I. Eldest son of 
Evagoras, king of Salamis in Cyprus, was as- 
sassinated along with his father, B.C. 374. — 
2. King of Salamis in Cyprus, probably suc- 
ceeded Nicocles, though we have no account of 
his accession, or his relation to the previous 
monarchs. He submitted to Alexander in 332, 
and served with a fleet under that monarch at 
the siege of Tyre. 

Podalirius (liodaleipioc;). 1. Son of ^Escula- 
pius and Epione or Arsinoe, and brother of Ma- 
chaon, along with whom he led the Thessalians 
of Tricca against Troy. He was, like his broth- 
er, skilled in the medical art. On his return 
from Troy he was cast by a storm on the coast 
of Syros in Caria, where he is said to have set- 
tled. He was worshipped as a hero on Mount 
Dria. — [2. A companion ofiEneas, slain by Al- 
sus in Italy.] 

Podarces (IloSupicric)- !■ The original name 
of Priam. Vid. Priamus. — 2. Son of Iphiclus 
and grandson of Phylacus, was a younger broth- 
er of Protesilaus, and led the Thessalians of 
Phylace against Troy. 

PoDARGE. . Vid. HaRPYI^E. 

rPoDEs (n.oc%), son ofEetion, a Trojan war- 



rior and friend of Hector, was slain by a javelin- 
blow from Menelaus in the fight over the corpse 
of Patroclus.] 

Pceas (Umac), son of Phylacus or Thauma- 
cus, husband ofMethone, and the father of Phi- 
loctetes, who is hence called Pmanliadcs, Pczan- 
tius heros, Poiantia proles, and Pazanle satus 
Pceas is mentioned among the Argonauts, and 
is said to have killed with an arrow Talaus in 
Crete. Pceas set fire to the pile on which Her- 
cules burned himself, and was rewarded by the 
hero with his arrows. Vid. Hercules, Philoc- 

TETES. 

[Pcdeessa (Jioifieaaa). 1. A city in Eastern 
Messenia, on the Nedon, with a temple of Mi- 
nerva (Athena) Nedusia. — 2. (Ruins still called 
al TLoLTjooai), one of the four cities in Ceos (the 
inhabitants of which were removed to Carthasa), 
containing a sanctuary of Apollo Smintheus, and 
in the vicinity another of Minerva (Athena) Ne- 
dusia, which Nestor was believed to have built 
on his return from Troy.] 

Pcemander. (VLoifiavipoq), son of Chaeresilaus 
and Stratonice, was the husband of Tanagra, a 
daughter of iErjlus or ^Esopus, by whom he be 
came the father of Ephippus and Leucippus. 
He was the reputed founder of the town of Ta- 
nagra in Bceotia, which was hence called Pce- 
mandria. When Pcemander had inadvertently 
killed his own son, he was purified by Elephe- 
nor. 

Pcemanenus (TIoifiav7]v6e 'i ethnic, the same : 
now probably Maniyas), a fortified place in Mys- 
ia, south of Cyzicus, with a celebrated temple 
of ^Esculapius. 

Pcena (tloivrj), a personification of retaliation, 
sometimes mentioned as one being, and some- 
times in the plural. The Poena belonged to the 
train of Dice, and are akin to the Erinnyes. 

[Pceni. 1. Vid. Phoenicia, Carthago. — 2. Pce- 
tri, Bastuli, a people of Hispania Bastica, con- 
sisting of Phcenician settlers blended with the 
old inhabitants of the land.] 

Postovio. Vid. Petovio. 

Pogon (Tlayov,) the harbor of Trcezen in Ar- 
golis. 

Pola (now Pola), an ancient town in Istria, 
situated on the western coast, and near the 
Promontory Polaticum (now Punta di Promon- 
toria), which was the most southerly point in 
the country. According to tradition, Pola was 
founded by the Colchians, who had been sent in 
pursuit of Medea. It was subsequently a Ro- 
man colony, with the surname Pietas Julia, and 
became an important commercial town, being 
united by good roads with Aquileia and the prin- 
cipal towns of Illyria. Its importance in an 
tiquity is attested by its magnificent ruins, of 
which the principal are those of an amphithea 
tre, of a triumphal arch (Porta aurea), erected 
to L. Sergius by his wife Salvia Postuma, and 
of several temples. 

Polemon (Xlo'kefiuv). 1. I. King of Pontus- 
and the Bosporus, was the son of Zenon, the 
orator of Laodicea. As a reward for the serv- 
ices rendered by his father as well as himself, 
he was appointed by Antony in B.C. 39 to the 
government of Cilicia, and he subsequently ob- 
tained in exchange the kingdom of Pontus. He 
accompanied Antony in his expedition against 
theParthians in 36. After the battle ofActium 

685 



POLEMON. 



POLITES. 



he was able to make his peace with Octavianus, 
who confirmed him in his kingdom. About the 
year 10 he was intrusted by Agrippa with the 
charge of reducing the kingdom of Bosporus, of 
which he was made king after conquering the 
country. His reign after this was long and 
prosperous ; he extended his dominions as far 
as the River Tana'is ; but having engaged in an 
expedition against the barbarian tribe of the As- 
purgians, he was not only defeated by them, but 
taken prisoner, and put to death. By his sec- 
ond wife Pythodoris, who succeeded him on the 
throne, he left two sons, Polemon II., andZenon, 
king of Armenia, and one daughter, who was 
married to Cotys, king of Thrace. — 2. II. Son 
ot the preceding and of Pythodoris, was raised 
to the sovereignty of Pontus and Bosporus by 
Caligula in A.D. 39. Bosporus was afterward 
taken from him by Claudius, who assigned it to 
Mithradates, while he gave Polemon a portion 
of Cilicia in its stead, 41. In 62, Polemon was 
induced by Nero to abdicate the throne, and 
Pontus was reduced to the condition of a Roman 
province. — 3. Of Athens, an eminent Platonic 
philosopher, was the son of Phildstratus, a man 
of wealth and political distinction. In his youth 
Polemon was extremely profligate ; but one day, 
when he was about thirty, on his bursting into 
the school of Xenocrates, at the head of a band 
of revellers, his attention was so arrested by the 
discourse, which chanced to be upon temper- 
ance, that he tore off his garland and remained 
an attentive listener, and from that day he 
adopted an abstemious course of life, and con- 
tinued to frequent the school, of which, on the 
death of Xenocrates, he became the head, B.C. 
315. He died in 273, at a great age. He es- 
teemed the object of philosophy to be, to exer- 
cise men in things and deeds, not in dialectic 
speculation. He placed the summum bonum in 
living according to the laws of nature. — 4. Of 
Athens by citizenship, but by birth either of Il- 
ium, or Samos, or Sicyon, a Stoic philosopher 
and an eminent geographer, surnamed Pcriegc- 
tes (6 ■KEpirryrirris), lived in the time of Ptolemy 
Epiphanes, at the beginning of the second cen- 
tury B.C. In philosophy he was a disciple of 
Paneetius. He made extensive journeys through 
Greece to collect materials for his geographical 
works, in the course of which he paid particu- 
lar attention to the inscriptions on votive offer- 
ings and on columns. As the collector of these 
inscriptions, he was one of the earlier contribu- 
tors to the Greek Anthology. Athenaeus and 
other writers make very numerous quotations 
"rom his works. They were chiefly descrip- 
tions of different parts of Greece : some were 
m the paintings preserved in various places, 
and several are controversial, among which is 
one against Eratosthenes. [The fragments of 
Polemon have been published by Preller in the 
work entitled Polemonis Pcriegetce Fragmcnta, 
' collegit, digessit, notis auxit L. Preller, Lips., 
1838 ] — 5. Antonius, a celebrated sophist and 
Thetorician, flourished under Trajan, Hadrian, 
and the first Antoninus, and was in high favor 
with the two former emperors. He was born 
of a consular family at Laodicea, but spent the 
greater part of his life at Smyrna. His most 
celebrated disciple was Aristides. Among his 
imitators in subsequent times was Gregory Na- 
686 



zianzen. His style of oratory was imposing 
rather than pleasing, and his character was 
haughty and reserved. During the latter part 
of his life he was so tortured by the gout that 
he resolved to put an end to his existence ; he 
had himself shut up in the tomb of his ancestors 
at Laodicea, where he died of hunger at the age 
of sixty-five. The only extant work of Pole- 
mon is the funeral orations for Cynaegirus and 
Callimachus, the generals who fell at Marathon, 
which are supposed to be pronounced by their 
fathers. These orations are edited by Orelli, 
Lips., 1819.— 6. The author of a short Greek 
work on Physiognomy, which is still extant. 
He must have lived in or before the third cen- 
tury after Christ, as he is mentioned by Origen, 
and from his style he can not be supposed to 
have lived much earlier than this time. His 
work consists of two books ; in the first, which 
contains twenty-three chapters, after proving 
the utility of physiognomy, he lays down the 
general principles of the science ; in the second 
book, which consists of twenty-seven chapters, 
he goes on to apply the principles he had before 
laid down, and describes in a few words the 
characters of the courageous man, the timid, 
the impudent, the passionate, the talkative, &c. 
The best edition of it is by Franz in his " Scrip- 
tores Physiognomonia? Veteres," Altenburg, 
1780. 

PolemonTom (Tlohcfiuviov : Tlolejiuvioc, and 
TloXepiuvuvc : now Poleman), a city on the coast 
of Pontus, in Asia Minor, built by King Pole- 
mon (probably the second) on the site of the 
older city of Side, at the mouth of the River 
Sidenus (now Poleman Chai), and at the bottom 
of a deep gulf, with a good harbor. It was the 
capital of the kingdom of Polemon, comprising 
the central part of Pontus, east of the Iris, which 
was hence called Pontus Polemoniacus. 

Polias (HoXctlc), i. e., "the goddess protect- 
ing the city," a surname of Minerva (Athena) 
at Athens, where she was worshipped as the 
protecting divinity of the Acropolis. 

Polichna (U.oT.Lxvri, Dor. Ilolixva : UoXtxvl- 
rijc), a town. 1. In the northwest of Messenia, 
west of Andania. — 2. In the northeast of Laco- 
nia. — 3. In Chios. — 4. In Crete, whose territo- 
ry bordered on that of Cydonia. — 5. In Mysia, 
in the district Troas, on the left bank of the 
^Esepus, near its source. 

Polieus (RoXuvc), "the protector of the city," 
a surname of Jupiter (Zeus), under which he 
had an altar on the acropolis at Athens. 

Poliorcetes, Demetrius. Vid. Demetrius. 

Polis (IIoAif), a village of the Locri Opuntii, 
subject to Hyle. 

[Polisma (TloTiiafia), a small town of the Mys- 
ian district Troas, on the Simoi's, already in 
Strabo's time in ruins.] 

Polites (Uo?ut7]c)- 1. Son of Priam and Hec- 
uba, and father of Priam the younger, was a val- 
iant warrior, but was slain by Pyrrhus.— [2. One 
of the companions of Ulysses, changed by Circo 
into swine ; later legends made him to have 
been stoned to death by the inhabitants of the 
coast of Bruttium, nearTemesa, for having vio- 
lated a maiden in a fit of intoxication : in re- 
venge, his spirit is said to have pursued them 
until they erected a temple to his honor, where 
a maiden was yearly sacrificed to him, until Eu 



POLITORIUM. 



POILIO. 



thymon freed them by having vanquished the evil 
spirit.] 

Politoiuum, a town in the interior of Latium, 
destroyed by Ancus Marcius. 

Poliuchus (HoXiovxot;), i. e., " protecting the 
city," occurs as a surname of several divinities, 
such as Minerva (Athena) Chalcicecus at Spar- 
ta, and of Minerva (Athena) at Athens. 

Polla, Argentaria, the wife of the poet Lu- 
can. 

Pollentia (Pollentinus). 1. (Now Polenza), 
a town of the Statielli in Liguria, at the conflu- 
ence of the Sturia and the Tanarus, and subse- 
quently a Roman municipium. It was cele- 
brated for its wool. In its neighborhood Stili- 
cho gained a victory over the Goths under Ala- 
ric. — 2. A town in Picenum, probably identical 
with Urbs Salvia. — 3. (Now Pollenza), a Roman 
colony on the northeastern point of the Balearis 
Major. 

Pollio, Annius, was accused of treason (ma- 
i stas) toward the end of the reign of Tiberius, 
out was not brought to trial. He was subse- 
quently one of Nero's intimate friends, but was 
accused of taking part in Piso's conspiracy 
against that emperor in A.D. 63, and was in con- 
sequence banished. 

Pollio, C. Asinius, a distinguished orator, 
poet, and historian of the Augustan age. He 
was born at Rome in B.C. 76, and became dis- 
tinguished as an orator at an early age. On the 
breaking out of the civil war he joined Caesar, 
and in 49 he accompanied Curio to Africa. Aft- 
er the defeat and death of Curio he crossed over 
to Greece, and fought at Caesar's side at the 
battle of Pharsalia (48). He also accompanied 
Caesar in his campaigns against the Pompeian 
party in Africa (46) and Spain (45). He return- 
ed with Caesar to Rome, but was shortly after- 
ward sent back to Spain, with the command of 
the Further Province, in order to prosecute the 
war against Sextus Pompey. He was in his 
province at the time of Caesar's death (44). He 
took no part in the war between Antony and the 
senate ; but when Antony was joined by Lepi- 
dus and Octavianus in 43, Pollio espoused their 
cause, and persuaded L. Plancus in Gaul to fol- 
low his example. In the division of the prov- 
inces among the triumvirs, Antony received the 
Gauls. The administration of the Transpadane 
Gaul was committed to Pollio by Antony, and 
he had accordingly the difficult task of settling 
the veterans in the lands which had been as- 
signed to them in this province. It was upon 
this occasion that he saved the property of the 
poet Virgil at Mantua from confiscation, whom 
he took under his protection from his love of 
literature. In 40 Pollio took an active part in 
effecting the reconciliation between Octavianus 
and Antony at Brundisium. In the same year 
he was consul ; and it was during his consul- 
ship that Virgil addressed to him his fourth Ec- 
logue. In 39 Antony went to Greece, and sent 
Pollio with a part of his army against the Par- 
thini, an Illyrian people. Pollio defeated the 
Parthini and took the Dalmatian town of Sa- 
lonae, and, in consequence of his success, ob- 
tained the honor of a triumph on the 25th of 
October in this year. He gave his son Asin- 
ius Gallus the agnomen of Saloninus after the 
town which he had taken. It was during his 



Illyrian campaign that Virgil addressed to him 
the eighth Eclogue. From this time Pollio 
withdrew altogether from political life, and de- 
voted himself to the study of literature. He 
still continued, however, to exercise his orator- 
ical powers, and maintained his reputation for 
eloquence by his speeches both in the senate 
and the courts of justice. He died at his Tus- 
culan villa, A.D. 4, in the eightieth year of his 
age, preserving to the last the full enjoyment 
of his health and of all his faculties. Pollio de- 
serves a distinguished place in the history of 
Roman literature, not so much on account of 
his works as of the encouragement which he 
gave to literature. He was not only a patron 
of Virgil, Horace (vid. Carm., ii., 1), and other 
great poets and writers, but he has the honor of 
having been the first person to establish a pub- 
lic library at Rome, upon which he expended 
the money he had obtained in his Illyrian cam- 
paign. None of Pollio's own works have come 
down to us, but they possessed sufficient merit 
to lead his contemporaries and successors to 
class his name with those of Cicero, Virgil, and 
Sallust as an orator, a poet, and a historian. It 
was, however, as an orator that he possessed 
the greatest reputation. Catullus describes him 
in his youth (Carm., xii., 9) as "leporum diser- 
tus puer et facetiarum," and Horace speaks of 
him in the full maturity of his powers (Carm., 
ii., 1, 13) as " Insigne maestis presidium reis et 
consulenti, Pollio, curiae ;" and we have also 
the more impartial testimony of Quintilian, the 
two Senecas, and the author of the Dialogue on 
Orators to the greatness of his oratorical pow- 
ers. Pollio wrote the history of the civil wars 
in seventeen books. It commenced with the 
consulship of Metellus and Afranius, B.C. 60, 
in which year the first triumvirate was formed, 
and appears to have come down to the time 
when Augustus obtained the undisputed su- 
premacy of the Roman world. As a poet Pollio 
was best known for his tragedies, which are 
spoken of in high terms by Virgil and Horace, 
but which probably did not possess any great 
merit, as they are hardly mentioned by subse- 
quent writers. The words of Virgil (Eel., iii., 
86), " Pollio et ipse facit nova carmina," prob- 
ably refer to tragedies of a new kind, namely, 
such as were not borrowed from the Greek, 
but contained subjects entirely new, taken from 
Roman story. Pollio also enjoyed great repu- 
tation as a critic, but he is chiefly known in this 
capacity for the severe judgment which he pass- 
ed upon his great contemporaries. Thus he 
pointed out many mistakes in the speeches of 
Cicero, censured the Commentaries of Caesar 
for their want of historical fidelity, and found 
fault with Sallust for affectation in the use of 
antiquated words and expressions. He also 
complained of a certain Patavinity in Livy, re- 
specting which some remarks are made in the 
life of Livy (p. 444, b). Pollio had a son, C. 
Asinius Gallus Saloninus. Vid. p. 320. Asin- 
ius Gallus married Vipsania, the former wife of 
Tiberius, by whom he had several children, 
namely : 1. Asinius Saloninus. 2. Asinius Gal- 
lus. 3. Asinius Pollio, consul A.D. 23. 4, Asin 
ius Agrippa, consul A.D. 25. 5. Asinius Celer. 
[Pollio, Trebellicjs. Vid. Trebellius.] 
Pollio, Vedius, a Roman eques and a friend 

687 



POLLUSCA. 

oi Augustus, was by' birth a freedman, and has 
obtained a place in history on account of his 
riches and his cruelty. He was accustomed to 
feed his lampreys with human flesh, and when- 
ever a slave displeased him, the unfortunate 
wretcli was forthwith thiown into the pond as 
food for the fish. On one occasion Augustus 
was supping with him, when a slave had the 
misfortune to break a crystal goblet, and his 
master immediately ordered him to be thrown 
to the fishes. The slave fell at the feet of Au- 
gustus, praying for mercy ; and when the em- 
peror could not prevail upon Pollio to pardon 
him, he dismissed the slave of his own accord, 
and commanded all Pollio's crystal goblets to 
be broken and the fish-pond to be filled up. Pol- 
lio died B.C. 15, leaving a large part of his prop- 
erty to Augustus. It was this Pollio who built 
the celebrated villa of Pausilypum near Naples. 

[Pollusca, a city of the Volsci in Latium, 
belonging to the territory of Antium ; accord- 
ing to Nibby, the modern Casal della Mandria, 
with ruins of old fortifications.] 

Pollux or Polydeuces. Vid. Dioscuri. 

Pollux, Julius ('1ov?ao£ Holvdevar^). 1. Of 
Naucratis in Egypt, was a Greek sophist and 
grammarian. He studied rhetoric at Athens 
under the sophist Adrian, and afterward opened 
a private school in the city, where he gave in- 
struction in grammar and rhetoric. At a later 
time he was appointed by the Emperor Corn- 
modus to the chair of rhetoric at Athens. He 
died during the reign of Commodus at the age 
of fifty-eight. We may therefore assign A.D. 
183 as the year in which he flourished. He 
seems to have been attacked by many of his 
contemporaries on account of the inferior char- 
acter of his oratory, and especially by Lucian in 
his 'Vriropuv 6idaGKaXog. Pollux was the author 
of several works, all of which have perished, 
with the exception of the Onomasticon. This 
work is divided into ten books, each of which 
contains a short dedication to the Ccesar Com- 
modus : it was therefore published before A.D. 
177, since Commodus became Augustus in that 
year. Each book forms a separate treatise by 
itself, containing the most important words re- 
lating to certain subjects, with short explana- 
tions of the meanings of the words. The alpha- 
betical arrangement is not adopted, but the 
words are given according to the subjects treat- 
ed of in each book. The best editions are by 
Lederlin and Hemsterhuis, Amsterdam, 1706 ; 
by Dindorf, Lips., 1824 ; and by Imm. Bekker, 
Berol., 1846. — 2. A Byzantine writer, the au- 
thor of a Chronicon, which treats at some length 
of the creation of the world, and is therefore 
entitled 'laropia fvaitci}. Like most other By- 
zantine histories, it is a universal history, be- 
ginning with the creation of the world, and com- 
ing down to the time of the writer. The two 
manuscripts from which this work is published 
end with the reign of Valens, but the Paris man- 
uscript is said to come down as low as the death 
of Romanus, A.D. 963. The best edition is by 
Hardt, Munich, 1792. 

Polus (LIwAof). 1. A sophist and rhetorician, 
a native of Agrigentum. He was a disciple of 
Gorgias, and wrote a treatise on rhetoric, as 
well as other works mentioned by Suidas. He 
is introduced by Plato as an interlocutor in the 
688 



POLYBIUS. 

Gorgias. — 2. A celebrated tragic actor, the son 
of Charicles of Sunium, and a disciple of Archi- 
as ofThurii. It is related of him, that at the 
age of seventy, shortly before his death, he act- 
ed in eight tragedies on four successive days. 

PoLYiEGos (IloWajyof : now Polybos or An- 
timelos), an uninhabited island in the iEgean ! 
Sea, near Melos. 

Poly^enus (IloWaivof). 1. Of Lampsaeus, a j 
mathematician and a friend of Epicurus, adopt- I 
ed the philosophical system of his friend, and, r 
although he had previously acquired great rep- ' 
utation as a mathematician, he now maintained [ 
with Epicurus the worthlessness of geometry. [ 
— 2. Of Sardis, a sophist, lived in the time ol 
Julius Csesar. He is the author of four epi- ; 
grams in the Greek Anthology. His full name ] 
was Julius Polyanus. — 3. The Macedonian, the 1 
author of the work on Stratagems in war (2-pa- 
rrjyrifj.aTa), which is still extant, lived about the 
middle of the second century of the Christian 
era. Suidas calls him a rhetorician, and we 
learn from Polyeenus himself that he was ac- 
customed to plead causes before the emperor. 
He dedicated his work to M. Aurelius and Verus, \ 
while they were engaged in the Parthian war, j 
about A.D. 163, at which time, he says, he was ' 
too old to accompany them in their campaigns. 
This work is divided into eight books, of which 
the first six contain an account of the strata- ' 
gems of the most celebrated Greek generals, \. 
the seventh of those of barbarous or foreign peo- j 
pie, and the eighth of the Romans and illustri- I 
ous women. Parts, however, of the sixth and ' 
seventh books are lost, so that of the nine hund- t 
red stratagems which Polyaenus described, only L 
eight hundred and thirty-three have come down 1 
to us. The work is written in a clear and pleas- 
ing style, though somewhat tinged with the ar- 
tificial rhetoric of the age. It contains a vast U 
number of anecdotes respecting many of the U 
most celebrated men in antiquity ; but its value ' 
as a historical authority is very much dimin- 1 
ished by the little judgment which the author i! 
evidently possessed, and by our ignorance of the L] 
sources from which he took his statements. The i j 
best editions are by Maasvicius, Leyden, 1690 ; 1 
by Mursinna, Berlin, 1756 ; and by Coray, Paris, C 
1809. 

Polybius (noAufoof). 1. The historian, the ! 
son of Lycortas, and a native of Megalopolis, in $ 
Arcadia, was born about B.C. 204. His father j 
Lycortas was one of the most distinguished J 
men of the Achaean league ; and Polybius re- 3 
ceived the advantages of his father's instruction | 
in political knowledge and the military art. He j j 
must also have reaped great benefit from his u 
intercourse with Philopoemen, who was a friend J 
of his father's, and on whose death in 182 Po- 
lybius carried the urn in which his ashes were jJ 
deposited. In the following year Polybius was Q 
appointed one of the ambassadors to Egypt, but 
he did not leave Greece, as the intention of 
sending an embassy was abandoned. Fror* ! 
this time he probably began to take part in pub 
lie affairs, and he appears to have soon obtainei J 
great influence among his countrymen. Aftei ' 
the conquest of Macedonia in 1,68, the Romar ' 
commissioners, who were sent into the soutlj i 
of Greece, commanded, at the instigation oi 
Callicrates, that one thousand Achaeans shouU [ 



POLYBIUS 



POLYBIUS. 



be carriec *3 Rome, to answer the charge of 
not having assisted the Romans against Per- 
seus. This number included all the best and 
noblest part of the nation, and among them 
was Polybius. They arrived in Italy in B.C. 
107, but, instead of being put upon their trial, 
they were distributed among the Etruscan 
towns. Polybius was more fortunate than the 
rest of his countrymen. He had probably be- 
come acquainted in Greece with iEmilius Pau- 
lus. or his sons Fabius and Scipio, and the two 
young men now obtained permission from the 
praetor for Polybius to reside at Rome in the 
house of their father Paulus. Scipio was then 
eighteen years of age, and soon became warmly 
attached to Polybius. Scipio was accompanied 
by his friend in all his military expeditions, and 
received much advantage from his experience 
and knowledge. Polybius, on the other hand, 
besides finding a liberal patron and protector in 
Scipio, was able by his means to obtain access 
to public documents, and to accumulate mate- 
rials for his great historical work. After re- 
maining in Italy seventeen years, Polybius re- 
turned to Peloponnesus in 151, with the surviv- 
ing Achaean exiles, who were at length allowed 
by the senate to revisit their native land. He 
did not, however, remain long in Greece. He 
joined Scipio in his campaign against Carthage, 
and was present at the destruction of that city 
in 146. Immediately afterward he hurried to 
Greece, where the Achaeans were waging a mad 
and hopeless war against the Romans. He ap- 
pears to have arrived in Greece soon after the 
capture of Corinth ; and he exerted all his in- 
fluence to alleviate the misfortunes of his coun- 
trymen, and to procure favorable terms for them. 
His grateful fellow-countrymen acknowledged 
the great services he had rendered them, and 
statues were erected to his honor at Megalopo- 
lis, Mantinea, Pallantium, Tegea, and other 
places. Polybius seems now to have devoted 
himself to the composition of the great histor- 
ical work for which he had long been collect- 
ing materials. At what period of his life he 
made the journeys into foreign countries for 
the purpose of visiting the places which he had 
to describe in his history, it is impossible to 
determine. He tells us (iii., 59) that he under- 
took long and dangerous journeys into Africa, 
Spain, Gaul, and even as far as the Atlantic, on 
account of the ignorance which prevailed re- 
specting those parts. Some of these countries 
he visited while serving under Scipio, who af- 
forded him every facility for the prosecution of 
his design. At a later period of his life he 
visited Egypt likewise. He probably accom- 
panied Scipio to Spain in 134, and was present 
at the fall of Numantia, since Cicero states (ad 
Fam., v., 12) that Polybius wrote a history of 
the Numantine war. He died at the age of 
eighty-two, in consequence of a fall from his 
horse, about 122. The history of Polybius con- 
sisted of forty books. It began B.C. 220, where 
the history of Aratus left off, and ended at 146, 
in which year Corinth was destroyed, and the 
independence of Greece perished. It consisted 
of two distinct parts, which were probably pub- 
lished at different times, and afterward united 
into one work. The first part comprised a 
period of thirty-five years, beginning with the 



second Punic war, and the Social war in Greece, 
and ending with the conquest of Perseus and 
the downfall of the Macedonian kingdom in 168. 
This was, in fact, the main portion of his work, 
and its great object was to show how the Ro- 
mans had in this brief period of fifty-three years 
conquered the. greater part of the world ; but 
since the Greeks were ignorant for the most 
part of the early history of Rome, he gives a 
survey of Roman history from the taking of the 
city by the Gauls to the commencement of the 
second Punic war, in the first two books, which 
thus form an introduction to the body of the 
work. With the fall of the Macedonian king- 
dom the supremacy of the Roman dominion 
was decided, and nothing more remained for 
the other nations of the world than to yield sub- 
mission to the R.omans. The second part of 
the work, which formed a kind of supplement 
to the former part, comprised the period from 
the conquest of Perseus in 168 to the fall of 
Corinth in 146. The history of the conquest 
of Greece seems to have been completed in the 
thirty-ninth book ; and the fortieth book proba- 
bly contained a chronological summary of the 
whole work. The history of Polybius is one 
of the most valuable works that has come down 
to us from antiquity. He had a clear apprehen- 
sion of the knowledge which a historian must 
possess ; and his preparatory studies were car- 
ried on with the greatest energy and persever- 
ance. Thus he not only collected with accu- 
racy and care an account of the events that he 
intended to narrate, but he also studied the 
history of the Roman constitution, and made 
distant journeys to become acquainted with the 
geography of the countries that he had to de- 
scribe in his work. In addition to this, he had 
a strong judgment and a striking love of truth, 
and, from having himself taken an active part 
in political life, he was able to judge of the 
motives and actions of the great actors in his- 
tory in a way that no mere scholar or rhetorician 
could possibly do. But the characteristic feat- 
ure of his work, and the one which distinguishes 
it from all other histories which have come 
down to us from antiquity, is its didactic nature. 
He did not, like other historians, write to afford 
amusement to his readers ; his object was to 
teach by the past a knowledge of the future, 
and to deduce from previous events lessons of 
practical wisdom. Hence he calls his work a 
Pragmateia (-rrpay/xaTcta), and not a History (io- 
Topia). The value of history consisted, in his 
opinion, in the instruction that might be obtain- 
ed from it. Thus the narrative of events be- 
came in his view of secondary importance ; 
they formed only the text of the political and 
moral discourses which it was the province of 
the historian to deliver. Excellent, however, 
as these discourses are, they materially detract 
from the merits of the history as a work of art ; 
their frequent occurrence interrupts the conti- 
nuity of the narrative, and destroys, to a great 
extent, the interest of the reader in the scenes 
which are described. Moreover, he frequently 
inserts long episodes, which have little con- 
nection with the main subject of his work, be- 
cause they have a didactic tendency. Thus wc- 
find that one whole book (the sixth) was de 
voted to a history of the Roman constitution 

689 



i 



POLYBOTES. 



POLYCLES. 



and the thirty- fourth book seems to have been 
exclusively a treatise on geography. The style 
of Polybius bears the impress of his mind ; and 
as instruction, and not amusement, was the great 
object for which he wrote, he did not seek to 
please his readers by the choice of his phrases 
or the composition of his sentences. Hence 
the later Greek critics were severe in their con- 
demnation of his style. The greater part of 
the history of Polybius has perished. We pos- 
sess the first five books entire, but of the rest 
we have only fragments and extracts, some of 
which, however, are of considerable length, 
such as the account of the Roman army, which 
belonged to the sixth book. There have been 
discovered at different times four distinct col- 
lections of extracts from the lost books. The 
first collection, discovered soon after the revival 
of learning in a MS. brought from Corfu, con- 
tained the greater part of the sixth book, and 
portions of the following eleven. In 1582 Ursi- 
nus published at Antwerp a second collection 
of Extracts, entitled Excerpta. de Legationibus, 
which were made in the tenth century of the 
Christian era by order of Constantinus Por- 
phyrogenitus. In 1634, Valesius published a 
third collection of extracts from Polybius, also 
taken from the Excerpta of Constantinus, en- 
titled Excerpta de Virtutibus et Vitiis. The 
fourth collection of extracts was published at 
Rome in 1827 by Angelo Mai, who discovered 
in the Vatican library at Rome the section of 
the Excerpta of Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, 
entitled Excerpta de Scntentiis. The best edi- 
tion of Polybius with a commentary is by 
Schweighseuser, Lips., 1789-1795, 8 vols. 8vo. 
The best edition of the text alone is by Bekker 
(Berol., 1844, 2 vols. 8vo), who has added the 
Vatican fragments. Livy did not use Polybius 
till he came to the second Punic war, but from 
that time he followed him very closely. Cicero 
likewise chiefly followed Polybius in the ac- 
count which he gives of the Roman constitution 
in his Be Republica. The history of Polybius 
was continued by Posidonius and Strabo. Vid. 
Posidonius, Strabo. Besides the great his- 
torical work of which we have been speaking, 
Polybius wrote, 2. The Life of Philopcemen, in 
three books. 3. A treatise on Tactics. 4. A 
History of the Numantine War. — 2. A freedman 
of the Emperor Augustus, read in the senate 
the will of the emperor after his decease. — 3. A 
favorite freedman of the Emperor Claudius. 
He was the companion of the studies of Clau- 
dius ; and on the death of his brother, Seneca 
addressed to him a Consolatio, in which he be- 
stows the highest praises upon his literary at- 
tainments. Polybius was put to d?ath through 
the intrigues of Messalina, althoug'n he had been 
one of her paramours. 

Polybotes {JloXvduTTjc), one of the giants 
who fought against the gods, was pursued by 
Neptune (Poseidon) across the sea as far as the 
island of Cos. There Neptune (Poseidon) tore 
away a part of the island, which was afterward 
called Nisyrion, and, throwing it upon the giant, 
buried him under it. 

Polyb5tus (TIoXvOotoc : ruins at Bulawadin), 
a city of Great Phrygia, east of Synnada. 

Polybus (Tlol-vBoc). 1. King of Corinth, by 
whom GCdipus was brought up. Vid. CEdipus. 
690 



He was the husband of Peribosa or Merope. 
Pausanias makes him king of Sicyon, and de- 
scribes him as a son of Mercury (Hermes) and 
Chthonophyie, and as the father of Lysianassa, 
whom he gave in marriage to Talaus, king of 
the Argives. — [2. A Trojan warrior, son of An- 
tenor. — 3. Husband of Alcandra, king of Egyp- 
tian Thebes, guest-friend of Menelaus. — 4. An 
Ithacan, father of the suitor Eurymachus. — 5. 
One of the suitors of Penelope, slain by Euma?- 
us. — 6. A Phaeacian mentioned in the Odys- 
sey.] — 7. A Greek physician, one of the pupils 
of Hippocrates, was also his son-in-law, and 
lived in the island of Cos, in the fourth century 
B.C. Polybus, with his brothers-in-law, Thes- 
salus and Dracon, were the founders of the an- 
cient medical sect of the Dogmatici. He was 
sent abroad by Hippocrates, with his fellow- 
pupils, during the time of the plague, to assist 
different cities with his medical skill, and he 
afterward remained in his native country. He 
has been supposed, both by ancient and modern 
critics, to be the author of several treatises in 
the Hippocratic collection. 

Polycarpus (noMnapTroc), one of the apos- 
tolical fathers, was a native of Smyrna. The 
date of his birth and of his martyrdom are un- 
certain. He is said to have been a disciple of 
the apostle John, and to have been consecrated 
by this apostle bishop of the church at Smyrna. 
It has been conjectured that he was the angel ' 
of the church of Smyrna to whom Christ di- 
rected the letter in the Apocalypse (ii., 8-11) ; 
and it is certain that he was bishop of Smyrna 
at the time when Ignatius of Antioch passed j 
through that city on his way to suffer death at | 
Rome, some time between 107 and 116. Igna 
tius seems to have enjoyed much this inter- 
course with Polycarp, whom he had known in 
former days, when they were both hearers of 
the apostle John. The martyrdom of Polycarp \ 
occurred in the persecution under the emperors i 
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. As he 
was led to death, the proconsul offered him his 
life if he would revile Christ. "Eighty and j 
six years have I served him," was the reply, 
" and he never did me wrong : how, then, can I | 
revile my King and my Saviour V' We have | 
remaining only one short piece of Polycarp, his 
Letter to the Philippians, which is published along 1 
with Ignatius and the other apostolical writers, i 
Vid. Ignatius. 

[Polycaste (Xlo'hvKaaTjf). 1. Daughter of 
Lygaeus, wife of Icarius, mother of Penelope, j 
— 2. Daughter of Nestor and Anaxibia, wife of [ 
Telemachus, to whom she bore Perseptolis.] 

Polycles (rto/Ui/cAr/f). 1. The name of two >. 
artists. The elder Polycles was probably an 
Athenian, and flourished about B.C. 370. He 
appears to have been one of the artists of the j 
later Athenian school, who obtained great ce- 
lebrity by the sensual charms exhibited in their 
works. One of his chief works was a celebrated 
statue of an Hermaphrodite. The younger ; 
Polycles is placed by Pliny in 155, and is said 
to have made a statue of Juno, which was placed 
in the portico of Octavia at Rome, when that 
portico was erected by Metellus Macedonicus. 
But since most of the works of art with which 
Metellus decorated his portico were not the j 
original productions of living artists, but th* | 



POLYCLETUS. 



FOLYCRATES. 



works of former masters, it has been conjec- 
tured that this Polycles may be no other than 
the Athenian artist already mentioned. — [2. A 
famous athlete, often crowned at the four great 
games of G reece : his statue was placed in the 
sacred grove at Olympia.] 

Pjlycletus {XlohviclciTos). 1. The Elder, of 
Argos, probably by citizenship, and of Sicyon, 
probably by birth, was one of the most cele- 
brated statuaries of the ancient world ; he was 
also a sculptor, an architect, and an artist in 
toreutic. He was the pupil of the great Argive 
statuary Ageladas, under whom he had Phidias 
and Myron for his fellow-disciples. He was 
somewhat youngei than Phidias, and about the 
same age as Myron. He flourished about B.C. 
452-412. Of his personal history we know 
nothing further. As an artist, he stood at the 
head of the schools of Argos and Sicyon, and 
approached more nearly than any other to an 
equality with Phidias, the great head of the 
Athenian school. The essential difference be- 
tween these artists was that Phidias was un- 
surpassed in making the images of the gods, 
Polycletus in those of men. One of the most 
celebrated works of Polycletus was his Bory- 
phorus or Spear-bearer, a youthful figure, but 
with the full proportions of a man. This was 
the statue which became known by the name 
of Canon, because in it the artist had embodied 
a perfect representation of the ideal of the hu- 
man figure. Another of his great works was 
his ivory and gold statue of Juno (Hera) in her 
temple between Argos and Mycena?. This 
work was executed by the artist in his old age, 
and was doubtless intended by him to rival 
Phidias's chryselephantine statues of Minerva 
(Athena) and of Jupiter (Zeus), though it was 
surpassed by them in costliness and size. The 
goddess was seated on a throne, her head 
crowned with a garland, on which were work- 
ed the Graces and the Hours, the one hand 
holding the symbolical pomegranate, and the 
other a sceptre, surmounted by a cuckoo, a bird 
sacred to Juno (Hera) on account of her having 
been once seduced by Jupiter (Zeus) under that 
form. This statue remained always the ideal 
model of Juno (Hera). In the department of 
toreutic, the fame of Polycletus no doubt rest- 
ed chiefly on the golden ornaments of his statue 
of Juno (Hera) ; but he also made small bronzes 
(sigilla) and drinking- vessels (phiala). As an 
architect, Polycletus obtained great celebrity by 
the theatre, and the circular building {tholus) ! 
which he built in the sacred inclosure of ^Es- ! 
culapius at Epidaurus. — 2. The Younger, also a 
statuary of Argos, of whom very little is known, 
because his fame was eclipsed by that of his 
more celebrated namesake, and, in part, con- 
temporary. The younger Polycletus may be 
placed about 400. — 3. Of Larissa, a Greek his- 
torian, and one of the numerous writers of the 
history of Alexander the Great. [Most of the 
extracts from his histories refer to the geogra- 
phy of the countries which Alexander invaded. 
They are collected, with a notice of the author, 
by C. Miiller, in his Scriptores Rerum Alexandri 
Magni, p. 129-33, in Didot's Bibliotheca Graeca, 
Paris, 1846.] — 4. A favorite freedman of Nero, 
who sent him into Britain to inspect the state 
of the island. 



Pol yc rates {TlolvKparnc). 1. OfSamos, one 
of the most fortunate, ambitious, and treacher- 
ous of the Greek tyrants. With the assistance 
of his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson, he 
made himself master of the island toward the 
latter end of the reign of Cyrus. At first he 
shared the supreme power with his brothers ; 
but he shortly afterward put Pantagnotus to 
death, and banished Syloson. Having thus bp- 
come sole despot, he raised a powerful fleet, 
and extended his sway over several of the 
neighboring islands, and even conquered some 
towns on the main land. He had formed an al 
liance with Amasis, king of Egypt, who, how- 
ever, finally renounced it through alarm at the 
; amazing good fortune of Polycrates, which never 
j met with any check or disaster, and which there- 
| fore was sure, sooner or later, to incur the envy 
of the gods. Such, at least, is the account of 
Herodotus, who has narrated the story of.the 
rupture between Amasis and Polycrates in his 
most dramatic manner. In a letter which Ama- 
sis wrote to Polycrates, the Egyptian monarch 
advised him to throw away one of his most val- 
uable possessions, in order that he might thus 
inflict some injury upon himself. In accord- 
ance with this advice, Polycrates threw into the 
sea a seal-ring of extraordinary beauty ; but in 
a few days it was found in the belly of a fish, 
which had been presented to him by a fisher- 
man. In the reign of Cambyses, the Spartans 
and Corinthians sent a powerful force to Samos 
in order to depose the tyrant ; but their expe- 
dition failed, and after besieging the city forty 
days, they left the island. The power of Poly- 
crates now became greater than ever. The 
great works which Herodotus saw at Samos 
were probably executed by him. He lived in 
great pomp and luxury, and, like others of the 
Greek tyrants, was a patron of literature and 
the arts. The most eminent artists and poets 
found a ready welcome at his court, and his 
friendship for Anacreon is particularly cele- 
brated. But in the midst of all his prosperity 
he fell by the most ignominious fate. Orcetes, 
the satrap of Sardis, had formed a deadly hatred 
against Polycrates. By false pretences, the sa- 
trap contrived to allure him to the main land, 
where he was arrested soon after his arrival, 
and crucified, 522. — 2. An Athenian rhetorician 
and sophist of some repute, a contemporary of 
Socrates and Isocrates, taught first at Athens 
and afterward at Cyprus. He was the teach- 
er of Zoilus. He wrote, 1. An accusation 
of Socrates, which was a declamation on the 
subject, composed some years after the death 
of the philosopher. 2. A defence of Busiris. 
The oration of Isocrates, entitled Busiris, is ad- 
dressed to Polycrates, and points out the faults 
which the latter had committed in his oration 
on this subject. 3. An obscene poem, which 
he published under the name of the poetess Phi- 
laenis, for the purpose of injuring her reputatioo 
— [3. An Athenian, a lochagus in the army of 
the Greek auxiliaries of the younger Cyrus, a 
friend of Xenophon, whom he defended on one 
occasion. — 4. Descended from an illustrious 
family at Argos, went to the court of Ptolemy 
Philopator, and proved of great service in drill- 
ing the Egyptian troops. He corrimanded the 
cavalry on the left wing e\ the battle of Raphia 

691 



POLYCTOR. 



POLYIDUS. 



in B.C. 217 against Antiochus III., in which 
Antiochus was defeated, and which secured to 
Ptolemy the provinces of Ccelesyria, Phoenicia, 
md Palestine. Although young, Polycrates was 
appointed governor of Cyprus, which office he 
filled with ability and integrity. In his later 
years he appears to have changed for the worse, 
and to have indulged in every vice.] 

[Polyctor (Uo?i.vktg)p), son of Pterelaus, a 
prince of Ithaca. A place in Ithaca, Polycto- 
rium, was believed to have derived its name 
from him.] 

Polydamas (Tlolvdufias). 1. Son of Panthous 
and Phrontis, was a Trojan hero, a friend of 
Hector, and brother of Euphorbus. — 2. Of Sco- 
tuissa in Thessaly, son of Nicias, conquered in 
ths Pancratium at the Olympic games in 01. 93, 
13 C. 408. His size was immense, and the most 
marvellous stories are related of his strength, 
how he killed without arms a huge and fierce 
lion'on Mount Olympus, how he stopped a char- 
iot at fell gallop, &c. His reputation led the 
Persian king, Darius Ochus, to invite him to 
his court, where he performed similar feats. — 
3. Of Pharsalus in Thessaly, was intrusted by 
his fellow-citizens, about B.C. 375, with the su- 
preme government of their native town. He 
afterward entered into a treaty with Jason of 
Pherae. On the murder of Jason in 370, his 
brother Polyphron put to death Polydamas. 

Polydectes {JloXvdiKTnc). 1. King of the 
island of Seriphos, was son of Magnes, and 
brother of Dictys. He received kindly DanaK 
and Perseus, when the chest in which they had 
been exposed by Acrisius floated to the island 
of Seriphos. His story is related under Per- 
seus. — 2. King of Sparta, was the eldest son of 
Eunomus, the brother of Lycurgus the lawgiver, 
and the father of Charilaiis, who succeeded 
him. Herodotus, contrary to the other authori- 
ties, makes Polydectes the father of Eunomus. 

Polydeuces (JlokvievKw ), one of the Dioscuri, 
and the twin-brother of Castor, called by the 
Romans Pollux. Vid. Dioscuri. 

[Polydora (UoXviupa). 1. A daughter of 
Oceanus andTethys.— 2. Daughter of Meleager 
and Cleopatra, was married to Protesilaus, after 
whose death she made away with herself — 3. 
Daughter of Peleus and Antigone was a sister 
of Achilles, and married to Spercheius or Bonis, 
by whom she became the mother of Menesthius.] 

Polydorus (UolvSupos). h King of Thebes, 
son of Cadmus and Harmonia, husband of Nyc- 
te'is, and father of Labdaeus. — 2. The youngest 
among the sons of Priam and Laothoe, was 
slain by Achilles. This is the Homeric ac- 
count ; but later traditions make him a son of 
Priam and Hecuba, and give a different account 
of his death. One tradition relates that, when 
Ilium was on the point of falling into the handa 
of the Greeks, Priam intrusted Polydorus and a 
targe sum of money to Polymestor or Polym- 
nestor, king of theThracian Chersonesus. Aft- 
er the destruction of Troy, Polymestor killed 
Polydorus for the purpose of getting possession 
of his treasures, and cast his body into the sea. 
His body was afterward washed upon the coast, 
where it was found and recognized by his moth- 
ei Hecuba, who, together with other Trojan cap- 
tives, took Vengeance upon Polymestor by kill- 
ing his two children, and putting out his eyes. 
692 



Another tradition stated that Polydorus was in- 
trusted to his sister Iliona, who was married to 
Polymestor. She brought him up as her own 
son, while she made every one else believe that 
her own son Dei'philus or Dei'pylus was Poly- 
dorus. The Greeks, anxious to destroy the 
race of Priam, promised to Polymestor Electra 
for his wife, and a large amount of gold, if he 
would kill Polydorus. Polymestor was pre- 
vailed upon, and he accordingly slew his own 
son. Polydorus thereupon persuaded his sis- 
ter Iliona to kill Polymestor. — 3. King of Sparta, 
was the son of Alcamenes and the father of 
Eurycrates, who succeeded him. He assisted 
in bringing the first Messenian war to a conclu- 
sion, B.C. 724. He was murdered by Polemar- 
chus, a Spartan of high family ; but his name 
was precious among his people on account of his 
justice and kindness. Crotona and the Epi- 
zephyrian Locri were founded in his reign. — 4. 
Brother of Jason of Pherae, obtained the su- 
preme power, along with his brother Polyphron, 
on the death of Jason in B.C. 370, but was 
shortly afterward assassinated by Polyphron. — 
5. A sculptor of Rhodes, one of the associates 
of Agesander, in the execution of the celebrated 
group of the Laocoon. Vid. Agesander. 

Polyeuctus (TIoXvsvktoc), an Athenian orator 
of the demus Sphettus, was a political friend of 
Demosthenes, with whom he worked in resist- 
ing the Macedonian party. 

Polygnotus (Ilo^jjyvurof), one of the most 
celebrated Greek painters, was a native of the 
island of Thasos, and was honored with the citi- 
zenship of Athens, on which account he is some- 
times called an Athenian. His father, Aglao- 
phon, was his instructor in his art ; and he had 
a brother, named Aristophon, who was also a 
painter. Polygnotus lived on intimate terms 
with Cimon and his sister Elpinice ; and he 
probably came to Athens in B.C. 463, after the 
subjugation of Thasos by Cimon. He appears 
to have been at that time an artist of some repu- 
tation, and he continued to exercise his art al- 
most down to the beginning of the Peloponne- 
sian war (431). The period of his greatest ar- 
tistic activity at Athens seems to have been 
that which elapsed from his removal to Athens 
(463) to the death of Cimon (449), who employ- 
ed him in the pictorial decoration of the public 
buildings with which he began to adorn the 
city, such as the temple of Theseus, the Ana- 
ceum, and the Pcecile. He afterward went to 
Delphi, when he was employed with other art- 
ists in decorating the buildings connected with 
the temple. He appears to have returned to 
Athens about 435, where he executed a series 
of paintings in the Propylaea of the Acropolis. 
The Propylaea were commenced in 437, and 
completed in 432. The subjects of the pictures 
of Polygnotus were almost invariably taken from 
Homer and the other poets of the epic cycle. 
They appear to have been mostly painted on 
panels, which were afterward let into the walls 
where they were to remain. 
Polyhymnia. Vid. Polyjinia. 
Polyidus (UoM'iSog). 1. Son of Cceranus, 
grandson of Abas, and great-grandson of Me- 
lampus. JHe was, like his ancestor Melampus, 
a celebrated soothsayer at Corinth, and is de- 
scribed as the father of Euchenor, Astycratla 



i ULYMEDIllM. 



POLYXENA. 



and Manto. When Alcathous had murdered 
his own son Callipolis at Megara, he was puri- 
fied by Polyidus, who erected at Megara a sanc- 
tuary to Bacchus (Dionysus), and a statue of 
the god. — 2. A dithyrambic poet of the most 
flourishing period of the later Athenian dithy- 
ramb, and also skillful as a painter, was con- 
temporary with Philoxenus, Timotheus, and 
Telestes, about B.C. 400. 

[Polymedium (Ilo/U'^fStov), a village of the 
Mysian district Troas, forty stadia from the 
promontory of Leetum, and in the neighbor- 
hood of Assus.] 

[Polymele (HoA^At?), daughter of Phylas, 
wife of Echecles, by Mercury (Hermes) mother 
of Eudorus.] 

[Polymelus (IToA^Aof), a Trojan warrior, 
slain by Patroclus before Troy.] 

PoLYMESTOR Or PoLYMNESTOR. Vid. PoLY- 
DORUS. 

PoLYMNESTUS OrPoLYMNASTUS (ILoAVflVJ]GTOC ), 

the son of Meles of Colophon, m . tn epic, ele- 
giac, and lyric poet, and a musician. He flour- 
ished B.C. 675-644. He belongs to the school 
of Dorian music, which flourished at this time 
at Sparta, where he carried on the improve- 
ments of Thaletas. The Attic comedians at- 
tacked his poems for their erotic character. 
As an elegiac poet, he may be regarded as the 
predecessor of his fellow-countryman, Mimner- 
mus. 

[Polymnestus (TLo/ivfivnaTog ). Vid. Phroni- 

«CA.] 

Polymnia or Polyhymnia (XloTivfivLa), daugh- 
ier of Jupiter (Zeus), and one of the nine Muses. 
She presided over lyric poetry, and was believed 
to have invented the lyre. In works of art she 
was usually represented in a pensive attitude. 
Vid. M.USM. 

Polynices {XIoIweUtk), son of CEdipus and 
Jocasta, and brother of Eteocles and Antigone. 
His story is given under Eteocles and Adras- 
tus. 

[Polyp.udes. Vid. Theognis.] 

Polyphemus (UoXixbrifioc). 1. Son of Neptune 
^Poseidon) and the nymph Thoosa, was one of 
the Cyclopes in Sicily. Vid. Cyclopes. He is 
represented as a gigantic monster, having only 
one eye in the centre of his forehead, caring 
nought for the gods, and devouring human flesh. 
He dwelt in a cave near Mount ^Etna, and fed 
his flocks upon the mountain. He fell in love 
with the nymph Galatea, but as she rejected 
him for Acis, he destroyed the latter by crush- 
ing him under a huge rock. When Ulysses was 
driven upon Sicily, Polyphemus devoured some 
of his companions ; and Ulysses would have 
shared the same fate, had he not put out the 
eye of the monster while he was asleep. Vid. 
Ulysses. — 2. Son of Elatus or Neptune (Po- 
seidon) and Hippea, was one of the Lapithae at 
Larissa in Thessaly. He was married to Lao- 
nome, a sister of Hercules. He was also one 
of the Argonauts, but being left behind by them 
in Mysia, he founded Cios, and fell fighting 
against the Chalybes. 

Polyphron (TloM<ppo)v), brother of Jason of 
Pheraj, succeeded to the supreme power with 
nis brother Polydorus on the death of Jason in 
B.C. 370. Shortly afterward he murdered Poly- 
dorus. He exercised his power with great 



I cruelty, and was murdered in his turn, 369, by 
j his nephew Alexander, who proved a still great- 
j er tyrant. 

Polypcetes (rLoXvnohrji), son of Pirithouj 
and Hippodamia, was one of the Lapithas, and 
joined the Greeks in the Trojan war. 

Polyrrhenia or -Yum (HoXvpprjvia : HoXvppf/- 
vioc), a town in Crete, whose territory embraced 
the whole western corner of the island. It pos- 
] sessed a sanctuary of Dictynna, and is said to 
have been colonized by Achaeans and Laoedas- 
monians. 

PoLYsPERCHON(IToAr)(77rf; ( o / t;u^), a Macedonian, 
and a distinguished officer of Alexander the 
Great. In B.C. 323 he was appointed by Alex- 
ander second in command of the army of in- 
valids and veterans, which Craterus had to con- 
duct home to Macedonia. He afterward served 
under Antipater in Europe, and so great was 
the confidence which the latter reposed in him, 
that Antipater on his death-bed (319) appointed 
Polysperchon to succeed him as regent and 
guardian of the king, while he assigned to his 
own son Cassander the subordinate station of 
chiliarch. Polysperchon soon became involved 
in war with Cassander, who was dissatisfied 
with this arrangement. It was in the course 
of this war that Polysperchon basely surrender- 
ed Phocion to the Athenians, in the hope of 
securing the adherence of Athens. Although 
Polysperchon was supported by Olympias, and 
possessed great influence with the Macedonian 
soldiers, he proved no match for Cassander, and 
was obliged to yield to him possession of Mac- 
edonia about 316. For the next few years Poly- 
sperchon is rarely mentioned, but in 310 he 
again assumed an important part by reviving 
the long-forgotten pretensions of Hercules, the 
son of Alexander and Barsine, to the throne of 
Macedonia. Cassander marched against him, 
but, distrusting the fidelity of his own troops, he 
entered into secret negotiations with Poly- 
sperchon, and persuaded the latter, by prom- 
ises and flatteries, to murder Hercules. From 
this time he appears to have served under Cas- 
sander ; but the period of his death is not men 
tioned. 

[Polystratus {TloTivoTpaxo^). 1. An eminent 
Epicurean philosopher, succeeded Hermarchus 
as the head of the sect, and was himself succeed- 
ed by Dionysius. — 2. An epigrammatic poet, 
who lived probably soon after the taking of Cor- 
inth, B.C. 146 : two of his epigrams are given 
in the Anthology, one of which is on the de- 
struction of Corinth.] 

Polytimetus {Tlo7iVTifii]To^ : now Sogd or Ko- 
hik in Bokhara), a considerable river of Sogdiana, 
which, according to Strabo, vanished under 
ground near Maracanda (now Samarkand), or, 
as Arrian says, was lost in the sands of the 
steppes. 

[Polytropus (UoXvrponoc), leader of a troop 
of mercenaries in the Spartan service, seized 
Orchomenus B.C. 370 ; he fell in an attack 
made by the Mantineans under Lycomedes on 
Orchomenus.] 

Polyxena (noXv^evn), daughter of Priam and 
Hecuba, was beloved by Achilles. When the 
Greeks, on their voyage home, were still linger- 
ing on the coast of Thrace, the shade of Achil- 
les appeared to them, demanding that Polyxena 

693 



POLYXENUS 

should be sacrificed to him. Neoptolemus ac- 
cordingly sacrificed her on the tomb of his fa- 
ther. It was related that Achilles had promised 
Priam to bring about a peace with the Greeks, 
if the king would give him his daughter Polyx- 
ena in marriage ; and that when Achilles had 
gone to the temple of the Thymbraean Apollo, 
lor the purpose of negotiating the marriage, he 
was treacherously killed by Paris. Another 
tradition stated that Achilles and Polyxena fell 
in love with each other when Hector's body was 
delivered up to Priam ; and that Polyxena fled 
to the Greeks after the death of Achilles, and 
killed herself on the tomb of her beloved with 
a sword. 

[Polvienus {JloXv^evoc), son of Agasthenes, 
grandson of Augeas, father of Amphimachus, 
was the loader of the Epeans before Troy.] 

Polyxo (ITo/bfo). 1. The nurse of Queen 
Hypsipyle in Lemnos, was celebrated as a proph- 
etess. — 2. An Argive woman, married to Tlepo- 
lemus, son of Hercules, followed her husband to 
Rhodes, where, according to some traditions, 
she is said to have put to death the celebrated 
Helen. Vid. Helena. 

Polyzelus (JIo/\v"C,ti/\oc). 1. Brother of Hieron, 
the tyrant of Syracuse. Vid. Hieron. — 2. Of 
Rhodes, an historian, of uncertain date, wrote 
a history of his native country. — 3. An Athenian 
comic poet, belonging to the last period of the 
Old Comedy and the beginning of the Middle. 
[His fragments are edited by Meineke, in Comic. 
Grac. Fragm., vol. i., p. 477-79, edit, minor.] 

[PoMETIA. Vid. SUESSA PoMETIA.] 

Pomona, the Roman divinity' of the fruit of 
trees, hence called Pomorum Patrona. Her name 
is evidently derived from Pomum. She is rep- 
resented by the poets as beloved by several of 
the rustic divinities, such as Silvanus, Picus, 
Vertumnus, and others. Her worship must orig- 
inally have been of considerable importance, 
since a special priest, under the name of flamen 
Pomonalis, was appointed to attend to her serv- 
ice. 

[PoMPffiDius Silo. Vid. Silo.] 

Pompeia. 1. Daughter of Q. Pompeius Rufus, 
son of the consul of B.C. 88, and of Cornelia, 
the daughter of the dictator Sulla. She mar- 
ried C. Caesar, subsequently the dictator, in 67, 
but was divorced by him in 61, because she 
was suspected of intriguing with Clodius, who 
stealthily introduced himself into her husband's 
house while she was celebrawig the mysteries 
of the Bona Dea. — 2. Sister of Cn. Pompey, the 
triumvir, married C. Memmius, who was killed 
in the war against Sertorius in 75. — 3. Daughter 
of the triumvir by his third wife Mucia. She 
married Faustus Sulla, the son of the dictator, 
who perished in the African war, 46. She aft- 
erward married L. Cornelius Cinna, and her 
son by this marriage, Cn. Cinna Magnus, enter- 
ed into a conspiracy against Augustus. As her 
brother Sextus survived her, she must have died 
before 35. — 4. Daughter of Sextus Pompey, the 
son of the triumvir, and of Scribonia. At the 
peace of Misenum in 39 she was betrothed to 
M. Marcellus, the son of Octavia, the sister of 
Octavianus, but was never married to him. She 
accompanied her father in his flight to Asia, 36. 
— 5. Paulina. Vid. Paulina. 

Pompeunus, Tib. Claudius, son of a Roman 
694 



POMPEIUS. 

1 knight originally from Antioch, rose to the high- 

I est dignities under M. Aurelius. This emperor 

| gave him his daughter Lucilla in marriage. He 

I lived to the reign of Seveius. 

Pompbii (XloiMTTr/ioi, Tlo/iirrua, Tlo/jTTTjta : Pom- 

i peianus), a cily of Campania, was situated or 
the coast, at the mouth of the River Sarnus, and 
at the foot of Mount Vesuvius ; but, in conse 

| quence of the physical changes which the sur 
rounding country has undergone, the ruins of 
Pompeii are found at present about two miles 
from the sea. Pompeii was first in the hands 

] of the Oscans, afterward of the Tyrrhenians, 
and finally became a Roman municipium. It 
was partly destroyed by an earthquake in A.D. 
63, but was overwhelmed in 79, along with 
Herculaneum and Stabiaa, by the great eruption 
of Mount Vesuvius. The lava did not reach 
Pompeii, but the town was covered with suc- 
cessive layers of ashes and other volcanic mat- 
ter, on which a soil was gradually formed. 
Thus a great part of the city has been preserved, 
with its market-places, theatres, baths, temples, 
and private houses ; and the excavation of it in 
modern times has thrown great light upon many 
points of antiquity, such as the coirstruction of 
Roman houses, and, in general, all subjects con- 
nected with the private life of the ancients. The 
first traces of the ancient city were discovered 
in 1689, rising above the ground ; but it was 
not till 1721 that the excavations were com- 
menced. These have been continued with va- 
rious interruptions down to the present day 
and now about half the city is exposed to vievi 
It was surrounded by walls, which were abou- 
two miles in circumference, surmounted at in- 
tervals by towers, and containing six gates. 

Pompeiopolis (Tlofj.TT7iioviTol.ic), the name of 
several cities founded or enlarged by Pompey. 
1. (Now Task Kopri), an inland city of Cappa- 
docia, southwest of Sinope, on the River Am- 
nias (now Gdh Irmak), a western tributary oi 
the Halys. — 2. Vid. Pompelon. — 3. Vid. Solo'e. 

Pompeius. 1. Q. Pompeius, said to have been 
the son of a flute- player, was the first of the 
family who rose to dignity in the state. He was 
consul in 141, when he carried on war against 
the Numantines in Spain. Having been defeat- 
ed by the enemy in several engagements, he con- 
cluded a peace with them ; but on the arrival 
of his successor in the command, he disowned 
the treaty, which was declared invalid by the 
senate. He was censor in 131 with Q. Metel- 
lusMacedonicus. — 2. Q. Pompeius Rupus, either 
son or grandson of the preceding, was a zealous 
supporter of the aristocratical party. He was 
tribune of the plebs 100, praetor 91, and con- 
sul 88, with L. Sulla. When Sulla set out for 
the East to conduct the war against Mithra- 
dates, he left Italy in charge of Pompeius Rufus, 
and assigned to him the army of Cn. Pompeius 
Strabo, who was still engaged in carrying on 
war against the Marsi. Strabo, however, who 
was unwilling to be deprived of the command, 
caused Pompeius Rufus to be murdered by the 
soldiers. Cicero mentions Pompeius Rufus 
among the orators whom he had heard in his 
youth. — 3. Q. Pompeius Rufus, son of No. 2, 
married Sulla's daughter, and was murdered by 
the party of Sulpicius and Marius in the forum 
during the consulship of his father, 88. — 4. Q. 



POMPEIUS. 



POMPEIUS. 



Pompeius Rufus, son of No. 3, and grandson of 
i the dictator Sulla, was tribune of the plebs 52, 
when he distinguished himself as the great par- 
tisan of the triumvir Pompey, and assisted the 
latter in obtaining the sole consulship. Rufus, 
however, on the expiration of his office, was ac- 
cused of Vis, was condemned, and went into 
exile at Bauli in Campania. — 5. Q. Pompeius 
Rufus, praetor 63, was sent to Capua to watch 
over Campania and Apulia during Catiline's 
conspiracy. In 61 he obtained the province 
of Africa, with the title of proconsul. — 6. Sex. 
Pompeius, married Lucilia, a sister of the poet 
C. Lucilius. — 7. Sex. Pompeius, elder son of 
No. 6, never obtained any of the higher offices 
of the state, but acquired great reputation as a 
man of learning, and is praised by Cicero for 
his accurate knowledge of jurisprudence, geom- 
etry, and the Stoic philosophy. — 8. Sex. Pom- 
peius, a descendant of No. 7, consul A.D. 14, 
with Sex. Appuleius, in which year the Emperor 
Augustus died. He seems to have been a pa- 
tron of literature. Ovid addressed him several 
letters during his exile ; and it was probably 
this same Sex. Pompeius whom the writer Va- 
lerius Maximus accompanied to Asia, and of 
whom he speaks as his Alexander. — 9. Cn. Pom- 
peius Strabo, younger son of No. 6, and father 
of the triumvir. He was quaestor in Sardinia 
103, praetor 94, and propraetor in Sicily in the 
following year. He was consul 89, when he 
carried on war with success against the allies, 
subduing the greater number of the Italian peo- 
ple who were still in arms. Toward the end 
of the year he brought forward the law (lex Pom- 
veia) which gave to all the towns of the Trans- 
padani the Jus Latii or Latinitas. He continu- 
ed in the south of Italy as proconsul in the fol- 
lowing year (88), and when Pompeius Rufus 
(No. 2) was appointed to succeed him in the 
command of the army, Strabo caused him to be 
assassinated by the troops. Next year (87) the 
Marian party obtained the upper hand. Strabo 
was summoned by the aristocratical party to 
their assistance ; and, though not active in their 
cause, he marched to the relief of the city, and 
fought a battle near the Colline Gate with Cinna 
and Sertorius. Shortly afterward he was killed 
by lightning. His avarice and cruelty had made 
him hated by the soldiers to such a degree that 
they tore his corpse from the bier and dragged 
it through trie streets. Cicero describes him 
(Brut., 47) " as worthy of hatred on account of 
his cruelty, avarice, and perfidy." He possess- 
ed some reputation as an orator, and still more 
as a general. He left behind him a considerable 
property, especially in Picenum. — 10. On. Pom- 
peius Magnus, the Triumvir, son of No. 9, was 
born on the 30th of September, B,C. 106, in the 
consulship of Atilius Serranus and Servilius 
Caepio, and was, consequently, a few months 
younger than Cicero, who was born on the 3d 
of January in this year, and six years older than 
Ceesar. He fought under his father in 89 against 
the Italians, when he was only seventeen years 
of age, and continued with him till his death 
two years afterward. For the next few years 
the Marian party had possession of Italy ; and 
accordingly Pompey, who adhered to the aristo- 
cratical party, was obliged to keep in the back 
ground. But when it became known in 84 that 



Sulla was on the point of returning from Greece 
to Italy, Pompey hastened into Picenum, where 
he raised an army of three legions. Although 
only twenty-three years of age, Pompey display- 
ed great military abilities in opposing the Marian 
generals by whom he was surrounded ; and when 
he succeeded in joining Sulla in the course of the 
year (83), he was saluted by the latter with the 
title of Itnperator. During the remainder of the 
war in Italy Pompey distinguished himself as 
one of the most successful of Sulla's generals ; 
and when the war in Italy was brought to a 
close, Sulla sent Pompey against the Marian 
parly in Sicily and Africa. Pompey first pro- 
ceeded to Sicily, of which he easily made him- 
self master (82) : here he put Carbo to death. 
In 81 Pompey crossed over to Africa, where he 
defeated Cn. Domitius Ahenorbarbus and the 
Numidian king Hiarbas, after a hard-fought bat- 
tle. On his return to Rome in the same year, 
he was received with enthusiasm by the peo- 
ple, and was greeted by Sulla with the surname 
of Magnus, a name which he bore ever after- 
ward, and handed down to his children. Pom- 
pey. however, not satisfied with this distinction, 
sued for a triumph, which Sulla at first refused ; 
but at length, overcome by Pompey's importu- 
nity, he allowed him to have his own way. Ac- 
cordingly, Pompey, who had not yet held any 
public office, and was still a simple eques, en- 
tered Rome in triumph in September, 81, and 
before he had completed his twenty-fifth year. 
Pompey continued faithful to the aristocracy 
after Sulla's death (78), and supported the con- 
sul Catulus in resisting the attempts of his col- 
league Lepidus to repeal the laws of Sulla; and 
when Lepidus had recourse to arms in the fol- 
lowing year (77), Pompey took an active part in 
the war against him, and succeeded in driving 
him out of Italy. The aristocracy, however, 
now began to fear the young and successful 
general ; but since Sertorius in Spain had for 
the last three years successfully opposed Metel- 
lus Pius, one of the ablest of Sulla's generals, 
and it had become necessary to send the latter 
some effectual assistance, the senate, with con- 
siderable reluctance, determined to send Pom- 
pey to Spain, with the title of proconsul, and 
with equal powers to Metellus. Pompey re- 
mained in Spain between five and six years 
(76-71) ; but neither he nor Metellus was able 
to gain any decisive advantage over Sertorius. 
But when Sertorius was treacherously murder- 
ed by his own officer Perperna in 82, the war 
was speedily brought to a close. Perperna was 
easily defeated by Pompey in the first battle, 
and the whole of Spain was subdued by the 
early part of the following year (71). Pompey 
then returned to Italy at the head of his army. 
In his march toward Rome he fell in with the 
remains of the army of Spartacus, which M. 
Crassus had previously defeated. Pompey cut 
to pieces these fugitives, and therefore claimed 
for himself, in addition to all his other exploits, 
the glory of finishing the Servile war. Pompey 
was now a candidate for the consulship ; and 
although he was ineligible by law, inasmuch as 
he was absent from Rome, had not yet reached 
the legal age, and had not held any of the lower 
offices of the state, still his election was cer- 
tain. His military gbry had charmed the peo 

695 



POMPEIUS. 

pie ; and as it was known that the aristocracy 
looked upon Pompey with jealousy, they ceased 
to regard him as belonging to this party, and 
hoped to obtain, through him, a restoration of 
the rights and privileges of which they had been 
deprived by Sulla. Pompey was accordingly 
elected consul, along with M. Crassus ; and on 
the 31st of December, 71, he entered the city 
a second time in his triumphal car, a simple 
eques. In his consulship (70), Pompey openly 
broke with the aristocracy, and became the 
great popular hero. He proposed and carried 
a law, restoring to the tribunes the power of 
which they had been deprived by Sulla. He 
also afforded his all-powerful aid to the Lex 
Aurelia, proposed by the praetor L. Aurelius 
Cotta, by which the judices were to be taken in 
future from the senatus, equites, and tribuni 
aerarii, instead of from the senators exclusive- 
ly, as Sulla had ordained. In carrying both 
these measures Pompey was strongly support- 
ed by Ceesar, with whom he was thus brought 
into close connection. For the next two years 
(69 and 68) Pompey remained in Rome. In 67 
the tribune A. Gabinius brought forward a bill, 
proposing to confer upon Pompey the command 
of the war against the pirates with extraordi- 
nary powers. This bill was opposed by the 
aristocracy with the utmost vehemence, but 
was notwithstanding carried. The pirates were 
at this time masters of the Mediterranean, and 
had not only plundered many cities on the coasts 
of Greece and Asia, but had even made descents 
upon Italy itself. As soon as Pompey received 
the command, he began to make his prepara- 
tions for the war, and completed them by the 
end of the winter. His plans were formed with 
great skill and judgment, and were crowned 
with complete success. In forty days he cleared 
the Western Sea of pirates, and restored com- 
munication between Spain, Africa, and Italy. 
He then followed the main body of the pirates 
to their strong-holds on the coast of Cilicia ; 
;;nd after defeating their fleet, he induced a great 
part of them, by promises of pardon, to surren- 
der to him. Many of these he settled at Soli, 
which was henceforward called Pompeiopolis. 
The second part of the campaign occupied only 
forty-nine days, and the whole war was brought 
to a conclusion in the course of three months ; 
so that, to adopt the panegyric of Cicero {-pro 
Leg. Man., 12), " Pompey made his preparations 
for the war at the end of the winter, entered 
upon it at the commencement of spring, and fin- 
ished it in the middle of the summer." Pom- 
pey was employed during the remainder of this 
year and the beginning of the following in vis- 
iting the cities of Cilicia and Pamphylia, and 
providing for the government of the newly-con- 
quered districts. Duringhis absence from Rome, 
Pompey was appointed to succeed Lucullus in 
the command of the war against Mithradates 
(66). The bill conferring upon him this com- 
mand was proposed by the tribune C. Manil- 
ius, and was supported by Cicero in an oration 
which has come down to us {pro Lege Manilia). 
Like the Gabinian law, it was opposed by the 
whole weight of the aristocracy, but was carried 
triumphantly. The power of Mithradates had 
been broken by the previous victories of Lucul- 
lus, and it was only left to Pompev to bring the 
693 



POMPEIUS. 

| war to a conclusion. On the approach of Pom- 
pey, Mithradates retreated toward Armenia, but 
he was defeated by the Roman general ; and as 
i Tigranes now refused to receive him into his 
dominions, Mithradates resolved to plunge into 
the heart of Colchis, and from thence make his 
; way to his own dominions in the Cimmerian ' 
j Bosporus. Pompey now turned his arms against 
I Tigranes ; but the Armenian king submitted to 
| him without a contest, and was allowed to con- ! 
elude a peace with the republic. In 65 Pom- , 
! pey set out in pursuit of Mithradates, but he 
| met with much opposition from the Iberians and 
I Albanians ; and after advancing as far as the ; 
' River Phasis (now Faz), he resolved to leave 
these savage districts. He accordingly retraced 
his steps, and spent the winter at Pontus, which 
he reduced to the form of a Roman province. 
In 64 he marched into Syria, deposed the king 
Antiochus Asiaticus, and made that country also 
a Roman province. In 63 he advanced further 
south, in order to establish the Roman suprem- 
acy in Phoenicia, Coelesyria, and Palestine. 
The Jews refused to submit to him, and shut 
the gates of Jerusalem against him, and it was 
not till after a siege of three months that the 
city was taken. Pompey entered the Holy of 
Holies, the first time that any human being, ex- 
cept the high priest, had dared to penetrate into 
this sacred spot. It was during the war in Pal- 
estine that Pompey received intelligence of the 
death of Mithradates. Vid. Mithradates, No. 6. 
Pompey spent the next winter in Pontus ; and 
after settling the affairs of Asia, he returned to 
Italy in 62. He disbanded his army almost im- 
mediately after landing at Brundisium, and thus 
calmed the apprehensions of many, who feared 
that, at the head of his victorious troops, he 
would seize upon the supreme power. He did 
not, however, return to Rome till the following 
year (51), and he entered the city in triumph 
on the 30th of September. He had just com- 
pleted his forty-fifth year, and this was the third 
time that he had enjoyed the honor of a tri- 
umph. With this triumph the first and most 
glorious part of Pompey's life may be said to 
have ended. Hitherto his life had been an al- 
most uninterrupted succession of military glory. 
But now he was called upon to play a prominent 
part in the civil commotions of the common- 
wealth, a part for which neither his natural tal 
ents nor his previous habits had in the least fit- 
ted him. It would seem that, on his return to 
Rome, Pompey hardly knew what part to take 
in the politics of the city. He had been appoint- 
ed to the command against the pirates and Mith- 
radates in opposition to the aristocracy, and they 
still regarded him with jealousy and distrust. 
At the same time, he was not disposed to unite 
himself to th"e popular party, which had risen 
into importance during his absence in the East, 
and over which Ceesar possessed unbounded in- 
fluence. The object, however, which engaged 
the immediate attention of Pompey was to ob- 
' tain from the senate a ratification for all his acts 
I in Asia, and an assignment of lands which he 
had promised to his veterans. The senate, how- 
ever, glad of an opportunity to put an affront 
upon a man whom they both feared and hated, 
resolutely refused to sanction his measures in 
Asia. This was the unwisest thing the senate 



POMPEIUS 



POMPEIUS. 



could have done. If they had known their real I 
interests, they would have sought to win Pom- 
pey over to their side, as a counterpoise to the 
growing and more dangerous influence of Cae- 
sar. | But their short-sighted policy threw Pom- 
pey into Caesar's arms, and thus sealed the 
downfall of their party. Caesar promised to ob- 
tain for Pompey the ratification of his acts, and 
Pompey, on his part, agreed to support Caesar 
in all his measures. That they might be more 
sure of carrying their plans into execution, Cae- 
sar prevailed upon Pjompey to become recon- 
ciled to Crassus, with whom he was at variance, 
but who, by his immense wealth, had great in- 
fluence at Rome. The three agreed to assist 
one another against their mutual enemies, and 
thus was first formed the first triumvirate. This 
union of the three most powerful men at Rome 
crushed the aristocracy for the time. Support- 
ed by Pompey and Crassus, Caesar was able in 
his consulship (59) to carry all his measures. 
Pompey's acts in Asia were ratified, and Cae- 
sar's agrarian law, which divided the rich Cam- 
panian land among the poorer citizens, enabled 
Pompey to fulfill the promises he had made to 
his veterans. In order to cement their union 
more closely, Caesar gave to Pompey his daugh- 
ter Julia in marriage. Next year (58) Caesar 
went to his province in Gaul, but Pompey re- 
mained in Rome. While Caesar was gaining 
glory and influence in Gaul, Pompey was grad- 
ually losing the confidence of all parties at Rome. 
The senate hated and feared him ; the people 
had deserted, him for their favorite Clodius, and 
he had no other resource left but to strengthen 
tiis connection with Caesar. Thus he came to 
be regarded as the second man in the state, and 
was obliged to abandon the proud position which 
he had occupied for so many years. According 
to an arrangement made with Caesar, Pompey 
and Crassus were consuls for a second time in 
55. Pompey received as his provinces the two 
Spains, Crassus obtained Syria, while Caesar's 
government was prolonged for five years more, 
namely, from the 1st of January, 53, to the end 
of the year 49. At the end of his consulship 
Pompey did not go in person to his provinces, 
but sent his legates, L. Afranius and M. Petre- 
ius, to govern the Spains, while he himself re- 
mained in the neighborhood of the city. His 
object now was to obtain the dictatorship, and 
to make himself the undisputed master of the 
Roman world. Caesar's increasing power and 
influence had at length made it clear to Pom- 
pey that a struggle must take place between 
them, sooner or later. The death of his wife 
Julia in 54, to whom he was tenderly attached, 
broke one link which still connected him with 
Caesar, and the fall of Crassus in the following 
year (53), in the Parthian expedition, removed 
the only person who had the least chance of con- 
testing the supremacy with them. In order to 
obtain the dictatorship, Pompey secretly en- 
couraged the civil discoid with which the state 
was torn asunder ; and such frightful scenes of 
anarchy followed the death of Clodius at the 
beginning of 52, that the senate had now no al- 
ternative but calling in the assistance of Pom- 
pey, who was accordingly made sole consul in 
52, and succeeded in restoring order to the 
state. Soon afterward Pompey became recon- 



ciled to the aristocracy, and was now regards 
as their acknowledged head. The history of 
the civil war which followed is related in the 
life of CvEsar. It is only necessary to mention 
here, that after the battle of Pharsalia (48) Pom- 
pey sailed to Egypt, where he hoped to meet 
with a favorable reception, since he had been 
the means of restoring to his kingdom the father 
of the young Egyptian monarch. The ministers 
of the latter, however, dreading Caesar's ange. 
if they received Pompey, and likewise Pom- 
pey's resentment if they forbade him to land, 
resolved to release themselves from their diffi- 
culties by putting him to death. They accord- 
ingly sent out a small boat, took Pompey on 
board, and rowed for the shore. His wife and 
friends watched him from the ship, anxious to 
see in what manner he would be received by 
the king, who was standing on the edge of the 
sea with his troops ; but just as the boat reach- 
ed the shore, and Pompey was in the act of 
rising from hi^ seat in order to step on land, he 
was stabbed in the back by Septimius, who had 
formerly been one of his centurions, and was 
now in the service of the Egyptian monarch. 
Pompey was killed on the 29th of September, 
B.C. 48, and had just completed his fifty-eighth 
year. His head was cut off, and his body, 
which was thrown out naked on the shore, was 
buried by his freedman Philippus, who had ac- 
companied him from the ship. The head was 
brought to Caesar when he arrived in Egypt 
soon afterward, but he turned away from the 
sight, shed' tears at the melancholy death of his 
rival, and put his murderers to death. Pom- 
pey's untimely death excites pity ; but no one 
who has well studied the state of parties at the 
close of the Roman commonwealth can regret 
his fall. There is abundant evidence to prove 
that, had Pompey's party gained the mastery, 
a proscription far more terrible than Sulla's 
would have taken place, and Italy and the prov- 
inces have been divided as booty among a few 
profligate and unprincipled nobles. From such 
horrors the victory of Caesar saved the Roman 
world. Pompey wets married five times. The 
names of his wives were, 1. Antistia. 2. ^Emil- 
ia. 3. Mucia. 4. Julia. 5. Cornelia. — 11. Cn. 
Pompeius Magnus, elder son of the triumvir by 
his third wife, Mucia. In the civil war in 48 
he commanded a squadron of the fleet in the 
Adriatic Sea. After -his father's defeat at Phar- 
salia, he crossed over to Africa, and, after re- 
maining there a short time, sailed to Spain 
in 47. In Spain he was joined by his brother 
Sextus and others of his party, who had fled 
from Africa after their defeat at Thapsus. Here 
the two brothers collected a powerful army, but 
were defeated by Caesar himself at the battle 
of Munda, fought on the 17th of March, 45 
Cneius escaped from the field of battle, but was 
shortly afterward taken prisoner and put to 
death. — 12. Sextus Pompeius Magnus, youngei 
son of the triumvir by his third wife, Mucia, 
was born 75. After the battle of Pharsalia he 
accompanied his father to Egypt, and saw him 
murdered before his eyes. After the battle of 
Munda and the death of his brother, Sextus lived 
for a time in concealment in the country of the 
Lacetani, between the Iberus and the Pyrenees ; 
but when Caesar quitted Spain, he collected a 

697 



POMPEIUS FESTUS. 

6ody of troops, and emerged from his lurking- 
place. In the civil wars which followed Cae- 
sar's death, the power of Sextus increased. He 
obtained a large fleet, became master of the sea, 
and eventually took possession of Sicily. His 
fleet enajled him to stop all the supplies of corn 
which were brought to Rome from Egypt and 
the eastern provinces ; and such scarcity began 
to prevail in the city, that the triumvirs were 
compelled by the popular discontent to make 
peace with Pompey. This peace was concluded 
at Misenum in 39, but the war was renewed in 
the following year. Octayianus made great ef- 
forts to collect a large and powerful fleet, which 
he placed under the command of Agrippa. In 
36, Pompey's fleet was defeated off Naulochus 
with great loss. Pompey himself fled from 
Sicily to Lesbos, and from Lesbos to Asia. 
Here he was taken prisoner by a body of Anto- 
ny's troops, and carried to Miletus, where he 
was put to death (35), probably by command of 
Antony, though the latter sough| to throw the 
responsibility of the deed upon his officers. 

Pompeius Festus. Vid. Festus. 

Pompeius Trogus. Vid. Jostinus. 

Pompelon (now Pamplona), which name is 
equivalent to Pompeiopolis, so called by the sons 
of Pompey, was the chief town of the Vascones 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from 
Asturica to Burdigala. 

[PoMPILIUS, NUMA. Vid. NuMA.] 

[Pompilius Andronicus, a Syrian by birth, 
taught rhetoric at Rome in the former half of 
the century before Christ : being eclipsed by 
other grammarians, he retired to Cumee, where 
'he composed many works, the chief one of 
which was entitled Annalium Ennii Elenchi.] 

Pomponia. 1. Sister of T. Fomponius Atti- 
cus, was married to Q. Cicero, the brother of 
the orator, B.C. 68. The marriage proved an 
extremely unhappy one. Q. Cicero, after lead- 
ing a miserable life with his wife for almost 
twenty-four years, at length divorced her at the 
end of 45, or in the beginning of the following 
year. — 2. Daughter of T. Pomponius Atticus. 
She is also called Caecilia, because her father 
was adopted by Q. Caecilius, and likewise At- 
tica. She was born in 51, and she was still 
quite young when she was married to M. Vip- 
sanius Agrippa. Her daughter Vipsania Agrip- 
pina married Tiberius, the successor of Augus- 
tus. 

Pomponiana. Vid. Stcechades. 
Pomponius, Sextus, a distinguished Roman 
jurist, who lived under Antoninus Pius and M. 
Aurelius. Some modern writers think that 
there were two jurists of this name. The works 
of Pomponius are frequently cited in the Digest. 
Pomponius Atticus. Vid. Atticus. 
Pomponius Bononiensis, the most celebrated 
writer of Fabulae Atellanae, was a native of Bo- 
nonia (now Bologna), in Northern Italy, as his 
surname shows, and flourished B.C. 91. 
Pomponius Mela. Vid. Mela. 
PomptIn.je Paludes (UofirrTivai Xipvai : now 
Palude Pontine ; in English, the Pontine Marsh- 
es), the name of a low, marshy plain on the 
coast of Latium, between Circeii and Terraci- 
na, said to have been so called after an ancient 
town Pontia, which disappeared at an early 
period. The plain is about twenty-four miles 
698 



PONTIA. 

long, and from eight to ten miles in breadth. 
The marshes are formed chiefly by the rivers 
Nymphaeus, Ufens, and Amasenus, and some 
other small streams, which, instead of finding 
their way into the sea, spread over this plain. 
Hence the plain is turned into a vast number 
of marshes, the miasmas arising from which 
are exceedingly unhealthy in the summer. At 6 
an early period, however, they appear not to i 
have existed at all, or, at any rate, to have been 5 
confined to a narrow district. We are told that 6 
originally there were twenty-three towns situ- 1 
ated in this plain ; and in B.C. 432, the Pomp- 
tinus Ager is mentioned as yielding a large 
quantity of corn. Even as late as 312, the 
greater part of the plain must still have been 
free from the marshes, since the censor Appius 
Claudius conducted the celebrated Via Appia in 
that year through the plain, which must then 
have been sufficiently strong to bear the weight 
of this road. In the course of a century and a- I 
half after this, the marshes had spread to a great 
extent ; and, accordingly, attempts were made i 
to drain them by the consul Cethegus in 160, J 
by Julius Caesar, and by Augustus. It is usu- ' 
ally said that Augustus caused a navigable ca- 
nal to be dug alongside of the Via Appia from I 
Forum Appii to the grove of Feronia, in order 
to carry off a portion of the waters of the marsh- 
es ; but this canal must have been dug before 
the time of Augustus, since Horace embarked i 
upon it on his celebrated journey from Rome to I 
Brundisium in 37, at which time Octavianus, 
as he was then called, could not have underta- 
ken any of his public works. Subsequently the 
marshes again spread over the whole plain, and 
the Via Appia entirely disappeared ; and it was 
not until the pontificate of Pius VI. that any se- 
rious attempt was made to drain them. The 
works were commenced in 1778, and the great- 
er part of the marshes was drained ; but the 
plain is still unhealthy in the great heats of the 
summer. 

Pomptinus, C, was praetor B.C. 63, when he 
was employed by Cicero in apprehending the 
ambassadors of the Allobroges. He afterward 
obtained the province of Gallia Narbonensis, 
and in 61 defeated the Allobroges, who had in- 
vaded the province. He triumphed in 54, after 
suing in vain for this honor for some years. 

Pons, a common name for stations on the 
Roman roads at the passage of rivers, some of 
which stations on the more important roads 
grew into villages or towns. 1. P. ^Eni (now 
Pfunzen), in Vindelicia, at the passage of the 
Inn, was a fortress with a Roman garrison. — 2. 
P. Aureoli (now Pontirolo), in Gallia Transpa- 
dana, on the road from Bergamum to Mediola- 
num, derived its name from one of the thirty 
tyrants, who was defeated and slain by Clau- 
dius in this place. — 3. P. Campanus, in Campa- 
nia, between Sinuessa and Urbana, on the Savo. 
Respecting the bridges of Rome, vid. Roma. 

Pontia (now Ponza), a rocky island off the 
coast of Latium, opposite Formiae, which was 
taken by the Romans from the Volscians, and 
colonized, B.C. 313. Under the Romans, it was 
used as a place of banishment for state crim- 
inals. There is a group of smaller islands round 
Pontia, which are sometimes called Insulee 
Pontiae. 



II 



PONTINUS, 

Pontincs (Tlovrlvoc), a river and mountain ! 
in Argolis, near Lerna, with a sanc'.uary of Mi- 
nerva (Athena) Saitis. 

Pontius, C, son of Herennius Pontius, the 
general of the Samnites in B.C. 321, defeated 
the Roman army under the two consuls T. Ve- 
turius Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Alhinus in 
one of the mountain passes in the neighborhood 
of Caudium. The survivors, who were com- 
pletely at the mercy of the Samnites, were dis- 
missed unhurt by Pontius. They had to sur- 
render their arms and to pass under the yoke ; 
and, as the price of their deliverance, the con- 
suls and the other commanders swore, in the 
name of the republic, to a humiliating peace. 
The Roman state, however, refused to ratify 
the treaty. Nearly thirty years afterward, Pon- 
tius was defeated by Q. Fabius Gurges (292), 
was taken prisoner, and was put to death after 
the triumph of the consul. 

Pontius Aquila. Vid. Aquila. 
Pontius Pilatus was the sixth procurator of 
Judaea, and the successor of Valerius Gratus. 
He held the office for ten years in the reign of 
Tiberius, from A.D. 26 to 36, and it was during 
his government that Christ taught, suffered, 
and died. By his tyrannical conduct he excited 
I an insurrection at Jerusalem, and at a later 
j period commotions in Samaria also, which were 
! not put down without the loss of life. The Sa- 
maritans complained of his conduct to Vitellius, 
the governor of Syria, who deprived him of his 
office, and sent him to Rome to answer before 
the emperor the accusations that were brought 
against him. Eusebius states that Pilatus put 
I an end to his own life at the commencement 
of the reign of Caligula, worn out by the many 
misfortunes he had experienced. The early 
Christian writers refer frequently to an official 
report, made by Pilatus to the Emperor Tibe- 
rius, of the condemnation and death of Christ. 
It is very doubtful whether this document was 
genuine ; and it is certain that the acts of Pi- 
late, as they are called, which are extant in 
Greek, as well as his two Latin letters to the 
emperor, are the productions of a later age. 

Pontius Telesinus. 1. A Samnite, and com- 
mander of a Samnite army, with which he 
fought against Sulla. He was defeated by Sulla 
in a hard-fought battle near the Colline gate, 
B.C. 82. He fell in the fight ; his head was 
cut off, and carried under the walls of Praeneste, 
to let the younger Marius know that his last 
hope of succor was gone. — 2. Brother of the 
preceding, was shut up in Praeneste with the 
younger Marius, when his brother was defeated 
by Sulla. After the death of the elder Pontius, 
Marius and Telesinus, finding it impossible to 
escape from Praeneste, resolved to die by one 
another's hands. Telesinus fell first, and Ma- 
rius put an end to his own life, or was slain by 
his slave. 

[Pontonous (TLovtovooc), a herald of Alcino- 
us, king of the Phaeacians.j 

Pontus (6 ndirof). 1. The northeasternmost 
district ofAsiaMinor, along the coast of theEux- 
ine, east of the River Halys, having originally 
no specific name, was spoken of as the country 
kv TIovtu, on the Pontus (Euxinus), and hence 
acquired the name of Pontus, which is first 
found in Xenophon's Anabasis. The term, how- 



PONTUS. 

ever, was used very indefinitely, until the set 
tlement of the boundaries of the country as a 
Roman province. Originally it was regarded 
as a part of Cappadocia ; but its parts were best 
known by the names of the different tribes who 
dwelt along the coast, and of whom some ac- 
count is given by Xenophon in the Anabasis. 
We leain from the legends of the Argonauts, 
who are represented as visiting this coast, and 
the Amazons, whose abodes are placed about 
the River Thermodon, east of the Iris, as well 
as from other poetical allusions, that the Greeks 
had some knowledge of these southeastern 
shores of the Euxine at a very early period. A 
great accession to such knowledge was made 
by the information gained by Xenophon and his 
comrades when they passed -through the coun- 
try In their famous retreat ; and long afterward 
the Romans became well acquainted with it by 
means of the Mithradatic war, and Pompey's 
subsequent expedition through Pontus into the 
countries at the foot of the Caucasus. The 
name first acquired a -political rather than a ter- 
ritorial importance, through the foundation of a 
new kingdom in it, about the beginning of the 
fourth century B.C., by Ariobarzanes I. The 
history of the gradual growth of this kingdom 
until, under Mithradates VI., it threatened the 
Roman empire in Asia, is given under the names 
of its kings, of whom the following is the list: 
(1.) Ariobarzanes I., exact date unknown : (2.) 
Mithradates I., to B. C. 363: (3.) AriobarzA' 
nes II., 363-337 : (4.) Mithradates II., 337-302 ■ 
(5.) Mithradates III., 302-266 : (6.) Ariobak- 
zanes III., 266-2401 (7.) Mithradates IV., 240- 
1901 (8.) Pharnaces I., 190-1561 (9.) Mithra* 
dates V. Euergetes, 156-1201 (10.) Mithrada 
tes VI. Eupator, 120-63: (11.) Pharnaces II. 
63-47. After the death of Pharnaces, the re 
duced kingdom retained a nominal existence un 
der his son Darius, who was made king by Anto 
ny in B.C. 39, but was soon deposed ; and undei 
Polemon I. and Polemon II., till about A.D. 62, 
when the country was constituted by Nero a 
Roman province. Of this province the western 
boundary was the River Halys, which divided 
it from Paphlagonia ; the furthest eastern limit 
was the Phasis, which separated it from Col- 
chis ; but others carry it only as far as Trape- 
zus, and others to an intermediate point, at the 
River Acampsis : on the south it was divided 
from Galatia, Cappadocia, and Armenia Minor 
by the great chain of the Paryadres and by its 
branches. It was divided into the three dis- 
tricts of Pontus Galaticus, in the west, bor- 
dering on Galatia, P. Polemoniacus in the cen- 
tre, so called from its capital Polemonium, and 
P. Cappadocius in the east, bordering on Cap 
padocia (Armenia Minor). In the new division 
of the provinces under Constantine, these three 
districts were reduced to two, Helenopontus 
in the west, so called in honor of the emperor's 
mother, Helena, and Pontus Polemoniacus in 
the east. The country was also divided into 
smaller districts, named from the towns they 
surrounded and the tribes who peopled them. 
Pontus was a mountainous country ; wild and 
barren in the east, where the great chains ap- 
proach the Euxine ; but in the west watered by 
the great rivers Halys and Iris and their trib- 
utaries, the valleys of which, as well«as the land 

699 



; 



PONTUS EUXINUS. 



POPULONIA 



along the coast, are extremely fertile. Besides 
corn and olives, it was famous for its fruit trees, 
and some of the best of our common fruits are 
said to have been brought to Europe from this 
quarter ; for example, the cherry (vid. Cerasus). 
The sides of the mountains were covered with 
fine timber, and their lower slopes with box and 
other shrubs. The eastern part was rich in 
minerals, and contained the celebrated iron 
mines of the Chalybes. Pontus was peopled 
by numerous tribes, belonging probably to very 
different races, though the Semitic (Syro- Arabi- 
an) race appears to have been the prevailing 
one, and hence the inhabitants were included 
under the general name of Leucosyri. The 
chief of these races are spoken of in separate 
articles. — [2. The part of Lower Moesia which 
lay between the Euxine, the mouths of the Ister, 
and Mount Haemus, and forming, therefore, a 
considerable tract along the shore, was some- 
times called Pontus : of this frequent mention 
is made in the poetry of Ovid. Tomi lay in this 
district, and Ovid's Epistolcc. e Ponto derived 
their name from this quarter.] 

Pontus Euxinus, or simply Pontus (<5 TLov-oc, 
Tlovroc. 'Eiv&ivog : to TIovtlkov niXayog, Mare 
Euxlnum : now the Black Sea, Turk. Kara Den- 
iz, Grk. Maurelhalassa, Russ. Tchcriago More 
or Czarne-More, all names of the same mean- 
ing, and supposed to have originated from the 
terror with which it was at first regarded by 
the Turkish mariners, as the first wide expanse 
of sea with which they became acquainted), the 
great inland sea inclosed by Asia Minor on the 
south, Colchis on the east, Sarmatia on the 
•north, and Dacia and Thracia on the west, and 
having no other outlet than the narrow Bospo- 
rus Theacius in its southwestern corner. It 
lies between 28° and 41° 30' east longitude, and 
between 41° and 46° 40' north latitude, its 
length being about seven hundred miles, and 
its breadth varying from four hundred to one 
hundred and sixty. Its surface contains more 
than one hundred and eighty thousand square 
miles. It receives the drainage of an immense 
extent of country in Europe and in Asia ; but 
much the greater portion of its waters flows 
from the former continent by the following 
rivers : the Ister or Danubius (now Danube), 
whose basin contains the greater part of cen- 
tral Europe ; the Tyras or Danaster (now Dnies- 
ter), Hypanis or Bogus (now Boug), Borysthe- 
nes (now Dnieper), and Tanai's (now Don), 
which drain the immense -plains of Southern 
Russia, and flow into the northern side of the 
Euxine, the last of them (i. e., the Tanai's) 
through the Palus Maeotis (now Sea of Azov). 
The space thus drained is calculated at above 
eight hundred and sixty thousand square miles, 
or nearly one fifth of the whole surface of Eu- 
rope. In Asia, the basin of the Euxine contains, 
first, the triangular piece of Sarmatia Asiatica 
between the Tanai's on the north, the Caucasus 
on the south, and on the east the Hippici Mon- 
tes, which form the watershed dividing the trib- 
utaries of the Euxine from those of the Caspi 
an ; the waters of this space flow into the Ta- 
nais and the Palus Maeotis, and the largest of 
them is the Hypanis or Vardanes (now Kuban), 
which comes down to the Palus Maeotis and 
the Euxina at then junction, and divides its 
700 



waters between them : next we have the nar jJ 
row strip of land between the Caucasus and the ft 
northeastern coast of the sea ; then on the east, 1 
Colchis, hemmed in between the Caucasus and |l 
Moschici Montes, and watered by the Phasis ; 1 
and lastly, on the south, the whole of that part J II 
of Asia Minor which lies between the Parya- | 
dres and Antitaurus on the east and southeast, J 
the Taurus on the south, and the highlands of 1 
Phrygia on the west, the chief rivers of this ] 
portion being the Iris (now Yeshil Irmak), the j ; 
Halys (now Kizil Irmak), and the Sangarius 
(now Sakariych). The whole of the Asiatic B 
basin of the Euxine is estimated at one hundred i \ 
thousand square miles. As might be expected : 
from this vast influx of fresh water, the watei i 
is much less salt than that of the Ocean. The I! 
waters which the Euxine receives from the \l 
rivers that flow directly into it, and also from I 
the Palus Maeotis (now Sea of Azov) through M 
the Bosporus Cimmerius (now Straits of Kaffa 1 
or Yenikaleh), find their exit at the southwestern J 
corner, through the Bosporus Thracius (now [ 
Channel of Constantinople), into the Propontis |jj 
(now Sea of Marmara), and thence in a constant jjj 
rapid current through the Hellespontus (now 
Straits of Gallipoli or Da rdanelles) into the iEgae- i'i 
um Mare (now Archipelago). The Argonautic ! 
and other legends show that the Greeks had 
some acquaintance with this sea at a very early I 
period. It is said that they at first called it ! 
"Afcvoc (inhospitable), from the savage character |, 
of the races on its coast, and from the supposed i 
terrors of its navigation, and that afterward, on 
their favorite principle of euphemism (i. e., ab- E 
staining from words of evil omen), they changed !' 
its name to HZvI-evoc, Ion. Evljeivoc, hospitable. || 
The Greeks of Asia Minor, especially the people 
of Miletus, founded many colonies and commer- 
cial emporiums on its shores, and as early as 
the Persian wars we find Athens carrying on a 
regular trade with these settlements in the corn j 
grown in the great plains on its northern side j 
(the Ukraine) and in the Chersonesus Taurica 
(now Crimea), which have ever since supplied 
Western Europe with large quantities of grain. 
The history of the settlements themselves will 
be found under their several names. The Ro- | 
mans had a pretty accurate knowledge of the 
sea. An account of its coasts exists in Greek, ! 
entitled "Periplus Maris Euxini," ascribed to 
Arrian, who lived in the reign of Hadrian. Vid 
Arrtanus. 

PoPILIUS LiENAS. Vid. LxENAS. 
PoPLICOLA. Vid. PuBLICOLA. 

Poppjea Sabina. Vid. Sabina. 

PoppjEus Sabinus. Vid. Sabinus. 

Populonia or -iiim (Populoniensis : Populo- 
ma), an ancient town of Etruria, situated on a 
lofty hill, sinking abruptly to the sea, and form- j 
ing a peninsula. According to one tradition it 
was founded by the Corsicans ; but according 
to another it was a colony from Volaterrae, or 
was taken from the Corsicans by the Volater- 
rani. It was not one of the twelve Etruscan 
cities, and was never a place of political import- 
ance ; but it carried on an extensive commerce, 
and was the principal sea-port of Etruria. It 
was destroyed by Sulla in the civil wars, and 
was in ruins in the time of Strabo. There are 
still remains of the walls of the ancient Popu 



I PORCIA. 

| Ionia, showing that the city was only about one 
and a half miles in circumference. 

Porcia. 1. Sister of Cato Uticensis, married 
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul B.C. 54, who 
was slain in the battle of Pharsalia. She died 
in 46.-2. Daughter of Cato Uticensis by his 
first wife Atilia. She was married first to M. 
Bibulus, consul 59, to whom she bore three chil- 
dren. Bibulus died in 48 ; and in 45 she mar- 
ried M. Brutus, the assassin of Julius Caesar. 
She inherited all her father's republican princi- 
ples, and likewise his courage and firmness of 
will. She induced her husband, on the night 
before the fifteenth of March, to disclose to her 
the conspiracy against Cassar's life, and she is 
reported to have wounded herself in the thigh 
in order to show that she had a courageous soul, 
and could be trusted with the secret. She put 
an end to her own life after the death of Brutus 
in 42. The common tale was, that her friends, 
suspecting her design, had taken all weapons 
out of her way, and that she therefore destroyed 
herself by swallowing live coals. The real fact 
may have been that she suffocated herself by 
the vapor of a charcoal fire, which we know was 
a frequent means of self-destruction among the 
Romans. 

Porcius Cato. Vid. Cato. 

Porcius Festus. Vid. Festus. 

Porcius Latro. Vid. Latro. 

Porcius Licinus. Vid. Licinus. 

Porphyrio, Pomponius, the most valuable 
among the ancient commentators on Horace. 
He lived after Festus and Aero. [These scholia 
are printed in several editions of Horace, the 
latest is that of G. Braunhard, Lips., 1831, scq., 
4 vols. 8vo ] 

Porphyrion (TLoptyvpiov), one of the giants 
who fought against the gods. When he at- 
tempted to offer violence to Juno (Hera), or to 
throw the island of Delos against the gods, Ju- 
piter (Zeus) hurled a thunder-bolt at him, and 
Hercules completed his destruction with his 
arrows. 

Porphvris (Uop(j>vpi^), an earlier name of the 
island of Nisyrus. 

Porphyrias (llopfvpLog), usually called Por- 
phyry, the celebrated antagonist of Christianity, 
was a Greek philosopher of the Neo-Platonic 
school. He was born A.D. 233, either in Bata- 
nea in Palestine or at Tyre. His original name 
was Malchus, the Greek form of the Syrophce- 
nician Melcch, a word which signified king. 
The name Porphyrius (in allusion to the usual 
color of royal robes) was subsequently devised 
for him by his preceptor Longinus. After stud- 
ying under Origen at Cassarea, and under Apol- 
lonius and Longinus at Athens, he settled at 
Rome in his thirtieth year, and there became a 
diligent disciple of Plotinus. He soon gained 
the confidence of Plotinus, and was intrusted 
by the latter with the difficult and delicate duty 
of correcting and arranging his writings. Vid. 
Plotinus. After remaining in Rome six years, 
Porphyry fell into an unsettled state of mind, 
and- began to entertain the idea of suicide, in 
order to get free from the shackles of the flesh ; 
but on the advice of Plotinus he took a voyage 
to Sicily, where he resided for some lime. It 
was during his residence in Sicily that he wrote 
his treatise against the Christian religion, in 



PORSENA. 

fifteen books. Of the remainder of his Me we 
know very little. He returned to Rome, where 
he continued to teach until his death, which 
took place about 305 or 306. Late in life he 
married Marcella, the widow of one of his 
friends, and the mother of seven children, with 
the view, as he avowed, of superintending their 
education. As a writer Porphyry deserves con- 
siderable praise. His style is tolerably clear, 
and not unfrequently exhibits both imagination, 
and vigor. His learning was most extensive. 
A great degree of critical and philosophical 
acumen was not to be expected in one so ar- 
dently attached to the enthusiastic and some- 
what fanatical system of Plotinus. His attempt 
to prove the identity of the Platonic and Aris- 
totelic systems would alone be sufficient to 
show this. Nevertheless, his acquaintance 
with the authors whom he quotes was manifest- 
ly far from superficial. His most celebrated 
work was his treatise against the Christian re- 
ligion ; but of its nature and merits we are not 
able to judge, as it has not come down to us. 
It was publicly destroyed by order of the Em- 
peror Theodosius. The attack was sufficiently 
vigorous to call forth replies from above thirty 
different antagonists, the most distinguished o*" 
whom were Methodius, Apollinaris, and Euse 
bius. A large number, however, of his works 
has come down to us, of which his Life of 
Pythagoras and Life of Plotinus are some of. 
the best known. 

Porphyrius, Publii.ius Optatianus, a Roman 
poet, who lived in the age of Constantine the 
Great. He wrote a Panegyric upon Constan- 
tine ; three Idyllia, namely, 1. Ara Pythia, 2. 
Syrinx, 3. Organon, with the lines so arranged 
as to represent the form of these objects ; and 
five Epigrams. 

[Porrima. Vid. Postverta.] 

Porsena* or Porsenna, Lars, king of the 
Etruscan town of Clusium, marched against 
Rome at the head of a vast army, in order to 
restore Tarquinius Superbus to the throne. He 
took possession of the hill Janiculum, and would 
have entered the city by the bridge which con- 
nected Rome with the Janiculum, had it not 
been for the superhuman prowess of Horatius 
Codes, who kept the whole Etruscan army at 
bay, while his comrades broke down the bridge 
behind him. Vid. Cocles. The Etruscans pro- 
ceeded to lay siege to the city, which soon be- 
gan to suffer from famine. Thereupon a young 
Roman, named C. Mucius, resolved to deliver 
his country by murdering the invading king. 
He accordingly went over to the Etruscan camp, 
but, ignorant of the person of Porsena, killed the 
royal secretary instead. Seized, and threatened 
with torture, he thrust his right hand into the 
fire on the altar, and there let it burn, to show 
how little he heeded pain. Astonished at his 
courage, the king bade him depart in peace ; 
and Scaevola, as he was henceforward called, 
told him, out of gratitude, to make peace with 
Rome, since three hundred noble youths had 
sworn to take the life of the king, and he was 
the first upon whom the lot had fallen. Por- 
sena thereupon made peace with the Romans 
and withdrew his troops from the Janiculum 

* The quantity of the penultimate is doubtful. It is 
short in Horace and Martial, but long in Virgil. 

701 



PORTHAON. 

after receiving twenty hostages from the Ro- 
mans. Such was the tale by which Roman 
vanity concealed one of the earliest and great- 
est disasters of the city. The real fact is, that 
Rome was completely conquered by Porsena. 
This is expressly stated by Tacitus (Hist., iii., 
72), and is confirmed by other writers. Pliny 
tells us that so thorough was the subjection of 
the Romans that they were expressly prohibited 
from using iron for any other purpose but agri- 
culture. The Romans, however, did not long 
remain subject to the Etruscans. After the 
conquest of Rome, Aruns, the son of Porsena, 
proceeded to attack Aricia, but was defeated 
before the city by the united forces of the Latin 
cities, assisted by the Greeks of Cumae. The 
Etruscans appear, in consequence, to have been 
confined to their own territory on the right bank 
of the Tiber, and the Romans to have availed 
themselves of the opportunity to recover their 
independence. 

Porthaon (Xlop8dd)v')y son of Agenor and Epi- 
caste, was king of Pleuron and Calydon in iEto- 
lia, and married to Euryte, by whom he became 
the father of CEneus, Agrius, Alcathous, Melas, 
Leucopeus, and Sterope. 

Porthmus (Tlopdfioc), a harbor in Eubcea, be- 
longing to Eretria, opposite the coast of Attica. 

Portunus or Portumnus, the protecting gen- 
ius of harbors among the Romans. He was in- 
voked to grant a happy return from a voyage. 
Hence a temple was erected to him at the port 
of the Tiber, from whence the road descended 
to the port of Ostia. At his temple an annual 
festival, the Portunalia, was celebrated on the 
17th of August. When the Romans became 
familiar with Greek mythology, Portunus was 
identified with the Greek Palsemon. Vid. Pa- 
i.^emon. 

Porus (Ilwpoc). 1. King of the Indian prov- 
inces east of the River Hydaspes, offered a for- 
midable resistance to Alexander when the lat- 
ter attempted to cross this river, B.C. 327. The 
battle which he fought with Alexander was one 
of the most severely contested which occurred 
during the whole of Alexander's campaigns. 
Porus displayed great personal courage in the 
battle ; and when brought before the conqueror, 
he proudly demanded to be treated in a manner 
worthy of a king. This magnanimity at once 
conciliated the favor of Alexander, who not only 
restored to him his dominions, but increased 
them by large accessions of territory. From 
this time Porus became firmly attached to his 
generous conqueror, whom he accompanied to 
the Hyphasis. In 321 Porus was treacherous- 
ly put to death by Eudemus, who commanded 
the Macedonian troops in the adjacent province. 
We are told that Porus was a man of gigantic 
stature — not less than five cubits in height ; 
and his personal strength and prowess in war 
were not less conspicuous than his valor. — 2. 
Another Indian monarch, who, at the time of 
Alexander's expedition, ruled over the district 
termed Gandaris, east of the River Hydraotes. 
His dominions were subdued by Hephsestion, 
and annexed to those of the preceding Porus, 
who was his kinsman. 

Poseidon (.Uoaetduu), called Neptunus by the 
Romans, was the god of the Mediterranean Sea. 
His name seems to be connected with kotos, 
702 



POSEIDON. 

■kovtoi;, and norafiog, according to which he l 
the god of the fluid element. "He was a son of 
Cronos (Saturn) and Rhea (whence he is called 
Cronius, and by Latin poets Saturnius). He I 
was accordingly a brother of Zeus (Jupiter), 

' Hades (Pluto), Hera (Juno), Hestia (Vesta), and 
Demeter (Ceres), and it was determined by lot 
that he should rule over the sea. Like his I 
brothers and sisters, he was, after his birth, 
swallowed by his father Cronos (Saturn), but 
thrown up again. According to others, he was 
concealed by Rhea, after his birth, among a 
flock of lambs, and his mother pretended to 
have given birth to a young horse, which she I 
gave to Cronos (Saturn) to devour. In the Ho- 
meric poems Poseidon (Neptune) is described 
as equal to Zeus (Jupiter) in dignity, but less 1 
powerful. He resents the attempts of Zeus (Ju- 
piter) to intimidate him ; he even threatens his 
mightier brother, and once conspired with Hera 
(Juno) and Athena (Minerva) to put him into 
chains ; but on other occasions we find him i 
submissive to Zeus (Jupiter). The palace of ' 
Poseidon (Neptune) was in the depth of the sea j 

j near 2Eg& in Eubosa, where he kept his horses 
with brazen hoofs and golden manes. With 
these horses he rides in a chariot over the waves 1 
of the sea, which become smooth as he ap- 
proaches, and the monsters of the deep recog- 
nize him and play around his chariot. General- j 
ly he yoked his horses to his chariot himself, 
but sometimes he was assisted by Amphitrite. 
Although he generally dwelt in the sea, still he 
also appears at Olympus in the assembly of the 
gods. Poseidon (Neptune), in conjunction with 
Apollo, is said to have built the walls of Troy 1 
for Laomedon, whence Troy is called Neplunia 
Pergama. Laomedon refused to give these 
gods the reward which had been stipulated, and ] 
even dismissed them with threats. Poseidon 
(Neptune), in consequence, sent a marine mon- 
ster, which was on the point of devouring La- 
omedon's daughter, when it was killed by Her- 
cules ; and he continued to bear an implacable j 
hatred against the Trojans. He sided with the 
Greeks in the war against Troy, sometimes 
witnessing the contest as a spectator from the 
heights of Thrace, and sometimes interfering i 
in person, assuming the appearance of a mortal 
hero and encouraging the Greeks, while Zeus 
(Jupiter) favored the Trojans. In the Odyssey, 
Poseidon (Neptune) appears hostile to Ulysses, 
whom he prevents from returning home in con- 
sequence of his having blinded Polyphemus, a 
son of Poseidon (Neptune) by the nymphThoosa. 
Being the ruler of the sea (the Mediterranean), 
he is described as gathering clouds and calling ' 
forth storms, but at the same time he has it in 
his power to grant a successful voyage and save 
those who are in danger ; and all other marine ! 
divinities are subject to him. As the sea sur- 
rounds and holds the earth, he himself is de 
scribed as the god who holds the earth (yn^o^of), 
and who has it in his power to shake the earth 
(kvoaixduv, Kivtir'ip y«f). He was further re- 
garded as the creator of the horse. It is said 
that when Poseidon (Neptune) and Athena (Mi- 
nerva) disputed as to which of them should give 
the name to the capital of Attica, the gods de- 
cided that it should receive its name from the 
deity who should bestow npon man the most use 



POSEIDON. 



POSIDONIUS. 



tul gilt. Poseidon (Neptune) then created the 
horse, and Athena (Minerva; called forth the 
olive-tree, in consequence of which the honor 
was conferred upon the goddess. According to 
others, however, Poseidon (Neptune) -did not 
create the horse in Attica, but in Thessaly, 
where he also gave the famous horses to Pel- 
eus. Poseidon (Neptune) was accordingly be- 
lieved to have taught men the art of managing 
horses by the bridle, and to have been the orig- 
inator and protector of horse races. Hence he 
was also represented on horseback, or riding in 
a chariot drawn by two or four horses, and is 
designated by the epithets Imviog, Inneioc, or 
lirmos iva!;. He even metamorphosed himself 
into a horse for the purpose of deceiving Deme- 
ter (Ceres). The symbol of Poseidon's (Nep- 
tune's) power was the trident, or a spear with 
three points, with which he used to shatter 
rocks, to call forth or subdue storms, to shake 
the earth, and the like. Herodotus states that 
thte name and worship of Poseidon (Neptune) 
were brought into Greece from Libya ; but he 
was probably a divinity of Pelasgian origin, and 
originally a personification of the fertilizing 
power of water, from which the transition to 
regarding him as the god of the sea was not 
difficult. The following legends respecting 
Poseidon (Neptune) deserve to be mentioned. 
In conjunction with Zeus (Jupiter) he fought 
against Cronos (Saturn) and the Titans ; and in 
the contest with the Giants he pursued Poly- 
botes across the sea as far as Cos, and there 
killed him by throwing the island upon him. 
He further crushed the Centaurs when they 
were pursued by Hercules, under a mountain in 
Leucosia, the island of the Sirens. He sued, 
together with Zeus (Jupiter), for the hand of 
Thetis ; but he withdrew when Themis proph- 
esied that the son of Thetis would be greater 
than his father. When Ares (Mars) had been 
caught in the wonderful net by Hephaestus (Vul- 
can), the latter set him free at the request of 
Poseidon (Neptune) ; but the latter god after- 
ward brought a charge against Ares (Mars) be- 
fore the Areopagus for having killed his son 
Halirrhothius. At the request of Minos, king 
of Crete, Poseidon (Neptune) caused a bull to 
rise from the sea, which the king promised to 
sacrifice ; but when Minos treacherously con- 
cealed the animal among a herd of oxen, the 
god punished Minos by causing his wife Pas- 
iphae to fall in love with the bull. Poseidon 
(Neptune) was married to Amphitrite, by whom 
he had three children, Triton, Rhode, and Ben- 
thesicyme ; but he had also a vast number of 
children by other divinities and mortal women. 
His worship extended over all Greece and 
Southern Italy, but he was more especially re- 
vered in Peloponnesus and in the Ionic towns 
on the coast. The sacrifices offered to him 
generally consisted of black and white bulls ; 
but wild boars and rams were also sacrificed to 
him. Horse and chariot races were held in his 
honor on the Corinthian isthmus. The Pan- 
ionia, or the festival of all the Ionians near 
Mycale, was celebrated in honor of Poseidon 
(Neptune). In works of art, Poseidon (Nep- 
i !ne) may be easily recognized by his attri- 
l-ites, the dolphin, the horse, or the trident, and 
be was frequently represented in groups along 



with Amphitrite, Tritons, Nereids, dolphins, tho 
Dioscuri, Palcemon, Pegasus, Bellerophontes, 
Thalassa, Ino, and Galene. His figure does not 
present the majestic calm which characterizes 
his brother Zeus (Jupiter) ; but as the state of 
the sea is varying, so also is the god represent 
ed sometimes in violent agitation and some- 
times in a state of repose. The Roman god 
Neptunus is spoken of in a separate article. 

Posidippus (ITo(7£ii5i7r7rof, Iloctdnr7roc). 1. An 
Athenian comic poet of the New Comedy, was 
a native of Cassandrea in Macedonia. He was 
reckoned one of the six most celebrated poets 
of the New Comedy. In time, he was the last 
of all the poets of the New Comedy. He began 
to exhibit dramas in the third year after the 
death of Menander, that is, in B.C. 289. [The 
fragments of his plays are contained in Mei- 
neke's Comic. Graze. Fragm.,\o\. ii., p. 1141-49, 
edit, minor.] — 2. An epigrammatic poet who 
was probably a different person from the comic 
poet, though he seems to have lived about the 
same time. His epigrams formed a part of the 
Garland of Meleager, and twenty-two of them 
are preserved in the Greek Anthology. 

Posidium (TLoaeiSLov), the name of several 
promontories sacred to Poseidon (Neptune). I. 
(Now Punta della Licosa), in Lucania, opposite 
the island Leucosia, the southern point of the 
Gulf of Passtum. — 2. In Epirus, opposite the 
northeast point of Corcyra. — 3. (Now Cape 
Stavros), in Thessaly, forming the western 
point of the Sinus Pagasaeus, perhaps the same 
as the promontory which Livy (xxxi., 46) calls 
Zelasium. — 4. (Now Cape Helene), the southwest- 
ern point of Chios. — 5. On the western coast of 
Caria, between Miletus and the Iassius Sinus, 
with a town of the same name upon it. — 6. On 
the western coast of Arabia, with an altar dedi- 
cated to Poseidon (Neptune) by Ariston, whom 
Ptolemy had sent to explore the Arabian Gulf. 
— 7. (Now Posseda), a sea-port town in Syria, in 
the district Cassiotis. 

POSIDONIA. Vid. PjESTUM. 

Posidonium (Tlooeiduvwv : now Cape Possidhi 
or Kassandhrea), a promontory on the western 
coast of the peninsula Pallene in Macedonia, 
not far from Mende. 

Posidonius (Hoceiduvioc), a distinguished 
Stoic philosopher, was a native of Apamea in 
Syria. The date of his birth is not known with 
any exactness, but it may be placed about B.C. 
135. He studied at Athens under Panajtius, 
after whose death (112) Posidonius set out on 
his travels. After visiting most of the coun- 
tries on the coast of the Mediterranean, he fixed 
his abode at Rhodes, where he became the presi- 
dent of the Stoic school. He also took a prom- 
inent part in the political affairs of Rhodes, and 
was sent as ambassador to Rome in 86. Cicero, 
when he visited Rhodes, received instruction 
from Posidonius. Pompey also had a great ad- 
miration for Posidonius, and visited him twice, 
in 67 and 62. To the occasion of his first visit 
probably belongs the story that Posidonius, to 
prevent the disappointment of his distinguish- 
ed visitor, though severely afflicted with the 
gout, had a long discourse on the topic that pain 
is not an evil. In 51 Posidonius removed to 
Rome, and appears to have died soon after at 
the age of 84. Posidonius was a man of exten- 

703 



POSTUMIA CASTRA. 



PR^ENESTE. 



aive and varied acquirements in almost all tie- 1 
partmentsof human knowledge. Cicero thought 
so highly of his powers that he requested him j 
to write an account of his consulship. As a I 
physical investigator he was greatly superior to 
the Stoics generally, attaching himself in this 
respect rather to Aristotle. His geographical 
and historical knowledge was very extensive. 
He cultivated astronomy with considerable dili- 
gence. He also constructed a planetary ma- 
chine, or revolving sphere, to exhibit the daily 
motions of the sun, moon, and planets. His 
calculation of the circumference of the earth j 
differed widely from that of Eratosthenes. He 
made it only one hundred and eighty thousand 
stadia, and his measurement was pretty gener- 
ally adopted. None of the writings of Posi- 
donius have come down to us entire. His frag- 
ments are collected by Bake, Lugd. Bat., 1810. 

Postumia Oastka (now Salado), a fortress in 
Hispania Baetica, on a hill near the River Sal- 
sum (now Salado). 

Postumia Gens, patrician, was one of the 
most ancient patrician gentes at Rome. Its 
members frequently held the highest offices of 
the state, from the banishment of the kings to 
the downfall of the republic. The most distin- 
guished family in the gens was that of Albus 
or Albinus ; but we also find at the commence- 
ment of the republic families of the names of 
Mrgellus and Tubertus. 

Postumus, whose full name was M. Cassia- 
nus Latinius Postumus, stands second in the list 
of the so-called thirty tyrants. Being nomi- 
nated by Valerian governor of Gaul, he assumed 
the title of emperor in A.D. 258, while Valerian 
was prosecuting his campaign against the Per- 
sians. Postumus maintained a strong and just 
government, and preserved Gaul from the dev- 
astation of the warlike tribes upon the eastern 
border. After reigning nearly ten years, he 
was slain by his soldiers in 267, and Laelianus 
proclaimed emperor in his stead. 

Postverta or Postvorta, properly a surname 
of Carmenta, describing her as turning back- 
ward and looking at the past, which she re- 
vealed to poets and other mortals. In like man- 
ner, the prophetic power, with which she looked 
into the future, is indicated by the surnames 
Antevorta, Prorsa (i. e., Proversa), and Porrima. 
Poets, however, have personified these attri- 
butes of Carmenta, and thus describe them as 
the companions of the goddess. 

Potami or Potamus (UoTUfioi, Tlorafidc: : UotiI- 
uwg : now Keralia), a demus in the south of At- 
tica, belonging to the tribe Leontis, where the 
tomb of Ion was shown. 

Potamon (Rordiiav). 1. A rhetorician of Myt- 
ilene, lived in the time of Tiberius Caesar, 
whose favor he enjoyed. — 2. A philosopher of 
ilexandrea, who is said to have introduced at 
Rome an eclectic sect of philosophy. He ap- 
pears to have lived at Rome a little before the 
time of Plotinus, and to have intrusted his chil- 
dren to the guardianship of the latter. 

Potent! a (Potentinus). 1. A town of Pice- 
num, on the River Flosis, between Ancona and 
Castellum Firmanum, was made a Roman col- 1 
ony in B.C. 186. — 2. (Now Potcnza), a town of 
Lucania, on the Via Popilia, east of Forum Po- ! 
pilii. | 
704 



Pothinus, a eunuch, the guardian o} the 
young King Ptolemy, recommended the assas- 
sination of Pompey when the latter fled to 
Egypt, B.C. 48. Pothin'is plotted against Cae- 
sar when he came to Alexandrea shortly after- 
ward, and was put to death by Caesar's order. 

PotiDjEA (JloriRaia : lloridaiu.T7]( . now Pi- 
naka), a town in Macedonia, on the narrow isth- 
mus of the peninsula Pallene, was a strongly- 
fortified place, and one of considerable import- 
ance. It was a colony of the Corinthians, and 
must have been founded before the Persian 
wars, though the time of its foundation is not 
recorded. Jt afterward became tributary to 
Athens, and its revolt from the latter city in 
B.C. 432 was one of the immediate causes of 
the Peloponnesian war. It was taken by the 
Athenians in 429, after a siege of more than two 
years, its inhabitants expelled, and their place 
supplied by Athenian colonists. In 356 it was 
taken by Philip, who destroyed the city, and 
gave its territory to the Olynthians. Cassan- 
der, however, built a new city on the same site, 
to which he gave the name of Cassandrea (Kaa- 
odvSpeia : KaoaavSpev^), and which he peopled 
with the remains of the old population and with 
the inhabitants of Olynthus and the surround- 
ing towns, so that it soon became the most 
flourishing city in all Macedonia. It was taken 
and plundered by the Huns, but was restored 
by Justinian. 

PotidanIa, a fortress in the northeast of Mto- 
lia, near the frontiers of Locris. 
. Potitii. Vid. Pinaria Gens. 
Potitus, the name of an ancient and celebrat 
ed family of the Valeria gens. This family dis- 
appears about the time of the Samnite wars ; 
but the name was revived at a later period by 
the Valeria gens as a praenomen : thus we find 
mention of a Potitus Valerius Messala, who was 
consul suffectus in B.C. 29. 

PotnI/e (HoTviai : Horvievc), a small town in 
Boeotia, on the Asopus, ten stadia south of 
Thebes, on the road to Platasse. The adjective 
Potniadcs (sing. Polnias) is an epithet frequently 
given to the mares which tore to death Glaucus 
ofPotniae. Vid. Glaucus, No. 1. 
Praaspa. Vid. Phraata. 
Practius (IIpuKnof : now Borgas or Muslca- 
koi-Su), a river of the Troad, rising in Mount 
Ida, and flowing into the Hellespont north of 
Abydus. 

Pr^eneste (Praenestinus : now Palestrina), 
one of the most ancient towns of Latium, was 
situated on a steep and lofty hill, about twenty 
miles southeast of Rome, with which it was 
connected by a road called Via Praenestina. It 
was probably a Pelasgic city, but it claimed a 
Greek origin, and was said to have been found- 
ed by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses. It wa 
strongly fortified by nature and by art, and fre- 
quently resisted the attacks of the Roman 
Together with the other Latin towns, it became 
subject to Rome, and was at a later period made 
a Roman colony. It was here that the younger 
Marius took refuge, and was for a considerable 
time besieged by Sulla's troops. Praeneste pos- 
sessed a very celebrated and ancient temple of 
Fortuna, with an oracle, which is often men- 
tioned under the name of Prasnestinae sortes. 
It also had a temple of Juno. In consequence 



PR.ESUS. 



PRAXITELES. 



ol its lofty situation, Praeneste was a cool ai d 
healthy residence in the great heats of summer 
{frigidum Prcsnesle, Hor., Carm., iii., 4, 22), and 
was therefore much frequented at that season 
by the wealthy Romans. The remains of the 
ancient walls and some other antiquities are 
still to be seen at Palestrina. 

Pulsus (Upalaoc : llpalaioc), an inland town 
in the east of Crete, belonging to the Eteocre- 
tes, which was destroyed by the neighboring 
town of Hierapytna. 

Pretoria Augusta. Vid. Augusta, No. 4. 

[PRiETUTii, a people of Central Italy, who are 
often assigned to Picenum, though they were 
of a different race from the Picentes. Their ter- 
ritory was fertile, and celebrated for its wine. 
The principal places in their land were Inter- 
amna and Hadria (now Atri).] 

PRA.s(IIpdf , gen. Tipavrbc : Upavrec), a town of 
Thessaly, in the west of the district Phthiotis, 
on the northeastern slope of Mount Narthacius. 

PrasLe (ILpaatai: Upamevc)- 1. Or Prasia 
(TLpaaia), a town of the Eleuthero-lacones, on 
the eastern coast of Laconia, was taken and de- 
stroyed by the Athenians in the second year of 
the Peloponnesian war. — 2. (Now Prassa), a 
demus in Attica, south of Stiria, belonging to 
the tribe Pandionis, with a temple of Apollo. 

Prasiab Lacus (Tlpaeiuc Xifivn : now Takino), 
a lake in Thrace, between the Strymon and 
Nestus, and near the Strymonic Gulf, with silver 
mines in the neighborhood. 

Prasii, Pr^esii, and Parrhasii (Tlpdcioi : San- 
scrit Prachinas, i. e., people of the Eastern coun- 
try), a great and powerful people of India on 
the Ganges, governed at the time of Seleucus 
I. by King Sandrocottus. Their capital city 
was Palibothra (now Patna) ; and the extent 
of the kingdom seems to have embraced the 
whole valley of the Upper Ganges, at least as 
far down as that city. At a later time the mon- 
archy declined, so that in Ptolemy we only find 
the name as that of the inhabitants of a small 
district, called Prasiaca (Upaniaur/), about the 
River Soa. 

Prasodis Mare {TLpaaudi^ VaAaaaa or ko\- 
■xoc), the southwestern part of the Indian Ocean, 
about the Promontory Prasum. 

Prasum (Jlpdaov ciKpurr/piov : now Cape Del- 
gado), a promontory on the eastern coast of 
Africa, in 10$° south latitude, appears to have 
been the southernmost point to which the an- 
cient knowledge of this coast extended. 

Pratinas {Ylparlvac), one of the early tragic 
poets at Athens, whose combined efforts brought 
the art to its perfection, was a native of Phlius, 
and was therefore by birth a Dorian. It is not 
stated at what time he went to Athens ; but he 
was older than Chcerilus, and younger than .Es- 
chylus, with both of whom he competed for the 
prize about B.C. 500. The step in the progress 
of the art which was ascribed to Pratinas was 
the separation of the satyric from the tragic 
drama. His plays were much esteemed. Prat- 
inas also* ranked high among the lyric as well 
as the dramatic poets of his age. He may, per- 
haps, be considered to have shared with his con- 
temporary I,asus the honor of founding the Athe- 
nian school of dithyrambic poetry. [The frag- 
ments of Pratinas are contained in Wagner's 
Tragic. Grccc. Fragm., p. 7-10.] 
45 



Praxagoras {Upa^ay6pac),3. celebrated physi- 
cian, was a native of the island of Cos, and lived 
in the fourth century B.C. He belonged to the 
medical sect of the Dogmatici, and was cele- 
brated for his knowledge of medical science in 
general, and especially for his attainments in 
anatomy and physiology. 

Praxias {TLpatjiac), an Athenian sculptor o r 
the age of Phidias, but of the more archaic 
school of Calamis, commenced the execution 
of the statues in the pediments of the great 
temple of Apollo at Delphi, but died while he 
was still engaged upon the work. His date 
may be placed about B.C. 448 and onward. 

Praxidice (llpal-idUTi), i. e., the goddess who 
carries out the objects of justice, or watches 
that justice is done to men. When Menelaus 
arrived in Laconia, on his return from Troy, he 
set up a statue of Praxidice near Gytheum, not 
far from the spot where Paris, in carrying off 
Helen, had founded a sanctuary of Aphrodite 
(Venus) Migonitis. Near Haliartus, in Bceotia, 
we meet with the worship of Praxidicae, in the 
plural : they were here called daughters of Ox 
yges, and their names were Alalcomenia,Thelx- 
inoea, and Aulis. In the Orphic poets Praxidice 
seems to be a surname of Persephone (Proser- 
pina). 

Praxilla (Tlpdijilla), of Sicyon, a lyric poet 
ess, who flourished about B.C. 450, and was one 
of the nine poetesses who were distinguished 
as the Lyric Muses. Her scholia were among the 
most celebrated compositions of that species. 
She belonged to the Dorian school of lyric po- 
etry, but there were also traces of ^Eolic influ- 
ence in her rhythms, and even in her dialect. 
[The fragments of her poems are given in Prax- 
illa Grmcanicas vatis qua extant residua, Upsalff, 
1826 ; and are found also in the collections of 
Schneidewin and Bergk.] 

Praxiphanes (TLpal-Lfydvris), a Peripatetic phi- 
losopher, a native either of Mytilene or of 
Rhodes, was a pupil of Theophrastus, and lived 
about B.C. 322. Epicurus is said to have been 
one of his pupils. Praxiphanes paid especial 
attention to grammatical studies, and is hence 
named along with Aristotle as the founder and 
creator of the science of grammar. 

Praxitei.es {Upa^LTeXric:), one of the most dis- 
tinguished artists of ancient Greece, was both 
a statuary in bronze and a sculptor in marble. 
We know nothing of his personal history, ex- 
cept that he was a citizen, if not a native, of 
Athens, and that his career as an artist was in - 
timately connected with that city. He prob- 
ably flourished about B.C. 364 and onward. 
Praxiteles stands, with Scopas, at the head of 
the later Attic school, so called in contradistinc- 
tion to the earlier Attic school of Phidias. With- 
out attempting those sublime impersonations 
of divine majesty in which Phidias had been so 
inimitably successful, Praxiteles was unsur- 
passed in the exhibition of the softer beauties 
of the human form, especially in the female 
figure. The most celebrated work of Praxit- 
eles was his marble statue of Aphrodite (Ve- 
nus), which was distinguished from other stat- 
ues of the goddess by the name of the Cnidians, 
who purchased it. It was always esteemed the 
most perfectly beautiful of the statues of tho 
goddess. Many made the voyage to Cnidus OA 

705 



PRAXITHEA. 



PRIAPUS. 



I 



pressly to behold it. So highly did the Cnidi- 
ans themselves esteem their treasure, that when 
King Nicomedes offered them, as the price of 
it, to pay off the whole of their heavy public 
debt, they preferred to endure any suffering 
rather than part with the work which gave their 
city its chief renown. It was afterward carried 
to Constantinople, where it perished by fire in 
the reign of&Justinian. Praxiteles modelled it 
from a favorite courtesan named Phryne, of 
whom he also made more than one portrait 
statue. Another of the celebrated works of 
Praxiteles was his statue of Eros. It was pre- 
served at Thespiae, where it was dedicated by 
Phryne ; and an interesting story is told of the 
manner in which she became possessed of it. 
Praxiteles had promised to give Phryne which- 
ever of his works she might choose, but he was 
unwilling to tell her which of them, in his own 
opinion, was the best. To discover this, she 
sent a slave to tell Praxiteles that a fire had 
broken out in his house, and that most of his 
works had already perished. On hearing this 
message, the artist rushed out, exclaiming that 
all his toil was lost if the fire had touched his 
Satyr or his Eros. Upon this, Phryne confessed 
the stratagem, and chose the Eros. This statue 
was removed to Rome by Caligula, restored to 
Thespiae by Claudius, and carried back by Nero 
to Rome, where it stood in Pliny's time in the 
schools of Octavia, and it finally perished in the 
conflagration of that building in the reign of 
Titus. Praxiteles had two sons, who were 
also distinguished sculptors, Timarchus and Ce- 
phisodotus. 

Praxithea {Upa^Ldia), daughter of Phrasimus 
and Diogema, was the wife of Erechtheus, and 
mother of Cecrops, Pandoras, Metion, Orneus, 
Procris, Creusa, Chthonia, and Orithyia. 

Preciani, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, at the 
foot of the Pyrenees. 

Prelius Lacus (now Lago di Castiglione), a 
lake in Etruria, near the coast, near the north- 
ern end of which was a small island. 

[Premnis (Hpijfivic). Vid. Primis.] 

Prepesinthus (TlpeiTemvdoc), one of the small- 
er Cyclades, between Oliaros and Siphnos. 

[Prexaspes (ITp^facrTr^?). 1. A Persian, held 
in the highest esteem and greatly trusted by 
Cambyses : he was employed by the latter to 
make away with his brother Smerdis secretly. 
His fidelity was severely tested on one occa- 
sion, when Cambyses, in one of his fits of phren- 
sy, shot the son of Prexaspes through the heart 
with an arrow before the eyes of his parent to 
prove that his hand was steady, and that the 
charge against him of too great fondness for 
wine was unfounded. When the false Smerdis 
usurped the throne, Cambyses suspected Prex- 
aspes of treachery, but the latter cleared him- 
self. Subsequently the magi endeavored to gain 
Prexaspes to their side, but he, pretending at first 
to favor their views by denying the assassina- 
tion of Smerdis, declared before the assembled 
Persians the truth, and exposed the scheme of 
the magi, and then threw himself from the tow- 
er on which he was standing.— 2. Son of Aspa- 
thines,one of the naval commanders of Xerxes.] 

Priamides, that is, a son of Priam, by which 
name Hector, Paris, Helenus, Deiphobus, and 
the other sons of Priam are frequently called. 
706 



Priamus (Upia/xoc), the famous king of Tr<>y 
at the time of the Trojan war. He was a son 
of Laomedon and Strymo or Placia. His orig- 
inal name is said to have been Podarces, i. e., 
" the swift-footed," which was changed into 
Priamus, " the ransomed" (from irpia/xat), be- r 
cause he was the only surviving son of Laom- 
edon, and was ransomed by his sister Hesione 
after he had fallen into the hands of Hercules. !'. 
He is said to have been first married to Arisbe, 
the daughter of Merops, by whom he became E 
the father of ^Esacus ; but afterward he gave 
up Arisbe to Hyrtacus, and married Hecuba, by 
whom he had the following children : Hector, 
Alexander or Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, Pam- 
mon, Polites, Antiphus, Hipponous, Polydorus, ', 
Troi'lus, Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, and Cas- ■ 
sandra. By other women he had a great many 
children besides. According to the Homeric 
tradition, he was the father of fifty sons, nine- 
teen of whom were children of Hecuba, to whom L 
others add an equal number of daughters. In j 
the earlier part of his reign Priam is said to 
have supported the Phrygians in their war I 
against the Amazons. When the Greeks land- 
ed on the Trojan coast Priam was already ad- j 
vanced in years, and took no active part in tfie 
war. Once only did he venture upon the field 
of battle, to conclude the agreement respecting 
the single combat between Paris and Menelaus. | 
After the death of Hector, Priam, accompanied j 
by Mercury (Hermes), went to the tent of Achil- 
les to ransom his son's body for burial, and ob- 
tained it. His death is not mentioned by Ho- 
mer, but is Telated by later poets. When the 
Greeks entered Troy, the aged king put on his 
armor, and was on the point of rushing against 
the enemy, but he was prevailed on by Hecuba 
to take refuge with herself and her daughters j 
as a suppliant at the altar of Jupiter (Zeus). 
While he was tarrying in the temple, his son : 
Polites, pursued by Pyrrhus, rushed into the 
sacred spot, and expired at the feet of his fa- 
ther, whereupon Priam, overcome with indig- j 
nation, hurled his spear with feeble hand against j, 
Pyrrhus, but was forthwith killed by the latter. 
Virgil mentions {Mn., v., 564) another Priam, 
a son of Polites, and a grandson of King Priam, i 

Priansus (Rpiavaog : Tlpiaveioi;, Hpiavaisvg), 
a town in Crete, on the southern coast, south of 
Lyctus, confounded by Strabo with Praesus. 

Priapus (UpLairog), son of Bacchus (Diony- 
sus) and Venus (Aphrodite). It is said that Ve- 
nus (Aphrodite), who was in love with Bacchus 
(Dionysus), went to meet the god on his return 
from India, but soon abandoned him, and pro- | 
ceeded to Lampsacus on the Hellespont to give 
birth to the child of the god. Juno (Hera), who 
was dissatisfied with her conduct, caused her j 
to give birth to a child of extreme ugliness, who ! 
was named Priapus. The earliest Greek poets, > 
such as Homer and Hesiod, do not mention this < 
divinity, and it was only in later times that he 
was honored with divine worship. He was wor- 
shipped more especially at Lampsacus on the 
Hellespont, whence he is sometimes-called Hcl- 
lespontiacus. He was regarded as the promoter 
of fertility both in vegetation and in all animals 
connected with an agricultural life ; and in this \ 
capacity he was worshipped as the protector of 
flocks of sheep and goats, of bees, of the vine, ol 1 



PRIAPUS. 



PRISCUS. 



all garden produce, and even of fishing. Like 
other divinities presiding over agricultural pur- 
suits, he was believed to be possessed of pro- 
phetic powers, and is sometimes mentioned in 
the plural. As Priapus had many attributes in 
common with other gods of fertility, the Orphics 
identified him with their mystic Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus), Mercury (Hermes), Helios, &c. The 
Attic legends connect Priapus with such sens- 
ual and licentious beings as Conisalus,Orthanes, 
and Tychon. In like manner, he was confound- 
ed by the Italians with Mutunus or Muttunus, 
the personification of the fructifying power in 
nature. The sacrifices offered to him consist- 
ed of the firstrfruits of gardens, vineyards, and 
fields, of milk, honey, cakes, rams, asses, and 
fishes. He was represented in carved images, 
mostly in the form of herma;, carrying fruit in 
his garment, and either a sickle or cornucopia 
in his hand. The henna? of Priapus in Italy, 
like those of other rustic divinities, were usu- 
ally painted red, whence the god is called ruber 
or rubicundus. 

Priapus {Tlpia-Kog, Ion. Upir/Kog : Upianijvoc : 
ruins at Karaboa). I. A city of Mysia, on the 
Propontis, east of Parium, with a small but ex- 
cellent harbor. It was a colony of the Mile- 
sians, and a chief seat of the worship of Pria- 
pus. The surrounding district was called Pria- 
pis (IIpiaTTif) and Priapene {Hpianrjvri). — [2. A 
small island of the iEgean Sea, near Ephesus.] 
Phiene {TlpiTjvri : Hpitjvevg, HptfjvLoq : Prien- 
eus, pi. Prienenses : ruins at Samsun), one of 
the twelve Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Mi- 
nor, stood in the northwestern corner of Caria, 
at the southern foot of Mount Mycale, and on 
the northern side of the Sinus Latmicus. Its 
foundation was ascribed mythically to the Ne- 
leid ^Epytus, in conjunction with Cadmeans, 
from whom it was also called Kadpr/. It stood 
originally on the sea-shore, and had two har- 
bors and a small fleet, but the change in the 
coast by the alluvial deposits of the Mseander 
left it some distance inland. It was of much 
religious importance in connection with the Pa- 
nionian festival on Mount Mycale, at which the 
people of Priene took precedence in virtue of 
their being the supposed descendants of those 
of Helice in Greece Proper. The city was also 
celebrated as the birth-place of Bus. 

Pkifernum, a town of the Vestini, on the east- 
ern coast of Central Italy. 

[Prilis Lacus, called by Cicero Lacus Pre- 
i.ius (now Lago di Castiglione), a lake of Etru- 
ria, near the city of Rusellas, and just above the 
River Umbro (now Ombrone).'] 

[Primis or Premnis {Tlptpcg or Tlpr/pvig). 1. 
Called Magna, to distinguish it from No. 2, sit- 
uated near the junction of the Astaboras with 
the Nile, immediately north of the island of 
Merog. — 2. (Now Ibreem, with Egyptian and Ro- 
man ruins), on the Nile, further down than No. 
1, occupied as a frontier post by the Romans.] 
Primus, M. Antonius, a native of Tolosa in 
Gaul, was condemned of forgery (falsum) in the 
reign of Nero, was expelled the senate, of which 
he was a member, and was banished from the 
city. After the death of Nero (68), he was re- 
stored to his former rank by Galba, and appoint- 
ed to the command of the seventh legion, which 
was stationed in Pannonia. He was one of the 



first generals in Europe who declared in tavor 
of Vespasian, and he rendered him the most im- 
portant services. In conjunction with the gov- 
ernors of Moesia and Pannonia, he invaded It- 
aly, gained a decisive victory over the Vitellian 
army at Bedriacum, and took Cremona, which 
he allowed his soldiers to pillage and destroy. 
He afterward forced his way into Rome, not- 
withstanding the obstinate resistance of the Vi- 
tellian troops, and had the government of the 
city till the arrival of Mucianus from Syria. Vid. 
Mucianus, No. 2. We learn from Martial, who 
was a friend of Antonius Primus, that he was 
alive at the accession of Trajan. 

Priscianus, a Roman grammarian, surnamed 
Casariensis, either because he was born at Caes- 
area, or eduuated there. He flourished about 
A.D. 450, and taught grammar at Constantino- 
ple. He was celebrated for the extent and 
depth of his grammatical knowledge, of which 
he has left the evidence in his work on the sub- 
ject, entitled Commentariorum grammalicorum 
Libri XVIII., addressed to his friend and pa- 
tron, the consul Julianus. Other titles are, how- 
ever, frequently given to it. The first sixteen 
books treat of the eight parts of speech rec- 
ognized by the ancient grammarians, letters, 
syllables, &c. The last two books are on syn- 
tax. This treatise soon became the standard 
work on Latin grammar, and in the epitome of 
Rabanus Maurus obtained an extensive circu- 
lation. The other works of Priscianus still ex- 
tant are, 1. A grammatical catechism on twelve 
lines of the JEneid, manifestly intended as a 
school book. 2. A treatise on accents. 3. A 
treatise on the symbols used to denote numbers 
and weights, and on coins and numbers. 4. On 
the metres of Terence. 5. A translation of the 
HpoyvpLvu.ap.aTa (Prceexcrcilamenta) of Hermoge- 
nes. 6. On the declensions of nouns. 7. A 
poem on the Emperor Anastasius, in three hund- 
red and twelve hexameters, with a preface in 
twenty-two iambic lines. 8. A piece De Pon- 
deribus et Mensuris, in verse. 9. An Epitome 
phanomenbn, or De Sideribus, in verse. 10. A 
free translation of the Periegesis of Dionysius, 
in one thousand four hundred and twenty-seven 
lines, manifestly made for the instruction of 
youth. 11. A couple of epigrams. The best 
edition of Priscianus is by Krehl, Lips., 1819- 
20, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Priscianus, Theodorus, a physician, and a 
pupil of Vindicianus, lived in the fourth century 
after Christ. He is supposed to have lived at 
the court of Constantinople, and to have attain- 
ed the dignity of Archiater. He is the author 
of a Latin work, entitled Rerum Medicarum Li- 
bri Quatuor, published in 1532, both at Strasburg 
and at Basel. 

Priscus (TIpioKo;), a Byzantine historian, was 
a native of Panium in Thrace, and was one 
of the ambassadors sent by Theodosius the 
Younger to Attila, A.D. 445. He died about 
471. Priscus wrote an account of his embassy 
to Attila, enriched by digressions on the life and 
reign of that king. The work was in eight books, 
but only fragments of it have come down to us 
Priscus was an excellent and trustworthy his- 
torian, and his style was remarkably elegant 
and pure. The fragments are published, with 
those of Dexippus and others, by Bekker and 

707 



PRISCUS, HELVIDIUS. 



PROCLUS. 



I 



Niebuhr, in the Bonn Collection of the Byzan- 
tines, 1829, 8vo. 

Pkiscus, Helvidius, son-in-law of Thrasea 
Paetus, and, like him, distinguished by his love 
of virtue, philosophy, and liberty. He was quaes- 
tor in Achaia during the reign of Nero, and trib- 
une of the plebs A D. 56. When Thrasea was 
put to death by Nero (66), Priscus was banish- 
ed from Italy. He was recalled to Rome by 
Galba (68), but in consequence of his freedom 
of speech and love of independence, he was 
again banished by Vespasian, and was shortly 
afterward put to death by order of this emperor. 
His life was written by Herennius Senecio at 
the request of his widow Fannia ; and the ty- 
rant Domitian, in consequence of this work, 
subsequently put Senecio to de,ath, and sent 
Fannia into exile. Priscus left a son, Helvid- 
ius, who was put to death by Domitian. 

Priscus, Servilius. The Prisci were an an- 
cient family of the Servilia gens, and filled the 
highest offices of the state during the early years 
of the republic. They also bore the agnomen 
of Structus, which is always appended to their 
name in the East, till it was supplanted by that 
of Fidenas, which was first obtained by Q. Ser- 
vilius Priscus Structus, who took Fidenae in his 
dictatorship, B.C. 435, and which was also borne 
*iy his descendants. 

Priscus, Tarquinius. Vid. Tarquinius. 

Privernum (Privernas, -ads : now Piperno). 
an ancient town of Latium, on the River Ama- 
senus, belonged to the Volscians It was con- 
quered by the Romans at an early period, and 
was subsequently made a colony. 

[Pkivernus, a Rutulian warrior under Tur- 
nus, slain by Capys ] 

Pro^eresius (Upoaipeatoc), a teacher of rhet- 
oric, was a native of Armenia, and was born 
about A.D. 276. He first studied at Antioch 
under Ulpian, and afterward at Athens under 
Julianus. He became at a later time the chief 
teacher of rhetoric at Athens, and enjoyed a 
very high reputation. He died in 368, in his 
ninety-second year. 

[Proba, Falconia, a poetess, greatly admired 
in the Middle Ages, but whose real name and 
the place of whose nativity are uncertain. Her 
only production now extant, a Cento Virgilia- 
nus, contains narratives in hexameter verse of 
striking events in the Old and New Testament, 
expressed in lines and portions of lines derived 
from the poems of Virgil. The best editions 
of the Cento Virgilianus are by Meibomius, 
Helmst., 4to, 1597 ; and of Kromayer, Hal. 
Magd., 8vo, 1719.] 

Probalinthus (Tlpo662.iv6oe : JlpoSaMciioc), a 
demus in Attica, south of Marathon, belonging 
to the tribe Pandionis. 

Prob atia (JlpoBarta), a river of Bosotia, which, 
after passing through the territory of Trachin, 
and receiving its tributary the Hercyna, flowed 
into the Lake Copais. 

Probus, ./Emilius. Vid. Nepos, Cornelius. 

Probus, M. Aurelius, Roman emperor A.D. 
276-282, was a native of Sirmium in Pannonia, 
and rose to distinction by his military abilities. 
He was appointed by the Emperor Tacitus gov- 
ernor of the whole East, and, upon the death 
of that sovereign, the purple was forced upon 
Uis acceptance by the armies of Syria. The 
708 



downfall of Florianus speedily removed his onlj 
rival (vid. Florianus), and he was enthusiastic- 
ally hailed by the united voice of the senate, j 
the people, and the legions. The reign of Pro- 
bus presents a series of the most brilliant f 
achievements. He defeated the barbarians on 
the frontiers of Gaul and Illyricum, and in oth- ' 
er parts of the Roman empire, and put down ' 
the rebellions of Saturninus at Alexandrea, and ' 
of Proculus and Bonosus in Gaul. But, after j 
crushing all external and internal foes, he was ' : 
killed at Sirmium by his own soldiers, who had 
risen in mutiny against him because he had em- 
ployed them in laborious public works. Probus 
was as just and virtuous as he was warlike, and 
is deservedly regarded as one of the greatest 
and best of the Roman emperors. 

Probus, Valerius. 1. Of Berytus, a Roman 
grammarian, who lived in the time of Nero. To . 
this Probus we may assign those annotations 
on Terence, from which fragments are quoted 
in the scholia on the dramatist. — 2. A Roman 
grammarian, flourished some years before A. 
Gellius, and therefore about the beginning of the ' 
second century. He was the author of com- 
mentaries on Virgil, and possessed a copy of a | 
portion, at least, of the Georgics, which had 
been corrected by the hand of the poet himself. 
These are the commentaries so frequently cited 
by Servius ; but the Scholia in Bucolica el Geor- 
gica, now extant under the name of Probus, be- i 
long to a much later period. This Probus was 
probably the author of the life of Persius, com- 
monly ascribed to Suetonius. There is extant 
a work upon grammar, in two books, entitled 
M. Valerii Probi Grammatica Institution es ; but 
this work was probably not written by either of 
the preceding grammarians. It is published in 
the collections of Putschius, Hannov., 1605, and I 
of Lindemann, Lips., 1831. 

Procas, one of the fabulous kings of Alba 
Longa, succeeded Aventinus, and reigned twen 
ty-three years : he was the father of Numitor 
and Amulius. 

Prochyta (now Procida), an island off the 
coast of Campania, near the promontory Mise- 
num, is said to have been torn away by an 
earthquake either from this promontory or from 
the neighboring island of Pithecusa or JSnaria 

[Procilla, Julia, the mother of Agricola.] 

[Procillius, a Roman historian, a contem- 
porary of Cicero. He appears to have written 
on early Roman history, as Varro quotes his 
account of the origin of the Curtian Lake, as well 
as on the later history, as he mentions Pom- 
pey's triumph on his return from Africa.] 

Procles (UpoKlfjc). 1. One of the twin sons 
of Aristodeinus. For details, vid. Eurysthenes. 
— [2. Tyrant of Epidaurus, the father of Lysis 
or Melissa, the wife of Periander. Having re- 
vealed to the son of the latter the secret of his 
mother's death (vid. Periander), he incurred 
the implacable resentment of Periander, who 
attacked and captured Epidaurus, and took Pro- 
cles prisoner.] 

Proclus (flpoK/lof). 1. Surnamed Diadochus 
(AiutSo^of)! the successor, from his beingregard- 
ed as the genuine successor of Plato in doc- 
trine, was one of the most celebrated teachers 
of the Neo-Platonic school. He was born at By- 
zantium A.D. 412, '.lut was brought up at Xan 



PROCLUS. 

li 

I thus m Lycia,to which city his parents belonged, 
and which Proclus himself regarded as his na- 
tive place. He studied at Alexandrea under 
Olympiodorus, and afterward at Athens under 
Plutarchus and Syrianus. At an early age his 
philosophical attainments attracted the attention 
and admiration of his contemporaries. He had 
written his commentary on the Timajus of Pla- 
to, as well as many other treatises, by his twen- 
ty-eighth year. On the death of Syrianus, Pro- 
clus succeeded him in his school, and inherited 
from him the house in which he resided and 
taught. Marinus, in his life of Proclus, records, 
with intense admiration, the perfection to which 
his master attained in all virtues. The highest 
of these virtues were, in the estimation of Ma- 
rinus, those of a purifying and ascetic kind. 
From animal food he almost totally abstained ; 
fasts and vigils he observed with scrupulous 
exactitude. The reverence with which he hon- 
ored the sun and moon would seem to have 
been unbounded. He celebrated all the import- 
ant religious festivals of every nation, himself 
composing hymns in honor, not only of Grecian 
deities, but of those of other nations also. Nor 
were departed heroes and philosophers except- 
ed from this religious veneration ; and he even 
performed sacred rites in honor of the departed 
spirits of the entire human race. It was, of 
course, not surprising that such a man should 
be favored with various apparitions and mirac- 
ulous interpositions of the gods. He used to 
tell how a god had once appeared and proclaimed 
to him the glory of the city. But the still higher 
grade of what, in the language of the school, 
was termed the theurgic virtue, he attained by 
his profound meditations on the oracles, and the 
Orphic and Chaldaic mysteries, into the pro- 
found secrets of which he was initiated by As- 
clepigenia, the daughter of Plutarchus, who 
alone was in complete possession of the theur- 
gic knowledge and discipline, which had de- 
scended to her from the great Nestorius. He 
profited so much by her instructions as to be 
able, according to Marinus, to call down rain in 
a time of drought, to stop an earthquake, and 
to procure the immediate intervention of JEs- 
culapius to cure the daughter of his friend 
Archiadas. Proclus died A.D. 485. During the 
last five years of his life he had become super- 
annuated, his strength having been exhausted 
by his fastings and other ascetic practices. As 
a philosopher, Proclus enjoyed the highest ce- 
lebrity among his contemporaries and success- 
ors ; but his philosophical system is character- 
ized by vagueness, mysticism, and want of good 
sense. He professed that his design was not 
to bring forward views of his own, but simply 
to expound Plato, in doing which he proceeded 
on the id.ea that every thing in Plato must be 
brought into accordance with the mystical the- 
ology of Orpheus. He wrote a separate work 
on the coincidence of the doctrines of Orpheus, 
Pythagoras, and Plato. It was much in the 
same spirit that he attempted to blend together 
the logical method of Aristotle and the fanciful 
speculations of Neo-Platonic mysticism. Sev- 
eral of the works of Proclus are still extant. 
The most important of them consist of Com- 
mentaries on Plato, a treatise on various theo- 
logical and philosophical subjects. There is no 



PROCOPIUS. 

complete edition of Proclus. The edition of 
Cousin (Paris, 6 vols. 8vo, 1820-1827) contains 
the following treatises of Proclus : On Provi- 
dence and Fate ; On Ten Doubts about Provi- 
dence ; On the Nature of Evil; a Commentary 
on the Alcibiades, and a Commentary on the 
Parmenides. The other principal works of Pro- 
clus are : On the Theology of Plato, in six 
books ; Theological Elements ; a Commentary 
on the Timaeus of Plato ; five Hymns of an 
Orphic character. Several of these have been 
translated into English by Thomas Taylor. 
Proclus was also a distinguished mathematician 
and grammarian. His Commentaries on the 
first book of Euclid, and on the Works and Days 
of Hesiod, are still extant. — [2. Eutychius, a 
grammarian, who flourished in the second cen- 
tury, born at Sicca, in Africa. He was the in- 
structor of M. Antoninus, and is called the most 
learned grammarian of his age.] 

Procne {llpdnvr)), daughter of King Pandion 
of Athens, and wife of Tereus. Her story is 
given under Tereus. 

Proconnesus (UpoKovvtjooz, or TlpoLKOWTjaog, 
i. e., Fawn Island, now Marmara), an island of 
the Propontis (now Sea of Marmara), which 
takes from it its modern name, off' the northern 
coast of Mysia, northwest of the peninsula of 
Cyzicus or Dolionis. The latter was also called 
Procpnnesus from 7rp6f {fawn), because it was 
a favorite resort of deer in the fawning season, 
whence it was also called Elaphonnesus ('EAa 
tybvvnaoq, i. e., deer-island) ; and the two were 
distinguished by the names of Old and New 
Proconnesus. The island was celebrated for 
its marble, and hence its modern name. It 
was the native place of the poet Aristeas. 

Procopius (UpoKorrwc). 1. A native of Cili- 
cia, and a relative of the Emperor Julian, served 
with distinction under Constantius II. and Ju- 
lian. Having incurred the suspicions of Jovian 
and of his successor Valens, Procopius remain 
ed in concealment for about two years ; but in 
A.D. 365 he was proclaimed emperor at Con- 
stantinople, while Valens was staying at Caesa- 
rea in Cappadocia. Both parties prepared for 
war. In the following year (366) the forces o- 
Procopius were defeated in two great battles. 
Procopius himself was taken prisoner, and put 
to death by order of Valens. — 2. An eminent 
Byzantine historian, was born at Caesarea, in 
Palestine, about A.D. 500. He went to Con- 
stantinople when still a young man, and there 
obtained so much distinction as an advocate 
and a professor of eloquence, that he attracted 
the attention of Belisarius, who appointed him 
his secretary in 527. In this capacity Proco- 
pius accompanied the great hero on his differ 
ent wars in Asia, Africa, and Italy, being fre- 
quently employed in state business of import- 
ance, or in conducting military expeditions. 
Procopius returned with Belisarius to Constan- 
tinople a little before 542. His eminent talents 
were appreciated by the Emperor Justinian, 
who conferred upon him the title of illustris, 
made him a senator, and in 562 created him 
prefect of Constantinople. Procopius died about 
the same time as Justinian, 565. As an histo- 
rian, Procopius deserves great praise. His 
style is good, formed upon classic models, often 
elegant, and generally full of vigor. His work3 

709 



PROCRIS. 



PRCETUS. 



are: 1. Histories ('larcplai), in eight books; 
viz., two On the Persian War, containing the 
period from 408-553, and treating more fully 
of the author's own times ; two On the War 
with the Vandals, 395-545 ; four On the Gothic 
War, or, properly speaking, only three books^ 
f he fourth (eighth) being a sort of supplement 
containing various matters, and going down to 
the beginning of 553. It was continued by 
Agathias till 559. The work is extremely in- 
teresting ; the descriptions of the habits, &c, 
of the barbarians are faithful, and done in a 
masterly style. 2. On the Public Buildings erect- 
ed by Justinian (Krw/mra), in six books. A 
work equally interesting and valuable in its 
kind, though apparently too much seasoned 
with flattery of the emperor. 3. Anecdota (Jkv- 
eK&H-a), a collection of anecdotes, some of them 
witty and pleasant, but others most indecent, 
reflecting upon Justinian, the Empress Theo- 
dora, Belisarius, and other eminent persons. 
It is a complete Chronique Scandaleuse of the 
court of Constantinople, from 549 till 562. 4. 
Oraliones, probably extracts from the " Histo- 
ry," which is rather overstocked with harangues 
and speeches. The best edition of the collect- 
ed works of Procopius is by Dindorf, Bonn, 3 
vols. 8vo, 1833-1838; [the best edition of the 
Anecdota is by Orelli, Lipsiae, 1827, 8vo.] 

Prockis (UpoKpic), daughter of Erechtheus 
and wife of Cephalus. For details, vid. Ceph- 

AI.US. 

Procrustes ( Tiponpovarnc ), that is, " the 
Stretcher," a surname of the famous robber 
Polypemon or Damastes. He used to tie all 
travellers who fell into his hands upon a bed : 
if they were shorter than the bed, he stretched 
their limbs till they were of the same length ; 
if they were longer than the bed, he made them 
of the same size by cutting off some of their 
limbs. He was slain by Theseus, on the Ce- 
phisus, in Attica. The bed of Procrustes is 
used proverbially even at the present day. 

Proculeius, C., a Roman eques, one of the 
friends of Augustus, was sent by the latter, after 
the victory at Actium, to Antony and Cleopa- 
tra. It is of this Proculeius that Horace speaks 
(Carm., ii., 2). He is said to have divided his 
property with his brothers (perhaps cousins) 
Caepio and Murena, who had lost their property 
in the civil wars. Proculeius put an end to his 
life by taking gypsum, when suffering from a 
disease in the stomach. 

Proculus, the jurist, was the contemporary 
of the jurist Nerva the younger, who was prob- 
ably the father of the Emperor Nerva. The 
fact that Proculus gave his name to the school 
or sect (Proculiani or Proculeiani, as the name 
is also written) which was opposed to that of 
the Sabiniani, shows that he was a jurist of 
note. Proculus is often cited, and there are 
thirty-seven extracts from him in the Digest 
from his eight books of Epistolse. He appears 
to have written notes on Labeo. Some writers 
suppose that Proculus is the Licinius Proculus 
who was Praefectus Praetorio under Otho. 

Proculus, Julius, a Roman senator, is said, 
in the legend of Romulus, to have informed the 
sorrowing Roman people, after the strange de- 
parture of their king from the world, that Rom- 
ulus had descended from heaven and appear- 
710 



ed to him, bidding him tell the people to honoi 
him in future as a god under the name of Quiri- 
nus. 

Prodicus {Tipoduwc), the celebrated sophist, 
was a native of Mis, in the island of Ceos. 
He lived in the time of the Peloponnesian war 
and subsequently ; but the date can not be de- 
termined either of his birth or of his death. 
Prodicus came frequently to Athens on the pub- 
lic business of his native city. He was brought 
forward in the Clouds and the Birds of Aris- 
tophanes, which belong respectively to B.C. 423 
and 414. Prodicus is mentioned as one of the 
teachers of Isocrates, and he was alive at the 
time of the death of Socrates (399). Suidas 
relates that Prodicus was put' to death by the 
Athenians as a corrupter of the youth, but this 
statement sounds very suspicious. He is men- 
tioned both by Plato and Xenophon with more 
respect than the other sophists. Like Protago- 
ras and others, he travelled through Greece, de- 
livering lectures for money, and in this way he 
amassed a large fortune. He paid especial at- 
tention to the correct use of words. We have 
the substance of one of his lectures preserved 
by Xenophon in the well-known fable called 
"The choice of Hercules." When Hercules, 
as he entered upon manhood, was upon the 
point of choosing between virtue and vice, there 
appeared to him two women, the one of digni- 
fied beauty, adorned with purity, modesty, and 
discretion, the other of a voluptuous form, and 
meretricious look and dress. The latter prom- 
ised to lead him by the shortest road, without 
any toil, to the enjoyment of every pleasure. 
The other, while she reminded him of his an- 
cestors and his noble nature, did not conceal 
from him that the gods have granted nothing 
really beautiful and good without toil and labor. 
The former sought to deter him from the path 
of virtue by urging its difficulties ; the lattei 
impressed upon him the emptiness of pleasure; 
and the honor and happiness flowing from a life 
of virtue. Thereupon Hercules decided in fa- 
vor of virtue. 

Proerna (Rpoepva), a town of Thessaly, in 
the western part of the district of Phthiotis, on 
the western slope of Mount Narthacius, and 
near the sources of the Apidanus. 

Prcetides. Vid. Prcetus. 

Prcetus (Tlpol-oc), son of Abas and Ocalea, 
and twin-brother of Acrisius. In the dispute 
between the two brothers for the kingdom of 
Argos, Prcetus was expelled, whereupon he 
fled to Iobates, in Lycia, and married Antea or 
Stheneboea, the daughter of the latter. With 
the assistance of Iobates, Prcetus was restored 
to his kingdom, and took Tiryns, which was 
now fortified by the Cyclopes. Acrisius then 
shared his kingdom with his brother, surrender- 
ing to him Tiryns, Midea, and the coast of Ar- 
golis. By his wife, Proetus became the father 
of three daughters, Lysippe, Iphinoe, and Iphi- 
anassa, who are often mentioned under the gen- 
eral name of Prcetides. When these daugh- 
ters arrived at the age of maturity, they were 
stricken with madness, the cause of which is 
differently related. Some say that it was a 
punishment inflicted upon them by Bacchus 
(Dionysus) because they had despised his wor- 
ship ; others relate that they were driven mad 



PROMACHTJS. 



PROMETHEUS. 



by Juno (Hera) because they presume^ to con- 
sider themselves more handsome than ;he god- 
dess, or because they had stolen some of the 
gold of her statue. The phrensy spread to the 
other women of Argos ; till at length Prcetus 
agreed to divide his kingdom between Melam- 
pus and his brother Bias, upon thg former prom- 
ising that he would cure the women of their 
madness. Melampus then chose the most re- 
bust among the young men, gave chase to the 
mad women, amid shouting and dancing, and 
drove them as far as Sicyon. During this pur- 
suit Iphinoe died, but the two other daughters 
were cured by Melampus by means of purifica- 
tions, and were then married to Melampus and 
Bias. The place where the cure was effected 
upon his daughters is not the same in all tradi- 
tions, some mentioning the well Anigros, oth- 
ers the fountain Clitor in Arcadia, or Lusi in 
Arcadia. Besides these daughters, Prcetus had 
a son, Megapenthes. When Bellerophon came 
to Prcetus to be purified of a murder which he 
had committed, the wife of Prcetus fell in love 
with him ; but, as Bellerophon declined her ad- 
vances, she charged him before Prcetus with 
having made improper proposals to her. Prce- 
tus then sent Bellerophon to Iobates, in Lycia, 
with a letter desiring the latter to murder Bel- 
lerophon. Vid. Bellerophon. According to 
Ovid (Met., v., 238), Acrisius was expelled from 
his kingdom by Prcetus ; and Perseus, the 
grandson of Acrisius, avenged his grandfather 
by turning Prcetus into stone by means of the 
head of Medusa. 

[Promachus (ITpd^a^o?), a Bceotian chief, son 
of Alegenor, slain by Acamas at the siege of 
Troy.] 

Prometheus (U.pofirjdevc), son of the Titan 
Iapetus and Clymene, and brother of Atlas, Me- 
noetius, and Epimetheus. His name signifies 
"forethought," as that of his brother Epime- 
theus denotes "afterthought." Once in the 
reign of Jupiter (Zeus), when gods and men 
were disputing with one another at Mecone 
(afterward Sicyon), Prometheus, with a view 
of deceiving Jupiter (Zeus), cut up a bull and 
divided it into two parts : he wrapped up the 
best parts and the intestines in the skin, and at 
the top he placed the stomach, which is one of 
the worst parts, while the second heap consist- 
ed of the bones covered with fat. When Ju- 
piter (Zeus) pointed out to him how badly he 
had made the division, Prometheus desired him 
to choose ; but Jupiter (Zeus), in his anger, and 
seeing through the stratagem of Prometheus, 
chose the heap of bones covered with the fat. 
The father of the gods avenged himself by with- 
holding fire from mortals, but Prometheus stole 
it in a hollow tube (vupdr/i;, ferula). Jupiter 
(Zeus) thereupon chained Prometheus to a pil- 
lar, where an eagle consumed in the daytime 
his liver, which was restored in each succeed- 
ing night. Prometheus was thus exposed to 
perpetual torture ; but Hercules killed the eagle 
and delivered the sufferer, with the consent of 
Jupiter (Zeus), who in this way had an oppor- 
tunity of allowing his son to gain immortal 
fame. Further in order to punish men, Jupiter 
(Zeus) gave Pandora as a present to Epime- 
theus, in consequence of which diseases and 
sufferings of every kind befell mortals. (For 



details, vid. Pandora.) This is an outline of 
the legend about Prometheus, as contained in 
the poems of Hesiod. ^Eschylus, in his trilogy 
Prometheus, added various new features to this 
legend. Although Prometheus belonged to the 
Titans, he is nevertheless represented by J3s- 
chylus as having assisted Jupiter (Zeus) against 
the Titans. But when Jupiter (Zeus) wanted 
to extirpate the whole race of man, whose place 
he proposed to fill by an entirely new race of 
beings, Prometheus prevented the execution of 
the scheme, and saved mankind from destruc- 
tion. Prometheus further deprived them of 
their knowledge of the future, and gave them 
hope instead. He taught them the use of fire, 
made them acquainted with architecture, astron- 
omy, mathematics, writing, the treatment of 
domestic animals, navigation, medicine, the art 
of prophecy, working in metal, and all the other 
arts. But, as he had acted in all these things 
contrary to the will of Jupiter (Zeus), the lauer 
ordered Vulcan (Hephaestus) to chain him to a 
rock in Scythia, which was done in the pres- 
ence of Cratos and Bia, two ministers of Jupitei 
(Zeus). Prometheus, however, still continued 
to defy Jupiter (Zeus), and declared that it was 
the decree of fate, by which Jupiter (Zeus) was 
destined to be dethroned by his own son. As 
Prometheus steadfastly refused to give any ex- 
planation of this decree, Jupiter (Zeus) hurled 
him into Tartarus, together with the rock to 
which he was chained. .After the lapse of a 
long time, Prometheus returned to the upper 
world, to endure a fresh course of suffering, for 
he was now fastened to Mount Caucasus, and 
his liver devoured by an eagle, as related in the 
Hesiodic legend. This state of suffering was 
to last until some other god, of his own accord, 
should take his place, and descend into Tar- 
tarus for him. This came to pass when Chi- 
ron, who had been incurably wounded by an 
arrow of Hercules, desired to go into Hades ; 
and Jupiter (Zeus) allowed him to supply the 
place of Prometheus. According to others, 
however, Jupiter (Zeus) himself delivered Pro- 
metheus, when the Titao,was at length pre- 
vailed upon to reveal to Jupiter (Zeus) the de- 
cree of fate, which was, that if he should be- 
come by Thetis the father of a son, that son 
should deprive him of the sovereignty. There 
was also a legend which related that Prome- 
theus had created man out of earth and water, 
either at the very beginning of the human race, 
or after the flood of Deucalion, when Jupiter 
(Zeus) is said to have ordered him and Minerva 
(Athena) to make men out of the mud, and the 
winds to breathe life into them. Prometheus 
is said to have given to men a portion of all the 
qualities possessed by the other animals (Hor., 
Carm., i., 16, 13). The kind of earth out of 
which Prometheus formed men was shown in 
later times near Panopeus in Phocis. In the 
legend of Prometheus, he often appears in con 
nection wjth Minerva (Athena). Thus he is 
said to have been punished on Mount Caucasus 
for the criminal love he entertained for her ; 
and he is further said, with her assistance, to 
have ascended into heaven, and there secretly 
to have lighted his torch at the chariot of Helios, 
in order to bring down the fire to man. At 
Athens Prometheus had a sanctuary in the 

711 



PROMONA. 



PROPONTIS. 



Academy, from whence a torch-race took place 
n honor of him. 

Promona (Tlpu/xova: now Pctrovacz, on Mount 
Promina), a mountain fortress in the interior of 
Oalmatia. 

[Promulcs, a Trojan warrior, slain hy Turnus 
in Italy.] 

Pronap'ides (Upovanidrtf), an Athenian, is 
said to have been the teacher of Homer. He is 
enumerated among those who used the Pelasgic 
letters, before the introduction of the Phoeni- 
cian, and is characterized as a graceful com- 
poser of song. 

Pronax (flpuvaf), son of Talaus and Lysi- 
mache, brother of Adrastus and Eriphyle, and 
father of Lycurgus and Amphithea. According 
to some traditions, the Nemean games were in- 
stituted in honor of Pronax. 

Pronni (UpbvvoL . Upovvaloc;), a town on the 
eastern coast of Cephallenia, and one of the 
four towns of the island. ~ 

Pronomus (Ilpovofioc), of Thebes, son of 
CEniadas, was one of the most distinguished 
auletic musicians of Greece at the time of the 
Peloponnesian war. He was the instructor of 
Alcibiades in flute-playing. He invented a new 
sort of flute, the compass of which was such 
that melodies could be played upon it in all the 
three modes of music, the Dorian, the Phrygian, 
and the Lydian, for each of which, before this 
invention, a separate flute had been necessary. 

Pronous (Upovooc). 1. Son of Phegeus, and 
brother of Agenor, in conjunction with whom 
he slew Alcma:on. (For details, vid. Agenor 
and Alch^eon.) — [2. ATrojan warrior, slain by 
Patroclus in the Trojan war.] 

Pronuba, a surname of Juno among the Ro- 
mans, describing her as the deity presiding over 
marriage. 

Propertius, Sex. Aurelicjs, the Roman poet, 
was probably born about B.C. 51. He tells us 
that he was a native of Umbria, where it bor- 
ders on Etruria, but nowhere mentions the ex- 
act spot. He was not descended from a fami- 
ly of any distinction (ii., 24, 37), and he was de- 
prived of his paternal estate by an agrarian di- 
vision, probably that in 36, after the Sicilian 
war. At the time of this misfortune he had 
not yet assumed the toga virilis, and was there- 
fore under sixteen years of age. He had al- 
ready lost his father, who, it has been conjec- 
tured, was one of the victims sacrificed after 
the taking of Perusia ; but this notion does not 
rest on any satisfactory grounds. We have no 
account of Propertius's education ; but from one 
of his elegies (iv., 1) it would seem that he was 
destined to be an advocate, but abandoned the 
profession for that of poetry. The history of 
his life, so far as it is known to us, is the his- 
tory of his amours, nor can it be said how much 
of this is fiction. He began to write poetry at 
a very early age, and the merit of his produc- 
tions soon attracted the attention and patronage 
of Maecenas. This was most probably shortly 
after the death of Antony in 30, when Proper- 
tius was about 21. It was probably in 32 or 31 
that Propertius first became acquainted with his 
Cynthia. She was a native of Tibur, and her 
real name was Hostia. As Propertius (iii., 20, 
8) alludes to her doclus avus, it is probable that 
she was a grand-daughter of Hostius, who wrote 
712 



a ; oem on the Histric war. Vid. HOstius. She 
seems to have inherited a considerable portion 
of the family talent, and was herself a poetess, 
besides being skilled in music, dancing, and 
needle-work. It appears that Propertius subse- 
quently married, probablyafter Cynthia's death, 
and left legitimate issue, since the younger 
Pliny twice mentions Passienus Paulus as de- 
scended from him. This must have been 
through the female line. The year of Proper- 
tius's death is altogether unknown. Propertius 
resided on the Esquiline, near the gardens of 
Meecenas. He seems to have cultivated the 
friendship of his brother poets, as Ponticus, 
Bassus, Ovid, and others. He mentions Virgil 
(ii., 34, 63) in a way that shows he had heard 
parts of the ^Eneid privately recited. But 
though he belonged to the circle of Meecenas, 
he never once mentions Horace. He is equal- 
ly silent about Tibullus. His not mentioning 
Ovid is best explained by the difference in their 
ages ; for Ovid alludes more than once to Pro- 
pertius, and with evident affection. As an ele- 
giac poet, a high rank must be awarded to Pro- 
pertius, and among the ancients it was a dis- 
puted point whether the preference should be 
given to him or to Tibullus. To the modem 
reader, however, the elegies of Propertius are 
not nearly so attractive as those of Tibullus. 
This arises partly from their obscurity, but in a 
great measure, also, from a certain want of na- 
ture in them. The fault of Propertius was too 
pedantic an imitation of the Greeks. His whole 
ambition was to become the Roman Callima- 
chus (iv., 1, 63), whom, as well as Philetas and 
other of the Greek elegiac poets, he made his 
model. He abounds with obscure Greek myths, 
as well as Greek forms of expression, and the 
same pedantry infects even his versification. 
Tibullus generally, and Ovid almost invariably, 
close their pentameter with a word contained 
in an iambic foot ; Propertius, especially in his 
first book, frequently ends with a word of three, 
or four, or even five syllables. The best edi- 
tions of Propertius are by Burmann, Utrecht, 
1780 ; by Kuinoel, Leipzig, 1804 ; by Lachmann, 
Leipzig, 1816 ; and by Hertzberg, Halle, 1844, 
1845. 

Prophthasia (TIpoQdaaia: now probably Pe- 
shawarun), the northernmost city of Drangiana, 
on the borders of Asia, was probably the place 
where Philotas was put to death. 

Propontis (ij Upo-jTovr'ig : now Sea of Mar- 
mara), so called from its position with reference 
to the Pontus (Euxinus), and thus more fully 
described as 7) npo rov ridvrou tov Ei^eivov iJd- 
laaaa, and "Vestibulum Ponti," is the small 
sea which united the Euxine and the ^Egean 
(vid. Pontcs Euxinus), and divides Europe 
(Thracia) from Asia (Mysia and Bithynia). It 
is of an irregular oval shape, running out on 
the east into two deep gulfs, the Sinus Astace- 
nus (now Gulf of Ismid) and the Sinus Cianus 
(now Gulf of Modonia), and containing several 
islands. It received the waters of the Rhyn 
dacus and other rivers of Eastern Mysia an^. 
Western Bithynia, flowing from Mount Ida and 
Olympus ; and several important Greek cities 
stood on its shores, the chief of which were 
Byzantium and Heraclea Perinthus on the 
north, and Cyzicus on the south. Its length i 



PROSCHIUM. 



PROTEUS. 



calculated by Herodotus at one thousand four 
hundred stadia(one hundred and forty geograph- 
ical miles) and its greatest breadth at five hund- 
red stadia (fifty geographical miles), which is 
very near the truth. 

Proschium. Vid. Pylene. 

Proserpina. Vid. Persephone. 

Prospalta (to. TlpoairaX-a: TlpocTruXTioc), a 
dermis in the south of Attica, belonging to the 
tribe Acamantis. 

Prosper, a celebrated ecclesiastical writer, 
was a native of Aquitania, and nourished during 
the first half of the fifth century. He' distin- 
guished himself by his numerous writings in 
defence of the doctrines of Augustine against 
the attacks of the Semipelagians. Many of his 
theological works are extant ; and there are 
two Chronicles bearing his name : 1. Chronicon 
Consulare, extending from A.D. 379, the date 
at which the chronicle of Jerome ends, down to 
455, the events being arranged according to the 
years of the Roman consuls. We find short 
notices with regard to the Roman emperors, the 
Roman bishops, and political occurrences in 
general, but the troubles of the Church are 
especially dwelt upon, and, above all, the Pe- 
lagian heresy. 2. Chronicon Imperiale, compre- 
hended within the same limits as the preceding 
(379-455), but the computations proceed ac- 
cording to the years of the Roman emperors, 
and not according to the consuls. While it 
agrees with the Chronicon Consulare in its 
general plan, it differs from it in many particu- 
lars, especially in the very brief allusions to the 
Pelagian controversy, and in the slight, almost 
disrespectful notices of Augustine. The second 
of these Chronicles was probably not written 
by Prosper of Aquitania, and is assigned by 
most critics to Prosper Tiro, who, it is imagined, 
flourished in the sixth century. There are like- 
wise several poems which have come down to 
us under the name of Prosper. The best edi- 
tion of Prosper's works is the Benedictine, 
Paris, 1711. 

Peosymna (Ylpoavfiva : Tlpooviivaloc), an an- 
cient town of Argolis, with a temple of Juno 
(Hera), north of Argos. 

Prota (ITpura : now Prote), an island in the 
Propontis, near Chalcedon. 

Protagoras (Tlpurayopac), a celebrated soph- 
ist, was born at Abdera, in Thrace, probably 
about B.C. 480, and died about 411, at the age 
of nearly seventy years. It is said that Pro- 
tagoras was once a poor porter, and that the 
skill with which he had fastened together, and 
poised upon his shoulders, a large bundle of 
wood, attracted the attention of Democritus, 
who conceived a liking for him, took him under 
his care, and instructed him in philosophy. 
This well-known story, however, appears to 
have arisen out of the statement of Aristotle, 
that Protagoras invented a sort of porter's knot 
for the more convenient carrying of burdens. 
In addition to which, Protagoras was about 
twenty years older than Democritus. Protag- 
oras was the first who called himself a sophist, 
and taught for pay ; and he practiced his pro- 
fession for the space of forty years. He must 
have come to Athens before B.C. 445, since he 
drew up a code of laws for the Thurians, who 
eft Athens for the first time in that year. 



Whether he accompanied the colonists to Thu- 
rii, we are not informed; but at the time of the- 
plague (430) we find him again in Athens. Be- 
tween his first and second visit to Athens, he 
had spent some time in Sicily, where he had 
acquired great fame, and he brought with him 
to Athens many admirers out of other Greek 
cities through which he had passed. His in- 
structions were so highly valued that he some- 
times received one hundred minae from a pupil ; 
and Plato says that Protagoras made more 
money than Phidias and ten other sculptors. 
In 411 he was accused of impiety by Pythodo- 
rus. one of the FourHundred. His impeachment 
was founded on his book on the gods, which 
began with the statement : " Respecting the 
gods, I am unable to know whether they exist 
or do not exist." The impeachment was fol- 
lowed by his banishment, or, as others affirm, 
only by the burning of his book. Protagoras 
wrote a large number of works, of which the 
most important were entitled Truth ('AXf/deia), 
and On the Gods (Tlepi 9euv). The first con- 
tained the theory refuted by Plato in the Theae- 
tetus. Plato gives a vivid picture of the teach- 
ing of Protagoras in the dialogue that bears his 
name. Protagoras was especially celebrated 
for his skill in the rhetorical art. By way of 
practice in the art, he was accustomed to make 
his pupils discuss Theses (communes loci) ; an 
exercise which is also recommended by Cicero. 
He also directed his attention to language, and 
endeavored to explain difficult passages in the 
poets. 

[Proteas (UpuTeac). 1. An Athenian gen 
eral in the time of the Peloponnesian war, the 
son of Epicles. He was one of the three com- 
manders of the squadron sent out to assist the 
Corcyreans in their contest with the Corinthi- 
ans. Again, in the first year of the Pelopon- 
nesian war, Proteas was one of the three com- 
manders of the fleet of one hundred ships sent 
round Peloponnesus. — 2. Son of Andronicus, a 
Macedonian officer in the service of Antipater.] 

Protesilaus (UpuTeoiXaoc), son of Iphiclus 
and Astyoche, belonged to Phylaee in Thessaly. 
He is called Phylacius and Phylacides, either 
from his native place, or from his being a grand- 
son of Phylacus. He led the warriors of sev- 
eral Thessalian places against Troy, and was 
the first of all the Greeks who was killed by the 
Trojans, being the first who leaped from the 
ships upon the Trojan coast. According to the 
common tradition, he was slain by Hector. Pro- 
tesilaus is most celebrated in ancient story for 
the strong affection existing between him and 
his wife Laodamia, the daughter of Acastus. 
(For details, vid. Laodamia.) His tomb was 
shown near Eleus, in the Thracian Chersone- 
sus, where a magnificent temple was erected to 
him. There was a belief that nymphs had 
planted elm-trees around his grave, which died 
away when they had grown sufficiently high to 
see Troy, and that fresh shoots then sprang 
from the roots. There was also a sanctuary of 
Protesilaus at Phylaee, at which funeral games 
were celebrated. 

Proteus (Upurevc), the prophetic old man of 
the sea, is described i i the earliest legends as 
a subject of Neptune (Poseidon), whose flocks 
(tte seals) he tended. According to Homer, ho 

713 



PROTHOENOR. 

resided in the island of Pharos, at the distance 
of one day's sail from the River ^Egyptus 
(Nile) ; whereas Virgil places his residence in 
the island of Carpathos, between Crete and 
Rhodes. At midday Proteus rose from the sea, 
and slept in the shadow of the rocks of the coast, 
with the monsters of the deep lying around him. 
Any one wishing to learn from him the future, 
was obliged to catch hold of him at that time ; 
as soon as he was seized, he assumed every 
possible shape, in order to escape the necessity 
of prophesying ; but whenever he saw that his 
endeavors were of no avail, he resumed his 
usual form, and told the truth. After finishing 
his prophecy he returned into the sea. Homer 
ascribes to him a daughter Idothea. Another 
set of traditions describes Proteus as a son of 
Neptune (Poseidon), and as a king of Egypt, 
who had two sons, Telegonus and Polygonus or 
Tmolus. His Egyptian name is said to have 
been Cetes, for which the Greeks substituted 
that of Proteus. His wife is called Psamathe 
or Torone, and, besides the above-mentioned 
sons, Theoclymenus and Theonoe' are likewise 
called his children. He is said to have hospi- 
tably received Bacchus (Dionysus) during his 
wanderings. Mercury (Hermes) brought to him 
Helena after her abduction, or, according to 
others, Proteus himself took her from Paris, 
gave to the lover a phantom, and restored the 
true Helen to Menelaus after his return from 
Troy. 

[Prothoenor (Upodut'/vup), a son of Areilycus, 
was one of the leaders of the Boeotians against 
Troy, where he was slain by Polydamas.] 

[Prothoon (IlpoOouv), a Trojan warrior, slain 
by Teucer.] 

[Prothous (Upodooc), a son of Tenthredon, 
commander of the Magnetes who dwelt about 
Mount Pelion and the River Peneus, was one 
of the Greek heroes at Troy.J 

[Proto (IIpuT(j), one of the Nereids.] 

Protogenes Ijlpuroyevrjc), a celebrated Greek 
painter. He was a native of Caunus, in Caria, 
a city subject to the Rhodians, and flourished 
B.C. 332-300. He resided at Rhodes almost 
entirely ; the only other city of Greece which 
he is said to have visited is Athens, where he 
executed one of his great works in the Propy- 
isea. Up to his 50th year he is said to have 
lived in poverty and in comparative obscurity, 
supporting himself by painting ships, which at 
that period used to be decorated with elaborate 
pictorial devices. His fame had, however, 
reached the ears of Apelles, who, upon visiting 
Rhodes, made it his first business to seek out 
Protogenes. As the surest way of making the 
merits of Protogenes known to his fellow-citi- 
zens, Apelles offered him, for his finished works, 
the enormous sum of fifty talents apiece, and 
thus led the Rhodians to understand what an 
artist they had among them Protogenes was 
distinguished by the care with which he 
wrought up his pictures. His master-piece was 
the picture of Ialysus, the tutelary hero of 
Rhodes, on which he is said to have spent seven 
years, or even, according to another statement, 
eleven ; and to have painted it four times over. 
This picture was so highly prized, even in the 
artist's lifetime, that when Demetrius Poliorce- 
tes was using every effort to subdue Rhodes, 
714 * 



PRUSIAS. 

he refrained from attacking the city at its most 
vulnerable point, lest he should injure this pic- 
ture, Which had been placed in that quarter 
There is a celebrated story about this picture, 
relating to the accidental production of one of 
the most effective parts of it, the foam at the J 
mouth of a tired hound. The artist, it is said, 
dissatisfied with his repeated attempts to pro- i 
duce the desired effect, at last, in his vexation, I 
dashed the sponge, with which he had repeat 
edly effaced his work, against the faulty place ; I 
and the sponge, charged as it was by repeated 
use with the necessary colors, left a mark in 
which the painter recognized the very foam 
which his art had failed to produce. 

Protogenia (JlpuToyeveia), daughter of Deu- 
calion and Pyrrha, and wife of Locrus ; but 
Jupiter (Zeus) carried her off, and became by 
her the father of Opus. 

[Protomachus ( Tlpuro/iiaxoc ), an Athenian 
commander at the battle of the Arginusae, had 
charge of the right wing, and defeated the ene- 
my. He retired into voluntary exile to avoid 
the action brought at Athens against the com- 
manders in that battle.] 

Proxencjs (Upd^evoc), a Boeotian, was a dis- 
ciple of Gorgias, and a friend of Xenophon. . 
Being connected by the ties of hospitality with 
the younger Cyrus, the latter engaged him in 
his service. He was seized by Tissaphernes i 
and put to death, with the other Greek generals. 
It was at the invitation of Proxenus that Xeno- 
phon was induced to enter the service of Cyrus. 

Prudentius, Aurelius Clemens, the earliest ' 
of the Christian poets of any celebrity, was a 
native of Spain, and was born A.D. 348. After 
practicing as an advocate, and discharging the 
duties of a civil and criminal judge in two im- 
portant cities, he received from the Emperoi j 
Theodosius, or Honorius, a high military ap- 
pointment at court ; but as he advanced in 
years, he became sensible of the emptiness of 
worldly honor, and earnest in the exercises of 
religion. His poems are composed in a great 
variety of metres, but possess little merit either 
in expression or in substance. The Latinity is 
impure, abounding both in words altogether bar- 
barous, and in classical words employed in a i 
barbarous sense ; and the author is totally igno- 
rant or regardless of the common laws of pros- 
ody. The best editions of Prudentius are by 
Arevalus, Rom., 1788 and 1789, 2 vols. 4to., and 
by Obbarius, Tubing., 1845, 8vo. 

Prusa or Prusias (Jlpovaa : Upovoievc). 1. 

P. AD OLYMPUM (IT. 7) E7W TCJ 'OlvflTTU l TtOW 

Brusa), a great city of Bithynia, on the northern 
side of Mount Olympus, fifteen Roman miles 
from Cius and twenty-five from Nicaea, was 
built by Prusias, king of Bithynia, or, according 
to some, by Hannibal. — 2. Some writers distin- 
guish from this a smaller city, called P. ad 
Hypium or Hyppium {Kpbc -£> 'Yttkiu KorafiC) 
Ptol. ; sub Hypio monte, Plin ), which stooi 
northwest of the former, and was originally 
called Cierus (KUpoc), and belonged to the ter- 
ritory of Heraclea, but was conquered by Pru- 
sias, who named it after himself. It stood 
northwest of the former. Perhaps it is only 
another name for Cius. 

Prusias (Jlpovaiac). 1. I. King of Bithynia 
from about B.C. 228 to 180, though the date 



PRYMNESIA 



PSYCHE. 



neither of his accession nor of his death is ex- 
actly known. He was the son of Zielas, whom 
he succeeded. He appears to have been a 
monarch of vigor and ability, and raised his 
kingdom of Bithynia to a much higher pitch of 
power and prosperity than it had previously at- 
tained. It was at his court that Hannibal took 
refuge ; and when the Romans demanded the 
surrender of the Carthaginian general, the king 
basely gave his consent r and Hannibal only es- 
caped falling into the hands of his enemies by 
a voluntary death. — 2. II. King of Bithynia, son 
and successor of the preceding, reigned from 
about 180 to 149. He courted assiduously the 
alliance of the Romans. He carried on war 
with Attalus, king of Pergamus, with whom, 
however, he was compelled by the Romans to 
conclude peace in 154. He was slain in 149 by 
order of his son Nicomedes, as is related in the 
life of the latter. Vid. Nicomedes, No. 2. Pru- 
sias is described to us as a man in whom per- 
sonal deformity was combined with a character 
the most vicious and degraded. His passion 
for the chase is attested by the epithet of 
the " Huntsman" (Kvvn-yoc). 

Prymnesia or Prymnesus (Jlpv/j.vr/(jia, HpVfl- 
vt/goc, Hpvfj.vrjca6( : ruins at Seii-el-Ghazi), a 
city in the north of Phrygia, which appears, from 
its coins, to have been a chief seat of the wor- 
ship of Midas as a hero. 

[Prymneus {Tipvfivev^), a Phaeacian, one of 
the competitors in the games celebrated by 
Alcinous while Ulysses was in the Phaeacian 
island.] 

[Prytanis (UpvTavig). 1. A Lycian warrior 
at the siege of Troy, slain by Ulysses. — 2. A 
companion of /Eneas, slain by Turnus.] 

Prytanis (Hpvravic), king of Sparta, of the 
Proclid line, was the son of Eurypon, and fourth 
king of that race. 

[Psamathe (^antlBrj). 1. Daughter of Nereus 
and Doris, by ^Eacus mother of Phocus. — 2. 
Daughter of Crotopus in Argos, mother of 
Linus.] 

Psamathus a/tad ovc, -oOvrof : "trafifiadovvri- 
of, -iafUjiaQovaioc), a sea-port town in Laconia, 
near the promontory Taenarum. 

Psammenitus (■fafiftr/viTos), king of Egypt, 
succeeded his father Amasis in B.C. 526, and 
reigned only six months. He was conquered 
by Cambyses in 525, and his country made a 
province of the Persian empire. His life was 
spared by Cambyses, but as he was detected 
shortly afterward in endeavoring to excite a 
revolt among the Egyptians, he was compelled 
to put an end to his life by drinking bull's blood. 

Psammis (irufifiig), king of Egypt, succeeded 
his father Necho, and reigned from B.C. 601 to 
595. He carried on war against ^Ethiopia, and 
died immediately after his return from the latter 
country. He was succeeded by his son Apries. 

PSAMMITICHUS Or PsAMMETlCHUS (^a/ljilTiXOC 

or ■^a/i/irjTtxoc), the Greek form of the Egyptian 
Psametik, a king of Egypt, and founder of the 
Saitic dynasty, reigned from B.C. 671 to 617. 
He was originally one of the twelve kings who 
obtained an independent sovereignty in the con- 
fusu n which followed the death of Setho. Hav- 
ing been driven into banishment by the other 
kings, he took refuge in the marshes ; but 
shortly afterward, with the aid of some Ionian 



and Carian pirates, he conquered the othei 
kings, and became sole ruler of Egypt. He 
provided a settlement for his Greek mercena 
ries on the Pelusiac or eastern branch of the 
Nile, a little below Bubastis, and he appears to 
have mainly relied upon them for the mainte- 
nance of his power. In order to facilitate in- 
tercourse between the Greeks and his other 
subjects, he ordered a number of Egyptian chil- 
dren to live with them, that they might learn 
the Greek language ; and from them sprung the 
class of interpreters. The employment of for- 
eign mercenaries by Psammitichus gave great 
offence to the military caste in Egypt ; and 
being indignant at other treatment which they 
received from him, they emigrated in a body of 
two hundred and forty thousand men into ^Ethi- 
opia, where settlements were assigned to them 
by the ^Ethiopian king. It must, therefore, 
have been chiefly with his Ionian and Carian 
troops that Psammitichus carried on his wars 
against Syria and Phoenicia. He laid siege to 
the city of Azotus (the Ashdod of Scripture) for 
twenty-nine years, till he took it. As Psam- 
mitichus had displeased a large portion of his 
subjects by the introduction of foreigners, he 
seems to have paid especial court to the priest- 
hood. He built the southern propylaea of the 
temple of Vulcan (Hephaestus) at Memphis, and 
a sj lendid aula, with a portico round it, for the 
habitation of Apis, in front of the temple. 

[Psaphis <Sa<pis, now Cala.no according to 
Leake), the northernmost demus of Attica.] 

Pselcis ('i'eXKi'f : ruins at Dakke or Dekkeh), 
the chief city in the Dodecaschcenus, that is, 
the northern part of ^Ethiopia, which wa? adja- 
cent to Egypt, to which it was regarded toy the 
Romans as belonging. The city stood on the 
western bank of the Nile, between Syene and 
Tachompso, the latter of which was so far 
eclipsed by Pselcis as to acquire the name of 
Contrapselcis. Under the later empire, Pselcis 
was garrisoned by a body of German horsemen. 

Psellus ("iPtA/loc). 1. Michel Psellus, the 
elder, of Andros, flourished in the ninth century 
after Christ. He was a learned man, and an 
eager student of the Alexandrean philosophy. 
He was probably the author of some of the 
works which are ascribed to the younger Psel- 
lus. — 2. Michael Constantius Psellus, the 
younger, a far more celebrated person, flourish- 
ed in the eleventh century of our era. He was 
born at Constantinople 1020, and lived at least 
till 1105. He taught philosophy, rhetoric, and 
dialectics at Constantinople, where he stood 
forth as almost the last upholder of the falling 
cause of learning. The emperors honored him 
with the title of Prince of the Philosophers. 
His works are both in prose and poetry, on a 
vast variety of subjects, and distinguished by 
an eloquence and taste which are worthy of a 
better period. They are too numerous to be 
mentioned in this place. 

Psophis (^of'ic : 'i'uQldtoc : now Khan of Tri- 
potamo), a town in the northwest of Arcadia, on 
the River Erymanthus, is said to have been 
originally called Phegia. It sided with the ^Eto- 
lians against the Achaeans, but was taken B.C. 
219 by Philip, king of Macedonia, who was then 
in alliance with the Achaeans. 

Psyche (*w^)> " tne sou '>" occurs, in the lat- 

715 



PSyCHIUM. 

er times of antiquity, as a personification of the 
numan soul. Psyche was the youngest of the 
three daughters of a king, and excited by her 
beauty the jealousy and envy of Venus. In or- 
der to avenge herself, the goddess ordered Cupid 
or Amor to inspire Psyche with a love for the 
most contemptible of all men ; but Cupid was 
so stricken with her beauty that he himself fell 
in love with her. He accordingly conveyed her 
to a charming spot, where, unseen and unknown, 
he visited her every night, and left her as soon 
as the day began to dawn. Psyche might have 
continued to enjoy this state of happiness if 
she had attended to the advice of her lover, who 
told her never to give way to her curiosity, or 
to inquire who he was. But her jealous sisters 
made her believe that in the darkness of night 
she was embracing some hideous monster, and 
accordingly once, while Cupid was asleep, she 
drew near to him with a lamp, and, to her 
amazement, beheld the most handsome and 
lovely of the gods. In her excitement of joy 
and fear, a drop of hot oil fell from her lamp 
upon his shoulder. This awoke Cupid, who 
censured her for her mistrust, and escaped. 
Psyche's happiness was now gone, and after 
attempting in vain to throw herself into a river, 
she wandered about from temple to temple, in- 
quiring after her lover, and at length came to 
the palace of Venus. There her real sufferings 
began, for Venus retained her, treated her as a 
slave, and imposed upon her the hardest and 
most humiliating labors. Psyche would have 
perished under the weight of her sufferings, had 
not Cupid, who still loved her in secret, in- 
visibly comforted and assisted her in her toils. 
With his aid she at last succeeded in overcom- 
ing the jealousy and hatred of Venus : she be- 
came immortal, and was united to him forever. 
It is not difficult to recognize in this lovely story 
the idea of which it is merely the mythical em- 
bodiment ; for Psyche is evidently the human 
soul, which is purified by passions and misfor- 
tunes, and is thus prepared for the enjoyment 
of true and pure happiness. In works of art 
Psyche is represented as a maiden with the 
wings of a butterfly, along with Cupid in the 
different situations described in the allegory. 

Psychium (-fvxtov), a town on the southern 
coast of Crete. 

Psylli c^iiAAoi), a Libyan people, the earliest 
known inhabitants of the district of Northern 
Africa called Cyrenaica. 

Psyba (ra ■ivpa : ■ivpi.oc : now Ipsara), a small 
island of the YEgean Sea, forty stadia (four ge- 
ographical miles) in circuit, lying fifty stadia 
(five geographical miles) west of the northwest- 
ern point of Chios. It had a city of the same 
name. 

PsYTTALEA. Vid. SaLAMIS. 

Pteleos (HreAEwc), a small lake in Mysia, 
near Ophrynium, on the coast of the Helles- 
pont. 

Ptelehm (Kreteov : IlrE/Uarj?f, HreXeovaioc). 
li (Now Ftelia), an ancient sea-port town of 
Thessaly, in the district Phthiotis, at the south- 
western extremity of the Sinus Pagasseus, was 
destroyed by the Romans. — 2. A town in Elis 
Triphylia, said to have been a colony from the 
preceding. — 3. A fortress of Ionia, on the coast 
of Asia Minor, belonging to Erythree. 
716 



PTOLEMyEUS. 

[Pterelaus (Tlrsprtaoc), son of Taphius, king 
of the island Taphos, father of Comaetbo : ac- 
cording to Strabo, he was a son of De'ioneus.] 

[Pteria (Jlrepia), according to Herodotus, 
capital of a district of the same name belonging 
to Cappadocia ; according to Stephanus of By- 
zantium, however, who also calls the place 
Tlrspiov, it was a city of Media ] 

Ptolem^us (IT ToXefialoc), usually called Ptol- 
emy. I. Minor historical persons. 1. Nephew 
of Antigonus, king of Asia. He carried on war 
in Greece on behalf of Antigonus, but in 310 he 
abandoned the cause of his uncle, and concluded 
a treaty with Cassander and Ptolemy the son 
of Lagus. He soon gave offence to the Egyp- 
tian king, and was, in consequence, compelled 
to put an end to his life by poison, B.C. 309.-— 
2. Son of Lysimachus, king of Thrace. He was 
the eldest of the three sons of that monarch by 
his last wife Arsinoe, and the only one who 
escaped falling into the hands of Ptolemy Cerau • 
nus. — 3. Son of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, by 
his wife Antigone, the step-daughter of Ptolemy 
Lagi. When only fifteen years of age he was 
left by his father in charge of his hereditary do- 
minions, when Pyrrhus himself set out on his 
expedition t« Italy, 280. At a later time he 
fought under his father in Greece, and was slain 
in the course of Pyrrhus's campaign in the Pel- 
oponnesus, 272. — 4. Surnamed Philadelphus, 
son of M. Antony, the triumvir, by Cleopatra 
After the death of Antony, 30, his life was spar- 
ed by Augustus at the intercession of Juba and 
Cleopatra, and he was brought up by Octavia 
with her own children. 

II. Kings of Egypt. 

I. Surnamed Soter, the Preserver, but more 
commonly known as the son of Lagus, reigned 
B.C. 323-285. His father Lagus was a Mace- 
donian of ignoble birth, but his mother Arsinoe 
had been a concubine of Philip of Macedon, on 
which account it seems to have been generally 
believed that Ptolemy was in reality the off- 
spring of that monarch. Ptolemy is mentioned 
among the friends of the young Alexander be- 
fore the death of Philip. He accompanied Alex- 
ander throughout his campaigns in Asia, an,' 
was always treated by the king with the great- 
est favor. On the division of the empire which 
followed Alexander's death (323), Ptolemy ob- 
tained the government of Egypt. In 321 his 
dominions were invaded by Perdiccas, the re- 
gent ; but the assassination of Perdiccas by his 
mutinous soldiers soon delivered Ptolemy from 
this danger. In the following year Ptolemy en- 
larged his dominions by seizing upon the im- 
portant satrapy of Phoenicia and Coelesyria. 
It was probably during this expedition that he 
made himself master of Jerusalem by attacking 
the city on the Sabbath day. A few years after- 
ward (316) Ptolemy entered into an alliance 
with Cassander and Lysimachus against Antig- 
onus, whose growing power had excited their 
common apprehensions. In the war which 
followed, Antigonus conquered Coelesyria and 
Phoenicia (315, 314) j but Ptolemy recovered 
these provinces by the defeat of Demetrius, the 
son of Antigonus, in 312. In 311 hostilities 
were suspended by a general peace. This peace, 
however, was of short duration, and Ptolemy 



PTOLEMjEUS. 



PTOLEMiEUS. 



appears to have been the first to recommence 
the war. He crossed over to Greece, where he 
announced himself as the liberator of the Greeks, 
nut he effected little. In 306 Ptolemy was de- 
feated by Demetrius in a great sea-fight off Sal- 
amis in Cyprus. In consequence of this defeat, 
Ptolemy lost the important island of Cyprus, 
which had previously been subject to him. An- 
tigonus was so much elated by this victory as 
to assume the title of king, an example which 
Ptolemy, notwithstanding his defeat, immedi- 
ately followed. Antigonus and Demetrius fol- 
lowed up their success by the invasion of Egypt, 
but were compelled to return to Syria without 
effecting any thing. Next year (305) Ptolemy 
rendered the most important assistance to the 
Rhodians, who were besieged by Demetrius ; 
and when Demetrius was at length compelled 
to raise the siege (304), the Rhodians paid di- 
vine honors to the Egyptian monarch as their 
savior and preserver (Swr^p), a title which ap- 
pears to have been now bestowed upon Ptolemy 
for the first time. Ptolemy took comparatively 
little part in the contest, which led to the de- 
cisive battle of Ipsus, in which Antigonus was 
defeated and slain (301). The latter years of 
Ptolemy's reign appear to have been devoted 
almost entirely to the arts of peace, and to pro- 
moting the internal prosperity of his dominions. 
In 285 Ptolemy abdicated in favor of his young- 
est son Ptolemy Philadelphus, the child of his 
latest and most beloved wife, Berenice, exclud- 
ing from the throne his two eldest sons Ptolemy 
Ceraunus and Meleager, the offspring of Euryd- 
ice. The elder Ptolemy survived this event 
two years, and died in 283. His reign is vari- 
ously estimated at thirty-eight or forty years, 
according as we include or not these two years 
which followed his abdication. The character 
of Ptolemy has been generally represented in a 
very favorable light by historians, and there is 
no doubt that if we compare him with his con- 
temporary and rival potentates he appears to 
deserve the praises bestowed upon his mildness 
and moderation. But it is only with this im- 
portant qualification that they can be admitted, 
for there are many evidences that he did not 
shrink from any measure that he deemed requi- 
site in order to carry out the objects of his am- 
bition. But as a ruler Ptolemy certainly de- 
serves the highest praise. By his able and vig- 
orous administration he laid the foundations of 
the wealth and prosperity which Egypt enjoyed 
for a long period. Under his fostering care 
Alexandrea quickly rose to the place designed 
for it by its founder, that of the greatest com- 
mercial city of the world. Not less eminent 
were the services rendered by Ptolemy to the 
advancement of literature and science. In this 
department, indeed, it is not always easy to dis- 
tinguish the portion of credit due to the father 
irom that of his son ; but it seems certain that 
to the elder monarch belongs the merit of hav- 
ing originated those literary institutions which 
assumed a more definite and regular form, as 
well as a more prominent place, under his suc- 
cessor. Such appears to have been the case 
with the two most celebrated of all, the Library 
and the Museum of Alexandrea. The first sug- 
gestion of these important foundations is as- 
cribed by some writers to Demetrius of Phalerus, 



who spent all the latter years of his life at the 
court of Ptolemy. But many other men of lit- 
erary eminence were also gathered around the 
Egyptian king, among whom may be especially 
noticed the great geometer Euclid, the philoso- 
phers Stilpo of Megara, Theodorus of Cyrene, 
and Diodorus surnamed Cronus ; as well as the 
elegiac poet Philetas of Cos, and the gramma- 
rian Zenodotus. To the two last we are told 
Ptolemy confided the literary education of his 
son Philadelphus. Many anecdotes sufficiently 
attest the free intercourse which subsisted be- 
tween the king and the men of letters by whom 
he was surrounded, and prove that the easy fa 
miliarity of his manners corresponded with his 
simple and unostentatious habits of life. We 
also find him maintaining a correspondence with 
Menander, whom he in vain endeavored to at- 
tract to his court, and sending overtures prob- 
ably of a similar nature to Theophrastus. Nor 
were the fine arts neglected : the rival painters 
Antiphilus and Apelles both exercised their 
talents at Alexandrea, where some of their most 
celebrated pictures were produced. Ptolemy 
was himself an author : he composed a history 
of the wars of Alexander, which is frequently 
cited by later writers, and is one of the chief 
authorities which Arrian made the groundwork 
of his own history. — II. Philadelphus (B.C. 
285-247), the son of Ptolemy I. by his wife 
Berenice, was born in the island of Cos, 309. 
His long reign was marked by few events of a 
striking character. He was engaged in war 
with his half-brother Magas, who had governed 
Cyrene as viceroy under Ptolemy Soter, but on 
the death of that monarch not only asserted his 
independence, but even attempted to invade 
Egypt. Magas was supported by Antiochus II., 
king of Syria ; and the war was at length term- 
inated by a treaty, which left Magas in undis- 
puted possession of the Cyrenaica, while his in- 
fant daughter Berenice was betrothed to Ptol- 
emy, the son of Philadelphus. Ptolemy also 
concluded a treaty with the Romans. He was 
frequently engaged in hostilities with Syria, 
which were terminated toward the close of his 
reign by a treaty of peace, by which Ptolemy 
gave his daughter Berenice in marriage to An- 
tiochus II. Ptolemy's chief care, however, was 
directed to the internal administration of Ms 
kingdom, and to the patronage of literature and 
science. The institutions of which the founda- 
tions had been laid by his father quickly rose 
under his fostering care to the highest pros- 
perity. The Museum of Alexandrea became 
the resort and abode of all the most distin- 
guished men of letters of the day. and in the 
library attached to it were accumulated all the 
treasures of ancient learning. Among the other 
illustrious names which adorned the reign of 
Ptolemy may be mentioned those of the poets 
Philetas and Theocritus, the philosophers Hege- 
sias and Theodorus, the mathematician Euclid, 
and the astronomers Timocharis, Aristarchus 
of Samos, and Aratus. Nor was his patron- 
age confined to the ordinary cycle of Hellenic 
literature. By his interest in natural history 
he gave a stimulus to the pursuit of that science, 
which gave birth to many important works, while 
he himself formed collections of rare animals 
within fie precincts of the royal palace. It was 

717 



PT0LE1VLEUS- 



PTOLE1VLEUS. 



during his reign also, and perhaps at his desire, 
that Manetho gave to the world in a Greek form 
the historical records of the Egyptians ; and ac- 
cording to a well-known tradition, it was by his 
express command that the Holy Scriptures of 
the Jews were translated into Greek. The new 
cities or colonies founded by Philadelphus in 
different parts of his dominions were extremely 
numerous. On the Red Sea alone we find at 
least two bearing the name of Arsinog, one 
called after another of his sisters Philotera, and 
two cities named in honor of his mother Bere- 
nice. The same names occur also in Cilicia 
and Syria ; and in the latter country he founded 
the important fortress of Ptolemai's in Palestine. 
All authorities concur in attestingthe greatpow- 
er and wealth to which the Egyptian monarchy 
was raised under Philadelphus. He possessed 
at the close of his reign a standing army of two 
hundred thousand foot and forty thousand horse, 
besides war-chariots and elephants ; a fleet of 
one thousand five hundred ships, and a sum of 
seven hundred and forty thousand talents in his 
treasury ; while he derived from Egypt alone 
an annual revenue of fourteen thousand eight 
hundred talents. His dominions comprised, be- 
sides Egypt itself, and portions of ^Ethiopia, Ara- 
bia, and Libya, the important provinces of Phoe- 
nicia and Ccelesyria, together with Cyprus, Ly- 
cia, Caria, and the Cyclades ; and during a great 
part at least of his reign, Cilicia and Pamphyl- 
ia also. Before his death Cyrene was reunited 
to the monarchy by the marriage of his son Ptol- 
emy with Berenice, the daughter of Magas. The 
private life and relations of Philadelphus do not 
exhibit his character in as favorable a light as 
we might have inferred from the splendor of his 
administration. He put to death two of his 
brothers, and he banished his first wife Arsinoe, 
''\e daughter of Lysimachus, to Coptos in Up- 
per Egypt, on a charge of conspiracy. After her 
removal Ptolemy married his own sister Arsi- 
noe, the widow of Lysimachus : a flagrant vio- 
lation of the religious notions of the Greeks, 
hut which was frequently imitated by his suc- 
cessors. He evinced his affection for Arsinoe 
not only by bestowing her name upon many of 
• his newly-founded colonies, but by assuming 
himself the surname of Philadelphus, a title 
which some writers referred in derision to his 
unnatural treatment of his two brothers. By 
this second marriage Ptolemy had no issue, but 
his first wife had borne him two sons — Ptole- 
my, who succeeded him on the throne, and Ly- 
simachus ; and a daughter, Berenice, whose 
marriage to Antiochus II, king of Syria, has 
been already mentioned. — III. Euergetes (B.C. 
247-222), eldest son and successor of Philadel- 
phus. Shortly after his accession he invaded 
Syria, in order to avenge the death of his sister 
Berenice. Vid. Berenice, No. 2. He met with 
the most striking success. He advanced as far 
is Babylon and Susa, and after reducing all 
Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Susiana, received 
the submission of all the upper provinces of 
Asia as far as the confines of Bactria and India. 
From this career of conquest he was recalled 
by the news of seditions in Egypt, and returned 
to that country, carrying with him an immense 
booty, comprising, among other objects, all the 
statues of the Egyptian deities which had been 
718 



carried off by Cambyses to Babylon or Persia. 
These he restored to their respective temples, 
an act by which he earned the greatest popu- 
larity with his native Egyptian subjects, who 
bestowed on him, in consequence, the title of 
Euergetes (the Benefactor), by which he is gen- 
erally known. While the arms of the king him- 
self were thus successful in the East, his fleets 
reduced the maritime provinces of Asia, includ- 
ing Cilicia, Pamphylia, and Ionia, as far as the 
Hellespont, together with Lysimachia and other 
important places on the coast of Thrace, which 
continued for a long period subject to the Egyp- 
tian rule. Concerning the events which followed 
the return of Euergetes to his own dominions 
(probably in 243), we are almost wholly in the 
dark ; but it appears that the greater part of the 
eastern provinces speedily fell again into the 
hands of Seleucus, while Ptolemy retained pos- 
session of the maritime regions and a great part 
of Syria itself. He soon obtained a valuable 
ally in the person of Antiochus Hierax, the 
younger brother of Seleucus, whom he support- 
ed in his wars against his elder brother. We 
find Euergetes maintaining the same friendly 
relations as his father with Rome. During the 
latter years of his reign he subdued the Ethio- 
pian tribes on his southern frontier, and ad- 
vanced as far as Aduje, a port on the Red Sea, 
where he established an emporium, and set up 
an inscription commemorating the exploits of 
his reign. To a copy of this, accidentally pre- 
served to us by an Egyptian monk, Cosmas In 
dicopleustes, we are indebted for much of the 
scanty information we possess concerning his 
reign. Ptolemy Euergetes is scarcely less cel- 
ebrated than his father for his patronage of lit- 
erature and science ; he added so largely to the 
library at Alexandrea that he has been some- 
times erroneously deemed its founder. Eratos- 
thenes, Apollonius Rhodius, and Aristophanes 
the grammarian, flourished at Alexandrea dur- 
ing his reign — sufficient to prove that the liter- 
ature and learning of the Alexandrean school 
still retained their former eminence. By his 
wife Berenice, who survived him, Euergetes 
left three children : 1. Ptolemy, his successor; 
2. Magas ; and, 3. Arsinoe, afterward married 
to her brother Ptolemy Philopator. — IV. Philop- 
ator (B.C. 222-205), eldest son and successor 
of Euergetes. He was very far from inheriting 
the virtues or abilities of his father ; and his 
reign was the commencement of the decline of 
the Egyptian kingdom, which had been raised 
to such a height of power and prosperity by 
his three predecessors. Its first beginning was 
stained with crimes of the darkest kind. He 
put to death his mother Berenice, and his broth- 
er Magas, and his uncle Lysimachus, the broth- 
er of Euergetes. He then gave himself up with- 
out restraint to a life of indolence and luxury, 
while he abandoned to his minister Sosibius the 
care of all political affairs. The latter seems 
to have been as incapable as his master, and 
the kingdom was allowed to fall into a state of 
the utmost disorder, of which Antiochus the 
Great, king of Syria, was not slow to avail him- 
self. In the first two campaigns (219, 218), 
Antiochus conquered the greater part of Ccele- 
syria and Palestine, but in the third year of the 
war (217) he was completely defeated by Ptol- 



PTOLEM^EUS. 

emy in person at the decisive battle of Raphia, 
and was glad to conclude a peace with the 
Egyptian monarch. On his return from his 
Syrian expedition, Ptolemy gave himself up 
more and more to every species of vice and de- 
bauchery. His mistress Agathoclea, and her 
brother Agathocles, divided with Sosibius the 
patronage and distribution of all places of hon- 
or or profit. Toward the close of his reign Ptol- 
emy put to death his wife Arsinoe. His de- 
baucheries shortened his life. He died in 205, 
leaving only one son, a child of five years old. 
We find Ptolemy following up the policy of his 
predecessors by cultivating the friendship of the 
Romans, to whom he furnished large supplies 
of corn during their struggle with Carthage. 
Plunged as he was in vice and debauchery, 
Philopator appears to have still inherited some- 
thing of the love of letters for which his prede- 
cessors were so conspicuous. We find him as- 
sociating on familiar terms -with philosophers 
a«d men of letters, and especially patronising 
the distinguished grammarian Aristarchus. — V. 
Epiphanes (B.C. 205-181), son and successor 
of Ptolemy IV. He was a child of five years 
old at the death of his father, 205. Philip king 
of Macedonia and Antiochus III. of Syria de- 
termined to take advantage of the minority of 
Ptolemy, and entered into a league to divide 
his dominions between them. In pursuance of 
this arrangement, Antiochus conquered Ccele- 
syria, while Philip reduced the Cyclades and 
the cities in Thrace which had still remained 
subject to Egypt. In this emergency the Egyp- 
(ian ministers had recourse to the powerful in- 
tervention of the Romans, who commanded both 
monarchs to refrain from further hostilities, and 
restore all the conquered cities. In order to 
evade this demand without openly opposing the 
power of Rome, Antiochus concluded a treaty 
with Egypt, by which it was agreed that the 
young king should marry Cleopatra, the daugh- 
ter of Antiochus, and receive back the Syrian 
provinces as her dower. This treaty took place 
in 199, but the marriage was not actually sol- 
emnized until six years after. The adminis- 
tration of Egypt was placed in the hands of 
Aristomenes, a man who was every way worthy 
of the charge. As early, however, as 196, the 
young king was declared of full age, and the 
ceremony of his anacleteria, or coronation, was 
solemnized with great magnificence. It -was 
on this occasion that the decree was issued 
which has been preserved to us in the celebra- 
*ed inscription known as the Rosetta stone, a 
nonument of great interest in regard to the in- 
ternal history of Egypt under the Ptolemies, in- 
dependent of its importance as having afforded 
the key to the discovery of hieroglyphics. In 
193 the marriage of Ptolemy with the Syrian 
princess Cleopatra was solemnized at Raphia. 
Ptolemy, however, refused to assist his father- 
in-law in the war against the Romans, which 
was at this time on the eve of breaking out, 
and he continued steadfast in his alliance with 
Rome. But he derived no advantage from the 
treaty which concluded it, and Antiochus still 
retained possession of Ccelesyria and Phoeni- 
cia. As long as Ptolemy continued under the 
guidance and influence of Aristomenes, his ad- 
ministration was equitable and popular. Grad- 



PTOLEALCUS. 

ually, however, he became estranged from his 
able and virtuous minister, and threw himself 
more and more into the power of flatterers and 
vicious companions, until at length he was in- 
duced to rid himself of Aristomenes, who was 
compelled to take poison. Toward the close of 
his reign Ptolemy conceived the project of re- 
covering Ccelesyria from Seleucus, the suc- 
cessor of Antiochus, and had assembled a large 
mercenary force for that purpose ; but having, 
by an unguarded expression, excited the appre- 
hensions of some of his friends, he was cut off 
by poison in the twenty-fourth year of his reign 
and the twenty-ninth of his age, 181. He left 
two sons, both named Ptolemy, who subse- 
quently ascended the throne, under the names 
of Ptolemy Philometor and Euergetes II., and 
a daughter who bore her mother's name of Cleo- 
patra. His reign was marked by the rapid de- 
cline of the Egyptian monarchy,' for the prov- 
inces and cities wrested from it during his mi- 
nority by Antiochus and Philip were never re- 
covered, and at his death Cyprus and the Cy- 
rena'ica were almost the only foreign posses- 
sions still attached to the crown of Egypt. — VI. 
Philometor (B.C. 181-146), eldest son and suc- 
cessor of Ptolemy V. He was a child at the 
death of his father in 181, and the regency was 
assumed during his minority by his mother Cleo- 
patra, who, by her able administration, main- 
tained the kingdom in a state of tranquillity. 
But after her death in 173, the chief power fell 
into the hands of Eulaeus and Leneeus, minis- 
ters as corrupt as they were incapable, who had 
the rashness to engage in war with Antiochus 
Epiphanes, king of Syria, in the vain hope of re- 
covering the provinces of Ccelesyria and Phoe- 
nicia. But their army was totally defeated by 
Antiochus near Pelusium, and Antiochus was 
able to advance without opposition as far as 
Memphis, 170. The young king himself fell 
into his hands, but was treated with kindness 
and distinction, as Antiochus hoped by his means 
to make himself the master of Egypt. On learn- 
ing the captivity of his brother, the young Ptol- 
emy, who was then at Alexandrea with his sis- 
ter Cleopatra, assumed the title of king, un- 
der the name of Euergetes II., and prepared 
to defend the capital to the utmost. Actiochry 
hereupon laid siege to Alexandrea, hut he was 
unable to take the city, and withdrew into Syria, 
after establishing Philometor as king at Mem- 
phis, but retaining in his hands the frontier fort- 
ress of Pelusium. This last circumstance, to- 
gether with the ravages committed by the Syr- 
ian troops, awakened Philometor, who had hith- 
erto been a mere puppet in the hands of the 
Syrian king, to a sense of his true position, and 
he hastened to make overtures of peace to his 
brother and sister at Alexandrea. It was agreed 
that the two brothers should reign together, ana 
that Philometor should marry his sister Cleo- 
patra. But this arrangement did not suit the 
views of Antiochus, who immediately renewed 
hostilities. The two brothers were unable to 
offer any effectual opposition, and he had ad- 
vanced a second time to the walls of Alexan- 
drea, when he was met by a Roman embassy, 
headed by M. Popilius Lsenas, who haughtily 
commanded him instantly to desist from hos- 
tilities. Antiochus did not venture to disobey. 
719 



PTOLEM^EUS. 

and withdrew to his own dominions, 168. Dis- 
sensions soon broke out between the two broth- 
ers, and Euergetes expelled Philometor from 
Alexandrea. Hereupon Philometor repaired in 
person to Rome, 164, where he was received 
by the senate with the utmost honor, and dep- 
uties were appointed to reinstate him in the 
sovereign power. This they effected with lit- 
tle opposition, but they settled that Euergetes 
should obtain Cyrene as a separate kingdom. 
Euergetes, however, shortly afterward laid 
claim to Cyprus as well, in which he was sup- 
ported by the Romans; but Philometor refused 
to surrender the island to him, and in the war 
which ensued, Euergetes was taken prisoner 
by his brother, who not only spared his life, but 
sent him back to Cyrene on condition that he 
should thenceforth content himself with that 
kingdom. The attention of Philometor appears 
to have been- from this time principally directed 
to the side of Syria. Demetrius Soter having 
sought, during the dissensions between the two 
brothers, to make himself master of Cyprus, 
Ptolemy now supported the usurper Alexander 
Balas, to whom he gave his daughter Cleopatra 
in marriage, 150. But when Ptolemy advanced 
with an army to the assistance of his son-in- 
law, Ammonius, the favorite and minister of 
Alexander, formed a plot against the life of 
Ptolemy ; whereupon the latter took away his 
daughter Cleopatra from her faithless husband, 
and bestowed her hand on Demetrius Nicator, 
the son of Soter, whose cause he now espoused. 
In conjunction with Demetrius, Ptolemy carried 
on war against Alexander, whom he defeated 
in a decisive battle ; but he died a few days aft- 
erward, in consequence of an injury which he 
received from a fall from his horse in this bat- 
tle, 146. He had reigned thirty-five years from 
the period of his first accession, and eighteen 
from his restoration by the Romans. Philome- 
tor is praised for the mildness and humanity of 
his disposition. Polybius even tells us that not 
a single citizen of Alexandrea was put to death 
by him for any political or private offence. On 
the whole, if not one of the greatest, he was at 
least one of the best of the race of the Ptole- 
mies. He left three children : 1. A son, Ptol- 
emy, who was proclaimed king after his fa- 
ther's death, under the name Ptolemy Eupator, 
but was put to death almost immediately after 
by his uncle Euergetes. 2. A daughter, Cleo- 
patra, married first to Alexander Balas, then to 
Demetrius II., king of Syria ; and, 3. Another 
daughter, also named Cleopatra, who was aft- 
erward married to her uncle Ptolemy Euergetes. 
— VII. Eoekgetes II. or Physcon {$vokuv), that 
is, Big-Belly, reigned B.C. 146-117. His his- 
tory down to the death of his brother has been 
already given. In order to secure undisputed 
possession of the throne, he married his sis- 
ter Cleopatra, the widow of his brother Phi- 
lometor, and put to death his nephew Ptolemy, 
who had been proclaimed king under the sur- 
name of Eupator. A reign thus commenced in 
blood was continued in a similar spirit. Many 
of the leading citizens of Alexandrea, who had 
taken part against him on the death of his broth- 
er, were put to death, while the populace were 
given up to the cruelties of his mercenary troops, 
and the streets of the city were repeatedly del- 
730 



PTOLEIVLEUS. 

uged with blood. Thousands of the inhabit \ 
ants fled from the scene of such horrors, ana ■ 
the population of Alexandrea was so greatly 
thinned that the king found himself compelled j 
to invite foreign settlers from all quarters to j 
repeople his deserted capital. At the same E 
time that he thus incurred the hatrci of his ! ; 
subjects by his cruelties, he rendered himself L 
an object of their aversion and contempt by [ 
abandoning himself to the most degrading vi- 
ces. In consequence of these, he had become I 
bloated and deformed in person, and enormous- i 
ly corpulent, whence the Alexandreans gave 
him the nickname of Physcon, by which appel- j, 
lation he is more universally known. His un- | 
ion with Cleopatra was not of long duration, j 
He became enamored of his niece Cleopatra } 
(the offspring of his wife by her former mar- ,; 
riage with Philometor), and he did not hesitate 
to divorce the mother and receive her daughter >,! 
instead as his wife and queen. By this pro- I 
ceeding he alienated still more the minds of his |, 
Greek subjects ; and his vices and cruelties at I, 1 
length produced an insurrection at Alexandrea. 
Thereupon he fled to Cyprus, and the Alexan- I 
dreans declared his sister Cleopatra queen (130). | r ! 
Enraged at this, Ptolemy put to death Memphi- \ 
tis, his son by Cleopatra, and sent his head and b 
hands to his unhappy mother. But Cleopatra \\ 
having been shortly afterward expelled from 
Alexandrea in her turn, Ptolemy found himself I, 
unexpectedly reinstated on the throne (127). \ 
His sister Cleopatra fled to the court of her | 2 
elder daughter Cleopatra, the wife of Demetrius j, 
II., king of Syria, who espoused the cause ef the ii 
fugitive. Ptolemy, in revenge, set up against j; 
him a pretender named Zabinas or Zebina, who <, 
assumed the title of Alexander II. But the i 
usurper behaved with such haughtiness to Ptol- [ 
emy, that the latter suddenly changed his poli- j 
cy, became reconciled to his sister Cleopatra, j 
whom he permitted to return to Egypt, and 
gave his daughter Tryphaena in marriage to ! 
Antiochus Grypus, the son of Demetrius. Ptol- i 
emy died after reigning twenty-nine years from j., 
the death of his brother Philometor ; but he I 
himself reckoned the years of his reign from |t 
the date of his first assumption of the regal title |i 
in 170. Although the character of Ptolemy f 
Physcon was stained by the most infamous j 
vices and by the most sanguinary cruelty, he i 
still retained that love of letters which appears l\ 
to have been hereditary in the whole race of j 
the Ptolemies. He had in his youth been a i 
pupil of Aristarchus, and not only courted the 
society of learned men, but was himself the 
author of a work called 'Ynonvrj/xaTtz, or me- 
moirs, which extended to twenty-four books. 
He left two sons : Ptolemy, afterward known | 
as Soter II., and Alexander, both of whom sub- 
sequently ascended the throne of Egypt ; and ; 
three daughters : 1. Cleopatra, married to her < 
brother Ptolemy Soter ; 2. Tryphaena, the wife [' 
of Antiochus Grypus, king of Syria ; and, 3. Se- j 
lene, who was unmarried at her father's death. 
To his natural son Ptolemy, surnamed Apion, 
he bequeathed by his will the separate kingdom , 
of Cyrene. — VIII. Soter II., and also Philo- 
metor, but more commonly called Lathvrus 
or Lathurus (Addovpoc), reigned B.C. 117-107 
and also 89-81. Although he was of full age f 



PTOLEIVLEUS. 

j at the time of his father's death (117), he was 
t obliged to reign jointly with his mother, Cleo- 
patra, who had been appointed by the will of 
her late husband to succeed him on the throne. 
She was, indeed, desirous of associating with 
herself her younger son, Ptolemy Alexander; 
hut since Lathyrus was popular with the Alex- 
andreans, she was obliged to give way, and sent 
Alexander to Cyprus. After declaring Lathy- 
rus king, she compelled him to repudiate his 
sister Cleopatra, of whose influence she was 
jealous, and to marry his younger sister Selene 
S in her stead. After reigning ten years jointly 
| with his mother, he was expelled from Alexan- 
dra by an insurrection of the people which she 
j had excited against him (107). His brother 
Alexander now assumed the sovereignty of 
Egypt, in conjunction with his mother, while 
Lathyrus was able to establish himself in the 
possession of Cyprus. Cleopatra, indeed, at- 
tempted to dispossess him of that island also, 
but without success, and Ptolemy held it as an 
independent kingdom for the eighteen years 
I during which Cleopatra and Alexander reigned 
in Egypt. After the death of Cleopatra and 
the expulsion of Alexander in 89, Ptolemy La- 
thyrus was recalled by the Alexandreans, and 
| established anew on the throne of Egypt, which 
he occupied thenceforth without interruption 
! till his death in 81. The most important event 
of this period was the revolt of Thebes, in Up- 
per Egypt, which was still powerful enough to 
nold out for nearly three years against the arms 
of Ptolemy, but at the end of that time was 
taken and reduced to the state of ruin in which 
| it has ever since remained. Lathyrus reigned 
in all thirty-five years and a half ; ten in con- 
I junction with his mother (117-107), eighteen 
in Cyprus (107-89), and seven and a half as sole 
ruler of Egypt. He left only one daughter. 
Berenice, called also Cleopatra, who succeeded 
him on the throne ; and two sons, both named 
Ptolemy, who, though illegitimate, became sev- 
erally kings of Egypt and Cyprus. — IX. Alex- 
ander I., youngest son of Ptolemy VIL, reign- 
ed conjointly with his mother Cleopatra from 
the expulsion of his brother Lathyrus, B.C. 107 
to 90, In this year he assassinated his mother ; 
but he had not reigned alone a year, when he 
was compelled by a general sedition of the popu- 
lace and military to quit Alexandrea. He, 
however, raised fresh troops, but was totally 
defeated in a sea-fight by the rebels ; where- 
upon Lathyrus was recalled by the Alexandre- 
ans to Egypt, as has been already related. Al- 
exander now attempted to make himself master 
of Cyprus, and invaded that island, but was de- 
feated and slain. He left a son, Alexander, who 
afterward ascended the throne of Egypt. — X. 
I Alexander II., son of the preceding, was at 
Rome at the death of Ptolemy Lathyrus in 81. 
1 Sulla, who was then dictator, nominated the 
young Alexander (who had obtained a high 
place in his favor) king of Egypt, and sent him 
to take possession of the crown. It was, how- 
ever, agreed, in deference to the claims of Cle- 
opatra Berenice, the daughter .of Lathyrus, 
whom the Alexandreans had already placed on 
the throne, that Alexander should marry her, 
and admit her to share the sovereign power. 
He complied with the letter of this treaty by 
46 



PTOLEIVLEUS. 

marrying Cleopatra, but only nineteen days att- 
erward caused her to be assassinated. The 
Alexandreans thereupon rose against their new 
monarch and put him to death. — XI. Dionysus, 
but more commonly known by the appellation 
of Auletes, the flute-player, was an illegitimate 
son of Ptolemy Lathyrus. When the assassin- 
ation of Berenice and the death of Alexander II. 
had completed the extinction of the legitimate 
race of the Lagidae, Ptolemy was proclaimed 
king by the Alexandreans, B.C. 80. He was 
anxious to obtain from the Roman senate their 
ratification of his title to the crown, but it was 
not till the consulship of Caesar (59) that he was 
able to purchase by vast bribes the desired priv- 
ilege. He had expended immense sums in the 
pursuit of this object, which he was compelled 
to raise by the imposition of fresh taxes, and 
the discontent thus excited combining with the 
contempt entertained for his character, led to 
his expulsion by the Alexandreans in 58 
Thereupon he proceeded in person to Rome to 
procure from the senate his restoration. His 
first reception was promising ; and he procured 
a decree from the senate commanding his 
restoration, and intrusting the charge of effect- 
ing it to P. Lentulus Spinther, then proconsul 
of Cilicia. Meanwhile, the Alexandreans sent 
an embassy of one hundred of their leading cit- 
izens to plead their cause with the Roman 
senate ; but Ptolemy had the audacity to cause 
the deputies, on their arrival in Italy, to be 
waylaid, and the greater part of them murder- 
ed. The indignation excited at Rome by this 
proceeding produced a reaction : the tribunes 
took up the matter against the nobility ; and an 
oracle was produced from the Sibylline books, 
forbidding the restoration of the king by an 
armed force. The intrigues and disputes thus 
raised were protracted throughout the year 56, 
and at length Ptolemy, despairing of a favorable 
result, quitted Rome in disgust, and withdrew 
to Ephesus. But in 55, A. Gabinius, who was 
proconsul in Syria, was induced, by the influ- 
ence of Pompey, aided by the enormous bribe 
of 10,000 talents from Ptolemy himself, to un- 
dertake his restoration. The Alexandreans had 
in the mean time placed on the throne of Egypt 
Berenice, the eldest daughter of Ptolemy, who 
had married Archelaus, the son of the general 
of Mithradates, and they opposed Gabinius with 
an army on the confines of the kingdom. They 
were, however, defeated in three successive 
battles, Archelaus was slain, and Ptolemy once 
more established on the throne, 55. One of his 
first acts was to put to death his daughter Ber- 
enice, and many of the leading citizens of Alex- 
andrea. He survived his restoration only three 
years and a half, during which time he was sup- 
ported by a large body of Roman soldiers who 
had been left behind by Gabinius for his pro- 
tection. He died in 51, after a reign of twenty- 
nine years from the date of his first accession 
He left two sons, both named Ptolemy, and two 
daughters, Cleopatra and Arsinoe. — XII. Eldest 
son of the preceding. By his father's will the 
sovereign power was left to himself and his 
sister Cleopatra jointly, and this arrangement 
was carried into effect without, opposition, 51. 
Auletes had also referred the execution of his 
will to the Roman senate, and the latter accept- 

721 



PTOLEMUEUS. 



PTOLEMxEUS. 



ed the office, confirmed its provisions, and be- 
stowed on Pompey the title of guardian of the 
young king. But the approach of the civil war 
prevented them from taking any active part in 
the administration of affairs, which fell into the 
hands of a eunuch named Pothinus. It was 
not long before dissensions broke out between 
the latter and Cleopatra, which ended in the 
expulsion of the princess, after she had reigned 
in conjunction with her brother about three 
years, 48. Hereupon she took refuge in Syria, 
and assembled an army, with which she in- 
vaded Egypt. The young king, accompanied 
by his guardian, met her at Pelusium, and it 
was while the two armies were here encamped 
opposite to one another that Pompey landed in 
Egypt, to throw himself as a suppliant on the 
protection of Ptolemy ; but he was assassinated 
by the orders of Pothinus, before he could ob- 
tain an interview with the king himself. Short- 
ly after, Caesar arrived in Egypt, and took upon 
himself to settle the dispute between Ptolemy 
and his sister. But as Cleopatra's charms 
gained for her the support of Caesar, Pothinus 
determined to excite an insurrection against 
Cassar. Hence arose -what is usually called 
the Alexandrean war. Ptolemy, who was at 
first in Caesar's hands, managed to escape, and 
put himself at the head of the insurgents ; but 
he was defeated by Ceesar, and was drowned in 
an attempt to escape by the river (47).— XIII. 
Youngest son of Ptolemy Auletes, was declared 
king by Caesar in conjunction with Cleopatra, 
after the death of his elder brother Ptolemy 
XII., 47 ; and although he was a mere boy, it 
was decreed that he should marry his sister, 
with whom he was thus to share the power. 
Both his marriage and regal title were, of 
course, purely nominal ; and in 43 Cleopatra 
put him to death. 

III. Kings of other Countries. 
1. Surnamed Alorites, that is, of Alorus, re- 
gent, or, according to some authors, king of 
Macedonia. He obtained the supreme power 
by the assassination of Alexander II., the eldest 
son of Amyntas, B.C. 367, but was, in his turn, 
assassinated by Perdiccas III., 364. — 2. Sur- 
named Apion, king of Cyrene (117-96), was an 
illegitimate son of Ptolemy Physcon, king of 
Egypt, who left him by his will the kingdom of 
the Cyrena'ica. At his death in 96, Apion be- 
queathed his kingdom by his will to the Roman 
people. The senate, however, refused to ac- 
cept the legacy, and declared the cities of the 
Cyrena'ica free. They were not reduced to the 
condition of a province till near thirty years 
afterward. — 3. Surnamed Ceraunus, king of 
Macedonia, was the son of Ptolemy I., king of 
Egypt, by his second wife Eurydice. When 
his father in 285 set aside the claim of Cerau- 
nus to the throne, and appointed his younger 
son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, his successor, Ce- 
raunus repaired to the court of Lysimachus. 
After Lysimachus had perished in battle against 
Seleucus (281), Ptolemy Ceraunus was received 
by the latter in the most friendly manner ; but 
shortly afterward (280) he basely assassinated 
Seleucus, and took possession of the Macedo- 
nian throne. After reigning a few months, he 
was defeated in battle by the Gauls, taken pris- 1 
722 



oner, and put to death. — 4. Tetrarch of Chalcis 
in Syria, the son of Mennasus. He appears to 
have held the cities of Heliopolis and Chalcis 
as well as the mountain district of Ituraea, from 
whence he was in the habit of infesting Damas- 
cus and the more wealthy parts of Ccelesyria p 
with predatory incursions. He reigned from 
about 70 to 40, when he was succeeded by his i 
son Lysatiias. — 5. King of Cyprus, was the 
younger brother of Ptolemy Auletes, king of 
Egypt, being, like him, an illegitimate son of 
Ptolemy Lathyrus. He was acknowledged as 
king of Cyprus at the same time that his brother 
Auletes obtained possession of the throne of 
Egypt, 80. He had offended P. Clodius by neg- 
lecting to ransom him when he had fallen into 
the hands of the Cilician pirates ; and accord- 
ingly Clodius, when he became tribune (58), 
brought forward a law to deprive Ptolemy of 
his kingdom, and reduce Cyprus to a Roman 
province. Cato, who had to carry into execu- 
tion this nefarious decree, sent to Ptolemy, ad- 
vising him to submit, and offering him his per- 
sonal safety, with the office of high-priest at 
Paphos, and a liberal maintenance. But the 
unhappy king refused these offers, and put an 
end to his own life, 57. — 6. King of Epirus, was 1 
the second son of Alexander IT., king of Epirus, 
and Olympias, and grandson of the great Pyr- 
rhus. He succeeded to the throne on the death 
of his elder brother, Pyrrhus II., but reigned 
only a very short time. The date of his reign 
can not be fixed with certainty, but as he was 
contemporary with Demetrius II., king of Mac- 
edonia, it may be placed between 239-229. — 7. 
King of Mauretania, was the son and success- 
or of Juba II. By his mother Cleopatra he was 
descended from the kings of Egypt, whose name 
he bore. The period of his accession can not J 
be determined with certainty, but we know that 
he was on the throne in A.D. 18. He continued ! 
to reign without interruption till A.D. 40, when 
he was summoned to Rome by Caligula, and \ 
shortly after put to death, his great riches hav- 
ing excited the cupidity of the emperor. 

IV. Literary. 
1. Claudius Ptolem.s:us, a celebrated mathe- 
matician, astronomer, and geographer. Of Ptol- 
emy himself we know absolutely nothing but his 
date. He certainly observed in A.D. 139, at Al- 
exandrea ; and, since he survived Antoninus, 
he was alive A.D. 161. His writings are as 
follows: 1. MeyuA?; Xvvra^ic rijc WoTpovo/iiac, 
usually known by its Arabic name of Almagest. 
Since the Tetrabiblus, the work on astrology, 
was also entitled avvra^ic, the Arabs, to distin- 
guish the two, probably called the greater work 
fisydln, and afterward fieyiarj) : the title Alma- 
gest is a compound of this last adjective and the 
Arabic article. The Almagest is divided into 
thirteen books. It treats of the relations of the 
earth and heaven ; the effect of position upon 
the earth ; the theory of the sun and moon, 
without which that of the stars can not be un- 
dertaken ; the sphere of the fixed stars, and 
those of the five stars called planets. The sev- 
enth and eighth books are the most interesting 
to the modern astronomer, as they contain a 
catalogue of the stars. This catalogue gives 
the longitudes and latitudes of one thousand 



11 



PTOLEM.EUS. 

and twenty-two stars, described by their posi- 
tions in the constellations. It seems that this 
catalogue is in the main really that of Hippar- 
chus, altered to Ptolemy's own time by assum- 
ing the value of the precession of the equinoxes 
given by Hipparchus as the least which could 
be ; some changes having also been made by 
Ptolemy's own observations. Indeed, the whole 
work of Ptolemy appears to have been based 
upon the observations of Hipparchus, whom he 
constantly cites as his authority. The best edi- 
tion of the Almagest is by Halma, Paris, 1813, 
1816, 2 vols. 4to. There are also two other 
volumes by Halma (1819-1820), which contain 
some of the other writings of Ptolemy. — 2. Te- 
-padifjkoc avvraijic, generally called Tctrabiblon, 
or Quadripartitum de Apotelesmatibus el Judicii.i 
Astrorum. With this goes another small work, 
called napiroc, or Fructus Librorum Suorum, often 
called Centiloquium, from its containing a hund- 
red aphorisms. Both of these works are as- 
trological, and it has been doubted by some 
whether they be genuine. But the doubt merely 
arises from the feeling that the contents are un- 
worthy of Ptolemy. — 3. Kavuv BaaiXeuv, a cata- 
logue of Assyrian, Persian, Greek, and Roman 
sovereigns, with the length of their reigns, sev- 
eral times referred to by Syncellus. — 4. $daeic 
uTrTtavtiv aarepuv Kal nvvayuyrj iwiarjfiacstiijv, De 
Apparentiis et Signijicalionibus inerrantium, an 
annual list of sidereal phenomena. — 5, 6. De 
Analemmate and Planispfuzrium. These works 
are obtained from the Arabic. The Analemma. 
is a collection of graphical processes for facili- 
tating the construction of sun-dials. The Plani- 
sphere is a description of the stereographic pro- 
jection, in which the eye is at the pole of the 
circle on which the sphere is projected. — 7. ITept 
v-rroOsaeav ruv Trhavu/ievuv, De Planetarum Hy- 
pothesibus. This is a brief statement of the 
principal hypotheses employed in the Almagest 
for the explanation of the heavenly motions. — 
8. 'kpfiovLKuv /JifiAi'a /., a treatise on the theory 
of the musical scale. — 9. Ilept KpiT-qpiov Kal rjye- 
fioviKov, De Judicandi Facultale et Animi Princi- 
pal, a metaphysical work, attributed to Ptol- 
emy. — 10. Teaypa<j)iK7i 't^riyrjaic, in eight books, 
the great geographical work of Ptolemy. This 
work was the last attempt made by the ancients 
to form a complete geographical system ; it was 
accepted as the text-book of the science ; and 
it maintained that position during the Middle 
Ages, and until the fifteenth century, when the 
rapid progress of maritime discovery caused it 
to be superseded. It contains, however, very 
little information respecting the objects of in- 
terest connected with the different countries 
and places ; for, with the exception of the in- 
troductory matter in the first book, and the lat- 
ter part of the work, it is a mere catalogue of 
the names of places, with their longitudes and 
latitudes, and with a few incidental references 
to objects of interest. The latitudes of Ptol- 
emy are tolerably correct ; but his longitudes 
are very wide of the truth, his length of the 
known world, from east to west, being much 
too great. It is well worthy, however, of re- 
mark, in passing, that the modern world owes 
much to this error ; for it tended to encourage 
that belief in the practicability of a western 
passage to the Indies, which occasioned the dis- 



PTOLEMA1S. v 

covery of America by Columbus. The first boon 
is introductory. The next six and a half books 
(ii.-vii., 4) are occupied with the description of 
the known world, beginning with the West of 
Europe, the description of which is contained 
in book ii,; next comes the East of Europe, in 
book iii. ; then Africa, in book iv. ; then West- 
ern or Lesser Asia, in book v. ; then the Great- 
er Asia, in book vi. ; then India, the Chersone- 
sus Aurea, Serica, the Sinae, and Taprobane, in 
book vii., cc. 1-4. The form in. which the de- 
scription is given is that of lists of places, witti 
their longitudes and latitudes, arranged under 
the heads, first, of the three continents, and 
then of the several countries and tribes. Pre- 
fixed to each section is a brief general descrip- 
tion of the boundaries and divisions of the part 
about to be described ; and remarks of a mis- 
cellaneous character are interspersed among the 
lists, to which, however, they bear but a small 
proportion. The remaining part of the seventh, 
and the whole of the eighth book, are occupied 
with a description of a set of maps of the known 
world. These maps are still extant. The best 
edition of the Geographia of Ptolemy is by Pe- 
trus Bertius, Lugd. Bat., 1619, fol. ; reprinted 
Antwerp, 1624, fol.— 2. Of Megalopolis, the son 
of Agesarchus, wrote a history of King Ptolemy 
IV. Philopator.— 3. An Egyptian priest of Men- 
des, who wrote on the ancient history of Egypt. 
He probably lived under the first Roman em- 
perors. — 4. Surnamed Chemnus, a grammarian 
of Alexandrea, flourished under Trajan and 
Hadrian. An epitome of one of his works is 
preserved by Photius. 

Ptolemais (TlTo/iS/iatc : lirolefiatrnc and Uto 
Tiefiaevc). 1. Also called Ace ('Ak7?, a corrup- 
tion of the native name Acco, Old Testament : 
now, in Arabic, Akka, French St. Jean d'Acre, 
English Acre), a celebrated city on the coast of 
Phoenicia, south of Tyre, and north of Mount 
Carmel, lies at the bottom of a bay surrounded 
by mountains, in a position marked out by na- 
ture as a key of the passage between Ccelesyria 
and Palestine. It is one of the oldest cities 
of Phoenicia, being mentioned in the Book of 
Judges (i., 31). Under the Persians it was made 
the head-quarters of the expeditions against 
Egypt ; but it was not till the decline of Tyre 
that it acquired its great importance as a mili- 
tary and commercial city. The Ptolemy who 
enlarged and strengthened it, and from whom it 
obtained its Greek name, is supposed to have 
been Ptolemy I. the son of Lagus. After the 
change of its name, its citadel continued to be 
called Ace. Under the Romans it was a col- 
ony, and belonged to Galilee. To recount its 
great celebrity in mediaeval and modern history 
does not fall within the province of this work 
—2. (At or near the modern El-Lahum), a small 
town of Middle Egypt, in the Nomos Arsinoites, 
between Arsinoe and Heracleopolis the Great. 
— 3. P. Hermh (II. {j 'Epfidov, TlToXejiaiKri 7roA(c: 
now Menshieh, ruins), a city of Upper Egypt, on 
the western bank of the Nile, below Abydos, 
was a place of great importance under the Ptol- 
emies, who enlarged and adorned it, and made 
it a purely Greek city, exempt from all pecul- 
iarly Egyptian laws and customs.— 4. P. Thb- 
ron, or Epitheras (II. Qrjpuv, {/ km dtpac), a 
port on the Red Sea, on the coast of the Troglo 

723 



I 



PTOON. 



PULCHERIA. 



dytce, an emporium for the trade with India and | 
Arabia, but chiefly remarkable in the history i 
of mathematical geography, inasmuch as, the 
sun having been observed to be directly over it ! 
forty-five days before and after the summer sol- 
stice, the place was taken as one of the fixed 
points for determining the length of a degree 
of a great circle on the earth's surface. — 5. (Now 
Tolmelta, or Tolometa, ruins), on the northwest- 
ern coast of Cyrenaica, one of the five great 
cities of the Libyan Pentapolis, was at first only 
the port of Ba'rca, which lay one hundred stadia 
(ten geographical miles) inland, but which was 
so entirely eclipsed by Ptolemai's that, under 
the Romans, even the name of Barca was trans- 
ferred to the latter city. From which of the 
Ptolemies it took its name, we are not informed. 
Its magnificence is attested by its splendid ruins, 
which are now partly covered by the sea. They 
are four miles in circumference, and contain the 
remains of several temples, three theatres, and 
an aqueduct. 

Ptoon (Uruov. now Palca and Strutzina), a 
mountain in Boeotia, an offshoot of Helicon, 
which extends from the southeast side of the 
Lake Copais southward to the coast. 

Publicola, or Poplicula, or Poplicola, a Ro- 
man cognomen, signified " one who courts the 
people" (from populus and colo), and thus " a 
friend of the people." The form Poplicula or 
Poplicola was the more ancient, but Publicola 
was the one usually employed by the Romans 
in later times. 

Publicola, P. Valerius, took an active part 
in expelling the Tarquins from the city, and 
was thereupon elected consul with Brutus (B. 
C. 509). He secured the liberties of the peo- 
ple by proposing several laws, one of the most 
important of which was that every citizen who 
was condemned by a magistrate should have 
the right of appeal to the people. He also or- 
dered the lictors to lower the fasces before the 
people, as an acknowledgment that their power 
was superior to that of the consuls. Hence he 
became so great a favorite with the people, 
that he received the surname of Publicola. He 
was consul three times again, namely, in 508, 
507, and 504. He died in 503. He was buried 
at the public expense, and the matrons mourn-- 
ed for him ten months, as they had done for 
Brutus. The descendants of Publicola bore the 
same name, and several of them held the highest 
offices of state during the early years of the re- 
public. 

Publicola, Gellius. 1. L., consul with Cn. 
Lentulus Clodianus, B.C. 72. Both consuls 
carried on war against Spartacus, but were de- 
feated by the latter. In 70 Gellius was censor, 
and in 67 and 66 he served as one of Pompey's 
legates in the war against the pirates. He be- 
longed to the aristocratical party. In 63 he 
warmly supported Cicero in the suppression of 
the Catilinarian conspiracy. In 59 he opposed 
the agrarian law of Caesar, and in 57 he spoke 
in favor of Cicero's recall from exile. He was 
alive in 55, when Cicero delivered his speech 
against Piso, but he probably died soon after- 
ward. He was married twice. He must have 
reached a great age, since he is mentioned as 
the contubernalis of C. Papirius Carbo, who 
sras consul in 120. — 2. L., son of the preceding 
724 



by his first wife. He espoused the republican 
party after Caesar's death (44), and went with 
M. Brutus to Asia. After plotting against the , 
lives of both Brutus and Cassius, he deserted 
to the triumvirs, Octavianus and Antony. He 
was rewarded for his treachery by the consul- ! 
ship in 36. In the war between Octavianus 
and Antony, he espoused the side of the latter, 
and commanded the right wing of Antony's flee* 
at the battle of Actium. — 3. Brother probably f 
of No. 1, is called step-son of L. Marcius Philip- ; 
pus, consul 91, and brother of L. Marcius Philip- 
pus, consul 56. According to Cicero's account, 
he was a profligate and a spendthrift, and having 
dissipated his property, united himself to P. 
Clodius. 

Publilia, the second wife of M. Tullius Cic- 
ero, whom he married B.C. 46. As Cicero 
was then sixty years of age, and Publilia quite , 
young, the marriage occasioned great scandal. 
It appears that Cicero was at the time in great 
pecuniary embarrassments ; and after the di- L 
vorce of Terentia, he was anxious to contract 
a new marriage for the purpose of obtaining '] 
money to pay his debts. Publilia had a large 
fortune, which had been left to Cicero in trust 
for her. The marriage proved an unhappy one, 
as might have been expected ; and Cicero di- 
vorced her in 45. 

Publilius Philo. Vid. Philo. 

Publilius, Volero, tribune of the plebs B.C. 
472, and again 471, effected an important change 
in the Roman constitution. In virtue of the 
laws which he proposed, the tribunes of the j 
plebs and the aediles were elected by the comitia 
tributa instead of by the comitia centuriata, as 
had previously been the case, and the tribes ob- 
tained the power of deliberating and determin- 
ing in all matters affecting the whole nation, 
and not such only as concerned the plebs. .Some 
said that the number of the tribunes was now 
for the first time raised to five, having been 
only two previously. 

Publius Syrus. Vid. Syrus. 

Pucinum (Uovkivov), a fortress in Istria, in the 
north of Italy, on the road from Aquileia to Pola, 
was situated on a steep rock, which produced 
wine, mentioned by Pliny under the name of 
Vinum Pucinum. 

Pudicitia (AWuf), a personification of mod- 
esty, was worshipped both in Greece and at 
Rome. At Athens an altar was dedicated to 
her. At Rome two sanctuaries were dedicated ( 
to her, one under the name of Pudicitia patricia, 
and the other under that of Pudicitia plebeia. 
The former was in the forum Boarium, near the 
temple of Hercules. When the patrician Vir- 
ginia was driven from this sanctuary by the 
other patrician women, because she had mar- 
ried the plebeian consul L. Volumnius, she built 
a separate sanctuary to Pudicitia plcbcia in the 
Vicus Longus. 

Pulcher, Claudius. Vid. Claudius. 

Pulcheria, eldest daughter of the Emperoi 
Arcadius, was born A.D. 399. In 414, when 
she was only fifteen years of age, she became 
the guardian of her brother Theodosius, and 
was declared Augusta or empress. She had 
the virtual government in her hands during the 
whole lifetime of her brother, who died in 450. j 
On his death she remained at the head of af 



PULCHRUM PROMONTORIUM. 



PYLADES. 



/airs, and shortly afterward she married Mar- 
cian, with whom she continued to reign in com- 
mon till her death in 453. Pulcheria was a 
woman of ability, and was celebrated for her 
piety, and her public and private virtues. 

Pulchrum Promontorium (icaXdv iicpurripiop), 
a promontory on the northern coast of the Car- 
thaginian territory in Northern Africa, where 
the elder Scipio Africanus landed ; probably 
identical with the Apollinis Promontorium. 

Pullus, L. Junius, consul B.C. 249, in the 
first Punic war. His fleet was destroyed by a 
storm, on account, it was said, of his neglect- 
ing the auspices. In despair, he put an end to 
his own life. 

Pupienus Maximus, M. ClodIus, was elected 
emperor with Balbinus in A.D. 238, when the 
senate received intelligence of the death of the 
two Gordians in Africa ; but the new emperors 
were slain by the soldiers at Rome in the same 
year. 

Fupius, a Roman dramatist, whose composi- 
tions are characterized by Horace as the "lacry- 
mosa poemata Pupi." 

Pur a {Uovpa: now probably Bunpur), the cap- 
ital of Gedrosia, in the interior of the country, 
on the borders of Carmania. 

PurpurarLe Insula (now probably the Ma- 
deira group), a group of islands in the Atlantic 
Ocean, off the northwestern coast of Africa, 
whieh are supposed to have derived their name 
from the purple muscles which abound on the 
opposite coast of Africa (Geetulia). The islands 
of Hera ("Hpa) and Autolala (kvrolula), men- 
tioned by Ptolemy, appear to belong to the 
group. m 

Purpureo, L. Furius, praetor B.C. 200, ob- 
tained Cisalpine Gaul as his province, and gain- 
ed a brilliant victory over the Gauls, who had 
laid siege to Cremona. He was consul 196, 
when he defeated the Boii. 

Puteolanum, a country house of Cicero near 
Puteoli, where he wrote his Quastiones Acade- 
mical, and where the Emperor Hadrian was 
buried. 

Puteolanus Sinus (now Bay of Naples), a bay 
of the sea on the coast of Campania, between 
the promontory Misenum and the promontory of 
Minerva, which was originally called Cumanus, 
but afterward Puteolanus, from the town Pute- 
oli. The northwest corner of it was separated 
by a dike eight stadia in length from the rest 
of the bay, thus forming the Lucrinus Lacus. 

Puteoli (Puteolanus : now Pozzuoli), origin- 
ally named Dic^earchia (kiKaiapx'ia, Lwaiup- 
Xsia: Aiicaiapxsvc, AiKaiapxetrric, -x<- T WS)-, a cele- 
brated sea-port town of Campania, situated on 
a promontory on the east side of the Puteolanus 
Sinus, and a little to the east of Cumae, was 
founded by the Greeks of Cuma?, B.C. 521, un- 
der the name of Dicaearchia. In the second 
Punic war it was fortified by the Romans, who 
changed its name into that of Puteoli, either 
from its numerous wells, or from the stench 
arising from the mineral springs in its neigh- 
borhood. The town was indebted for its im- 
portance to its excellent harbor, which was 
protected by an extensive mole formed from 
the celebrated reddish earth of the neighboring 
hills. This earth, called Pozzolana, when mix- 
ed with chalk, forms an excellent cement, which 



in course of time becomes as hard in water as 
stone. The mole was built on arches like a 
bridge, and seventeen of the piers are still visi- 
ble projecting above the water. To this mole 
Caligula attached a floating bridge, which ex- 
tended as far as Baia;, a distance of two miles 
Puteoli was the chief emporium for the com- 
merce with Alexandrea and with the greater part 
of Spain. The town was colonized by the Ro- 
mans in B.C. 194, and also anew by Augustus, 
Nero, and Vespasian. It was destroyed by 
Alaric in A.D. 410, by Genseric in 455, and also 
by Totilas in 545, but was on each occasion 
speedily rebuilt. There are still many ruins of 
the ancient town at the modern Pozzuoli. Of 
these the most important are the remains of 
the temple of Serapis, of the amphitheatre' 
and of the mole already described. 

Putput (now probably Hamamet), a sea port 
town of Africa Propria (Zeugitana) on the Gulf 
of Neapolis (now Gulf of Hamamet). Its name 
is evidently Phoenician. 

Pydna (HvSva : Xlvdvaloc : now Kitron), a 
town of Macedonia, in the district Pieria, was 
situated at a small distance west of the Ther- 
maic Gulf, on which it had a harbor. It was 
originally a Greek colony, but it was subdued 
by the Macedonian kings, from whom, however, 
it frequently revolted. Toward the end of the 
Peloponnesian war it was taken after a long 
siege by Archelaus^ and its inhabitants removed 
twenty stadia inland ; but at a later period we 
still find the town situated on the coast. It 
again revolted from the Macedonians, and was 
subdued by Philip, who enlarged and fortified 
the place. It was here that Olympias sustain- 
ed a long siege against Cassander, B.C. 317- 
316. It is especially memorable on account of 
the victory gained under its walls by iEmilius 
Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Mace- 
donia, 168. Under the Romans it was also 
called Citrum or Citrus. 

Pygela or Phygela (Jlvye\a, ivyeXa), a small 
town of Ionia, on the coast of Lydia, with a tem- 
ple of. Diana (Artemis) Munychia. Tradition 
ascribed its foundation to Agamemnon on his 
return from Troy. 

PygmjEI (Tlvy/iaioi, i. e., men of the height of 
a nvyftr/, i. e., thirteen and a half inches), a 
fabulous people, first mentioned by Homer (II., 
iii., 5), as dwelling on the shores of Ocean, and 
attacked by cranes in spring time. The fable 
is repeated by numerous writers, in various 
forms, especially as to the locality, some 
placing them in .(Ethiopia, others in India, and 
others in the extreme north of the earth. The 
story is referred to by Ovid and Juvenal, and 
forms the subject of several works of art. 

Pygmalion (llvyfialiuv). 1. King of Cyprus 
and father of Metharme. He is said to have 
fallen in love with the ivory image of a maiden 
which he himself had made, and therefore to 
have prayed to Venus (Aphrodite) to breathe life 
into it. When the request was granted, Pyg- 
malion married the maiden, and became by her 
the father of Paphus. — 2. Son of Belus and 
brother of Dido, who murdered Sichaaus, Dido's 
husband. For details, vid. Dido. 

Pylades {Tlvladrjc). 1. Son of Strophins and 
Anaxibia, a sister of Agamemnon. His father 
was king of Phocis ; and after the death of Aga- 

725 



PYL.E. 

memnon, Orestes was secretly, carried to his 
father's court. Here Pylades contracted that 
iriendship with Orestes which became proverb- 
ial. He assisted Orestes in murdering his moth- 
er Clytaemnestra, and also accompanied him to 
the Tauric Chersonesus ; and he eventually 
married his sister Electra, by whom he became 
the father of Hellanicus, Medon, and Strophius. 
For details, vid. Orestes. — 2. A pantomime 
dancer in the reign of Augustus, spoken of un- 
der Bathyllus. 

P5l/e (Tiv?Mi, i. e., Gates). 1. A general 
name for any narrow pass, such as Thermopy- 
lae, Pylae Albaniae, Caspiae, &c. (Vid. the sev- 
eral specific names.) — 2. Two small islands at 
the entrance into the Arabicus Sinus (now .Red 
Sea) from the Erythraean Sea. 

Pyl^emenes (Tlv?iaiu£V7]c), appears to have 
been the name of many kings of Paphlagonia, 
so as to have become a kind of hereditary ap- 
pellation, like that of Ptolemy in Egypt and 
Arsaces in Parthia. We have, however, very 
little definite information concerning them. 

[Pyl^eus (IMAtuof), son of Lethus, leader of 
the Pelasgians from Larissa, an ally of the Tro- 
jans ] 

[Pylartes (Tlvlaprric), a Trojan warrior, 
slain by Patroclus.] 

Pylas (RvXaO, son of Cteson, and king of 
Megara, who, after slaying Bias, his own fa- 
ther's brother, founded the town of Pylos in 
Peloponnesus, and gave Megara to Pandion, 
who had married his daughter Pylia, and ac- 
cordingly was his son-in-law. 

Pylene {Jlvlfivij), an ancient town of ^Etolia, 
on the southern slope of Mount Aracynthus, on 
whose site Proschium was subsequently built. 

[Pylon (JlvXuv), a Trojan warrior, slain by 
Polypcetes.j 

Pylos (Tlvloc), the name of three towns on 
the western coast of Peloponnesus. 1. In Elis, 
at the foot of Mount Scollis, and about seventy 
or eighty stadia from the city of Elis, on the 
road to Olympia, near the confluence of the 
Ladon and the Peneus It is said to have been 
founded by Pylon or Pylas of Megara, to have 
been destroyed by Hercules, and to have been 
afterward rebuilt by the Eleans. — 2. In Triphyl- 
ia, about thirty stadia from the coast, on the 
River Mamaus, west of the Mountain Minthe, 
and north of Lepreum. — 3. In the southwest of 
Messenia, was situated at the foot of Mount 
^Egaleos on a promontory at the northern en- 
trance of the basin, now called the Bay of Nav- 
arino, the largest and safest harbor in all Greece. 
This harbor was fronted and protected by the 
small island of Sphacteria (now Sphagia), which 
stretched along the coast about a mile and three 
quarters, leaving only two narrow entrances at 
each end. In the second Messenian war the 
inhabitants of Pylos offered a long and brave 
resistance to the Spartans ; but after the cap- 
ture of Ira, they were obliged to quit their na- 
tive country with the rest of the Messenians. 
Pylos now remained in ruins, but again became 
memorable in the Peloponnesian war, when the 
Athenians under Demosthenes built a fort on 
the promontory Coryphasium, a little south of 
the ancient city, and just within the northern 
entrance to the harbor (B.C. 425). The at- 
tempts of the Spartans to dislodge the Atheni- 
726 



PYRENE. 

ans proved unavailing ; and the capture by 
Cleon of the Spartans, who had landed in the 
island of Sphacteria, was one of the most im- 
portant events in the whole war. — There has 
been much controversy, which of these three 
places was the Pylos founded by Neleus, and l 
governed by Nestor and his descendants. The 
town in Elis has little or no claim to the honor, 
and the choice lies between the towns in Triphyl- 
ia and Messenia. The ancients usually decided 
in favor of the Messenian Pylos ; but most mod- 
ern critics support the claims of the Triphylian 
city. 

[Pyracmon, one of the assistants of Vulcan 
in forging the thunderbolts of Jupiter (Zeus). 
Vid. Cyclopes.] 

[PyrjEchmes (Tlvpalx/Jric), leader of the Paeo- 
nians, an ally of the Trojans, slain by Patro- 
clus according to Homer, or by Diomedes ac- 
cording to Dictys.] 

PyramTa (tu. Ylvpujiia), a town of Argolis, in 
the district Thyreatis, where Danaus is said to 
have landed. 

Pyramus. Vid. Thisbe. 

Pyramus (Tlvpafioc : now Jihari), one of the 
largest rivers of Asia Minor, rises in the anti- 
Taurus range, near Arabissus in Cataonia (the 
southeastern part of Cappadocia), and after run 
ning southeast, first under ground, and then as 
a navigable river, breaks through the Taurus 
chain by a deep and narrow ravine, and then 
flows southwest through Cilicia in a deep and 
rapid stream, about one stadium (six hundred 
and six feet) in width, and falls into the sea 
near Mallus. Its ancient name is said to have 
been Leucosyrus, from the Leucosyri who dwelt 
oh its banks. 

[Pyrander (Tlvpavdpoc), a historian of an un- 
known period, wrote a work entitled Helonov- 
vnoiaK.a.~\ 

[Pyrasus (Tlvpacroc), a city of the Thessalian 
district Phthiotis, mentioned by Homer, but al- 
ready in Strabo's time in ruins : it was situated 
on the coast, twenty stadia (two geographical 
miles) from Thebae, with a Demetrium.] 

[Pyrasus (Tlvpacoc), a Trojan warrior, slain 
by Ajax.] 

Pyrene or PyreNjEI Montes (Tlvprjvrt, tu Hv 
prjvala bpri : now Pyrenees), a range of mount- 
ains extending from the Atlantic to the Medi- 
terranean, and forming the boundary between 
Gaul and Spain. The length of these mount- 
ains is about two hundred and seventy miles in 
a straight line ; their breadth varies from about 
forty miles to twenty ; their greatest height is 
between eleven thousand and twelve thousand 
feet. The Romans first became acquainted with 
these mountains by their campaigns against the 
Carthaginians in Spain in the second Punic war. 
Their name, however, had travelled eastward 
at a much earlier period, since Herodotus (ii., 
33) speaks of a city Pyrene belonging to the 
Celts, near which the Ister rises. The ancient 
] writers usually derived the name from Trip, 
" fire," and then, according to a common prac- 
tice, invented a story to explain the false ety- 
mology, relating that a great fire once raged 
upon the mountains. The name, however, is 
probably connected with the Celtic Btjrin oi 
Bryn, " a mountain." The continuation of the 
mountains along the Mare Cantabricum was 



PYRENES PROMONTORIUM. 



PYRRHUS. 



| called Saltus Vasconura, and still further west 
Mons Vindius or Vinnius. The Romans were 
acquainted with only three passes over the Pyr- 
enees, the one on the west near Carasas (now 
Garis), not far from the Mare Cantabricum, the 
one in the middle leading from Ca?saraugusta 
to Beneharnum (now Bareges), and the one on 
the east, which was most frequently used, near 
the coast of the Mediterranean by Juncaria (now 
Junquera). 

Pyrenes Pro.wontorium, or Promontorium 
Veneris (now Cape Creus), the southeastern 
extremity of the Pyrenees in Spain, on the 
frontiers of Gaul, derived its second name from 
a temple of Venus on the promontory. 

Pyrgi. 1. (Tlvpyoc or Uvpyoc : TLvpyirric), the 
most southerly town of Triphylia in Elis, near 
the Messenian frontier, said to have been found- 
ed by the Minyae. — 2. (Pyrgensis : now Santa 
Severa), an ancient Pelasgic town on the coast 
of Etruria, was used as the port of Ca;re or 
Agylla, and was a place of considerable import- 
ance as a commercial emporium. It was at an 
early period the head-quarters of the Tyrrhenian 
pirates. It possessed a very wealthy temple of 
Ilithyia, which Dionysius of Syracuse plundered 
in B.C. 384. Pyrgi is mentioned at a later time 
as a Roman colony, but lost its importance un- 
der the Roman dominion. There are still re- 
mains at Sla Severa of the ancient polygonal 
walls of Pyrgi. 

[Pyrgo, nurse of the children of Priam, ac- 
companied ^Eneas after the destruction of Troy, 
and showed the Trojan women that it was a 
goddess, and not Beroe, who urged them to fire 
the Trojan ships in Sicily.] 

Pyrgoteles (TLvpyorATjc), one of the most 
celebrated gem engravers of ancient Greece, 
was a contemporary of Alexander the Great, 
who placed him on a level with Apelles and 
Lysippus, by naming him as the only artist who 
was permitted to engrave seal-rings for the king. 

Pyricus, a Greek painter, who probably lived 
soon after the time of Alexander the Great. He 
devoted himself entirely to the production of 
small pictures of low and mean subjects. 

P yriphlegethon (Ylvpi^leyeQuv), that is, flam- 
ing with fire, the name of one of the rivers in 
the lower world. 

Pyromachus, the name of two artists. The 
name occurs in four different forms, namely, 
Phyrornachus, Phylomachus, Philomachus, and 
Pyromachus. 1. An Athenian sculptor, who 
executed the bas-reliefs on the frieze of the 
temple of Minerva (Athena) Polias, about B.C. 
415. The true form of his name appears to have 
been Phyrornachus. — 2. An artist who flourish- 
ed B.C. 295-240, is mentioned by Pliny (xxxiv., 
8, s. 19) as one of those statuaries who rep- 
resented the battles of Attalus and Eumenes 
against the Gauls. Of these ba'ttles the most 
celebrated was that which obtained for Attalus 
I. the title of king, about 241. It is supposed 
by the best writers on ancient art that the cel- 
ebrated statue of a dying combatant, popularly 
called the Dying Gladiator, is a copy from one 
of the bronze statues in the works mentioned 
by Pliny. It is evidently the statue of a Celt. 

Pyrrkx (Hvpfia : Tlvpfiatoc). 1. A town on 
the western coast of the island of Lesbos, on 
the inner part of the deep bay named after it, 



and consequently on the narrowest pait of the 
island.— 2. A town and promontory of Phthio- 
tis in Thessaly, on the Pagasaean Gulf, and neai 
the frontiers of Magnesia. Off this promontory 
there were two small islanfls, named Pyrrha 
and Deucalion. — 3. A small Ionic town in Ca- 
ria, on the northern side of the Sinus Latmicus, 
and fifty stadia from the mouth of the Maeander. 

Pyrrhi Castra (TLvppov ^upaf), a fortified 
place in the north of Laconia, where Pyrrhus 
probably encamped in his invasion of the coun- 
try in B.C. 272. 

PyrrhIchds (Tlvpfjixoc), a town of the Eleu- 
thero-lacones in the southwest of Laconia. 

Pyrrho (Tivpp'uv), the founder of the Skep- 
tical or Pyrrhonian school of philosophy, was a 
native of Elis in Peloponnesus, lie is said to 
have been poor, and to have followed at first 
the profession of a painter. He is then said to 
have been attracted to philosophy by the books 
of Democritus, to have attended the lectures of 
Bryson, a disciple of Stilpon, to have attached 
himself closely to Anaxarchus, and with him to 
have joined the expedition of Alexander the 
Great. During the greater part of his life he 
lived in retirement, and endeavored to render 
himself independent of all external circumstan- 
ces. His disciple Timon extolled with admira- 
tion his divine repose of soul, and his indiffer- 
ence to pleasure or pain. So highly was he 
valued by his fellow-citizens that they made 
him their high priest,' and erected a monument 
to him after his death. The Athenians con- 
ferred upon him the rights of citizenship. We 
know little respecting the principles of his skep- 
tical philosophy ; and the ridiculous tales told 
about him by Diogenes Laertius are probably the 
invention of his enemies. He asserted that cer- 
tain knowledge on any subject was unattainable, 
and that the great object of man ought to be to 
lead a virtuous life. Pyrrho wrote no works, 
except a poem addressed to Alexander, which 
was rewarded by the latter in a royal manner. 
Kis philosophical system was first reduced to 
writing by his disciple Timon. He reached the 
age of ninety years, but we have no mention of 
the year either of his birth or of his death. 

Pyrrhus (ttvpfioc). 1. Mythological. Vid. 
Neoptolemus. — 2. I. King of Epirus, son of 
iEacides and Phthia, was born B.C. 318. His 
ancestors claimed descent from Pyrrhus, the 
son of Achilles, who was said to have settled in 
Epirus after the Trojan war, and to have be- 
come the founder of the race of Molossian kings. 
On the deposition of his father by the Epirots 
(vid. ^Eacides), Pyrrhus, who was then a child 
of only two years old, was saved from destruc- 
tion by the faithful adherents of the king, who 
carried him to Glaucias, the king of the Tau- 
lantians, an Ulyrian people. Glaucias took the 
child under his care, and brought him up with 
his own children. He not only refused to sur- 
render Pyrrhus to Cassander, but about ten 
years afterward he marched into Epirus at the 
head of an army, and placed Pyrrhus oi> the 
throne, leaving him, however, under the care 
of guardians, as he was then only twelve years 
of age. In the course of four or five years, 
however, Cassander, who had gained his su- 
premacy in Greece, prevailed upon the Epirots 
to expel their young king. Pyrrhus, who was 

727 



PYRRHUS. 



PYRRHUS. 



still only seventeen years of age, joined Deme- 
trius, who had married his sister De'idamia, ac- 
companied him to Asia, and was present at the 
battle of Ipsus, 3Q1, in which he gained great 
renown for his valor. Antigonus fell in the' 
battle, and Demetrius became a fugitive ; but 
Pyrrhus did not desert his brother-in-law in his 
misfortunes, and shortly afterward went for him 
as a hostage into Egypt. Here he was fortu- 
nate enough to win the favor of Berenice, the 
wife of Ptolemy, and received in marriage An- 
tigone, her daughter by her first husband. Ptol- 
emy now supplied him with a fleet and forces, 
with which he returned to Epirus. Neoptole- 
mus, who had reigned from the time that Pyr- 
rhus had been driven from the kingdom, agreed 
to share the sovereignty with Pyrrhus. But 
such an arrangement could not last long, and 
Pyrrhus anticipated his own destruction by put- 
ting his rival to death. This appears to have 
happened in 295, in which year Pyrrhus is said 
to have begun to reign. He was now twenty- 
three years old, and he soon became one of the 
most popular princes of his time. His daring 
courage made him a favorite with his troops, 
and his affability and generosity secured the 
love of his people. He seems at an early age 
to have taken Alexander as his model, and to 
have been fired with the ambition of imitating 
his exploits and treading in his footsteps. His 
eyes were first directed to the conquest of Mace- 
donia. By assisting Alexander, the son of Cas- 
sander, against his brother Antipater, he obtain- 
ed possession of the whole of the Macedonian 
dominions on the western side of Greece. But 
the Macedonian throne itself fell into the hands 
of Demetrius, greatly to the disappointment of 
Pyrrhus. The two former friends now became 
the most deadly enemies, and open war broke 
out between them in 291. After the war had 
been carried on with great vigor and various 
vicissitudes for four years, Pyrrhus joined the 
coalition formed in 287 by Seleucus, Ptolemy, 
and Lysimachus against Demetrius. Lysim- 
achus and Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia; Deme- 
trius was deserted by his troops, and obliged to 
fly in disguise ; and the kingdom was divided 
between Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. But the 
latter did not long retain his portion ; the Mace- 
donians preferred the rule of their old general 
Lysimachus, and Pyrrhus was accordingly driv- 
en out of the country after a reign of seven 
months (286). For the next few years Pyrrhus 
reigned quietly in Epirus without embarking in 
any new enterprise. But a life of inactivity 
was insupportable to him, and accordingly he 
readily accepted the invitation of the Taren- 
tines to assist them in their war against the 
Romans. He crossed over to Italy early in 280, 
in the thirty-eighth year of his age. He took 
with him twenty thousand foot, three thousand 
horse, two thousand archers, five hundred sling- 
ers, and either fifty or twenty elephants, hav- 
ing previously sent Milo, one of his generals, 
with a detachment of three thousand men. As 
soon as he arrived at Tarentum, he began to 
make vigorous preparations for carrying on the 
war; and as the giddy and licentious inhabit- 
ants of Tarentum complained of the severity of 
his discipline, he forthwith treated them as 
their master rather than as their ally, shut up 
728 



the theatre and all other public places, and com •' 
pelled their young men to serve in his ranks. 
In the first campaign (280), the Roman consul, f 
M. Valerius La;vinus, was defeated by Pyrrhus 
near Heraclea, on the bank of the River Siris. 
The battle was long and bravely contested, and i 
it was not till Pyrrhus brought forward his ele- 
phants, which bore down every thing before 1 
them, that the Romans took to flight. The loss 
of Pyrrhus, though inferior to that of the Ro- 
mans, was still very considerable. A large r, 
proportion of his officers and best troops had i 
fallen ; and he said, as he viewed the field of 
battle, " Another such victory, and I must re- 
turn to Epirus alone." He therefore availed 
himself of his success to send his minister Cin- ' 
eas to Rome with proposals of peace, while he 
himself marched slowly toward the city. His 
proposals, however, were rejected by the sen- 
ate. He accordingly continued his march, rav- 
aging the Roman territory as he went along. 
He advanced within twenty-four miles of Rome; 
but as he found it impossible to compel the Ro- 
mans to accept the peace, he retraced his steps, i 
and withdrew into winter-quarters to Taren- 
tum. As soon as the armies were quartered 
for the winter, the Romans sent an embassy to 
Pyrrhus to endeavor to obtain the ransom of 
the Roman prisoners. The ambassadors were 
received by Pyrrhus in the most distinguished 
manner ; and his interviews with C. Fabricius, 
who was at the head of the embassy, form one 
of the most celebrated stories in Roman his- 
tory. Vid. Fabricius. In the second campaign 
(279), Pyrrhus gained another victory near As- 
culum over the Romans, who were commanded 
by the consuls P. Decius Mus and P. Sulpicius 
Saverrio. The battle, however, was followed 
by no decisive results, and the brunt of it had 
again fallen, as in the previous year, almost ex- 
clusively on the Greek troops of the king. He 
was therefore unwilling to hazard his surviving 
Greeks by another campaign with the Romans, 
and accordingly he lent a ready ear to the in- 
vitations of the Greeks in Sicily, who begged 
him to come to their assistance against the 
Carthaginians. The Romans were likewise 
anxious to get rid of so formidable an oppo- 
nent, that they might complete the subjugation 
of Southern Italy without further interruption. 
When both parties had the same wishes, it was 
not difficult to find a pretext for bringing the 
war to a conclusion. This was afforded at the 
beginning of the following year (278) by one 
of the servants of Pyrrhus deserting to the 
Romans and proposing to the consuls to poison 
his master. The consuls Fabricius and -Emil- 
ius sent back the deserters to the king, stating 
that they abhorred a victory gained by treason. 
Thereupon Pyrrhus, to show his gratitude, sent 
Cineas to Rome with all the Roman prisoners, 
without ransom and without conditions ; and 
the Romans granted him a truce, though not a 
formal peace, as he had not consented to evac- 
uate Italy. Pyrrhus now crossed over into 
Sicily, where he remained upward of two years, 
from the middle of 478 to the latter end of 476. 
At first he met With brilliant success, defeated 
the Carthaginians, and took Erys; but having 
failed in an attempt upon Lilybae mi, he lost his 
popularity with the Greeks, who began to form 



i 



PYRRHUS. 

cahais and plots against him. This led to re- 
taliation on the part of Pyrrhus, and to acts 
Which were deemed both cruel and tyrannical 
by the Greeks. His position in Sicily at length 
became so uncomfortable and dangerous that 
he soon became anxious to abandon the island. 
Accordingly, when his Italian allies again beg- 
ged him to come to their assistance, he gladly 
complied with their request. Pyrrhus returned 
to Italy in the autumn of 276. In the following 
year (275) the war was brought to a close. 
Pyrrhus was defeated with great loss nearBen- 
eventum by the Roman consul Curius Dentatus, 
and was obliged to leave Italy. He brought 
back with him to Epirus only eight thousand 
foot and five hundred horse, and had not money 
to maintain even these without undertaking 
new wars. Accordingly, in 273, he invaded 
Macedonia, of which Antigonus Gonatas, the 
son of Demetrius, was then king. His only 
object at first seems to have been plunder ; but 
his success far exceeded his expectations. An- 
tigonus was deserted by his own troops, and 
Pyrrhus thus became king of Macedonia a sec-- 
ond time." But scarcely had he obtained pos- 
session of the kingdom before his restless spirit 
drove him into new enterprises. On the invita- 
tion of Cleonymus, he turned his arms against 
Sparta, but was repulsed in an attack upon this 
city. From Sparta he marched toward Argos 
in order to support Aristeas, one of the leading 
citizens at Argos, against his rival Aristippus, 
whose cause was espoused by Antigonus. In 
the night time Aristeas admitted Pyrrhus into 
the city ; but the alarm having been given, the 
citadel and all the strong places were seized by 
the Argives of the opposite faction. On the 
dawn of day Pyrrhus saw that it would be 
necessary for him to retreat ; and as he was 
fighting his way out of the city, an Argive 
woman hurled down from the house-top a 
ponderous tile, which struck Pyrrhus on the 
back of his neck. He fell from his horse stun- 
ned with the blow, and being recognized by 
some of the soldiers of Antigonus, was quickly 
dispatched. His head was cut off and carried 
to Antigonus, who turned away from the sight, 
and ordered the body to be interred with be- 
coming honors. Pyrrhus perished in 272, in the 
forty-sixth year of his age, and in the twenty- 
third of his reign. He was the greatest war- 
rior and one of the best princes of his time. 
With his daring courage, his military skill, and 
his kingly bearing, 'he might have become the 
most powerful monarch of his day if he had 
steadily pursued the immediate object before 
him. But he never rested satisfied with any 
acquisition, and was ever grasping at some fresh 
object : hence Antigonus compared him to a 
gambler, who made many good throws with 
the dice, but was unable to make the proper use 
of the game. Pyrrhus was regarded in subse- 
quent times as one of the greatest generals that 
had ever lived. Hannibal said that of all gen- 
erals Pyrrhus was the first, Scipio the second, 
and himself the third ; or, according to another 
version of the story, Alexander was the first, 
Pyrrhus the second, and himself the third. 
Pyrrhus wrote a work on the art of war, which 
was read in the time of Cicero ; and his com- 
mentaries are quoted by both Dionysius and' 



PYTHAGORAS. 

Plutarch. Pyrrhus married four wives : 1. A» 
tigone, the daughter of Berenice. 2. A daugn- 
ter of Audoleon, king of the Paeonians. 3. mr- 
cenna, a daughter of Bardylis, king of the 
Illyrians. 4. Lanassa, a daughter of Agatho- 
cles of Syracuse. His children were, 1. Ptol- 
emy, born 295 ; killed in battle, 272. 2. Alex- 
ander, who succeeded his father as king of 
Epirus. 3. Helenus. 4. Nereis, who married 
Gelon of Syracuse. 5. Olympias, who married 
her own brother Alexander. 6. Deidamia oi 
Laodamia.— 3. II. King of Epirus, son of Alex- 
ander II. and Olympias, and grandson of Pyr- 
rhus I., was a child at the time of his father's 
death (between 262 and 258). During his mi- 
nority the kingdom was governed by his mother 
Olympias. According to one account, Olympias 
survived Pyrrhus, who died soon after he had 
grown up to manhood ; according to another 
account, Olympias had poisoned a maiden to 
whom Pyrrhus was attached, and was herself 
poisoned by him in revenge. 

Pythagoras (TLvdayopag). 1. A celebrated 
Greek philosopher, was a native of Samos, and 
the son of Mnesarchus, who was either a mer- 
chant, or, according to others, an engraver of 
signets. The date of his birth is uncertain, 
but all authorities agree that he flourished in 
the times of Polycrates and Tarquinius Superb- 
us (B.C. 540-510). Pie studied in his own 
country under Creophilus, Pherecydes of Syros, 
and others, and is said to have visited Egypt 
and many countries of the East for the purpose 
of acquiring knowledge. We have not much 
trustworthy evidence either as to the kind and 
amount of knowledge which he acquired, or as 
to his definite philosophical views. It is cer- 
tain, however, that he believed in the transmi- 
gration of souls ; and he is said to have pre- 
tended that he had been Euphorbus, the son of 
Panthus, in the Trojan war, as well as various 
other characters. He is further said to have 
discovered the propositions that the triangle 
inscribed in a semicircle is right-angled, that 
the square on the hypotenuse of a right-angled 
triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on 
the sides. There is a celebrated story of his 
having discovered the arithmetical relations ot 
the musical scale by observing accidentally the 
various sounds produced by hammers, of differ- 
ent weights striking upon an anvil, and suspend- 
ing by strings weights equal to those of the 
different hammers. The retailers of the story, 
of course, never took the trouble to verify the 
experiment, or they would have discovered that 
different hammers do not produce different 
sc unds from the same anvil, any more than dif- 
ferent clappers do from the same bell. Discov- 
eries in astronomy are also attributed to Pythag- 
oras. There can be little doubt that he paid 
great attention to arithmetic, and its applica- 
tion to weights, measures, and the theory of 
music. Apart from all direct testimony, how 
ever, it may safely be affirmed, that the very 
remarkable influence exerted by Pythagoras, 
and even the fact that he was made the hero 
of so many marvellous stories, prove him to 
have been a man both of singular capabilities 
and of great acquirements. It may also be 
affirmed with safety that the religious element 
was the predominant one in the character of 

729 



PYTHAGORAS. 

Pythagoras, and that religious ascendency in 
connection with a certain mystic religious sys- 
tem was the object which he chiefly labored to 
secure. It was this religious element which 
made the profoundest impression upon his con- 
temporaries. They regarded him as standing 
in a peculiarly close connection with the gods. 
The Crotoniats even identified him with the 
Hyperborean Apollo. And without viewing 
him as an impostor, we may easily believe that 
he himself, to some extent, shared the same 
views. He pretended to divination and proph- 
ecy ; and he appears as the revealer of a mode 
of life calculated to raise his disciples above the 
level of mankind, and to recommend them to 
the favor of the gods. No certainty can be ar- 
rived at as to the length of time spent by Pythag- 
oras in Egypt or the East, or as to his resi- 
dence and efforts in Samos or other Grecian 
citie's, hefore he settled at Crotona in Italy. He 
probably removed to Crotona because he found 
it impossible to realize his schemes in his na- 
tive country while under the tyranny of Poly- 
crates. The reason why he selected Crotona 
as the sphere of his operations it is impossible 
to ascertain ; but soon after his arrival in that 
city he attained extensive influence, and gained 
over great numbers to enter into his views. 
His adherents were chiefly of the noble and 
wealthy classes. Three hundred of these were 
formed into a select brotherhood or club, bound 
by a sort of vow to Pythagoras and each other, 
for the purpose of cultivating the religious and 
ascetic observances enjoined by their master, 
and of studying his religious and philosophical 
theories. Every thing that was done and taught 
among the members was kept a profound secret 
from all without its pale. It was an old Pytha- 
gorean maxim, that every thing was not to be 
told to every body. There were also gradations 
among the members themselves. In the ad- 
mission of candidates Pythagoras is said to 
have placed great reliance on his physiognom- 
ical discernment. If admitted, they had to pass 
through a period of probation, in which their 
powers of maintaining silence were especially 
tested, as well as their general temper, dispo- 
sition, and mental capacity. As regards the 
nature of the esoteric instruction to which only 
the most approved members of the fraternity 
were admitted, some have supposed that it had 
reference to the political views of Pythagoras. 
Others have maintained, with greater probabili- 
ty, that it related mainly to the orgies, or secret 
religious doctrines and usages, which undoubt- 
edly formed a prominent feature in the Pytha- 
gorean system, and were peculiarly connected 
with the Worship of Apollo. There were some 
outward peculiarities of an ascetic kind in the 
mode of life to which the members of the broth- 
erhood were subjected. Some represent him 
as forbidding all animal food ; but all the mem- 
bers can not have been subjected to this pro- 
hibition, since the athletic Milo, for instance, 
could not possibly have dispensed with animal 
food. According to some ancient authorities, 
he allowed the use of all kinds of animal food 
except the flesh of oxen used for ploughing, and 
rams. There is a similar discrepancy as to the 
prohibition offish and beans. But temperance 
of all kinds seems to have been strictly enjoin- 
730 



PY PHAGORaS. J 

ed. It is also stated that they had common ! 
meals, resembling the Spartan syssrtia, at which 
they met in companies of ten. Considerable 
importance seems to have been attached to ' 
music and gymnastics in the daily exercises of 
the disciples. Their whole discipline is repre- , : 
sented as tending to produce a lofty serenity 
and self-possession, regarding the exhibition of ' 
which various anecdotes were current in anti- f 
quity. Among the best ascertained features of 1 
the brotherhood are the devoted attachment of f 
the members to each other, and their sovereign 
contempt for those who did not belong to their [ 
ranks. It appears that they had some secret 
conventional symbols, by which members of 
the fraternity could recognize each other, even r 
if they had never met before. Clubs similar to 
that at Crotona were established at Sybaris, 
Metapontum, Tarentum, and other cities of S 
Magna Graecia. The institutions of Pythago- 'j 
ras were certainly not intended to withdraw f 
those who adopted them from active exertion, t 
that they might devote themselves exclusively I 
to religious and philosophical contemplations, j 
He rather aimed at the production of a calm 
bearing and elevated tone of character, through 
which those trained in the discipline of the 1 
Pythagorean life should exhibit in their per- 
sonal and social capacities a reflection of the 
order and harmony of the universe. Whether 
he had any distinct political designs in the 
foundation of his brotherhood is doubtful ; but I 
it was perfectly natural, even without any ex- 
press design on his part, that a club such as the 
Three Hundred of Crotona should gradually ' 
come to mingle political with other objects, and, I 
by the facilities afforded by their secret and 
compact organization, should speedily gain ex- 
tensive political influence. That this influence y 
should be decisively on the side of aristocracy 
or oligarchy resulted naturally both from the 
nature of the Pythagorean institutions, and from 
the rank and social position of the members of 
the brotherhood. Through them, of course, 
Pythagoras himself exercised a large amount ( 
of indirect influence over the affairs both of 
Crotona and of other Italian cities. This Pyth- 
agorean brotherhood or order resembled in many | 
respects the one founded by Loyola. It is easy j 
to understand how this aristocratical and ex- ' 
elusive club would excite the jealousy and hos- i 
tility not only of the democratical party in Cro- ! 
tona, but also of a considerable number of the 
opposite faction. The hatred which they had j 
excited speedily led to their destruction. The 
populace of Crotona rose against them ; and an i 
attack was made upon them while assembled | 
either in the house of Milo, or in some other 
place of meeting. The building was set on fire, i 
and many of the assembled members perished j j 
only the younger and more active escaped. 
Similar commotions ensued in the other cities 
of Magna Grsecia in which Pythagorean clubs 
had been formed. As an active and organized , 
brotherhood, the Pythagorean order was every 
where suppressed ; but the Pythagoreans still 
continued to exist as a sect, the members of 
which kept up among themselves their reli- 
gious observances and scientific pursuits, while 
individuals, as in the case of Archytas, acquired 
now and then great political influence. Re- 



PYTHAGORAS. 



PYTHEAS. 



specting the fate of Pythagoras himself, the 
accounts varied. Some say that he perished 
in the temple with his disciples, others that 
he fled first to Tarentum, and that, being driven 
thence, he escaped to Metapontum, and there 
starved himself to death. His tomb was shown 
at Metapontum in the time of Cicero. Accord- 
ing to some accounts, Pythagoras married The- 
ano, a lady of Crotona, and had a daughter 
Damo, and a son Telauges, or, according to 
others, two daughters, Damo and Myia ; while 
other notices seem to imply that he had a 
wife and a daughter grown up when he came 
to Crotona. When we come to inquire what 
were the philosophical or religious opinions 
held by Pythagoras himself, we are met at 
the outset by the difficulty that even the au- 
thors from whom we have to draw possessed 
no authentic records bearing upon the age of 
Pythagoras himself. If Pythagoras ever wrote 
any thing, his writings perished with him, or 
hot long after. The probability is that he wrote 
nothing. Every thing current under his name 
in antiquity was spurious. It is all but certain 
that Philolaus was the first who •published the 
Pythagorean doctrines, at any rate in a written 
form. ( Vid. Philolaus.) Still there was so mark- 
ed a peculiarity running through the Pythago- 
rean philosophy, that there can be little question 
as to the germs of the system, at any rate, hav- 
ing been derived from Pythagoras himself. Py- 
thagoras resembled the philosophers of the Ionic 
school, who undertook to solve, by means of a 
single primordial principle, the vague problem 
of the origin and constitution of the universe as 
a whole. His predilection for mathematical 
studies led him to trace the origin of all things 
to number, his theory being suggested, or at all 
events confirmed, by the observation of various 
numerical relations, or analogies to them, in the 
phenomena of the universe. Musical principles 
likewise played almost as important a part in 
the Pythagorean system as mathematical or 
numerical ideas. We find running through the 
entire system the idea that order, or harmony 
of relation, is the regulating principle of the 
whole universe. The intervals between the 
heavenly bodies were supposed to be determ- 
ined according to the laws and relations of 
musical harmony. Hence arose the celebrated 
doctrine of the harmony of the spheres ; for 
the heavenly bodies, in their motion, could not 
but occasion a certain sound or note, depending 
on their distances and velocities ; and as these 
were determined by the laws of harmonical in- 
tervals, the notes altogether formed a regular 
.musical scale or harmony. This harmony, how- 
ever, we do not hear, either because we have 
been accustomed to it from the first, and have 
never had an opportunity of contrasting it with 
stillness, or because the sound is so powerful as 
to exceed our capacities for hearing. The ethics 
of the Pythagoreans consisted more in ascetic 
practice, and maxims for the restraint of the 
passions, especially of anger, and the cultiva- 
tion of the power of endurance, than in scien- 
tific theory. What of the latter they had was, 
as might be expected, intimately connected with 
their number-theory. Happiness consisted in 
the science of the perfection of the virtues of 
'he soul, or in the perfect science of numbers. 



Likeness to the Deity was to be the object of 
all our endeavors, man becoming better as he 
approaches the gods, who are the guardians and 
guides of men. Great importance was attached 
to the influence of music in controlling the force 
of the passions. Self-examination was strongly 
insisted on. The transmigration of souls was 
viewed apparently in the light of a process of 
purification. Souls under the dominion of sen- 
suality either passed into the bodies of animals, 
or, if incurable, were thrust down into Tartarus, 
to meet with expiation or condign punishment. 
The pure were exalted to higher modes of life, 
and at last attained to incorporeal existence 
As regards the fruits of this system of training 
or belief, it is interesting to remark, that wher- 
ever we have notices of distinguished Pyth- 
agoreans, we usually hear of them as men of 
great uprightness, conscientiousness, and self- 
restraint, and as capable of devoted and endur- 
ing friendship. Vid. Archytas, Damon, and 
Phintias. — 2. Of Rhegium, one of the most cel- 
ebrated statuaries of Greece, probably flourished 
B.C. 480-430. His most important works ap- 
pear to have been his statues of athletes. 

Pytheas (livdeac). 1. An Athenian orator, 
distinguished by his unceasing animosity against 
Demosthenes. He had no political principles, 
made no pretensions to honesty, and changed 
sides as often as suited his convenience or his 
interest. Of the part that he took in political 
affairs only two or three facts are recorded. 
He opposed the honors which the Athenians 
proposed to confer upon Alexander, but he aft- 
erward espoused the interests of the Macedonian 
party. He accused Demosthenes of having re- 
ceived bribes from Harpalus. In the Lamian 
war, B.C. 322, he joined Antipater, and had thus 
the. satisfaction of surviving his great enemy 
Demosthenes. He is said to have been the au- 
thor of the well-known saying, that the orations 
of Demosthenes smelt of the lamp. — 2. Of Mas- 
silia in Gaul, a celebrated Greek navigator, 
who sailed to the western and northern parts 
of Europe, and wrote a work containing the re- 
sults of his discoveries. He probably lived in 
the time of Alexander the Great, or shortly aft- 
erward. He appears to have undertaken voy- 
ages, one in which he visited Britain and Thule, 
and of which he probably gave an account in his 
work On the Oeean ; and a second, undertaken 
after his return from his first voyage, in which 
he coasted along the whole of Europe from Ga- 
dira (now Cadiz) to the Tanais, and the descrip- 
tion of which probably formed the subject of his 
Periplus. Pytheas made Thule a six days' sail 
from Britain, and said that the day and the 
night were each six months long in Thule ; 
hence some modern writers have supposed that 
he must have reached Iceland, while others 
have maintained that he advanced as far as the 
Shetland Islands. But either supposition is very 
improbable, and neither is necessary ; for re- 
ports of the great length of the day and night 
in the northern parts of Europe had already 
reached the Greeks, before the time of Pytheas. 
There has been likewise much dispute as to 
what river we are to understand by the Tanais. 
The most probable conjecture is that, upon reach- 
ing the Elbe, Pytheas concluded that he had ar- 
rived at the Tanais, separating Europe from 

731 



PYTHIAS. 

Asia. — 3. A silver-chaser, who flourished at 
Rome in the age immediately following that of 
Pompey, and whose productions commanded a 
remarkably high price. 

Pythias (Tlvdi&c). 1. The sister or adopted 
daughter of Hermias, and the wife of Aristotle. I 
— 2. Daughter of Aristotle and Pythias. 

Pythium (Tlvdiov). I, A place in Attica, not 
far from Eleusis. — 2. A town of Thessaly in the 
eastern part of the district Hestiseotis, which, 
with Azorus and Doliche, formed a Tripolis. 

Pythius (Ilvdwg), a Lydian, the son of Atys, 
was a man of enormous wealth, which he de- 
rived from his gold mines in the neighborhood 
of Celajnaa in Phrygia. When Xerxes arrived 
at Celasnae, Pythius banqueted him and his 
whole army. His five sons accompanied Xerx- 
es. Pythius, alarmed by an eclipse of the sun 
which happened, came to Xerxes, and begged 
that the eldest might be left behind. This re- 
quest so enraged the king that he had the young 
man immediately killed and cut in two, and the 
two portions of his body placed on either side 
of the road, and then ordered the army to march 
between them. 

[Pytho. Vid. Delphi.] 

Pythoclides (IlvdoK?irii57K), a celebrated mu- 
sician of the time of Pericles, w-as a native of 
Ceos, and flourished at Athens, under the pa- 
tronage of Pericles, whom he instructed in his 
art. 

Pythodokis (Uvdodup'cc), wife of Polemon I., 
king of Pontus. After the death of her husband 
she retained possession of the government. 
She subsequently married Archelaus, king of 
Oappadocia, but after his death (A.D. 17) re- 
turned to her own kingdom, of which she con- 
tinued to administer the affairs herself until her 
decease, which probably did not take place un- 
til A.D. 38. Of her two sons, the one, Zenon, 
became king of Armenia, while the other, Pole- 
mon, succeeded her on the throne of Pontus. 

Python (Hvduv). I. The celebrated serpent, 
which was produced from the mud left on the 
earth after the deluge of Deucalion. He lived 
in the caves of Mount Parnassus, .but was slain 
by Apollo, who founded the Pythian games in 
commemoration of his victory, and received in 
consequence the surname Pythius.— 2. Of Ca- 
tana, a dramatic poet of the time of Alexander, 
whom he accompanied into Asia, and whose 
army he entertained with a satyric drama when 
they were celebrating the Dionysia on the banks 
of the Hydaspes. The drama was in ridicule 
of Harpalus and the Athenians. [The frag- 
ments of Python are contained in Wagner's 
Trag. GrcBC. Fragm., p. 134-136, Paris, 1846 ] 

Pyxites (riufir^f : now Vitzch), a river of 
Pontus, falling into the Euxine near Trapezus. 

Pyxus. Vid. Buxentum. 

Q. 

Quadi, a powerful German people of the 
Suevic race, dwelt in the southeast of Ger- 
many, between Mount Gabreta, the Hercynian 
forest, the Sarmatian mountains, and the Dan- 
ube. They were bounded on the west by the 
Marcomanni, with whom they were always 
closely united, on the north by the Gothini and 
Osi, on the east by the Iazyges Metanastae, 
732 



QUADRIFRONS. j 

i from whom' they were separated by the River , 
Granuas (now Gran), and on the south by the 
Pannonians, from whom they were divided by 
the Danube. They probably settled in this dis- \ 
trict at the same time as the Marcomanni made 
themselves masters of Bohemia (vid. Marco- 
manni) ; but we have no account of the earlier 
settlements of the Quadi. When Maroboduus, 
and shortly afterward his successor Catualda, j 
had been expelled from their dominions and had 
taken refuge with the Romans in the reign of 
Tiberius, the Romans assigned to the barbari- 
ans, who had accompanied these monarchs, and 
who consisted chiefly of Marcomanni and Quadi, 
the country between the Marus (now Marchl 
Morava ? or Marosch ?) and Cusus (now Waag ?), 
and gave to them as king Vannius, wno be- 
longed to the Quadi. Vannius was expelled by 
his nephews Vangio and Sido, but this new 
kingdom of the Quadi continued for a long time ' 
afterward under Roman protection. In the 
reign of M.. Aurelius, however, the Quadi join- ' 
ed the Marcomanni and other German tribes in [ 
the long and bloody war against the empire, 
which lasted during the greater part of that em- 
peror's reign. The independence of the Quadi \ 
and Marcomanni was secured by the peace 
which Commodus made with them in A.D. 180. 
Their name is especially memorable in the his- 
tory of this war by the victory which M. Aurel 
ius gained over them in 174, when his army 
was in great danger of being destroyed by the j 
barbarians, and was said to have been saved by 
a sudden storm, which was attributed to the 
prayers of his Christian soldiers. (Vid. p. 131, 
b.) The Quadi disappear from history toward | 
the end of the fourth century. They probably 
migrated with the Suevi further west. 

Quadratus, one of the Apostolic Fathers, and 
an early apologist for the Christian religion. 
He passed the early part of his life in Asia 
Minor, and was afterward bishop of the Church 
at Athens. He presented his Apology to Ha- 
drian in the tenth year of his reign (A.D. 126). 
This apology has been long lost. 

Quadratus, Asinius, lived in the times of 
Philippus I. and II., emperors of Rome (A.D. 
244-249), and wrote two historical works in the j 
Greek language. 1. A history of Rome, in fif- 
teen books, in the Ionic dialect, called Xi^iern- 
p/f, because it related the history of the city, i 
from its foundation to the thousandth year of 
its nativity (A.D. 248), when the Ludi Saecu- 
lares were performed with extraordinary pomp. 
2. A history of Parthia. 

Quadratus, Fannius, a contemporary of 
Horace, was one of those envious Roman poets ' 1 
who tried to depreciate Horace, because his 
writings threw their own into the shade. 

Quadratus, L. Ninnius, tribune of the plebs 
B.C. 58, distinguished himself by his opposition 
to the measures of his colleague, P. Clodius, 
against Cicero. 

Quadratus, Ummidius. 1. Governor of Syria 
during the latter end of the reign of Claudius, 
and the commencement of the reign of Nero, 
from about A.D. 51 to 60. — 2. A friend and ad- 
mirer of the younger Pliny, whom he took as 
his model in oratory. 

Quadrifroks, a surname of Janus. It is said 
that after the conquest of the Faliscans an im- 



UUADRIGARIUS, Q. CLAUDIUS. 



QUINTILIANUS, M. FABIUS. 



age of Janus was found with four foreheads. 
Hence a temple of Janus Quadrifrons was after- 
ward built in the Forum transitorium, which 
had four gates. The fact of the god being rep- 
resented with four heads is considered by the 
ancients to be an indication of his being the di- 
vinity presiding over the year with its four 
seasons. 

Quadrigarius, Q. Claudius, a Roman his- 
torian who flourished B.C. 100-7S. His work, 
which contained at least twenty-three books, 
commenced immediately after the destruction 
of Rome by the Gauls, and must in all proba- 
bility have come down to the death of Sulla, 
since the seventh consulship of Marius was 
commemorated in the nineteenth book. By 
Livy he is uniformly referred to simply as Clau- 
dius or Clodius. By other authors he is cited 
as Quintius, as Claudius, as Q. Claudius, as 
Claudius Quadrigarius, or as Quadrigarius. 
From the caution evinced by Livy in making 
use of him as an authority, especially in mat- 
ters relating to numbers, it would appear that 
he was disposed to indulge, although in a less 
degree, in those exaggerations which disfigured 
the productions of his contemporary Valerius 
Antias. It is somewhat remarkable that he is 
nowhere noticed by Cicero. By A. Gellius, on 
the other hand, he is quoted repeatedly, and 
praised In the warmest terms. 

Quariates, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, 
on the western slope of the Alpes Cottiae, in the 
valley of Queiras. 

Quies, the personification of tranquillity, was 
worshipped as a divinity by the Romans. She 
had one sanctuary on the Via Lavicana, proba- 
bly a pleasant resting-place for the weary trav- 
eller, and another outside the Porta Collina. 

Quietus, Q.Lusius. 1. An independent Moor- 
ish chief, served with distinction under Trajan 
both in the Dacian and Parthian wars. Trajan 
made him governor of Judaea, and raised him to 
the consulship in A.D. 116 or 1 17. After Trajan's 
death he returned to his native country, but he 
was suspected by Hadrian of fomenting the dis- 
turbances which then prevailed in Mauretania, 
and was shortly afterward put to death by order 
of Hadrian. — [2. C. Fulvius, included in the 
list of the thirty tyrants enumerated by Trebel- 
lius Pollio, was one of the two sons of that Ma- 
rianus who assumed the purple after the cap- 
ture of Valerian. Having charge of the east- 
ern provinces, when he heard of the defeat and 
death of his father and brother, he took refuge 
in Emesa, where he was besieged, captured, and 
slain by Odenathus in A.D. 262.] 

Quinitilius Varus. Vid. Varus. 

QuintIa, or Quinctia Gens, an ancient patri- 
cian gens at Rome, was one of the Alban houses 
removed to Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and en- 
rolled by him among the patricians. Its mem- 
bers often held, throughout the whole history of 
the republic, the highest offices of the state. 
Its three most distinguished families bore the 
names of Capitolinus, Cincinnatus, and Flamini- 
nus. 

[QuitiTiANus Afranius, a senator of disso- 
lute life, had been ridiculed by Nero in a poem, 
and in revenge took part in Piso's conspiracy 
against that emperor. On the detection of the 
conspiracy, he had to put an end to his life.] 



Quintilianus, M. Fabius, the.most celebrated 
of Roman rhetoricians, was born at Calagurris 
(now Calahorra), in Spain, A.D. 40. If not reared 
at Rome, he must, at least, have completed his 
education there, for he himself informs us that, 
while yet a very young man, he attended the 
lectures of Domitius Afer, who died in 59. Hav- 
ing revisited Spain, he returned from thence 
(68) in the train of Galba, and forthwith began 
to practice at the bar, where he acquired con- 
siderable reputation. But he was chiefly dis- 
tinguished as a teacher of eloquence, bearing 
away the palm in this department from all his 
rivals, and associating his name, even to a prov- 
erb, with pre-eminence in the art. Among his 
pupils were numbered Pliny the younger and the 
two grand-nephews of Domitian. By this prince 
he was invested with the insignia and title of 
consul {consularia ornamcnta), and is, moreover, 
celebrated as the first public instructor who, in 
virtue of the endowment by Vespasian, received 
a regular salary from the imperial exchequer. 
After having devoted twenty years, commenc- 
ing probably with 69, to the duties of his pro- 
fession, he retired into private life, and is sup- 
posed to have died about 118. The great work 
of Quintilian is a complete system of rhetoric 
in twelve books, entitled Be Institutiona'Orato- 
ria Lihri XII., or sometimes Institutiones Ora- 
torio, dedicated to his friend Marcellus Victo- 
rius, himself a celebrated orator, and a favorite 
at court. It was written during the reign of 
Domitian, while the author was discharging his 
duties as preceptor to the sons of the emperor's 
niece. In a short preface to his bookseller Try- 
pho, he acquaints us that he commenced this 
undertaking after he had retired from his labors 
as a public instructor (probably in 89), and that 
he finished his task in little more than two years. 
The first book contains a dissertation on the 
preliminary training requisite before a youth 
can enter directly upon the studies necessary 
to mould an accomplished orator, and presents 
us with a carefully- sketched outline of the meth- 
od to be pursued in educating children, from 
the time they leave the cradle until they pass 
from the hands of the grammarian. In the sec- 
ond book we find an exposition of the first prin- 
ciples of rhetoric, together with an investiga- 
tion into the nature or essence of the art. The 
five following are devoted to invention and 
arrangement (inventio, dispositio) ; the eighth, 
ninth, tenth, and eleventh, to composition (in- 
cluding the proper use of the figures of speech) 
and delivery, comprised under the general term 
elocutio ; and the last is occupied with what the 
author considers by far the most important por- 
tion of his project, an inquiry, namely, into va- 
rious circumstances not included in a course of 
scholastic discipline, but essential to the forma 
tion of a perfect public speaker, such as his 
manners ; his moral character ; the principles 
by which he must be guided in undertaking, in 
preparing, and in conducting causes ; the pe- 
culiar style of eloquence which he may adopt 
with greatest advantage ; the collateral studies 
to be pursued ; the age at which it is most suit- 
able to commence pleading ; the necessity of 
retiring before the powers begin to fail ; and 
various other kindred topics. This production 
bears throughout the impress of a clear, sound 

73S 



QUINriLLUS, M. AURELIUS'. 

judgment, keen discrimination, and pure taste, 
improved by extensive reading, deep reflection, 
and long practice. The diction is highly polish- 
ed and J 3ry graceful. The sections which pos- 
sess the greatest interest for general readers are 
those chapters in the first book which relate to 
elementary education, and the commencement 
of the tenth book, which furnishes us with a 
compressed but spirited history of Greek and 
Roman literature. There are also extant one 
hundred and sixty-four declamations under the 
name of Quintilian, nineteen of considerable 
length; the remaining one hundred and forty- 
five, which form the concluding portion only 
of a collection which originally extended to 
three hundred and eighty-eight pieces, are mere 
skeletons or fragments. No one believes these 
to be the genuine productions of Quintilian, and 
few sup-pose that they proceeded from any one 
individual. They apparently belong not only to 
different persons, but to different periods, and 
neither in style nor in substance do they offer 
any thing which is either attractive or useful. 
Some scholars suppose that the anonymous Di- 
alogus de Oratoribus, usually printed among the 
works of Tacitus, ought to be assigned to Quin- 
tilian. The best editions of Quintilian are by 
Burmann, 2 vols. 4to, Lug. Bat., 1720 ; by Ges- 
ner, 4to, Gott.,1738 ; and by Spalding and Zumpt, 
6 vols. 8vo, Lips., 1798-1829. 

Quintillus, M. Aurelius, the brother of the 
Emperor M. Aurelius Claudius, was elevated to 
the throne by the troops whom he commanded 
at Aquileia in A.D. 270. But as the army at 
Sirmium, where Claudius died, had proclaimed 
Aurelian emperor, Quintillus put an end to his 
own life, seeing himself deserted by his own 
soldiers, to whom the rigor of his discipline had 
given offence. 

T. Quintius Capitolinus Barbatus, a cele- 
brated general in the early history of the repub- 
lic, and equally distinguished in the internal 
history of the state. He frequently acted as 
mediator between the patricians and plebeians, 
with both of whom he was held in the highest 
esteem. He was six times consul, namely, in 
B.C. 471, 468, 465, 446, 443, 439. Several of 
his descendants held the consulship, but none 
of these require mention except T. Quintius 
Pennus Capitolinus Crispinus, who was con- 
sul 208, and was defeated by Hannibal. 

Quintus, an eminent physician at Rome in 
the former half of the second century after 
Jhrist. He was so much superior to his med- 
ial colleagues that they grew jealous of his 
eminence, and formed a sort of coalition against 
aim, and forced him to quit the city by charg- 
ing him with killing his patients. He died about 
A.D. 148. 

Quintus Curtius. Vid. Curtius. 

Quintus Smyrn^eus (KdtvTOf ~S,fivpvalog), com- 
monly called Quintus Calaber, from the cir- 
cumstance that the first copy through which his 
poem became known was found in a convent at 
Otranto in Calabria. He was the author of an 
epic poem in fourteen books, entitled to. fied' 
"O/iripov, or irapa'keindfieva 'Ojii/po. Scarcely any 
thing is known of his personal history ; but it 
appears most probable that he lived toward the 
end of the fourth century after Christ. The 
matters treated of in his poem are the events 
734 



RABATHMOBA. 

of the Trojan war from the death of Hector to 
the return of the Greeks. In phraseology, sim- 
iles, and other technicalities, Quintus closely 
copied Homer. The materials for his poem he 
found in the works of the earlier poets of the 
epic cycle. But not a single poetical idea of 
his own seems ever to have inspired him. His 
gods and heroes are alike devoid of all charac- 
ter ; every thing like pathos or moral interest 
was quite beyond his powers. With respect to 
chronology, his poem is as punctual as a diary. 
His style, however, is clear, and marked on the 
whole by purity and good taste, without any 
bombast or exaggeration. There can be little 
doubt that his work is nothing more than an am- 
plification or remodelling of the poems of Arc- 
tinus and Lesches. He appears to have also 
made diligent use of Apollonius. The best edi- 
tion is by Tychsen, Strasburg, 1807 : [it is also 
contained in the Poets Epici Graci Minores, in 
Didot's Bibliotheca Grseca, Paris, 1840.] 

Quirinalis Mons. Vid. Roma. 

Quirinus, a Sabine word, perhaps derived 
from quiris, a lance or spear, ^t occurs first 
of all as the name of Romulus, after he had 
been raised to the rank of a divinity ; and the 
festival celebrated in his honor bore the name 
of Quirinalia. It is also used as a surname of 
Mars, Janus, and even of Augustus. 

Quirinus, P. Sulpicius, was a native of Lanu 
vium, and of obscure origin, but was raised to 
the highest honors by Augustus. He was con- 
sul B.C. 12, and subsequently carried on war 
against some of the robber tribes dwelling in 
the mountains of Cilicia. In B.C. 1, Augus- 
tus appointed him to direct the counsels of his 
grandson C. Caesar, then in Armenia. Some 
years afterward, but not before A.D. 5, he was 
appointed governor of Syria, and while in this- 
office he took a census of the Jewish people. 
This is the statement of Josephus, and appears 
to be at variance with that of Luke, who speaks 
as if the census or enrollment of Cyrenius (i. c, 
Quirinus) was made at the time of the birth of 
Christ. Quirinus had been married to .-Emilia 
Lepida, whom he divorced ; but in A.D. 20, 
twenty years after the divorce, he brought an 
accusation against her. The conduct of Quiri- 
nus met with general disapprobation as harsh 
and revengeful. He died in A.D. 21, and was 
honored with a public funeral. 

Quiza (Kovl^a : now Giza, near Oran), a mil- 
nicipium on the coast of Mauretania Caesarien 
sis, in Northern Africa, forty Roman miles west 
of Arsenaria. 

R. 

Raamses or Rameses (LXX. 'PafiEoaTj), a city 
of Lower Egypt, built as a treasure city by the 
captive Israelites under the oppression of the 
Pharaoh " who knew not Joseph" (Exod., i., 
11), and usually identified with Heroopolis. 

Rabathmoba ('Pa6n8p.66a, i.e., Rabbath-Moab 
in the Old Testament ; also called Rabbah, Ar, 
Ar.-Moab, and afterward Areopolis : now Rab- 
bah), the ancient capital of the Moabites, lay in 
a fertile plain on the eastern side of the Dead 
Sea, and south of the River Arnon, in the dis- 
trict of Moabitis in Arabia Petrsea, or, accord, i 
ing to the latter division of the provinces, in j 
Palaestina Tertia. 



II 



RABBATAMANA. 

A, ■■ '•■ . , • 

Rabratamana ('Pa6a.Tafiava, i. e., Rabbath- 
Ammou in the Old Testament ; ruins at Am- 
nion), the ancient capital of the Ammonites, lay 
in Peraea, on a southern tributary of the Jabbok, 
northeast of the Dead Sea. Ptolemy II. Phil- 
adelphus gave it the name of Philadelphia, and 
it long continued a flourishing and splendid city. 

Rabirius. 1. C, an aged senator, was ac- 
cused in B.C. 63, by T. Labienus, tribune of the 
plebs, of having put to death the tribune L.Ap- 
puleius Saturninus in 100, nearly forty years 
before. Vid. Saturninus. The accusation was 
set on foot at the instigation of Caesar, who 
judged it necessary to deter the senate from 
resorting to arms against the popular party. 
I To make the warning still more striking, La- 
bienus did not proceed against him on the charge 
of majestas, but revived the old accusation of 
perduellio, which had been discontinued for some 
centuries, since persons found guilty of the lat- 
ter crime were given over to the public execu- 
tioner and hanged on the accursed tree. The 
Duumviri Perduellionis appointed to try Rabiri- 
us were C. Cassar himself and his relative L. 
Caesar. With such judges the result could not 
be doubtful; Rabirius was forthwith condemiaed; 
and the sentence of death would have been car- 
| ried into effect, had he not availed himself of 
his right of appeal to the people in the comitia 
of the centuries. The case excited the great- 
est interest, since it was not simply the life or 
death of Rabirius, but the power and author- 
ity of the senate, which were at stake. Rabir- 
ius was defended by Cicero ; but the eloquence 
of his advocate was of no avail, and the people 
j would have ratified the decision of the duum- 
virs, had not the meeting been broken up by 
the praetor Q. Metellus Celer, who removed 
the military flag which floated on the Janicu- 
lum. This was in accordance with an ancient 
custom, which was intended to prevent the 
Campus Martius from being surprised by an en- 
emy when the territory of Rome scarcely ex- 
tended beyond the boundaries of the city. — 2. 
C. Rabirius Postumus, was the son of the sis- 
ter of the preceding. He was born after the 
death of his father, whence his surname Pos- 
tumus; and he was adopted by his uncle, whence 
his name C. Rabirius. He had lent large sums 
of money to Ptolemy Auletes ; and after the res- 
toration of Ptolemy to his kingdom by means of 
Gabinius in B.C. 55, Rabirius repaired to Alex- 
andra, and was invested by the king with the 
office of Diozcetes, or chief treasurer. In this 
office he had to amass money both for himself 
and for Gabinius ; but his extortions were so 
terrible that Ptolemy had him apprehended, ei- 
ther to secure him against the wrath of the 
people, or to satisfy their indignation, lest they 
should drive him again from his kingdom. Ra- 
birius escaped from prison, probably through the 
connivance of the king, and returned to Rome. 
Here a trial awaited him. Gabinius had been 
sentenced to pay a heavy fine on account of his 
extortions in Egypt ; and as he was unable to 
pay this fine, a suit was instituted against Ra- 
birius, who was liable to make up the deficien- 
cy if it could be proved that he had received 
any of the money of which Gabinius had ille- 
gally become possessed. Rabirius was defend- 
ed by Cicero, and was probably condemned. He 



RAURACI. 

is mentioned at a later time (46) as serving 
under Caesar, who sent him from Africa into 
Sicily, in order to obtain provisions for his army. 
— 3. A Roman poet, who lived in the last years 
of the republic, and wrote a poem on the Civil 
Wars. A portion of this poem was found at 
Herculaneum, and was edited by Kreyssig, un- 
der the title " Carminis Latini de bello Actia- 
co s. Alexandrino fragmenta," 4to, Schneeberg, 
1814. 

Racilius, L., tribune of the plebs B.C. 56, 
and a warm friend of Cicero and of Lentulus 
Spinther. In the civil war Racilius espoused 
Caesar's party, and was with his army in Spain 
in 48. There he entered into the conspiracy 
formed against the life of Q. Cassius Longinus, 
the governor of that province, and was put to 
death, with the other conspirators, by Longinus. 

Radagaisus, a Scythian, invaded Italy at the 
head of a formidable host of barbarians in the 
reign of the Emperor Honorius. He was de- 
feated by Stilicho, near Florence, in A.D. 408, 
and was put to death after the battle, although 
he had capitulated on condition that his life 
should be saved. 

[R^ti (more correct than Rhaeti). Vid. 
Rh^etia.] 

Rama or Arimath^ea ( 'Paua, 'Apiuadaia : 
now Er-Ram), a town of Judaea, north of Jeru- 
salem, in the mountains of Ephraim, frequently 
mentioned both in the Old and New Testament. 

Rambacia (JPa[i6aii'ui), the chief city of the 
Oritae, on the coast of Gedrosia, colonized by 
Alexander the Great. 

Ramitha. Vid. Laodicea, No. 3. 
Ramses, the name of many kings of Egypt of 
the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth dy- 
nasties. It was during this era that most of 
the great monuments of Egypt were erected, 
and the name is consequently of frequent occur- 
rence on these monuments, where it appears 
under the form of Ramessu. In Julius Africa-- 
nus and Eusebius it is written Ramses, Rame- 
ses, or Ramesses. The most celebrated of the 
kings of this name is, however, usuallycalled Se- 
sostris by the Greek writers. Vid. Sesostris. 

Raphana or Raphane^e {'Pafyaviai : ruins at 
Rafaniat), a city of Syria, in the district of Cas- 
siotis, at the northern extremity of Lebanon. 

Raphia or Raphea ('Paipta, 'Pdfeta : now Re- 
pita), a sea-port town in the extreme southwest 
of Palestine, beyond Gaza, on the edge of the 
desert. Having been destroyed in some man- 
ner unknown to us, it was restored by Gabini- 
us. — [At this place Ptolemy Philopator gained 
a decisive victory over Antiochus the Great. 
Vid. Ptolemy.] 

[Rapo, a Rutilian warrior in the army of 
Turnus, slew Parthenius ] 
Rasena:. Vid. Etruria. 
Ratiaria (now Arzer Palanka), an important 
town in Mcesia Superior, on the Danube, the 
head-quarters of a Roman legion, and the sta- 
tion of one of the Roman fleets on the Danube. 

Ratomagus or RotomIgus (now Rouen), the 
chief town of the Vellocasses in Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis. 

Raudii Campi. Vid. Campi Raudii. 

Rauraci, a people in Gallia Belgica, bounded 
on the south by the Helvetii, on the west by 
the Sequani, on the north by the Tribocci, and 

735 



RAURANUM. 



REGILLUS LACUS. 



on the east by the Rhine. They must have 
been a people of considerable importance', as 
twenty-three thousand of them are said to have 
emigrated with the Helvetii in B.C. 58, and they 
possessed several towns, of which the most im- 
portant were Augusta (now Augst) and Basilia 
(now Basle or Bale). 

Rauranum (now Romox Raum, near Chenay), 
a town of the Pictones in Gallia Aquitanica, 
south of Limonum. 

Rausium or Rausia (now Ragusa), a town on 
the coast of Dalmatia, is not mentioned till a 
late period, and only rose into importance after 
the destruction of Epidaurus. 

Ravenna (Ravennas, -atis : now Ravenna), 
an important town in Gallia Cisalpina, on the 
River Bedesis, and about a mile from the sea, 
though it is now about five miles in the interior, 
in consequence of the sea having receded all 
along this coast. Ravenna was situated in the 
midst of marshes, and was only accessible in 
one direction by land, probably by the road lead- 
ing from Ariminum. The town laid claim to a 
high antiquity. It was said to have been found- 
ed by Thessalians (Pelasgians), and afterward 
to have passed into the hands of the Umbrians, 
but it long remained an insignificant place, and 
its greatness does not begin till the time of the 
empire, when Augustus made it one of the two 
chief stations of the Roman fleet. This em- 
peror not only enlarged the town, but caused a 
large harbor to be constructed on the coast, 
capable of containing two hundred and forty 
triremes, and he connected this harbor with the 
Po by means of a canal called Padusa or Au- 
gusta Fossa. This harbor was called Classes, 
and between it and Ravenna a new town sprung 
up, to which the name of Casarea was given. 
All three were subsequently formed into one 
town, and were surrounded by strong fortifica- 
tions. Ravenna thus suddenly became one of 
the most important places in the north of Italy. 
The town itself, however, was mean in appear- 
ance. In consequence of the marshy nature of 
the soil, most of the houses were built of wood, 
and since an arm of the canal was carried 
through some of the principal streets, the com- 
munication was carried on to a great extent by 
gondolas, as in modern Venice. The town, also, 
was very deficient in a supply of good drinking- 
water ; but it was not considered unhealthy, 
since the canals drained the marshes to a great 
extent, and the ebb and flow of the tide pre- 
vented the waters from stagnating. In the 
neighborhood good wine was grown, notwith- 
standing the marshy nature of the soil. When 
the Roman empire was threatened by the bar- 
barians, the emperors of the West took up their 
residence at Ravenna, which, on account of its 
situation and its fortifications, was regarded as 
impregnable. After the downfall of the West- 
ern empire, Theodoric also made it the capital 
of his kingdom ; and after the overthrow of the 
Gothic dominion by Narses, it became the resi- 
dence of the exarchs or the governors of the 
Byzantine empire in Italy till the Lombards 
took the town, A.D. 752. The modern Ravenna 
stands on the site of the ancient town ; the 
village Porto di Fuori on the site of Caesarea ; 
and the ancient harbor is called Porto Vecchio 
del Caudiano. 

736 



Reate ( Reatlnus : now Rieti ), an ancient 
town of the Sabines in Central Italy, said to 
have been founded by the Aborigines or Pelas- 
gians, was situated on the Lacus Velinus and 
the Via Salaria. It. v/as the chief place of as- 
sembly for the Sabines, and was subsequently 
a praefectura or a municipium. The valley in 
which Reate was situated was so beautiful that 
it received the name of Tempe ; and in its 
neighborhood is the celebrated waterfall, whicli 
is now known under the name of the fall of 
Terni or the Cascade delle Marmorc. This 
waterfall owed its origin to a canal constructed 
by M'. Curius Dentatus, in order to carry off 
the superfluous waters from the Lake Velinus 
into the River Nar. It falls into this river from 
a height of one hundred and forty feet. By this 
undertaking, the Reatini gained a large quan- 
tity of land, which was called Rosea Rura. 
Reate was celebrated for its mules and asses. 

Rebilus, C. Caninius, one of Caesar's legates 
in Gaul and in the civil war. On the last day 
of December in B.C. 45, on the sudden death 
of the consul Q. Fabius Maximus, Caesar made 
Rebilus consul for the few remaining hours of 
the day. 

Rediculus, a Roman divinity, who had a tern 
pie near the Porta Capena, and who was believ^ 
ed to have received his name from having in- 
duced Hannibal, when he was near the gates of 
the city, to return (redire) southward. A place 
on the Appian road, near the second mile-stone 
from the city, was called Campus Rediculi. 
This divinity was probably one of the Lares of 
the city of Rome. 

Redones, a people in the interior of Gallia 
Lugdunensis, whose chief town was Condate 
(now Rennes). 

Redux, i. e., " the divinity who leads the trav- 
eller back to his home in safety," occurs as a 
surname of Fortuna. 

Regalianus, Regallianus, or Regillianus, 
a Dacian, who served with distinction under the 
emperors Claudius and Valerian. The Mce- 
sians, terrified by the cruelties inflicted by Gal- 
lienus on those who had taken part in the re- 
bellion of Ingenuus, suddenly proclaimedRegali- 
anus emperor, and quickly, with the consent of 
the soldiers, in a new fit of alarm, put him te 
death, A.D. 263. Hence he is enumerated among 
the thirty tyrants. 

Regiana (now Villa dc Rayna), a town in His- 
pania Baetica, on the road from Hispalis to 
Emerita. 

Regillum, a small place in the Sabine terri- 
tory, from which Appius Claudius migrated tc 
Rome. Its site is uncertain, as it disappeared 
at an early period. 

Regillus, ^Emilius. 1. M., had been declar- 
ed consul, with T. Otacilius, for B.C. 214, by 
the centuria prajrogativa, and would have been 
elected had not Q. Fabius Maximus, who pre- 
sided at the comitia, pointed out that there was 
need of generals of more experience to cope 
with Hannibal. Regillus died in 205, at which 
time he is spoken of as Flamen Martialis. — 2. 
L., son of the preceding, was praetor 190, when 
he received the command of the fleet in the war 
against Antiochus. 

Reqiixus Lacus, a lake in Latium, memo- 
rable for the victory gained on its banks by the 



REGINUM. 



REGULUS. 



Romans over the Latins, B.C. 498. It was east 
of Rome, in the territory of Tusculum, and be- 
tween Lavicum and Gabii ; but it can not be 
identified with certainty with any modern lake. 
It perhaps occupied the site of the valley of 
Isidoro, which is now dry. 

Rbginum or Castra Regina (now Regens- 
burg), a Roman fortress in Vindelicia, on the 
Danube, and on the road leading to Vindobona, 
was the head quarters of a Roman legion. 

Regium Fi.umen\ Vid. Naarmalcha. 

Regium Lepidi, Regium Lepidum, or simply 
Regium, also Forum Lepidi (Regienses a Le- 
pido : now Rcggio), a town of the Boii in Gallia 
Cisalpina, between Mutina and Tarentum, which 
was probably made a colony by the consul M-. 
iEmilius Lepidus, when he constructed the 
^Emilia Via through Cisalpine Gaul, though we 
have no record of the foundation of the colony. 

Regulus, M. Aquilius, was one of the dela- 
tores or informers in the time of Nero, and thus 
rose from poverty to great wealth. Under Do- 
mitian he resumed his old trade, and became 
one of the instruments of that tyrant's cruelty. 
He survived Domitian, and is frequently spoken 
of by Pliny with the greatest detestation and 
contempt. Martial, on the contrary, who flat- 
tered all the creatures of Domitian, celebrates 
the virtues, the wisdom, and the eloquence of 
Regulus. 

Regulus, AtilTus. 1. M , consul B.C. 335, 
carried on war against the Sidicini. — 2. M., con- 
sul 294, carried on war against the Samnites. — 
3. M., consul 267, conquered the Sallentini, took 
the town of Brundisium, and obtained, in con- 
sequence, the honor of a triumph. In 256 he 
was consul a second time with L. Manlius Vulso 
Longus. The two consuls defeated the Cartha- 
ginian fleet, and afterward landed in Africa with 
a large force. They met with great and strik- 
ing success ; and after Manlius returned to 
Rome with half of the army, Regulus remained 
in Africa with the other half, and prosecuted 
the war with the utmost vigor. The Cartha- 
ginian generals Hasdrubal, Bostar, and Hamil- 
car avoided the plains, where their cavalry and 
elephants would have given them an advantage 
over the Roman army, and withdrew into the 
mountains. There they were attacked by Reg- 
ulus, and defeated with great loss ; fifteen thou- 
sand men are said to have been killed in battle, 
and five thousand men, with eighteen elephants, 
to have been taken. The Carthaginian troops 
retired within the walls of the city, and Regu- 
lus now overran the country without opposition. 
Numerous towns fell into the power of the Ro- 
mans, and among others Tunis, at the distance 
of only twenty miles from the capital. The 
Carthaginians, in despair, sent a herald to Reg- 
ulus to solicit peace. But the Roman general 
•would only grant it on such intolerable terms 
that the Carthaginians resolved to continue the 
war and hold out to the last. In the midst of 
their distress and alarm, success came to them 
from an unexpected quarter. Among the Greek 
mercenaries who had lately arrived at Carthage 
was a Lacedaemonian of the name of Xanthip- 
pus. He pointed out to the Carthaginians that 
their defeat was owing to the incompetency of 
their generals, and not to the superiority of the 
Roman arms ; and he inspired such confidence 
47 



in the people that he was forthwith placed at 
the head of their troops. Relying on his four 
thousand cavalry and one hundred elephants, 
Xanthippus boldly marched into the open coun- 
try to meet the enemy. In the battle which en- 
sued, Regulus was totally defeated ; thirty thou- 
sand of his men were slain ; scarcely two thou- 
sand escaped to Clypea ; and Regulus himself 
was taken prisoner, with five hundred more 
(B.C. 255). Regulus remained in captivity foi 
the next five years, till 250, when the Cartha- 
ginians, after their defeat by the proconsul Me- 
tellus, sent an embassy to Rome to solicit peace, 
or at least an exchange of prisoners. They al- 
lowed Regulus to accompany the ambassadors 
on the promise that he would return to Carthage 
if their proposals were declined, thinking that he 
would persuade his countrymen to agree to an 
exchange of prisoners in order to obtain his own 
liberty. This embassy of Regulus is one of the 
most celebrated stories in Roman history. The 
orators and poets related how Regulus at first 
refused to enter the city as a slave of the Car- 
thaginians ; how afterward he would not give 
his opinion in the senate, as he had ceased by 
his captivity to be a member of that illustrious 
body ; how, at length, when he was allowed by 
the Romans to speak, he endeavored to dissuade 
the senate from assenting to a peace, or even 
to an exchange of prisoners ; and when he saw 
them wavering, from their desire of redeeming 
him from captivity, how he told them that the 
Carthaginians had given him a slow poison, 
which would soon terminate his life ; and how, 
finally, when the senate, through his influence, 
refused the offers of the Carthaginians, he 
firmly resisted all the persuasions of his friends 
to remain in Rome, and returned to Carthage, 
where a martyr's death awaited him. On his 
arrival at Carthage he is said to have been put 
to death with the most excruciating tortures. 
It was related that he was placed in a chest 
covered over in the inside with iron nails, and 
thus perished ; and other writers stated, in ad- 
dition, that after his eyelids had been cut off, 
he was first thrown into a dark dungeon, and 
then suddenly exposed to the full rays of a 
burning sun. When the news of the barbarous 
death of Regulus reached Rome, the senate is 
said to have given Hamilcar and Bostar, two 
of the noblest Carthaginian prisoners, to the 
family of Regulus, who revenged themselves 
by putting them to death with cruel torments. 
This celebrated tale, however, has not been al- 
lowed to pass without question in modern times. 
Many writers supposed that it was invented in 
order to excuse the cruelties perpetrated by the 
family of Regulus on the Carthaginian prison- 
ers committed to their custody. Regulus was 
one of the favorite characters of early Roman 
story. Not only was he celebrated on account 
of his heroism in giving the senate advice which 
secured him a martyr's death, but also on ac- 
count of his frugality and simplicity of life. 
Like Fabricius and Curius, he lived on his he- 
reditary farm, which he cultivated with his own 
hands; and subsequent ages loved to tell how 
he petitioned the senate for his recall from 
Africa when he was in the full career of vic- 
tory, as his farm was going to ruin in his ab- 
sence, and his family was suffering from want 

737 



REII APOLLINARES. 



RH^ETIA. 



— 4. C, surnamed Serkanus, consul 257, when 
he defeated the Carthaginian fleet off the Li- 
paraean islands, and obtained possession of the 
islands of Lipara and Melite. He was consul 
a second time in 250 with L. Manlius Vulso. 
The two consuls undertook the siege of Lily- 
baeum ; but they were foiled in their attempts 
to carry the place by storm, and after losing a 
great number of men, were obliged to turn the 
siege into a blockade. This Regulus is the first 
Atilius who bears the surname Serranus, which 
afterward became the name of a distinct family 
in the gens. The origin of this name is spoken 
of under Serranus. — 5. M., son of No. 3, was 
consul 227, and again 217, in the latter of which 
years he was elected to supply the place of C. 
Flaminius, who had fallen in the battle of the 
Trasimene Lake. He was censor in 214. — 6. 
C, consul 225, conquered the Sardinians, who 
had revolted. On his return to Italy he fought 
against the Gauls, and fell in the battle. 

Rf.ii Apollinares (now Riez), a Roman col- 
ony in Gallia Narbonensis, with the surname 
Julia Augusta, east of the River Druentia, north 
of Forum Voconii, and northwest of Forum 
Julii. 

Remesiana otRomesiana (now Mustapha Pa- 
lakka), a town in Moesia Superior, between Nai- 
sus and Serdica. 

Remi or Rhemi, one of the most powerful 
people in Gallia Belgica, inhabited the country 
through which the Axona flowed, and were 
bounded on the south by the Nervii, on the 
southeast by the Veromandui, on the east by 
the Suessiones and Bellovaci, and on the west 
by the Nervii. They formed an alliance with 
Caesar when the rest of the Belgae made war 
against him, B.C. 57. Their chief town was 
Durocortorum, afterward called Remi (now 
Rheims). 

RemmTus Pal^emon. Vid. Pal^emon. 

Remus. Vid. Romulus. 

[Repentinus, Calpurnius, a centurion in the 
army in Germany, was put to death on account 
of his fidelity to the Emperor Galba, A.D. 69.] 

Resaina, Res^ena, Resina ('Peoaiva, 'Peoiva : 
now Ras-el- A in), a city of Mesopotamia, near 
the sources of the Chaboras, on the road from 
Carrae to Nisibis. After its restoration and for- 
tification by Theodosius, it was called Theodo- 
siopolis (BeodoGtovTro%cg). Whether it is the 
same as the Resen of the Old Testament (Gen., 
X., 12) seems very doubtful. 

Restio, Antius. 1. The author of a sump- 
tuary law of uncertain date, but passed after 
the sumptuary law of the consul jEmilius Le- 
pidus, B.C. 73, and before the one of Caesar. — 
2. Probably a son of the preceding, proscribed 
by the triumvirs in 43, but preserved by the 
fidelity of a slave. 

[Retina (now Resina, east of Portici), a vil- 
lage on the coast of Campania, not far from 
Promontorium Misenum.] 

[Retovium (now Retorbio), a place in the in- 
terior of Liguria.] 

Reudigni, a people in the north of Germany, 
on the right bank of the Albis, north of the 
Langobardi. 

Rex, Marcius. 1. Q., praetor B.C. 144, built 
the aqueduct called Aqua Marcia, which was 
one of the most important at Rome. Vid. Roma, 
73S 



XIV., p. 753.-2 Q., consul 118, founded in this 
year the colony of Narbo Martius in Gaul, and 
carried on war against the Stceni, a Ligurian 
people at the foot of the Alps. — 3. Q , consul 
68, and proconsul in Cilicia in the following 
year. On his return to Rome in 66 he sued for 
a triumph, but as obstacles were thrown in the 
way by certain parties, he remained outside the 
city to prosecute his claims, and was still there 
when the Catilinarian conspiracy broke out in 
63. The senate sent him to Faesulae to watch 
the movements of C. Mallius or Manlius, Cati- 
line's general. [Manlius sent proposals of peace 
to Marcius, but the latter refused to listen to his 
terms unless he consented to lay down his arms. 
Marcius Rex married the eldest sister of Clo- 
dius. He died before B.C. 61, without leaving 
his brother-in-law the inheritance he had ex- 
pected.] 

Rha ('Pa : now Volga), a great river of Asia, 
first mentioned by Ptolemy, who describes it as 
rising in the north of Sarmatia, in two branches, 
Rha Occidentalis and Rha Orientalis (now the 
Volga and the Kama), after the junction of 
which it flowed southwest, forming the bound- 
ary between Sarmatia Asiatica and Scythia, till 
near the Tana'fs (now Bon), where it suddenly 
turns to the southeast, and falls into the north- 
western part of the Caspian. 

Rhadamanthus ('Padd/iavdoc), son of Jupiter 
(Zeus) and Europa, and brother of King Minos 
of Crete. From fear of his brother he fled to 
Ocalea in Bceotia, and there married Alcmene. 
In consequence of his justice through'out life, 
he became, after his death, one of the judges 
in the lower world. 

Rhaetia, a Roman province south of the 
Danube, was originally distinct from Vindelicia, 
and was bounded on the west by the Helvetii, 
on the east by Noricum, on the north by Vin- 
delicia, and on the south by Cisalpine Gaul, thus 
corresponding to the Grisons in Switzerland, 
and to the greater part of the Tyrol. Toward 
the end of the first century, however, Vindelicia 
was added to the province of Rhaetia, whence 
Tacitus speaks of Augusta Vindelicorum aa 
situated in Rhaetia. At a later time Rhaetie 
was subdivided into two provinces, Rhatia Pri- 
ma and Rhatia Secunda, the former of which an 
swered to the old province of Rhaetia, and the 
latter to that of Vindelicia. The boundaries 
between the two provinces are not accurately 
defined, but it may be stated in general that 
they were separated from each other by the 
Brigantinus Lacus (now Lake of Constance) and 
the River CEnus (now Inn). Vindelicia is 
spoken of in a separate article. Vid. Vindeli- 
cia. Rhaetia was a very mountainous country, 
since the main chain of the Alps ran through 
the greater part of the province. These mount- 
ains were called Alpes Rhaeticae, and extended 
from the Saint Gothard to the Ortcler by the 
pass by the Slelvio ; and in them rose the 
CEnus (now Inn) and most of the chief rivers 
in the north of Italy, such as the Athesis (now 
Adigc), and the Addua (now Adda). The val- 
leys produced corn and excellent wine, the lattei 
of which was much esteemed in Italy. Augus- 
tus drank Rhaetian wine in preference to all 
others. The original inhabitants of the country, 
the RhjEti, are said by most ancient writers to 



RHACOTIS. 



RHEA. 



have been Tuscans, who were driven out of the 
north of Italy by the invasion of the Celts, and 
who took refuge in this mountainous district 
under a leader called Rhuetus. Many modern 
writers suppose the Rhajti and the Etruscans to 
have been the same people, only they invert the ' 
ancient tradition, and believe that the Rhseti 
descended from their original abodes on the 
Alps, and settled first in the north of Italy and 
next in the country afterward called Etruria. 
They support this view by the fact that the 
Etruscans were called in their own language 
Rasena, which seems merely another form of 
Rhasti, as well as by other arguments, into 
which it is unnecessary to enter in this place. 
It is impossible to arrive at any certain conclu- 
sion respecting the original population of the 
country. In the time of the Romans the coun- 
try was inhabited by various Celtic tribes. The 
Rhffiti are first mentioned by Polybius. They 
were a brave and warlike people, and caused 
the Romans much trouble by their marauding 
incursions into Gaul and the north of Italy. 
They were not subdued by the Romans till the 
reign of Augustus, and they offered a brave and 
desperate resistance against both Drusus and 
Tiberius, who finally conquered them. Rheetia 
was then formed into a Roman province, to 
which Vindelicia was afterward added, as has 
been already stated. The victories of Drusus 
and Tiberius were celebrated by Horace (Cam. 
iv., 14). The Rheeti were divided into several 
tribes, such as the Lepontii, Vennones, Tri- 
dentini, &c. The only town in Rhaetia of any 
importance was Tridentinum (npw Trent). 

[Rhacotis ('Pontine), a village of Lower 
Egypt, afterward included in the city Alexan- 
drea] 

.RhaojE ('Payai, 'Pdya, 'Payeid : 'Payqvoc : 
ruins at Rat, southeast of Tehran), the greatest 
city of Media, lay in the extreme north of Great 
Media, at the southern foot of the mountains 
(Caspius Mons) which border the southern 
shores of the Caspian Sea, and on the western 
side of the great pass through those mountains 
called the Caspiae Pylae. It was therefore the 
key of Media toward Parthia and Hyrcania. 
Having been destroyed by an earthquake, it was 
restored by Seleucus Nicator, and named Euro- 
pus (Qvpunoc). In the Parthian wars it was 
again destroyed, but it was rebuilt by Arsaces, 
and called Arsacia ('Apaaida). In the Middle 
Ages it was still a great city under its original 
name, slightly altered (Rai) ; and it was finally 
destroyed by the Tartars in the twelfth century. 
The surrounding district, which was a rugged 
volcanic region, subject to frequent earthquakes, 
was called 'Payiavr/. 

' Rhamnus ('Papvovc, -ovvtoc : 'Paftvovococ : 
now Obrio Kaslro), a demus in Attica, belonging 
to the tribe iEantis, which derived its name 
from the rhamnus, a kind of prickly shrub. 
('Pafivove is an adjective, a contraction of fiafi- 
vdeic, which comes from fiufivoc). Rhamnus 
was situated on a small rocky peninsula on the 
eastern coast of Attica, sixty stadia from Mar- 
athon. It possessed a celebrated temple of 
Nemesis, who is hence called by the Latin poets 
Rhamnus'i dea or virgo. In this temple there 
was a coiossal statue of the goddess made by 
Agoracritus, the disciple of Phidias. Another 



account, but less trustworthy, relates that fiie 
statue was the work of Phidias, and was made 
out of the block of Parian marble which the 
Persians brought with them for the purpose of 
setting up a trophy, when they were defeated 
' at Marathon. There are still remains of this 
temple, as well as of a smaller one to' the same 
goddess. 

[Ramphias (Ta^Mf), a Lacedemonian, father 
of Clearchu-3, was one of the three ambassadors 
who were sent to Athens in B.C. 432 with the 
final demand of Sparta for the independence of 
all the Greek states. The demand was refused, 
and the Peloponnesian war ensued. In B.C. 
422, Ramphias, with two colleagues, command- 
ed a force of nine hundred men, intended for 
the strengthening of Brasidas in Thrace; but 
their passage through Thessaly was opposed by 
the Thessalians, and, hearing also of the battle 
of Amphipolis and the death of Brasidas, they 
returned to Sparta.] 

Rhampsinitus ('Pappivnoc), one of the an- 
cient kings of Egypt, succeeded Proteus, and 
was succeeded by Cheops. This king is said 
to have possessed immense wealth ; and in or- 
der to keep it safe, he had a treasury built of 
stone, respecting the robbery of which Herodo- 
tus (ii., 121) relates a romantic story, which 
bears a great resemblance to the one told about 
the treasury built by the two brothers Agame- 
des andTrophonius of Orchomenus. Vid. Aga- 
medes. Rhampsinitus belongs to the twentieth 
dynasty, and is known in inscriptions by the 
name of Ramessu Neler-kek-pen. 

Rhapta (rd 'PanTu), the southernmost sea- 
port known to the ancients, the capital of the 
district of Barbaria or Azania, on the eastern 
coast of Africa. It stood on a river called 
Rhaptus (now Doara), and near a promontory 
called Rhaptdm (now Formosa), and the people 
of the district were called 'Putpioc Aidiowee. 

[Rhathines ('PadivTic), a Persian, was one of 
the commanders sent by Pharnabazus t<» aid the 
Bithynians in opposing the passage of the Cy- 
rean Greeks under Xenophon through Bithynia, 
B.C. 400. The satrap's forces were completely 
defeated. We hear again of Rhathines in B.C. 
396, as one of the commanders for Pharnabazus 
of a body of cavalry, which worsted that of 
Agesilaus in a skirmish near Dascylium.] 

Rhea {'Pea, Epic and Ion. 'Peta, 'Pein, or 'P6?), 
an ancient Greek goddess, appears to have been 
a goddess of the earth. She is represented as 
a daughter of Uranus (Coelus) and Ge (Terra), 
and the wife of Cronos (Saturn), by whom she 
became the mother of Hestia (Vesta), Demeter 
(Ceres), Hera (Juno), Hades (Pluto),, Poseidon 
(Neptune), and Zeus (Jupiter). Cronos devour- 
ed all his children by Rhea, but when, she was 
on the point of giving birth to Zeus (Jupiter), 
she went to Lyctus in Crete, by the adyice of 
her parents. When Zeus (Jupiter) was born, 
she gave to Cronos (Saturn) a stone wrapped 
up like an infant, which the god swallowed, sup- 
posing it to be his child. Crete was undoubt- 
edly the earliest seat of the worship of Rhea,, 
though many other parts of Greece laid claim 
to the honor of being the birth-place of Zeus 
(Jupiter). Rhea was afterward identified by the 
Greeks in Asia Minor with the great Asiatic 
goddess, known under the name of " the Great 

739 



RHEA SILVIA. 



RHENEA. 



Mother," or the "Mother of the Gods," and also 
bearing other names, such as Cybele, Agdistis, 
Dindymene, &c. Hence her worship became 
of a wild and enthusiastic character, and vari- 
ous Eastern rites were added to it, which soon 
spread throughout the whole of Greece. From 
the orgiastic nature of these rites, her worship 
became closely connected with that of Diony- 
sus (Bacchus). Under the name of Cybele her 
worship -was universal in Phrygia. Under the 
name of Agdistis, she was worshipped with 
great solemnity at Pessinus in Galatia, which 
town was regarded as the principal seat of her 
worship. Under different names we might trace 
the worship of Rhea even much further east, 
as far as the Euphrates and even Bactriana. 
She was, in fact, the great goddess of the East- 
ern world, and we find her worshipped there 
under a variety of forms and names. As re- 
gards the Romans, they had from the earliest 
times worshipped Jupiter and his mother Ops, 
the wife of Saturn. During the war with Han- 
nibal the Romans fetched the image of the 
Mother of the Gods from Pessinus ; but the 
worship then introduced was quite new- to them, 
and either maintained itself as distinct from the 
worship of Ops, or became united with it. A 
temple was built to her on the Palatine, and the 
Roman matrons honored her with the festival 
of the Megalesia. In all European countries 
Rhea was conceived to be accompanied by the 
Curetes, who are inseparably connected with 
the birth and bringing up of Jupiter (Zeus) in 
Crete, and in Phrygia by the Corybantes, Atys, 
and Agdistis. The Corybantes were her en- 
thusiastic priests, who with drums, cymbals, 
horns, and in full armor, performed their orgi- 
astic dances in the forests and on the mount- 
ains of Phrygia. In Rome the Galli were her 
priests. The lion was sacred to her. In works 
of art she is usually represented seated on a 
throne, adorned with the mural crown, from 
which a*veil hangs down. Lions appear crouch- 
ing on the right and left of her throne, and some- 
times she is seen riding in a chariot drawn by 
lions. 

Rhea Silvia. Vid. Romulus. 

Rhebas (Tf/Sae, 'Prj6awc : now Riva), a river 
of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, falling into the 
Euxine northeast of Chalcedon ; very small and 
insignificant in itself, but much celebrated in 
the Argonautic legends. 

Rhedones. Vid. Redones. 

Rhegium ('P^yiov : Rheginus : now Rcggio), 
a celebrated Greek town on the coasf. of Brut- 
tium, in the south of Italy, was situated on the 
Fretum Siculum, or the straits which separate 
Italy and Sicily. The ancients derived its name 
from the verb j>riyvv(ii (" break"), because it was 
supposed that Sicily was at this place torn asun- 
der from Italy. Rhegium was founded about 
the beginning of the first Messenian war, B.C. 
743, by iEolian Chalcidians from Euboea and by 
Doric Messemans, who had quitted their native 
country on the commencement of hostilities be- 
tween Sparta and Messenia. At the end of the 
second Messenian war, 668, a large body of 
Messenians, under the conduct of the sons of 
Aristomenes, settled at Rhegium, which now be- 
came a flourishing and important city, and ex- 
ended its authority over several of the neigh- 



boring towns. Even before the Persian wars 
Rhegium was sufficiently powerful to send three 
thousand of its citizens to the assistance of the 
Tarentines, and in the time of the elder Diony- 
sius it possessed a fleet of eighty ships of war. 
The government was an aristocracy, but in the 
beginning of the fifth century B.C., Anaxilaus, 
who was of a Messenian family, made himself 
tyrant of the place. In 494 this Anaxilaus con- 
quered Zancle in Sicily, the name of which he 
changed into Messana. He ruled over the two 
cities, and on his death in 476 he bequeathed 
his power to his sons. About ten years after- 
ward (466) his sons were driven out of Rhegi- 
um and Messana, and republican governments 
were established in both cities, which now be- 
came independent of one another. At a later 
period Rhegium incurred the deadly enmity of 
the elder Dionysius in consequence of a person- 
al insult which the inhabitants had offered him. 
It is said that when he asked the Rhegians to 
give him one of their maidens for his wife, they 
replied that they could only grant him the 
daughter of their public executioner. Diony- 
sius carried on war against the city for a long 
time, and after two or three unsuccessful at- 
tempts he at length took the place, which he 
treated with the greatest severity. Rhegium 
never recovered its former greatness, though it 
still continued to be a place of considerable im- 
portance. The younger Dionysius gave it the 
name of Phaebia, but this name never came into 
general use, and was speedily forgotten. The 
Rhegians having applied to Rome for assistance 
when Pyrrhus -was in the south of Italy, the 
Romans placed in the town a garrison of four 
thousand soldiers, who had been levied among 
the Latin colonies in Campania. These troops 
seized the town in 279, killed or expelled the 
male inhabitants, and took possession of their 
wives and children. The Romans were too 
much engaged at the time with their war against 
Pyrrhus to take notice of this outrage ; but when 
Pyrrhus was driven out of Italy, they took sig- 
nal vengeance upon these Campanians, and re- 
stored the surviving Rhegians to their city. 
Rhegium suffered greatly from an earthquake 
shortly before the breaking out of the Social 
war, 90 ; but its population was augmented by 
Augustus, who settled here a number of veter- 
ans from his fleet, whence the town bears in 
Ptolemy the surname Julium. Rhegium was 
the place from which persons usually crossed 
over to Sicily, but the spot at which they em- 
barked was called Columna Rhegina ('Tiiyivuv 
(7t)?Aif : now Torre di Carallo), and was one 
hundred stadia north of the town. The Greek 
language continued to be spoken at Rhegium 
till a very late time, and the town was subject 
to the Byzantine court long after the downfall 
of the Western empire. 

[Rhegma ('Prjyfia), the lagoon formed by the 
River Cydnus in Cilicia, at its mouth, and which 
served as a harbor to the city of Tarsus ] 

Rhenea ('Ptjveia, also 'Piimj, 'Pr;vaia), former- 
ly called Orlygia and Ccladussa, an island in the 
/Egean Sea and one of the Cyclades, west of 
Delos, from which it was divided by a narrow 
strait only four stadia in width. When Poly- 
crates took the island, he dedicated it to Apollo, 
and united it by a chain to Delos ; and Isicias 



RHENUS. 



RHIP.EI MONTES. 



connected the two islands by means of a bridge, i 
When the Athenians purified Delos in B.C. 426, 
they removed all the dead from the latter island 
to Ithenea. 

Rhenus. 1. (Now Rhein in German, Rhine in 
English), one of the great rivers in Europe, 
forming in ancient times the boundary between 
Gaul and Germany, rises in Mons Adula (now 
St. Gothard) not far from the sources of the 
Rhone, and flows first in a westerly direction, 
passing through the Lacus Brigantinus (now 
Lake of Constance) till it reaches Basilia (now 
Basle), where it takes a northerly direction, 
and eventually flows into the ocean by several 
mouths. The ancients spoke of two main arms 
into which the Rhine was divided in entering 
the territory of the Batavi, of which the one on 
the east continued to bear the name of Rhe- 
nus, while that on the west, into which the 
Mosa (now Maas or Meuse) flowed, was called 
Vahalis (now Waal). After Drusus, in B.C. 12, 
had connected the Flevo Lacus (now Zuyder- 
Sce) with the Rhine by means of a canal, in 
making which he probably made use of the bed 
of the Yssel, we find mention of three mouths 
of the Rhine. Of these the names, as given by 
Pliny, are, on the west, Helium (the Vahalis of 
other writers) ; in the centre, Rhenus ; and 
on the east, Flevum ; but at a later time we 
again find mention of only two mouths. The 
ilhine is described by the ancients as a broad, 
rapid, and deep river. It receives many tribu- 
taries, of which the most important were the 
Mosella (now Moselle) and Mosa (now Maas or 
Meuse) on the left, and the Nicer (now Neckar), 
Moenus (now Main), and Luppia (now Lippe) on 
the right. It passed through various tribes, of 
which the principal on the west were the Nan- 
tuates, Helvetii, Sequani, Mediomatrici, Triboc- 
ci, Treviri, Ubii, Batavi, and Canninefates, and 
the principal on the east were the Rhaeti, Vin- 
delici, Mattiaci, Sigambri, Tencteri, Usipetes, 
Bructeri, and Frisii. The length of the Rhine 
is stated differently by the ancient writers. Its 
whole course amounts to about nine hundred 
and fifty miles. The inundations of the Rhine 
near its mouth are mentioned by the ancients. 
Caesar was the first Roman general who cross- 
ed the Rhine. He threw a bridge of boats 
across the river, probably in the neighborhood 
of Cologne. The etymology of the name is 
doubtful ; some connect it with rinnen or rinnan, 
according to which it would mean the " current" 
or " stream ;" others with rhen or rein, that is, 
the " clear" river. — 2. (Now Reno), a tributary 
of the Padus (now Po) in Gallia Cisalpina, near 
Bononia, on a small island of which Octavianus, 
Antony, and Lepidus formed the celebrated tri- 
umvirate. The small river Lavinius (now La- 
vino) flows into the Rhenus ; and Appian places 
in the Lavinius the island on which the trium- 
virate was formed. 

[Rheomithres ('PeofilQpTjc), a Persian, who 
joined in the general revolt of the western prov- 
inces from Artaxerxes Mnemon in B.C. 362, 
and was employed by his confederates to go to 
Tachos, king of Egypt, for aid. Although suc- 
cessful in this application, he made his own 
peace with Artaxerxes by betraying a number 
of the rebel chiefs. He was also one of the 
tommanders of the Persian cavalry in the bat- 



tle at the Granicus, B.C. 334, and fell in the 
battle at Issus, B.C. 333.] 

Rhephaim, a valley of Judaea, continuous with 
the valley of Hinnom, southwest of Jerusalem. 
Rhephaim was also the name of a very ancient 
people of Palestine. 

Rhesus ('Prjaoc). 1. A river-god in Bithynia.. 
one of the sons of Oceanus and Tethys. — 2. Son 
of King Ei'oneus in Thrace, marched to the as- 
sistance of the Trojans in their war with the 
Greeks. An oracle had declared that Troy 
would never be taken if the snow-white horses 
of Rhesus should once drink the water of the 
Xanthus, and feed upon the grass of the Trojan 
plain. But as soon as Rhesus had reached the 
Trojan territory, and had pitched his tents late 
at night, Ulysses and Diomedes penetrated into 
his camp, slew Rhesus himself, and carried off 
his horses. In later writers Rhesus is describ 
ed as a son of Strymon and Euterpe, or Calliope, 
or Terpsichore. 

[Rhexenor ('Pri^vop), son of Nausithous, 
the king of the Phaeacians, and accordingly a 
brother of Alcinous.] 

Rhianus ('Piavoc), of Crete, a distinguished 
Alexandrean poet and grammarian, flourished 
B.C. 222. He wrote several epic poems, one 
of which was on the Messenian wars. He also 
wrote epigrams, ten of which are preserved in 
the Palatine Anthology, and one by Athenasus. 
His fragments are printed in Gaisford ! s Pocla 
Minores Graci ; and separately edited by Nic. 
Saal, Bonn, 1831. 

Rhidagus, a tributary of the River Ziobetis, 
in Parthia ; [but vid. Ziobetis.] 

Rhinocolura or Rhinocorura (tu, 'Plvok6?.ov- 
pa or 'PtvoKopovpa, and ij 'PivoK.o'kovpa or 'Pivo- 
Kopovpa : now Kulat-el-Arish), the frontier town 
of Egypt and Palestine, lay in the midst of the 
desert, at the mouth of the brook (now El-Arish), 
which was the boundary between the countries, 
and which is called in Scripture the river of 
Egypt. It was sometimes reckoned to Syria, 
sometimes to Egypt. Its name, " Thc-cut-off- 
noses,'" is derived from its having been the place 
of exile of criminals who had first been so mu- 
tilated under the ^Ethiopian dynasty of kings 
of Egypt. 

Rhinthon ('Plvdov), of Syracuse or Taren- 
tum, said to have been the son of a potter, was 
a dramatic poet, of that species of burlesque 
tragedy which was called tylvaKoypafyia or i?.a- 
poTpayudia, and flourished in the reign of Ptol- 
emy L, king of Egypt. When he is placed at 
the head of the composers of this burlesque 
drama, we are not to suppose that he actually 
invented it, but that he was the first to develop 
in a written form, and to introduce into Greek 
literature, a species of dramatic composition, 
which had already long existed as a popular 
amusement among the Greeks of Southern Italy 
and Sicily, and especially at Tarentum. The 
species of drama which he cultivated may be 
described as an exhibition of the subjects of 
tragedy, in the spirit and style of comedy. A 
poet of this description was called This 
name, and that of the drama itself, ^vaKoypa- 
<j>'ta, seem to have been the genuine terms 
used at Tarentum. Rhinthon wrote thirty-eight 
dramas. 

Rhip^ei Montes (tu 'PiKala opn, also 'Pinai), 

741 



R11IUM. 



RHODOPIS. 



Hie name of a lofty range of mountains in the 
northern part of the earth, respecting which 
there are diverse statements in the ancient 
writers. The name seems to have been given 
by the Greek poets quite indefinitely to all the 
mountains in the northern parts of Europe and 
Asia. Thus the Rhipaei Montes are sometimes 
called the Hyperborei Montes. Vid. Hyperbo- 
rei. The later geographical writers place the 
Rhipsean Mountains northeast of Mount Alau- 
nus, on the frontiers of Asiatic Sarmatia, and 
state that the Tanais rises in these mountains. 
According to this account, the Rhipasan Mount- 
ains may be regarded as a western branch of 
the Ural Mountains. 

Rhium (Ti'ov : now Castcllo di Morea), a prom- 
ontory in Achaia, opposite the promontory of 
Antirrhium (now Castello di Romelia), on the 
borders of zEtolia and Locris, with which it 
formed the narrow entrance to the Corinthian 
Gulf, which straits are now called the Little 
Dardanelles. It is sometimes called 'Axaitcbv 
'~Piov, to distinguish it from the opposite prom- 
ontory, which was surnamed MoXvxpiKov or Ac- 
tuIikov. On the promontory of Rhium there 
was a temple of Neptune (Poseidon). 

Rhizon or Rhizinium ('Pil^ov : 'Pifevfryc: now 
Risano), an ancient town in Dalmatia, situated 
at the upper end of the gulf, called after it Rhi- 
zonseus Sinus (now Gulf of Catlaro). [It is 
mentioned by Polybius as a strong place, to 
which Teuta, queen of the Illyrians, withdrew 
on being attacked by the Romans.] 

Rhoda or Rhodus ('Podn, 'PoSoc : now Rozas), 
a Greek emporium on the coast of the Indigetas, 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, founded by the Rho- 
dians, and subsequently occupied by the inhab- 
itants of Massilia. 

Rhodanus (now Rhine), one of the chief riv- 
ers of Gaul, rises in Mons Adula on the Pen- 
nine Alps, not far from the sources of the Rhine, 
flows first in a westerly direction, and, after 
passing through the Lacus Lemanus, turns to 
the south, passes by the towns of Lugdunum, 
Vienna, Avenio, and Arelate, receives several 
tributaries, and finally falls by several mouths 
into the Sinus Gallicus in the Mediterranean. 
The number of the mouths of the Rhone is 
stated differently by the ancient writers, which 
is not surprising, as the river has frequently al- 
tered its course near the sea. Pliny mentions 
three mouths, of which the most important was 
called Os Massalioticum, while the two others 
bore the general name of Libyza ora, being dis- 
tinguished from each other as the Os Hispani- 
ense and the Os Mctapinum. Besides these 
mouths there was a canal to the east of the Os 
Massalioticum, called Fossa Mariana, which 
was dug by order of Marius during his war with 
the Cimbri, in order to make an easier connec- 
tion between the Rhone and the Mediterranean, 
as the mouths of the river were frequently 
choked up with sand. The Rhone is a very 
rapid river, and its upward navigation is there- 
fore difficult, though it is navigable for large 
vessels as high as Lugdunum, and by means of 
the Arar still farther north. 

Rhode. Vid. Rhodos. 

[Rhodea ('PdiSc(a), a daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, was one of the playmates of Proser- 
pina (Persephone).] 
742 



Rhodia and Rhodiopolis ('Pofiia, 'PoSwttoX'.^ • 
'Fodisvg,'Po(ho7To?UTr!( : now Eski-Hissar, ruins), 
| a mountain city of Lycia, near Corydallus, with 
j a temple of vEsculapius (Asclepius). 

Rhodius ('Pdiioc : now probably the Brook of 
the Dardanelles), a small river of the Troad. 
J mentioned by both Homer andHesiod. It rose 
on the lower slopes of Mount Ida, and flowed 
northwest into the Hellespont, between Abydus 
and Dardanus, after receiving the Sellei's from 
the west. It is identified by some with the 
River YIvSloc, which Thucydides mentions, be- 
tween Cynossema and Abydus. Some made it 
erroneously a tributary of the iEsepus. It is 
found mentioned on the coins of Dardanus. 

[Rhodogune {'PoSoyovvn). 1. A daughter of 
Artaxerxes Mnemon, was given in marriage by 
him to Orontes. Vid. Orontes, No. 3. — 2. 
Daughter of Mithradates I., king of Parthia, 
given by him in marriage to Demetrius Nicator, 
king of Syria. Vid. Arsaces, No. 6.] 

[Rhodope {'Poddm]), a fountain nymph, daugh- 
ter of the river-god Strymon, wife of the Thra- 
cian Hasmus, and mother of Hebrus. She is 
mentioned also among the playmates of Pro- 
serpina (Persephone).] 

Rhodope ('Podoivn), one of the highest ranges 
of mountains in Thrace, extending from Mount 
Scomius, east of the River Nestus and the 
boundaries of Macedonia, in a southeasterly di- 
rection almost down to the coast. It is highest 
in its northern part, and is thickly covered with 
wood. Rhodope, like the rest of Thrace, was 
sacred to Dionysus (Bacchus), and is frequently 
mentioned by the poets in connection with the 
worship of this god. 

[Rhodophon, a Rhodian statesman, who ex- 
erted himself when hostilities broke out between 
Perseus and the Romans to preserve unbroken 
the connection between his countrymen and tht 
latter. He was one of the deputies sent, B.C 
167, to convey a golden crown to Rome.] 

Rhodopis ('Podunic ), a celebrated Greek court- 
esan, of Thracian origin, was a fellow-slave with 
the poet yEsop, both of them belonging to the 
Samian Iadmon. She afterward became the 
property of Xanthes, another Samian, who car 
ried her to Naucratis in Egypt, in the reign of 
Amasis, and at this great sea-port she carried 
on the trade of an hetaera for the benefit of her 
master. While thus employed, Charaxus, the 
brother of the poetess Sappho, who had come 
to Naucratis as a merchant, fell in love with 
her, and ransomed her from slavery for a large 
sum of money. She was, in consequence, at- 
tacked by Sappho in a poem. She continued to 
live at Naucratis, and with the tenth part of her 
gains she dedicated at Delphi ten iron spits, 
which were seen by Herodotus. She is called 
Rhodopis by Herodotus, but Sappho in her poem 
spoke of her under the name of Doricha. It is 
therefore probable that Doricha was her real 
name, and that she received that of Rhodopis, 
which signifies the " rosy-cheeked," on account 
of her beauty. There was a tale current in 
Greece that Rhodopis built the third pyramid. 
It has been conjectured, with great probability, 
that in consequence of her name Rhodopis, the 
" rosy-cheeked," she was confounded with Nito- 
cris, the beautiful Egyptian queen, and the he- 
roine of n>any an Egyptian legend, who is said 



RHODOS. 



RHCECUS. 



by the ancient chronologers to have built the 
third pyramid. 

Rhodos ('Po'tJof), sometimes called Rhode, 
daughter of Neptune (Poseidon) and Halia, or 
of Helios and Amphi trite, or of Neptune (Posei- 
don) and Venus (Aphrodite), or, lastly, of Oce- 
anus. From her the island of Rhodes is said 
to have derived its name ; and in this island she 
■bore to Helios seven sons. 

[Rhoduntia ('Podovvria), a fortress on Mount 
(Eta, near Heraclea and Thermopylae ; accord- 
ing to Livy, one of the summits of CEta.] 

Rhodos (r/ 'Podof : 'Podioc, Rhodius : now Rho- 
dos, Rhodes), the easternmost island of the ^Ege- 
an, or, more specifically, of the Carpathian Sea, 
lies off the southern coast of Caria, due south of 
the promontory of Cynossenja (now Cape Alou- 
po), at the distance of about twelve geographical 
miles. Its length, from northeast to southwest, 
is about forty-live miles ; its greatest breadth 
about twenty to twenty-five. In early times it 
was called ^Ethraea and Ophiussa, and several 
other names. The earliest Greek records make 
mention of it. Mythological stories ascribed 
its origin to the power of Apollo, who raised it 
from beneath the waves ; and its first peopling 
to the Telchines, children of Thalatta (the Sea), 
upon whose destruction by a deluge the He- 
liadae were planted in the island by Helios, 
where they formed seven tribes, and founded 
a kingdom, which soon became flourishing by 
their skill in astronomy and navigation, and 
other sciences and arts. These traditions ap- 
pear to signify the early peopling of the island 
by some of the civilized races of Western Asia, 
probably the Phoenicians. After other alleged 
migrations into the island, we come to its Hel- 
lenic colonization, which is ascribed to Tlepo- 
lemus, the son of Hercules, before the Trojan 
war, and after that war to Altheemenes. Ho- 
mer mentions the three Dorian settlements in 
Rhodes, namely, Lindus, Ialysus, and Camirus ; 
and these cities, with Cos, Cnidus, and Hali- 
carnassus, formed the Dorian Hexapolis, which 
was established, from a period of unknown 
antiquity, in the southwestern corner of Asia 
Minor. Riodes soon became a great maritime 
state, or rather confederacy, the island being 
parcelled out between the three cities above 
mentioned. The Rhodians made distant voy- 
ages, and founded numerous colonies, of which 
the chief were Rhoda in Iberia ; Gela in Sicily ; 
Parthenope, Salacia, Siris, and Sybaris in Italy ; 
settlements in the Balearic Islands ; and, in 
their own neighborhood, Soli in Cilicia, and 
Gagae and Corydalla in Lycia. During this 
early period the government of each of the three 
cities seems to have been monarchical ; but 
about B.C.' 660 the whole island seems to have 
been united in an oligarchical republic, the chief 
magistrates of which, called prytanes, were 
taken from the family of the Eratidse, who had 
been the royal family of Ialysus. Vid. Diago- 
eas, Dorieus. At the beginning of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, Rhodes was one of those Dorian 
maritime states which were subject to Athens ; 
but in the twentieth year of the war, 412, it 
joined the Spartan alliance, and the oligarchical 
party, which had been depressed, and their lead- 
ers, the Eratidae, expelled^ recovered their for- 
mer power under Dorieus. In 408, the new 



capital, called Rhodus, was built, and peopled 
from the three ancient cities of Ialysus, Lindus, 
and Camirus. The history of the island now 
presents a series of conflicts between the demo- 
cratical and oligarchical parties, and of subjec- 
tion to Athens and Sparta in turn, till the end of 
the Social war, 355, when its independence was 
acknowledged. Then followed a conflict with 
the princes of Caria, during which the island was 
for a time subject to Artemisia, and, nominally at 
least, to Idrieus. During this period there were 
great internal dissensions, which were at length 
composed by a mixed form of government, unit- 
ing the elements of aristocracy and democracy. 
At the Macedonian conquest, they submitted 
to Alexander; but, upon his death, they expelled 
the Macedonian garrison. In the ensuing wars 
they formed an alliance with Ptolemy, the son 
of Lagus, and their city, Rhodes, successfully 
endured a most famous siege by the forces of 
Demetrius Poliorcetes, who at length, in admi- 
ration of the valor of the besieged, presented 
them with the engines. he had used against the 
city, from the sale of which they defrayed the 
cost of the celebrated Colossus, which is de- 
scribed under the name of its artist, Chares. 
The state now for a long time flourished, with 
an extensive commerce, and with such a mari- 
time power that it compelled the Byzantines to 
remit the toll which they levied on ships passing 
the Bosporus. At length they came into con- 
nection with the Romans, whose alliance they 
joined, with Attalus, king of Pergamus, in the 
war against Philip III. of Macedon. In the en- 
suing war with Antiochus, the Rhodians gave 
the Romans great aid with their fleet ; and, in 
the subsequent partition of the Syrian posses- 
sions of Asia Minor, they were rewarded by 
the supremacy of S. Caria, where they had 
had settlements from an early period. Vid. Pe- 
rma Rhodiorum. A temporary interruption of 
their alliance with Rome was caused by their 
espousing the cause of Perseus, for which they 
were severely punished, 168; but they recov- 
ered the favor of Rome by the important naval 
aid they rendered in the Mithradatic war. In 
the civil wars they took part with Caesar, and 
suffered in consequence from Cassius, 42, but 
were afterward compensated for their losses by 
the favor of Antonius. They were at length 
deprived of their independence by Claudius ; 
and their prosperity received its final blow from 
an earthquake, which laid the city of Rhodes in 
ruins, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, A.D. 155. 
The celebrated medieval history of the island, 
as the seat of the Knights of St. John, does not 
belong to this work. The island is of great 
beauty and fertility, with a delicious climate. 
It was further celebrated as the home of dis- 
tinguished schools of Greek art and of Greek 
oratory. The city of Rhodes was famous for 
the beauty and regularity of its architecture, 
and the number of statues which adorned it; 
it was designed by Hippodamus of Miletus 
(Comp. Ialysus, Lindus, and Camirus.) 

Rhcecus (Tot/cof). t. A Centaur, who, in con- 
junction with Hylaeus, pursued Atalanta in Ar- 
cadia, tyjt was killed by her with an arrow. The 
Roman poets call him Rhoetus, and relate that 

he was wounded at the nuptials of Pirithous 

2. Son of Phileas or Philaeus, of Samos, an ar 

743 



RHGEMETALCES. 

.ihitect and statuary belonging to the earliest 
period _a the history of Greek art, is mentioned 
as the head of a family of Samian artists. He 
flourished about B.C. 640. He was thefirst arch- 
itect of the great temple of Juno (Hera) at S9- 
mos, which Theodorus completed. In conjunc- 
tion with Smilis and Theodorus, he constructed 
the labyrinth of Lemnos ; and he, and the mem- 
bers of his family who succeeded him, invented 
the art of casting statues in bronze and iron. 

[Rhcemetalces ('Toifxr;Tu?iiai(). 1. I., king of 
Thrace, was brother of Cotys, and uncle and 
guardian of Rhascuporis, at whose death, B.C. 
13, he was expelled from Thrace. About two 
years afterward Rhcemetalces received from 
Augustus his nephew's dominions, with some 
additions, since Tacitus calls him king of all 
Thrace. On his death Augustus divided his 
kingdom between his son-Cotys and his brother 
Rhascuporis. — 2. II., King of Thrace, nephew 
of the preceding, and son of Rhascuporis, re- 
ceived a portion of the Thracian kingdom on 
the deposition of his father. He remained faith- 
ful to the Romans, and aided in putting down 
the Thracian malcontents in A.D. 26. Caligu- 
la, in A.D. 38, assigned the whole of Thrace to 
Rhcemetalces.] 

[Rhceo (Toiu), a daughter of Staphylus, be- 
loved by Apollo, to whom she bore Anius : she 
had< been put in a chest, and set afloat on the 
sea by her father, but was wafted safely to Eu- 
bcea (or Delos).] 

[RHcESACEs('PotcraK7?c inArrian and Plutarch; 
'Puo-a/c?;r, Diod.), a Persian, who deduced his 
lineage from one of the seven chiefs who over- 
threw the government of the Magi, was satrap 
of Ionia and Lydia about 350 B.C., and was as- 
sociated with the Theban Lacrates in the war 
against Egypt. In the battle at the Granicus, 
having assailed Alexander, he was slain by that 
monarch's own hand. Diodorus and Curtius, 
however, say that, having cleft the king's helmet 
with his sword, his hand was cut off by Clitus.] 

Rhceteum (to 'Polreiov aKpov, 7) 'Poireuic uktt}, 
'Poirr/iai aarai : Virg. Rhoetea litora : now Cape 
Intepeh or BarUcri), a promontory, or a strip of 
rocky coast breaking into several promontories, 
in Mysia, on the Hellespont, near iEantium, 
with a town of the same name (now probably 
Paleo Castro). 

Rhcetus. 1. A centaur. Vid. Rhcecus. — 2. 
One of the giants, who was slain by Bacchus 
(Dionysus) ; he is usually called Eurytus. — [3. 
One of the companions of Phineus, slain by 
Perseus. — 4. King of the Marrubii in Italy, 
father of Anchemolus. Vid. Anchemolus. — 5. 
A Rutulian slain among the sine nomine plebem 
by Euryalus.] 

[Rhombites Magnus and Minor {'Vop.6hris 
fieyas and e?Moeuv), two rivers of Asiatic Sar- 
matia, which fell into two bays of the Palus 
M»otis, both abounding in fish : of these the 
smaller, according to Strabo, was six hundred 
stadia from the Anticites ; the larger,eight hund- 
red stadia northeast of the smaller, and just as 
far southwest from the Tanais. The larger riv- 
er is the modern Jei, Jeisse, or Jea; the smaller, 
the Tschelbasch or the Beisu ; according to oth- 
ers, the Atschujef.] 

[Rhosus or Rhossus ('Pocroc and 'Pocaoc), a 
sea-port of Syria, on the Issicus Sinus, some- 
744 



RICIMER. 1 

j what east of the promontory named after i 
{GKonelot; 6 'Puaoinog, now Cape Torose or Dog's 

\ Cape), and at the southern point of the above- 

I named gulf, in the neighborhood of the Syrian ! 

! passes. At this mountain pass Pococke found 
ruins of ancient walls, which probably belonged 
to the city Rhosus.] 

[Rhotanus ('Pdravoc, now, according to Man- 
nert, Dalesani), a small river of Corsica, flowing | 
into the Tyrrhenian Sea at about the middle 
of the eastern coast, not far from Aleria.] 

Rhoxolani or Roxolani, a warlike people in 
European Sarmatia, on the coast of the Palus 
Majotis, and between the Borysthenes and the 
Tanais, usually supposed to be the ancestors of 
the modern Russians. They frequently attack- 
ed and plundered the Roman provinces south 
of the Danube ; and Hadrian was even obliged 
to pay them tribute They are mentioned as 
late as the eleventh century. They fought with 
lances and with long swords wielded with both 
hands ; and their armies were composed chiefly 
of cavalry. 

[Rhubon ('PovBov, now probably the Buna), a 
river of European Sarmatia, falling into the Oce- 
anus Sarmaticus between the Chronus and Tu- 
runtus.] 

Rhyndacus ('PvvSaKoe : now Edrenos), or Ly- 
cus, a considerable river of Asia Minor. Rising 
in Mount Dindymene, opposite to the sources 
of the Hermus, it flows north through Phrygia, 
then turns northwest, then west, and then north, 
through the Lake Apolloniatis, into the Propon- 
tis. From the point where it left Phrygia, it 
formed the boundary of Mysia and Bithynia. i 
Its chief tributary, which joins it from the west I 
below the Lake "Apolloniatis, was called Maces- 
tus. On the banks of the Rhyndacus Lucullus 
gained a great victory over Mithradates, B.C. 73. 

Rhypes {'Pines and other forms : 'Pvnalos), 
one of the twelve cities of Achaia, situated be- 
tween ^Egium and Patrae. It was destroyed by 
Augustus, and its inhabitants removed to Patrae. 

Rhytiom {'Pvtiov), a town in Crete, mention- 
ed by Homer, which is identified by modern 
writers, but without any sufficient reasons, with 
the later Ritymna. * 

Ricimer, the Roman " King-Maker," was the | 
son of a Suevian chief, and was brought up at j 
the court of Valentinian III. He served with ' 
distinction under Aetius, in the reign of Valen- 
tinian III. In A.D. 456 he commanded the 
fleet of the Emperor Avitus, with which he 
gained a great victory over the Vandals, and in 
the same year he deposed Avitus ; but as he 
was a barbarian by birth, he would not assume 
the title of emperor, but gave it to Majorian, in- 
tending to keep the real power in his own hands. 
But as Majorian proved more able and ener- 
getic than Ricimer had expected, he was put to j 
death in 461 by order of Ricimer, who now 
raised Libius Severus to the throne. On the 
death of Severus in 465, Ricimer kept the gov- 
ernment in his own hands for the next eighteen j 
months; but in 467- Anthemius was appointed 
Emperor of the West by Leo, emperor of the 
East. Ricimer acquiesced in the appointment, 
and received the daughter of Anthemius in mar- 
riage ; but in 472 he made war against his 
I father-in-law, and took Rome by storm. An- 
' themius perished in the assault, and Olybrius i 



MAP OF ANCIENT ROME, SHOWING THE WALLS OF SERVIUS AND 
THOSE OF AURELIAN. 



[ To face p. 745 




Gates in the Walls of Servius. 

1. Porta Collina. 

2. Porta Viminalis. 

3. Porta Esquilina. 

4. Porta Querquetulana ? 
j. Porta CEelimontana. 

6. Porta Capena. 

7. Porta Raudusculana? 

8. Porta Nsevia. 

9. Porta Minucia. 

10. Porta Trigemina. 

11. Porta Flumentana. 

12. Porta Carmentalis. 

13. Porta Ratumena? 

14. Porta Fontinalis. 

Gates in the Walls of Aurelian. 

15. Porta Flaminia. 

16. Porta Pinciana. 

17. Porta Salaria. 

13. Porta Nomentana. 



19. Porta 

20. Porta 

21. Porta 
22* Porta 

23. Porta 

24. Porta 

25. Porta 

26. Porta 

27. Porta 

28. Porta 

29. Porta 

30. Porta 

31. Porta 



Clausa. 

Tiburtina (5'. Lorenzo). 

Pranestina (Maggiore). 

Asinaria. 

Metrovia? 

Latina. 

Appia (&'. Sebastiano). 
Ardeatina ? 
Ostiensis. 
Portuensis. 

Aurelia (S. Pa?>crazio). 

Septimiana. 

Aurelia of Procopius. 

• Bridges. 



32. Pons jElius (Ponte S. Angeto). 

33. Pons Vaticanus >. 

34. Pons Janiculensis ? 

35. Pons Fabricius. 

36. Pons Cestius. 

37. Pons Palatinus (yEmilius ?)■ 

38. Supposed remains of the Sublician Bridge 



RICINA. 



ROMA. 



was proclaimed emperor by Ricimer, who died, 
however, only forty days after the sack of Rome. 

Ricina. 1. (Ricinensis), a town in Picenum, 
solonized by the Emperor Severus. Its mines 
are on the River Potenza, near Macerata. — 2. 
One of the Ebudee Insulas, or the Hebrides. 

Rigodulum (now Reol), a town of the Treviri 
in Gallia Belgica, distant three days' march 
from Mogontiacum. 

[Ripheus, or, more correctly, Rhipeus ('Pitt- 
evc), aTrojan warrior, who joined the band of 
j .<Eneas the night that Troy was burned, and 
fought with great bravery until he was at length 
overpowered by superior numbers : he is com- 
mended for his piety and justiee.] 

Robigus or RoBiGo, is described by some 
Latin writers as a divinity worshipped for the 
purpose of averting Wight or too great heat 
from the young corn-fields. The festival of the 
Robigalia was celebrated on the twenty-fifth of 
April, and was said to have been instituted by 
Numa. But considering the uncertainty of the 
aneients themselves as to whether the divinity 
was masculine or feminine, and that the Ro- 
mans did not pay divine honors to any evil de- 
mon, it is probable that the divinity Robigus or 
Robigo is only an abstraction of the later Ro- 
I mans from the festival of the Robigalia. 

Robus, a fortress in the territory of the Rau- 
raci, in Gallia Belgica, which was built by Va- 
tentinian near Basilia, A.D. 374. 

Roma (Romanus : now Rome), the capital of 
Italy and of the world, was situated on the left 
bank of the River Tiber, on the northwestern 
confines of Latium, about sixteen miles from 
the sea. — A. History of the City. Rome is 
said to have been a colony from Alba Longa, 
and to have been founded by Romulus about 
B.C. 753. Vid. Romulus. All traditions agree 
that the original city comprised only the Mons 
Palatinus or Palatium, and some portion of the 
ground immediately below it. It was surround- 
ed by walls, which followed the line of the Po- 
mozrium (vid. Diet, of Antiq., s. v.), and was built 
in a square form, whence it was called Roma 
Quadrata. This city on the Palatine was in- 
habited only by Latins. On the neighboring 
hills there also existed from the earliest times 
settlements of Sabines and Etruscans. The 
Sabine town, probably called Quirium, and in- 
habited by Quiriies, was situated on the hills to 
the north of the Palatine, that is, the Quirinalis 
and Capitolinus, or Capitolium, on the latter of 
which hills was the Sabine Arx or citadel. 
These Latin and Sabine towns afterward be- 
came united, according to tradition, in the reign 
of Romulus, and the two nations formed one 
collective body, known under the name of 
" Populus Romanus (et) Quirites." The Etrus- 
cans were settled on Mons C alius, and extend- 
ed over Mons Cispius and Mons Oppius, which 
are part of the Esquiline. These Etruscans 
were at an early period incorporated in the 
Roman state, but were compelled to abandon 
their seats on the hills, and to take up their 
abode in the plains between the Cselius and the 
Esquiline, whence the Vicus Tuscus derived its 
name. Under the kings the city rapidly grew 
in population and in size. Ancus Marcius add- 
ed the Mons Avenlinus to the city. Tb c same 
king also built a fortress on the Janiculus, a hill 



on the other side of the Tiber, as a protection 
against the Etruscans, and connected it with 
the city by means of the Pons Sublicius. Rome 
was still further improved and enlarged by Tar- 
quinius Priscus and Servius Tullius. The for- 
mer of these kings constructed the vast sewers 
(cloaca), by which the lower part of the city be- 
tween the Palatine and Capitol was drained, 
and which still remain without a stone dis- 
placed. He also laid out the Circus Maximus 
and the Forum, and, according to some tradi- 
tions, commenced the erection of the Capitoline 
temple, which was finished by Tarquinius Su- 
perbus. The completion of the city, however, 
was ascribed to Servius Tullius. This king 
added the Mons Viminalis and Mons Esquilinus, 
and surrounded the whole city with a line of 
fortifications, which comprised all the seven 
hills of Rome (Palatinus, Capitolinus, Quiri- 
nalis, Calius, Aventinus, Viminalis, Esquilinus). 
Hence Rome was called Urbs Seplicollis. These 
fortifications were about seven miles in circum- 
ference. At the same time, Servius extended 
the pomoerium so as to make the sacred in- 
closure of the city identical with its walls. In 
B.C. 390 Rome was entirely destroyed by the 
Gauls, with the exception of a few houses on 
the Palatine. On the departure of the barbari- 
ans it was rebuilt in great haste and confusion, 
without any attention to regularity, and with 
narrow and crooked streets. After the con- 
quest of the Carthaginians and of the monarchs 
of Macedonia and Syria, the city began to be 
adorned with many public buildings and hand- 
some private houses ; and it was still further 
embellished by Augustus, who introduced great 
improvements into all parts of the city, and both 
erected many public buildings himself, and in- 
duced all the leading nobles of his-court to fol- 
low his example. So greatly had the appear- 
ance of the city improved during his long and 
prosperous reign, that he used to boast that he 
had found the city of brick, and had left it of 
marble. Still the main features of the city re- 
mained the same ; and the narrow streets and 
mean houses formed a striking and disagreeable 
contrast to the splendid puWic buildings and 
magnificent palaces which had been recently 
erected. The great fire at Rome in the reign of 
Nero (A.D. 64) destroyed two thirds of the city. 
Nero availed himself of this opportunity to in 
dulge his passion for building ; and the city now 
assumed a more regular and stately appearance. 
The new streets were made both wide and 
straight ; the height of the houses was restrict- 
ed ; and a certain part of each was required to 
be built of Gabian or Alban stone, which was 
proof against fire. Rome had long since ex- 
tended beyond the walls of Servius Tullius ; 
but down to the third century of the Christian 
era the walls of this monarch continued to mark 
the limits of the city properly so called. These 
walls, however, had long since been rendered 
quite useless, and the city w r as therefore left 
without any fortifications. Accordingly, the Em- 
peror Aurelian determined to surround Rome 
with new walls, which embraced the city of 
Servius Tullius and all the suburbs which had 
subsequently grown up around it, such as the 
M. Janieulus on the right bank of the Tiber, 
and the Collis Hortulorum or Mons Pincianus on 

745 



ROMA. 

me left banU of tlk river, to the north of the 
Quirinalis. The walls of Aurelian were com- 
menced by this emperor before he set out on 
his expedition against Zenobia (A.D. 271), and 
were terminated by his successor Probus. They 
were about eleven miles in circumference. They 
were restored by Honorius, and were also part- 
ly rebuilt by Belisarius. — B. Divisions of the 
JDity. Rome was divided by Servius Tullius 
into four Regimes or districts, corresponding to 
the four city tribes. Their names were, 1. Sub- 
urana, comprehending the space from the Sub- 
ura to the Caelius, both inclusive. 2. Esqui- 
lina, comprehending the Esquiline Hill. 3. Col- 
lina, extending over the Quirinal and Viminal. 
4. Palatina, comprehending the Palatine Hill. 
The Capitoline, as the seat of the gods, and the 
Aventine, were not included in these regiones. 
These regiones were again subdivided into 
twenty-seven Sacella Argaeorum, which were 
probably erected where two streets (compita) 
crossed each other. It is probable that each of 
the four regiones contained six of these sacella, 
and that the remaining three belonged to the 
Capitoline. The division of Servius Tullius 
into four regiones remained unchanged till the 
time of Augustus; but this emperor made a 
fresh division of the city into fourteen regiones, 
which comprised both the ancient city of Ser- 
vius Tullius and all the suburbs which had been 
subsequently added. This division was made 
by Augustus to facilitate the internal govern- 
ment of the city. The names of the regiones 
were, 1. Porta Capena, at the southeast corner 
of the city, by the Porta Capena. 2. Cczlimon- 
tium, northeast of the preceding, embracing M. 
Caelius. 3. Isis et Serapis, northwest of No. 2, 
in the valley between the Caelius, the Palatine 
and Esquilipe. 4. Via Sacra, northwest of No. 

3, embracing the valley between the Esquiline, 
Viminal, and Quirinal, toward the Palatine. 5. 
Esquilina cum Colle Viminali, northeast of No. 

4, comprehending the whole of the Esquiline 
and Viminal. 6. Alia Semita, northwest of No. 

5, comprising the Quirinal. 7. Via Lata, west 
of No. 6, between the Quirinal and Campus 
Martius. 8. Fotym Romamim, south of No. 7, 
comprehending the Capitoline and the valley 
between it and the Palatine. 9. Circus Fla- 
minius, northwest of No. 8, extending as far as 
the Tiber, and comprehending the whole of the 
Campus Martius. 10. Palatium, southeast of 
No. 8, containing the Palatine. 11. Circus 
Maximus, southwest of No. 10, comprehending 
the plain between the Palatine, Aventine, and 
Tiber. 12. Piscina Pullica, southeast of No. 
11. 13. Aventinus, northwest of No. 12, em- 
bracing the Aventine. 14. Trans Tiberim, the 
only region on the right bank of the river, con- 
taining the Insula Tiberina, the valley between 
the river and the Janiculus, and a part of this 
mountain. Each of these regiones was subdi- 
vided into a certain number of Vici, analogous 
to the sacella of Servius Tullius. The houses 
were divided into two different classes, called 
respectively domus and insula. The former 
were the dwellings of the Roman nobles, cor- 
responding to the modern palazzi ; the latter 
were the habitations of the middle and lower 
classes. Each insula contained several apart- 
ments or sets of apartments, which were let to 

746 



ROMA. 

| different families, and it was frequently sur- 
rounded with shops. The insuloe contained 
several stories ; and as the value of ground in- 
creased in Rome, they were frequently built of r 
a dangerous height. Hence Augustus restrict- 
ed the height of all new houses to seventy feet, v 
! and Trajan to sixty feet. No houses of any de- 
| sci iption were allowed to be built close together ■ 
i at Rome, and it was provided by the Twelve | 
Tables that a space of at least five feet should 
be left between every house. The number of ( 
insulae, of course, greatly exceeded that of the 
domi. It is stated that there were forty-six ( 
thousand six hundred and two insulse at Rome, r 
but only one thousand seven hundred and nine- 15 
ty domus. — -C. Size and Population of the i] 
City. It has been already stated that the cir- 
cumference of the walls of Servius Tullius was J 
about seven miles ; but a great part of the space - 
included within these walls was at first not cov- 1 
ered with buildings. Subsequently, as we have 
seen, the city greatly extended beyond these , 
limits ; and a measurement has come down to I 
us, made in the reign of Vespasian, by which it , 
appears to have been about thirteen miles in 
I circumference. It was probably about this 
time that Rome reached its greatest size. The 1 
walls of Aurelian were only about eleven miles s 
in circuit. It is more difficult to determine the 
population of the city at any given period. We 
learn, however, from the Monumentum Ancy- ! 
ranum, that the plebs urbana in the time of Au- i 
gustus was three hundred and twenty thousand, j 
This did not include the women, nor the sen- 
ators, nor knights ; so that the free population 1 
could not have been less than six hundred and ! : 
fifty thousand. To this number we must add 
! the slaves, who must have been at least as nu- I 
merous as the free population. Consequently, I 
the whole population of Rome in the time of | 
Augustus must have been at least one million 
three hundred thousand, and in all probability 1 
greatly exceeded that number. Moreover, as 
we know that the city continued to increase in 
size and population down to the time of Vespa- j' 
sian and Trajan, we shall not be far wrong in j 
supposing that the city contained nearly two |i 
millions of inhabitants in the reigns of those 
emperors. — D. Walls and Gates. I. Walls | 
of Romulus. The direction of this wall is de- ' 
scribed by Tacitus. Commencing at the Forum j 
Boarium, the site of which is marked by the 
arch erected there to Septimius Severus, it ran 1 
along the foot of the Palatine, having the valley 1 
afterward occupied by the Circus Maximus on I 
the right, as far as the altar of Consus, nearly I 
opposite to the extremity of the Circus ; thence j 
it turned round the southern angle of the Pala- [ 
tine, followed the foot of the hill nearly in a 
straight line to the Curiae Veteres, which stood 
hot far from the site of the Arch of Constan- 
tine ; thence ascended the steep slope, at the 
summit of which stands the Arch of Titus, and j 
descended again on the other side to the angle 
of the Forum, which was then a morass. In 
this wall there were three gates, the number 
prescribed by the rules of the Etruscan religion. 
1. Porta Mugonia or Mugionis, also called Porta 
vetus Palatii, at the northern slope of the Pala- 
tine, at the point where the Via Sacra and the r 
Via Nova met. 2. Porta Romanula, at the \ 



ROMA. 



ROMA. 



western angle of the hill, near the icmple of 
Victory, and between the modern churches of 
S. Teodoro and Santa Anastasia. 3. The name 
and position of the third gate is not mentioned, 
for the Porta Janualis appears to be identical 
with the Janus or archway, commonly known 
as the temple of Janus, which stood on the other 
side of the Forum, and could have had no con- 
nection with the original city of Romulus. — II. 
Walls of Servius Tullius. It is stated that 
this king surrounded the whole city with a wall 
of hewn stone ; but there are many reasons for 
questioning this statement. The seven hills on 
which Rome was built were most of them of 
great natural strength, having sides actually 
precipitous, or easily rendered so by cutting 
away the soft tufo rock. Instead, therefore, of 
building a wall around the whole circuit of the 
city, Servius Tullus appears only to have con- 
nected the several hills by walls or trenches 
drawn across the narrow valleys which separ- 
ated them. The most formidable part of these 
fortifications was the agger or mound which ex- 
tended across the broad table-land formed by 
the junction of the Quirinal, Esquiline, and Vim- 
. inal, since it was on this side that the city was 
most open to the attacks of the enemy. The 
| agger was a great rampart or mound of earth, 
fifty feet wide and above sixty high, faced with 
flagstones and flanked with towers, and at its 
foot was a moat one hundred feet broad and 
thirty deep. There are still traces of this work. 
Starting from the southern extremity of this 
mound at the Porta Esquilina, the fortifications 
of Servius ran along the outside edge of the Cae- 
lian and Aventine Hills to the River Tiber by the 
Porta Trigemina. From this point to the Porta 
Flumentana, near the southwestern extremity 
of the Capitoline Hill, there appears to have 
been no wall, the river itself being considered a 
sufficient defence. At the Porta Flumentana 
the fortifications again commenced, and ran 
along the outside edge of the Capitoline and 
Quirinal Hills till they reached the northern ex- 
tremity of the agger at the Porta Collina. The 
number of the gates in the walls of Servius is un- 
certain, and the position of many of them is doubt- 
ful. Pliny, indeed, states that their number was 
thirty-seven ; but it is almost certain that this 
number includes many mere openings made 
through the walls to connect different parts of 
the city with the suburbs, since the walls of Ser- 
vius had long since ceased to be regarded. The 
following is a list of the gates as far as they can 
be ascertained : 1. Porta Collina, at the northerly 
extremity of the agger, and the most northern 
of all the gates, stood at the point of junction of 
the Via Salaria and Via Nomentana, just above 
the northern angle of the Vigna dei Certosini. 
2. P. Viminalis, south of No. 1, and in the centre 
| of the agger. 3. P. Esquilina, south of No. 2, 
j on the site of the arch of Gallienus, which proba- 
j bly replaced it ; the Via Praenestina and Labi- 
I cana began here. 4. P. Querquetulana, south 
of No. 3. 5. P. Cceliomontana, south of No. 4, 
on the heights of Mons Caelius, behind the hos- 
pital of S. Giovanni in Laterano, at the point of 
junction of the two modern streets which bear 
the name of S. Stefano Rotondo, and the SS. 
Quattro Coronati. 6. P. Capena, one of the most 
celebrated of all the Roman gates, from which 



issued the V/ a Appia. It stood southwest of 
No. 5, and at the southwest foot of the CaDlian, 
on the spot now occupied by the grounds of the 
Villa Mattei. 7, 8, 9. P. Lavernalis, P. Rau- 
dusculana, and P. Nozvia, three of the most 
southerly gates of Rome, lying between the 
Caalian and the Aventine. The walls of Ser- 
vius probably here took a great bend to the 
south, inclosing the heights of Sta Balbina and 
Sta Saba. 10. P. Minucia, probably west of the 
three preceding, and on the south of the Aven- 
tine. 11. P. Trigemina, on the northwest of 
the Aventine, near the Tiber and the great salt 
magazines. 12. P. Flumentana, north of the pre- 
ceding, near the southwestern slope of the Capi- 
tol and close to the Tiber. 13. P. Carmenlalis, 
north of No. 12, and at the foot of the south- 
western slope of the Capitoline, near the altar 
of Carmenta, and leading to the Forum Olitori- 
um and the Theatre of Marcellus. This gate 
contained two passages, of which the right-hand 
one was called Porta Scelerata from the time 
that the three hundred Fabii passed through it, 
and was always avoided. 14. P. Ratumenalis, 
north of No. 13, and at the northwestern slope 
of the Capitoline, leading from the Forum of 
Trajan to the Campus Martius. 15. P. Fonti- 
nalis, north of No. 14, on the western slope of 
the Quirinal, also leading to the Campus Mar- 
tius. 16. P. Sanqualis, north of No. 15, also 
on the western slope of the same hill. 17. P. 
Salutaris, north of No. 16, on the northwestern 
slope of the same hill, near the temple of Salus. 
18. P. Triumphalis. The position of this gate is 
quite uncertain, except that it led, more or less 
directly, to the Campus Martius.— III. Walls 
of Aurelian. These walls are essentially the 
same as those which surround the modern city 
of Rome, with the exception of the part beyond 
the Tiber. The Janiculus and the adjacent 
suburb was the only portion beyond the Tiber 
which was included within the fortifications of 
Aurelian ; for the Vatican was not surrounded 
with walls till the time of Leo IV., in the ninth 
century. On the left bank of the Tiber the 
walls of Aurelian embraced on the north the 
Collis Hortulorum or Pincianus, on the west 
the Campus Martius, on the east the Campus 
Esquilinus, and on the south the Mons Testa 
ceus. There were fourteen gates in the Aure- 
lian walls, most of which derived their names 
from the roads issuing from them. These were, 
on the northern side, 1. P. Aurelia, on the Tiber 
in front of the Pons ^Elius. 2. P. Pinciana, on 
the hill of the same name. 3. P. Saiaris, ex 
tant under the same name, but restored m mod 
em times. 4. P. Nomentana, leading to the an- 
cient P. Collina. On the eastern side, 5. P. 
Tiburtina, leading to the old Porta Esquilina, 
now Porta S. Lorenzo. 6. P. Prcenestina, now 
Porta Maggiore. On the southern side, 7. P. 
Asinaria, on the site of the modern Porta S. 
Giovanni. 8. P. Metronis, or Melronii, or Me- 
trovia, which has now disappeared, probably at 
the entrance to the Caalian, between S. Stefano 
Rotondo and the Villa Mattei. 9. P. Latina, 
now walled up. 10. P. Appia, now Porta S. 
Pancrazio. The roads through this gate and 
through No. 9 both led to the old Porta Capena. 
11. P. Ostiensis, leading to Ostia, now Porta S. 
Paolo. On the western side, 12. P. Portuensis, 

747 



! 



ROMA. 

<jn tne other side of the Tiber, near the river, 
from which issued the road to Portus. 13. A 
second P. Aurelia, on the western slope of the 
Janiculus, now Porta S. Pancrazio. 14. P. Sep- 
timiana, near the Tiber, which was destroyed 
by Alexander VI. — E. Bridges. There were 
eight bridges across the Tiber, which probably 
ran in the following order from north to south : 

1. Pons Mlius, which was built by Hadrian, and 
led from the city to the mausoleum of that em- 
peror, now the bridge and castle of St. Angelo. 

2. P. Neronianus, or Vaticanus, which led from 
the Campus Martius to the Vatican and the gar- 
dens of Caligula and Nero. The remains of its 
piers may still be seen, when the waters of the 
Tiber are low, at the back of the Hospital of 
San Spirito. 3. P. Aurelius, sometimes, but 
erroneously, called Janiculensis, which led to 
the Janiculus and the Porta Aurelia. It occu- 
pied the site of the present " Ponte Sisto," 
which was built by Sixtus IV. upon the ruins of 
the old bridge. 4, 5. P. Fabricius and P. Ces- 
tius, the two bridges which connected the In- 
sula Tiberina with the opposite sides of the 
river, the former with the city, the latter with 
the Janiculus. Both are still remaining. The 
P. Fabricius, which was built by one L. Fabri- 
cius, curator viarum, a short time before the 
conspiracy of Catiline, now bears the name of 
" Ponte Qnattro Capi." The P. Cestius, which 
was built at a much later age, is now called 
" Ponte S. Bartolommeo." 6. P. Senalorius or 
Palatinus, below the island of the Tiber, form- 
ed the communication between the Palatine 
and its neighborhood and the Janiculus. 7. P. 
Sublicius, the oldest of the Roman bridges, said 
to have been built by Ancus Marcius when he 
erected a fort on the Janiculus. It was built 
of wood, whence its name, which comes from 
sullices, " wooden beams." It was carried 
away several times by the river, but from a 
feeling of religious respect was always rebuilt 
of wood down to the latest times. 8. P. Mil- 
vius or Mulvius, now " Ponte Molle," was sit- 
uated outside the city, north of the P. ^Elius, 
and was built by JEmilius Scaurus the censor. — 
F. Interior of the City. I. Fora and Campi. 
The Fora were open spaces of ground, paved 
with stones, surrounded by. buildings, and used 
as market places, or for the transaction of pub- 
lic business. An account of the Fora is given 
elsewhere. Vid. Forum. The Campi were 
also open spaces of ground, but much larger, 
covered with grass, planted with trees, and 
adorned with works of art. They were used 
by the people as places of exercise and amuse- 
ment, and may be compared with the London 
parks. These Campi were, 1. Campus Mar- 
tius, the open plain lying between the city walls 
and the Tiber, of which the southern part, in 
the neighborhood of the Circus Flaminius, was 
called Campus Flaminius, or Prata Flaminia. 
This plain, which was by far the most celebrated 
of all, is spoken of separately. Vid. Campus 
Martius. 2. Campus Sceleratus, close to the 
Porta Collina and within the walls of Servius, 
where the vestals who had broken their vows 
of chastity were entombed alive. 3. Campus 
Agripptz, probably on the southwestern slope 
of the Pincian Hill, east of the Campus Martius, 
on tlie right of the Corso, and north of the Piazza 

748 



ROMA. | 

degli Apostoli. 4. Campus Esquilinus, outside 
of the agger of Servius and near the Porta Es- 
quilina, where criminals were executed, and 
the lower classes were buried. The greatei 
part of this plain was afterward converted into j 
pleasure grounds belonging to the palace of 1 
Maecenas. 5. Campus Viminalis, on the east- 
ern slope of the Viminal, near the Villa Negroni. 
— II. Streets and Districts. There are said 
to have been, in all, two hundred and fifteen 
streets in Rome. The broad streets were call- 
ed Via and Vici;* the narrow streets Angipor- 
tus. The chief streets were, 1. Via Sacra, the 
principal street in Rome. It began near the 
Sacellum Streniae, in the valley between the 
Caslian and the Esquiline, and, leaving the Fla- 
vian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) on the left, ran 
along the northern slope of the Palatine, pass- 
ing under the arch of Titus, and past the Forum 
Romanum, till it reached the Capitol. 2. Via 
Lata, led from the northern side of the Capitol 
and the Porta Ratumena to the Porta Flaminia, 
whence the northern part of it was called Via 
Flaminia. 3. Via Nova, by the side of the west- 
ern slope of the Palatine, led from the ancient 
Porta Romanula and the Velabrum to the Forum, 
and was connected by a side street with the Via 
Sacra. 4. Vicus Jugarius, led from the Porta 
Carmentalis, under the Capitol, to the Forum 
Romanum, which it entered near the Basilica 
Julia and the Lacus Servilius. 5. Vicus Tuscus, 
connected the Velabrum with the Forum, run- 
ning west of, and nearly parallel with, the Via 
Nova. It contained a great number of shops, 
where articles of luxury were sold, and its in- 
habitants did not possess the best of characters 
(Tusci turba impia vici, Hor., Sat., ii., 3, 228). 
6. Vicus Cyprius, ran from the Forum to the 
Esquiline. The upper part of it, turning on the 
right to the Urbius Clivus, was called Scelera- 
tus Vicus, because Tullia here drove her chariot 
over the corpse of her father Servius. 7. Vicus 
Patricius, in the valley between the Esquiline 
and the Viminal, in the direction of the modern 
Via Urbana and Via di S. Pudenziana. 8. Vicus 
Africus, in the district of the Esquiline, but the 
exact situation of which can not be determined, 
said to have been so called because African 
hostages were kept here during the first Punic 
war. 9. Vicus Sandalarius, also in the district 
of the Esquiline, extending as far as the heights 
of the Carinas. Besides the shops of the shoe- 
makers, from whom it derived its name, it con- 
tained several booksellers' shops. 10. Vicus 
Vitriarius or Vitrarius, in the southeastern part 
of the city, near the Porta Capena. 11. Vicus 
Longus, in the Vallis Quirini, between the Quir- 
inal and Viminal, now S. Vitale. 12. Caput 
Africa, near the Colosseum, the modern Via de 
S. Quattro Coronati. 13. Subura or Suburra, a 
district, through which a street of the same 
name ran, was the whole valley between the 
Esquiline, Quirinal, and Viminal. It was one 
of the most frequented parts of the town, and 
contained a great number of shops and brothels 
14. Velia, a height near the Forum, which ex 
tended from the Palatine, near the srch of Ti- 
tus, to the Esquiline, and which separated the 

* Vicus properly signified a quarter of the city, but the 
principal street in a vicus was frequently called, by the 
name of the vicus to which it belonged. 



ROMA. 

j valley of the Forum from that of the Colosseum. 
On the Velia were situated the Basilica of Con- 
stantine and the temple of Venus and Rome. 
15. Carina, a district on the southwestern part 
of the Esquiline, or the modern height of S. 
Pietro in Vincoli, where Pompey, Cicero, and 
many distinguished Romans lived. 16. Vela- 
brtim, a district on the western slope of the 
Palatine, between the Vicus Tuscus and the 
Forum Boarium, was originally a morass. 17. 
Mquimelium, a place at the eastern foot of the 
| Capitol and by the side of the Vicus Jugarius, 
where the house of Sp. Maelius once stood. 
I (Vid. p. 467, b.) 18. Argiletum, a district of un- 
certain site, but probably at the southern ex- 
I * tremity of the Quirinal, between the Subura, the 
Forum of Nerva, and the Temple of Peace. 
The etymology of the name is uncertain ; some 
of the ancients derived it from argilla, " white 
clay;" others from a hero Argus, a friend of 
Evander, who is said to have been buried here. 
19. Lautumia, a district near the Argiletum and 
the Forum Piscatorium, on which subsequently 
j the Basilica Porcia was built. In this district 
was one of the state prisons, called Lautumia, 
or Career Lautumiarum. — III. Temples. There 
are said to have been four hundred temples in 
Rome. Of these the following, enumerated for 
the most part in chronological order, were the 
principal: 1. Templum Jovis Feretrii, on the 
Capitoline, the oldest of all the Roman temples, 
built, according to tradition, by Romulus, and 
restored by Augustus. 2. T. Fidei, likewise on 
the Capitoline, built by Numa, and restored suc- 
cessively by A. Atilius Collatinus and M. JSmil- 
ius Scaurus. 3. T. Jani, also called Janus Bi- 
frons or Biformis, Janus Geminus, and Janus 
Quirinus, also built by Numa, was, properly 
speaking, not a temple, but a passage with an 
extrance at each end, the gates of which were 
opened during war and closed in times of peace. 
It was situated northeast of the Forum toward 
the Quirinal. There were also other temples 
of Janus at Rome, of which one was near the 
Theatre of Marcellus, and the other near the 
Forum of Nerva. 4. Mdes Vesta, a round tem- 
ple built by Numa, in the southern part of the 
forum, or on the slope of the Palatine adjoining 
the Regia Numa, probably near Sta Maria Lib- 
eratrice. The Atrium Vesta, also called Atrium 
Regium, probably formed a part of the Regia 
Numae, which may be regarded as forming a 
portion of the building sacred to Vesta. 5. T. 
Diana, on the Aventine, which hill is hence 
called by Martial Collis Diana, built by Servius 
Tullius, as the place of meeting for the Romans 
and the members of the Latin league, and re- 
stored by Augustus, probably near the modern 
church S. Prisca. 6. T. Luna, frequently con- 
founded with the preceding, also built by Servius 
; Tullius, and on the Aventine, probably on the 
] side adjoining the Circus. 7. T. Jovis, usually 
| called the Capitolium, situated on the southern 
I summit of the Capitoline Hill, was vowed by 
Tarquinius Priscus and built by Tarquinius Su- 
perbus. It was the most magnificent of all the 
temples in Rome, and is described elsewhere. 
Vid. Capitolium. 8. T. Saturni, which was also 
used as the^Erarium, on the Clivus Capitolinus 
and by the Forum, to which it is supposed that the 
bree pillars in the Forum belong. It was built by 



ROMA. 

Tarquinius Superbus, and restored successively 
by L. Munatius Plancus and Septimius Severus. 
9. Mdes Castoris or T. Castoris et Pollucis, by the 
Forum, near the fountain of Juturna, in which 
the senate frequently assembled. It was vowed 
by the dictator A. Postumius in the great battle 
with the Latins near the Lake Regillus, and was 
successively restored by L. Metellus Dalmati- 
cus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius. 10. T. 
Mercurii, between the Ci reus Maximus and the 
Aventine. 11. T. Cereris, on the slope of the 
Aventine, near the circus. 12. T. Ap'olliiiis, be- 
tween the Circus Maximus and the theatre of 
Marcellus, near the Porticus Octaviae, where the 
senate often assembled. 13. T. Junonis Re- 
gina, on the Aventine. 14. T. Martis Exlra- 
muranei, before the Porta Capena, on the Via 
Appia. 15. T. Junonis Moneta, on the area of 
the Capitoline, where the house of M. Manlius 
had stood. 16. T. Junonis Lucina, on the west- 
ern summit of the Esquiline. 17. T. Concor- 
dia, on the slope of the Capitoline, above the 
Forum, in which the senate frequently assem- 
bled. There were probably two temples of Con- 
cordia, both by the Forum, of which the more 
ancient was consecrated by Camillus, and the 
other by L. Opimius after the death of C. Grac- 
chus. The remains of the ancient temple of 
Concordia are to be seen behind the arch of Sep- 
timius Severus. 18. T. Salutis, on the slope of 
the Quirinal, near the Porta Salutaris, adorned 
with paintings by Fabius Pictor, burned down in 
the reign of Claudius. 19. T. Bellona, before 
the Circus Flaminius, and near the confines of 
the Campus Martius, in which the senate as- 
sembled in order to give audience to foreign 
ambassadors, and to receive applications from 
generals who solicited the honor of a triumph. 
20. T. Jovis Victoris, on the Palatine, between the 
Domus Augusti and the Curia Vetus. 21. T. 
Victoria, on the summit of the Palatine, or the 
Clivus Victoria?, above the Porta Romanula and 
the circus, in which the statue of the mother of 
the gods was at first preserved. 22. T. Magna 
Matris Idaa, near the preceding and the Casa 
Romuli, in which the above-named statue of the 
goddess was placed thirteen years after its ar- 
rival in Rome. 23. T. Jovis Slatoris, near the 
arch of Titus on the Via Sacra, where the senate 
frequently assembled. 24. T. Quirini, on the 
Quirinal, where also the senate frequently as- 
sembled, enlarged and adorned by Augustus. 
25. T. Fortuna, built by Servius Tullius in the 
Forum Boarium. 26. T. Mseulapii, in the isl- 
and of the Tiber, which was called after it, In- 
sula iEsculapii. 27. T. Mentis and Veneris Ery- 
cina, both of which were built at the same time, 
and close to one another, on the Capitoline. 
There was also another temple of Venus Ery- 
cina before the Porta Collina. 28. T. Honoris 
and Virtutis, which were built, close to one an 
other, near the Porta Capena and Via Appia, by 
Marcellus, and adorned with Greek works of art 
brought from Syracuse. 29. T. Jovis, in the isl 
and of the Tiber, near the temple of yEscnlapius 
30. T. Fauni, in the island of the Tiber. 31. T 
Spei, in the Forum Olitorium. 32. T. Junonis 
Sospita or Matuta, in the Forum Olitorium, near 
the theatre of Marcellus. 33. T. Pietatis, in the 
Forum Olitorium, which was pulled down in or- 
der to make room for the theatre of Marcellus. 

749 



ROMA. 

84. Mdes Fortuna Equestris, in the Campus Fla- 
minius, near the theatre of Pompey, built by 
Fuivius Flaecus, the roof of which, made of 
marble, was brought from a temple of Juno Lu- 
cina in Bruttium. It was probably burned down 
in the reign of Augustus or Tiberius, since in 
A.D. 22 we are told there was no temple of 
Fortuna Equestris at Rome. There were other 
temples of Fortuna on the Palatine, Quirinal, 
&c. 35. Mdes Herculis Musarum, close to the 
Porticus Octaviae, and between the theatre of 
Marcellus and the Circus Flaminius, built by M. 
Fuivius Nobilior, and adorned with the statues 
of the Muses brought from Ambracia. 36. T. 
Honoris et Virtutis, built by Marius, but of un- 
certain site : some modern writers suppose it to 
have been on the Esquiline, others on the Capi- 
toline. 37. T. Marlis, in the Campus Martius, 
near the Circus Flaminius, built by D. Brutus 
Callaicus, and adorned with a colossal statue 
of *he god. 38. T. Veneris Genetricis, in the 
Forum of Caesar, before which Caesar's equestri- 
an statue was placed. 39. T. Martis Ultoris, in 
the Forum of Augustus, to which belong the 
three splendid Corinthian pillars near the con- 
vent S. Annunziata. 40. T. Apollinis, on the 
Palatine, surrounded by a porticus, in which was 
the celebrated Palatine library. 41. Pantheon, 
a celebrated temple in the Campus Martius, built 
by Agrippa : it is described in a separate arti- 
cle. Vid. Pantheon. 42. T. Augusti, founded 
by Tiberius and completed by Caligula, on the 
slope of the Palatine toward the Via Nova. It 
stood before the temple of Minerva, from which 
it was probably separated by the Via Nova. 

43. T. Pacts, one of the most splendid temples 
in the city, built by Vespasian on the Velia. 

44. T. Isidis et Serapidis, in the third Regio, 
which was named after the temple. 45. T. Ves- 
pasiani et Titi, in the Forum alongside of the 
temple of Concordia. 46. T. Antonini et Faus- 
tina., at the further end of the northern side of 
the Forum, under the Velia. The remains of this 
temple are in the modern church of S. Lorenzo 
in Miranda. 47. T. Minerva, on the southern 
side of the Forum, behind the temple of Au- 
gustus, built by Domitian. 48. T. Bona Dea, 
a very ancient temple on a spot of the Aventine, 
which was called Saxum Sacrum, but removed 
by Hadrian, undoubtedly on the southeastern 
side of the hill, opposite the heights of S. Sabba 
and S. Balbina. 49. T. Roma et Veneris, subse- 
quently called T. Urbis, a large and splendid 
temple, built by Hadrian, between the Esquiline 
and Palatine, northeast of the Colosseum. It 
was burned down in the reign of Maxentius, but 
was subsequently restored. Its remains are be- 
tween the Colosseum and the Church of S. Maria 
or S. Francesca Romana. 50. T. Solis, at the 
upper end of the Circus Maximus. 51. T. Her- 
culis, in the Forum Boarium, probably the round 
temple still extant of S. Maria del Sole, which 
used to be erroneously regarded as the temple 
of Vesta. There was another temple of Her- 
cules by the Circus Maximus, near the Porta 
Trigemina. 52. T. Solis, a splendid temple, 
built by Aurelian, east of the Quirinal. 53. T. 
Flora, an ancient temple on the southern point 
of the Quirinal, but the time of its foundation is 
not recorded. 54. Vulcanale was not a temple, 
but only an area dedicated to the god, with an 

75fl 



ROMA. 

altar, on the northern side of the Forum above 
the Comitium : it was so large that not only 
were the Curia Hostilia and theiEdes Concordia; 
built there, but also a fish-market was held in | 
the place. — IV. Circi. The Circi were pltu.es 
for chariot-races and horse-races. 1. Circus \ 
Maximus, frequently called simply the Circus, s 
was founded by Tarquinius Priscus, in the plain | 
between the Palatine and Aventine, and was j 
successively enlarged by Julius Caesar and Tra- 
jan. Under the emperors it contained seats for j; 
three hundred and eighty-five thousand persons. 
It was restored by Constantine the Great, and If 
games were celebrated in it as late as the sixth :, 
century. 2. C. Flaminius, erected by Flaminius 
in B.C. 221, in the Prata Flaminia, before the 'i 
Porta Carmentalis ; it was not sufficiently large | 
for the population of Rome, and was therefore S 
seldom used. 3. C. Neronis, erected by Caligula ! : 
in the gardens of Agrippina on the other side of |j 
the Tiber. There was also another C. Neronis S 
on the other side of the Tiber, near the Moles . 
Hadriani, in the gardens of Domitia. 4. C. Pal- B 
atinus, on the Palatine, in which the Ludi Pala- u 
tini were celebrated. There are traces of it in 
the Orto Roncioni, on the southern part of the j' 
hill. 5. C. Heliogabali, in the gardens of this 1 
emperor, behind the Amphitheatrum Castrense, i 
at the eastern point of the Aurelian Walls. 6. C. 
Maxentii, commonly called Circo di Caracalla, 
before the Porta Appia, in the southern part of 
the city. Among the Circi we may reckon, 
7. The Stadium, likewise called C. Agonalis and |i 
C. Alexandri, in the Campus Martius, erected by t 
Domitian in place of the wooden stadium built 
by Augustus. It contained seats for thirty-three I 
thousand eight hundred and eighty-eight per- 
sons. Its remains still exist in the Piazza Na- i 
vona. — V. Theatres. Theatres were not built : 
at Rome till a comparatively late period, and 
long after the Circi. At first they were only ; 
made of wood for temporary purposes, and were i 
afterward broken up; but many of these wood- (1 
en theatres were, notwithstanding, constructed n 
with great magnificence. The splendid wooden ! 
theatre ofM. ^Emilius Scaurus was capable of j 
containing eighty thousand spectators. l.Thea- h 
trum Pompeii, the first permanent stone theatre, | 
was erected by Cneius Pompey, B.C. 55, in the (■ 
Campus Martius, northeast of the Circus Fla- !^ 
minius, after the model of the theatre of Myti- i-j 
lene. It contained seats for forty thousand spec- 1 
tators. It was restored successively by Au- 
gustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Diocletian, and The- i 
odoric. Its ruins are by the Palazzo Pio, not 1 
far from the Campo di Fiore. 2. Th. Cornclii 
Balbi, southeast of'the preceding, near the Tiber, 
on the site of the Palazzo Cenci. It was dedi- 
cated by Cornelius Balbus in B.C. 13, was partly J 
burned down under Titus, but was subsequently 
restored. It contained seats for eleven thou- 
sand six hundred persons. 3. Th. Marcclli, in 
the Forum Olitorium, west of the preceding, be- : 
tween the slope of the Capitoline and the island 
of the Tiber, on the site of the temple of Pietas. 
It was begun by Julius Caesar, and dedicated 
by Augustus, in B.C. 13, to the memory of his 
nephew Marcellus. It was restored by Vespa- j 
sian, and perhaps also by Alexander Severus. 
It contained seats for twenty thousand specta- 
tors. The remains of its cavea exist near the 



ROMA. 



ROMA. 



Piazza Montanara. These were the only three 
theatres at Rome, whence Ovid speaks of tcrna 
ciiedlra. There was, however, an Odeum or 
concert-house, which may be classed among the 
theatres. 4. Odeum, in the Campus Martius, 
built by Domitian, though some writers attribute 
its erection to Trajan. It contained seats for 
about eleven thousand persons. — VI. Amphi- 
theatres. The amphitheatres, like the thea- 
tres, were originally made of wood for tempo- 
rary purposes. They were used for the shows 
i of gladiators and wild beasts. The first wooden 
amphitheatre was built by C. Scribonius Curio 
i (the celebrated partisan of Caesar), and the next 
by Julius Caesar during his perpetual dictator- 
ship, B.C. 46. 1. Amph. Slatilii Tauri, in the 
Campus Martius, was the first stone amphithe- 
atre in Rome, and was built by Statilius Taurus, 
B.C. 30. This edifice was the only one of the 
kind until the building of the Flavian amphi- 
theatre. It did not satisfy Caligula, who eom- 
Hienced an amphitheatre near the Septa ; but 
the work was not continued by Claudius. Nero 
too, A.D. 57, erected a vast amphitheatre of 
wood, but this was only a temporary building. 
The amphitheatre of Taurus was destroyed in 
the burning of Rome, A.D. 64, and was proba- 
| ply never restored, as it is not again mentioned. 
2. Amph. Flavium, or, as it has been called since 
the time of Bede, the Colosseum or Colisceum, a 
name said to be derived from the Colossus of 
Nero, which stood close by. It was situated in 
the valley between the Caelius, the Esquiline, 
and the Velia, on the marshy ground which was 
previously the pond of Nero's palace. It was 
I commenced by Vespasian, and was completed 
; by Titus, who dedicated it in A.D. 80, when five 
I thousand animals of different kinds were slaugh- 
tered. This wonderful building, of which there 
are still extensive remains, covered nearly six 
acres of ground, and furnished seats for eighty- 
seven thousand spectators. In the reign of 
Macrinus it was struck by lightning, and so 
much damage was done to it that the games 
were for some years celebrated in the Stadium. 
Its restoration was commenced by Elagabalus, 
and completed by Alexander Severus. -3. Amph. 
Castrense, at the southeast of the Aurelian Walls. 
— VII. Naumachi^e. These were buildings of a 
kind similar to the amphitheatres. They were 
used for representations of sea-fights, and con- 
sisted of artificial lakes or ponds, with stone 
seats around them to accommodate the specta- 
tors. 1. Naumachia Julii Ceesaris, in the middle 
part of the Campus Martius, called the " Lesser 
Codeta." This lake was filled up in the time 
of Augustus, so that we find in later writers 
mention of only two naumachia?. 2. N. Au- 
gusti, constructed by Augustus on the other side 
| of the Tiber, under the Janiculus, and near the 
; Porta Portuensis. It was subsequently called 
| the Vetus Naumachia, to distinguish it from the 
following one. 3. TV. Domitiani, constructed by 
the Emperor Domitian, probably on the other 
side of the Tiber, under the Vatican and the 
. Circus Neronis. — Vltl. Thermae. The thermae 
were some of the most magnificent buildings of 
imperial Rome. They were distinct from the 
Balnea, or common baths, of which there were 
a great number at Rome. In the thermae the 
baths constituted- a small part of the building. 



They were, properly speaking, a Roman iidapta 
tion of the Greek ■gymnasia, and besides thfc 
baths, they contained places for athletic games 
and youthful sports, exedrae or public halls, por- 
ticoes and vestibules for the idle, and libraries 
for the learned. They were decorated with 
the finest objects of art, and adorned with 
fountains, and shaded walks and plantations. 
1. Thermo. Agrippce, in the Campus Martius, 
erected by M. Agrippa. The Pantheon, still 
existing, is supposed by some, but without suf- 
ficient reason, to have served originally as a 
vestibule to these Thermal.. 2. Th. Neronis, 
erected by Nero in the Campus Martius, along- 
side of the Thermae of Agrippa : they were 
restored by Alexander Severus, and were from 
that time called Th. Alexandrina. 3. Th. Titi, 
on the Esquiline, near the amphitheatre of 
this emperor, of which there are still consid- 
erable remains. 4. Th. Trajani, also on the 
Esquiline, immediately behind the two pre- 
ceding, toward the northeast. 5. Th. Com- 
modiancs and Th. Severiana, close to one an- 
other, near S. Balbina, in the southeastern 
part of the city. 6. Th. Antoninianm, also in 
the southeastern part of the city, behind the 
two preceding, one of the most magnificent of 
all the Thermae, in which two thousand three 
hundred men could bathe at the same time. 
The greater part of it was built by Caracalla, 
and it was completed by Elagabalus and Alex- 
ander Severus. There are still extensive re- 
mains of this immense building below S. Bal- 
bina. 7. Th. Diocletiani, in the northeastern 
part of the city, between the Agger of Servius 
and the Viminal and Quirinai. It was the most 
extensive of all the Thermae, containing a li- 
brary, picture gallery, Odeum, &c, and such im- 
mense baths that three thousand men could 
bathe in them at the same time. There are 
still extensive remains of this building near S. 
Maria d'Angeli. 8. Th. Constantini, on the Qui- 
rinai, on the site of the modern Palazzo Ros- 
pigliosi, but of which all traces have disappear 
ed. The following Thermae were smaller and 
less celebrated. 9. Th. Deciana, on the Aven- 
tine. 10. Th. Surance, erected by Trajan to the 
memory of his friend Sulpicius Sura, also in the 
neighborhood of the Aventine, probably the same 
as the Th. Variants. 11. Th. Philippi, near S. 
Matteo in Merulana. 12. Th. Agrippina, on the 
Viminal, behind S. Lorenzo. 13. Th. Caii et 
Lucii, on the Esquiline, called in the Middle 
Ages the Terme di Galluccio.— IX. Basilica. 
The Basilicae were buildings which served as 
courts of law, and exchanges or places of meet- 
ing for merchants and men of business. 1. Ba- 
silica Porcia, erected by M. Porcius Cato, in the 
Forum adjoining the Curia, B.C. 184. It waa 
burned down along with the Curia in the riots 
which followed the death of Clodius, 52. 2. 
B. Fulvia, also called Mmilia et Fulvid, because 
it was built by the censors L. .-Emilius Lepidus 
and M. Fulvius Nobilior in 179. It was situ- 
ated in the Forum near the preceding one. It 
was restored by ^Emilius Paulus in the time of 
Caesar, and was hence called B. Mmilia or Pauli 
It was dedicated by his son PaulusiEmilius Lep- 
idus in his consulship, 34. It was burned down 
twenty years afterward (14), and was rebuilt 
nominal!'" by Paulus Lepidus, but in reality bv 

7»V 



I 



ROMA 



ROMA. 



Augustus and the friends of Paulus. The new- 
building was a most magnificent one ; its col- 
umns of Phrygian marble were especially cele- 
brated. It was repaired by another Lepidus in 
the reign of Tiberius, A.D. 22. 3. B. Scmpronia, 
built by Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, B.C. 171, in 
the Forum at the end of the Vicus Tuscus. 4. 
B. Opimia, in the Forum near the temple of Con- 
cordia. 5. B. Julia, commenced by Julius Cae- 
sar and finished by Augustus, in the Forum be- 
tween the temples of Castor and Saturn, prob- 
ably on the site of the B. Sempronia mentioned 
above. Some writers suppose that ^Emilius 
Paulus built two Basilicas, and that the B. Julia 
occupied the site of one of them. 6. B. Argen- 
taria, in the Forum near the Clivus Argentarius 
and before the temple of Concordia, probably 
the same as the one mentioned under the name 
of B. Vascularia. The remains of this building 
are behind S. Martina, alongside of the Salita 
di Marforio. 7. B. Ulpia, in the middle of the 
Forum of Trajan, of which there are still con- 
siderable remains. 8. B. Constantiana, between 
the temple of Peace and the temple of Rome 
and Venus. — X. Porticoes. The porticoes 
(Porticus) were covered walks, supported by 
columns, and open on one side. There were 
several public porticoes at Rome, many of them 
of great size, which were used as places of rec- 
reation, and for the transaction of business. 
1. Porlicus Pompeii, adjoining the theatre of 
Pompey, and erected to afford s'aelter to the 
spectators in the theatre during a shower of 
rain. It was restored by Diocletian, and was 
hence called P. Jovia. 2. P. Argonautarum, or 
Nrptuni or Agrippa, erected by Agrippa in the 
Campus Martius around the temple of Neptune, 
and adorned with a celebrated painting of the 
Argonauts. 3. P. Philippi, by the side of the 
T. HerculisMusarum and the Porticus Octavia?, 
built by M. Philippus, the father-in-law of Au- 
gustus, and adorned with splendid works of art. 
4. P. Minucii, in the Campus Martius, near the 
Circus Flaminius, built by Q. Minucius Rufus 
in B.C. 109, to commemorate his victories over 
the Scordisci and Triballi in the preceding year. 
There appear to have been two porticoes of this 
name, since we find mention of a Minucia Vetus 
et Frumentaria. It appears that the tesserae, or 
tickets, which entitled persons to a share in the 
public distributions of corn, were given to them 
in tber P. Minucia. 5. P. Metelli, built by Q. 
Metellus after his triumph over Perseus, king 
of Macedonia, B.C. 146. It was situated in the 
Campus Martius, between the Circus Flaminius 
and the theatre of Marcellus, and surrounded 
the two temples of Jupiter Stator and Juno Re- 
gina. 6. P. Octavia, built by Augustus on the 
site of the P. Metelli just mentioned, in honor 
of his sister Octavia. It was a magnificent 
building, containing a vast number of works of 
art and a pnolic library, in which the senate 
frequently assembled ; hence it is sometimes 
called Curia Octavia. It was burned down in 
the reign of Titus. Its ruins are near the church 
of S. Angelo in Pescaria. 7. P. Octavia, which 
must be carefully distinguished from the P. Oc- 
taviae just mentioned, was built by Cn. Octa- 
vius, who commanded the Roman fleet in the 
war against Perseus, king of Macedonia. It 
•vas situated in the Campus Martius, between 
752 



the theatre of Pompey and the Circus Flaminius 
It was rebuilt by Augustus, and contained two 
rows of columns of the Corinthian order, with 
brazen capitals, whence it was also called P 
Corinthia. 8. P. Europce, probably at the foot 
of the Pincius, in which the foot-races took 
place. 9. P. Polo., built by the sister of Agrippa 
in the Campus Agrippas, in which also foot- 
races took place. 10. P. Livia, on the Esqui- 
line, surrounding a temple of Concordia. 11. 
P. Julia, or P. Caii ct Lucii, built by Julia in 
honor of these two sons of Agrippa, was prob- 
ably also situated on the Esquiline near the 
Thermae Caii et Lucii. The following porticoes 
were less celebrated : 12. P. Vipsania, supposed 
by some writers to be only a later- name of the 
P. Argonautarum. 13. P. Claudia, on the Es 
quiline. — XL Triumphal Arches. The tri- 
umphal arches (Arcus) were structures peculiar 
to the Romans, and were erected by victorious 
generals in commemoration of their victories. 
They were built across the principal streets of 
the city, and, according to the space of their re- 
spective localities, consisted either of a single 
arch-way, or of a central one for carriages, with 
two smaller ones on each side for foot pas- 
sengers. Ancient writers mention twenty-one 
arches in the city of Rome. Of these the most 
important were, 1. Arcus Fabianus, also called 
Fornix Fabianus, near the beginning of the Via 
Sacra, built by Fabius Maximus in B.C. 121, in 
commemoration of his victory over the Allo- 
broges. 2. A. Drusi, erected by the senate in 
B.C. 9, in honor of Nero Claudius Drusus. It 
was situated on the Via Appia, and still exists, 
forming the inner gate of the Porta di S. Sebas- i 
tiano. 3. A. Augusti, in the Forum near the 
house of Julius Caesar. 4. A. Tiberii, near the 
temple of Saturn, on the Clivus Capitolinus, J 
erected by Tiberius, A.D. 16, in honor of the 
victories of Germanicus in Germany. 5. A. 
Claudii, in the plain east of the Quirinal, erect- i 
ed A.D. 51, to commemorate the victories of 
Claudius in Britain. Remains of it have been 
dug up at the beginning of the Piazza di Sciarra, 
by the Via di Pietra. 6. A. Till, in the middle 
of the Via Sacra, at the foot of the Palatine, 
which still exists. It was erected to the honor | 
of Titus, after his conquest of Judaea, but was 
not finished till after his death, since in the 
inscription upon it he is called " Divus," and he 
is also represented as being carried up to heaven 
upon an eagle. The bas-reliefs of this arch rep- 
resent the spoils from the temple of Jerusalem j 
carried in triumphal procession. 7. A. Trajani, 
in the Forum of this emperor, at the point where 
you enter it from the Forum of Augustus. 8. A. 
Vcri, on the Via Appia, erected to the honor of 
Verus after his victory over the Parthians. 9. 
A. Marci Aurclii, in the seventh Regio, probably j 
erected to commemorate the victory of this em- 
peror over the Marcomanni. It existed under 
different names near the Piazzo Fiano down to 
1662, when it was broken up by order of Alex- 
ander VII. 10. A. Scptimii Scvcri, in the Forum 
at the end of the Via Sacra and the Clivus Cap- 
itolinus, before the temple of Concordia, and still 
extant near the church of SS. Sergio e Bacco, 
was erected by the senate, A.D. 203, in honor ■ 
of Septimius Severus and his two sons, Cara- 
calla and Geta, on account of his victories over i 



ROMA. 

the Parthians and Arabians. 11. A. Gordiani, 
on the Esquiline. 12. A. Gallieni, erected to 
the honor of Gallienus by a private individual, 
M. Aurelius Victor, also on the Esquiline, south- 
east of the Porta Esquilina. It is still extant 
near the Church of S. Vito.. 13. A. Diocleiiani, 
probably identical with the A. Novus in the sev- 
enth Regio. 14. A. Constantini, at the entrance 
to the valley between the Palatine and the Cae- 
lius, is still extant. It was erected by the sen- 
ate in honor of Constantine after his victory 
over Maxentius, A.D. 312. It is profusely or- 
namented, and many of the bas-reliefs which 
adorn it were taken from one of the arches 
erected in the time of Trajan. 15. A. Theodo- 
siani, Graham et Valentinia.ni opposite the Pons 
^Elius and the Moles Hadriani. — XII. Curi/e or 
Senate-Houses. 1. Curia Hostilia, frequently 
called Curia simply, was built by Tullus Hos- 
tilius, and was used as the ordinary place of 
assembly for the senate down to the time of 
Julius Caesar. It stood in the Forum, on the 
northern side of the Comitium. It was burned 
to the ground in the riots which followed the 
death of Clodius, B.C. 52. It was, however, 
soon rebuilt, the direction of the work being in- 
trusted to Faustus, the son of the dictator Sulla ; 
but scarcely had it been finished, when the sen* 
ate, at the suggestion of Caesar, decreed that it 
should be destroyed, and a temple of Fortune 
erected on its site., while a new curia should 
be erected, which should bear the name of Julia. 
(Vid. below.) 2. C. Pompeia or Pompeii, attach- 
ed to the Portico of Pompey in the Campus 
Martius. It was in this curia that Caesar was 
assassinated on the Ides of March. 3. C. Julia, 
the decree for the erection of which has been 
mentioned above, was finished and consecrated 
by Augustus. It did not stand on the site of 
the Curia Hostilia, as many modern writers 
have supposed, but at the southwestern angle 
of the Comitium, between the temple of Vesta 
and that of Castor and Pollux. 4. C. Pompili- 
ana, built by Domitian and restored by Diocle- 
tian, was the usual place of the senate's meet- 
ing from the time of Domitian. It was situated 
alongside of the temple of Janus, which was 
said to have been built by Numa Pompilius, 
whence this curia was called Pompiliana. — 
XIII. Prisons. There were two public prisons 
(carceres) in Rome. The more ancient one, 
called Career Mamcrtinus (a name, however, 
which does not occur in any ancient author), 
was built by Ancus Maicius on the slope of the 
Capitoline overhanging the Forum. It was en- 
larged by Servius Tullius, who added to it a 
dismal subterranean dungeon, called from him 
Tullianum, where the conspirators of Catiline 
were put to death. This dungeon was twelve 
feet under ground, walled on each side, and 
arched over with stone- work. It is still extant, 
and serves as a subterranean chapel to a small 
church built on the spot called S. Pietro in Car- 
cere. Near this prison were the Scaler. Gcmonia 
or steps, down which the boues of those who 
had been executed were thrown into the Forum, 
to be exposed to the gaze of the Roman popu- 
lace. The other state prison was called Lau- 
tumice, and was probably situated toward the 
northern side of the Forum, near the . Curia 
Hostilia and Basilica Porcia. Some writers, 
48 



ROMA. 

however, suppose Lautumiae to be only anothei 
name of the Career Mamertinus. — XIV. Castra 
or Barracks. 1. Casira Pretoria, in the north- 
eastern corner of the city, on the slope of the 
Quirinal and Viminal, and beyond the Thermae 
of Diocletian, were built by the Emperor Tibe- 
rius in the form of a Roman camp. Here the 
praetorian troops or imperial guards were always 
quartered. 2. Castra Peregrina, on the Caelius, 
probably built by Septimius Severus for the use 
of the foreign troops, who might serve as a coun- 
terpoise against the praetorians. — XV. Aque- 
ducts. The aqueducts (Aquerduclus) supplied 
Rome with an abundance of pure water Irom 
the hills which surround the Campagna. The 
Romans at first had recourse to the Tiber and 
to wells sunk in the city. It was not till B.C. 
313 that the first aque.duct was constructed, but 
their number was gradually increased till they 
amounted to fourteen in the time of Procopius, 
that is, the sixth century of the Christian era. 
1. Aqua Appia, was begun by the censor Ap- 
pius Claudius Caecus in B.C. 313. Its sources 
were near the Via Praenestina, between the 
seventh and eighth mile-stones, and its termina- 
tion was at the Salinae by the Porta Trigemina. 
Its length was eleven thousand one hundred 
and ninety passus, for eleven thousand one 
hundred and thirty of which it was carried un- 
der the earth, and for the remaining sixty pas- 
sus, within the city, from the Porta Capena to 
the Porta Trigemina, it was on arches. No 
traces of it remain. 2. Anio Vetus, commenced 
B.C. 273, by the censor M'. Curius Dentatus, 
and finished by M. Fulvius Flaccus. The wa- 
ter was derived from the River Anio, above Ti- 
bur, at a distance of twenty Roman miles from 
the city; but, on account of its windings, its ac- 
tual length was forty-three miles, of which length 
less than a quarter of a mile only (viz., two 
hundred and twenty-one passus) was above the 
ground. There are considerable remains of this 
aqueduct on the Aurelian wall, near the Porta 
Maggiore, and also in the neighborhood of Ti- 
voli. 3. Aqua Marcia, which brought the coldest 
and most wholesome water to Rome, was built 
by the praetor Q. Marcius Rex, by command of 
the senate, in B.C. 144. It commenced at the 
side of the Via Valeria, thirty-six miles from 
Rome ; its length was sixty-one thousand seven 
hundred and ten and a half passus, of which 
only seven thousand four hundred and sixty- 
three were above ground ; namely, five hundred 
and twenty-eight on solid substructions, and 
six thousand nine hundred and thirty-five on 
arches. It was high enough to supply water to 
the summit of the Capitoline Mount. It was 
repaired by Agrippa in his sedileship, B.C. 33 
(vid. below, No. 5), and the volume of its water 
was increased by Augustus, by means of the 
water of a spring eight hundred passus from it : 
the short aqueduct which conveyed this water 
was called Aqua Augusta, but is never enumer- 
ated as a distinct aqueduct. Several arches of 
the Aqua Marcia are still standing. 4. Aqua 
Tepula, which was built by the censors Cn. Ser- 
vilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus in B.C. 
127, began in a spot in the Lucullan or Tuscu- 
lan land, two miles to the right of the tenth 
mile-stone on the Via Latina. It was afterward 
connected with, — 5. Aqua Julia. Among the 

753 



ROMA. 



ROMA. 



gnlendid public wonts executed by Agrippa in 
his Eediieship, B.C. 33, was the formation of a 
new aqueduct, and the restoration of all the old 
ones. From a source two miles to the right of 
the twelfth mile-stone of the Via Latina, he con- 
structed his aqueduct (the Aqua Julia) first to 
the Aqua Tepula, in which it was merged as 
far as the reservoir (piscina) on the Via Latina, 
seven miles from Rome. From the reservoir 
the water was carried along two distinct chan- 
nels, on the same substructions (which were 
probably the original substructions of the Aqua 
Tepula newly restored), the lower channel be- 
ing called the Aqua Tepula, and the upper the 
Aqua Julia ; and this double aqueduct again 
was united with the Aqua Marcia, over the 
water-course of which the other two were car- 
ried. The monument erected at the junction 
of these three aqueducts is still to be seen close 
to the Porta S Lorenzo. It bears an inscrip- 
tion referring to the repairs under Caracalla. 
The whole course of the Aqua Julia, from its 
source, amounted to fifteen thousand four hund- 
red and twenty-six passus, partly on massive 
substructions and partly on arches. 6. Aqua 
Virgo, built by Agrippa to supply his baths. Its 
water was as highly esteemed for bathing as 
that of the Aqua Marcia was for drinking. It 
commenced by the eighth mile-stone on the Via 
Collatina, and was conducted by a very circuit- 
ous route, chiefly under the ground, to the M. 
Pincius, whence it was carried on arches to the 
Campus Martins : its length was fourteen thou- 
sand one hundred and five passus, of which 
twelve thousand eight hundred and sixty-five 
were under ground. 7. Aqua Alsictina, some- 
times called also Aqua Augusta, on the other 
side of the Tiber, was constructed by Augustus 
from the Lacus Alsietinus (Lago di Martignano), 
which lay six thousand five hundred passus to 
the right of the fourteenth mile-stone, on the 
Via Claudia, and was brought to the part of the 
Regio Transtiberina below the Janiculus. Its 
length was twenty-two thousand one hundred 
and seventy-two passus, of which only three 
hundred and fifty-eight were on arches ; and 
its water was so bad that it could only have 
been intended for the supply of Augustus's Nau- 
machia, and for watering gardens. 8, 9. Aqua 
Claudia and Anio Novus (or Aqua Aniena Nova), 
the two most magnificent of all the aqueducts, 
both commenced by Caligula in A.D. 36, and 
finished by Claudius in A.D. 50. The Aqua 
Claudia commenced near the thirty-eighth mile- 
stone on the Via Sublacensis. Its water was 
reckoned the best after the Marcia. Its length 
was forty-six thousand four hundred and six 
passus (nearly forty-six and a half miles), of 
which nine thousand five hundred and sixty- 
seven were on arches. The Anio Novus began 
at the forty-second mile-stone on the Via Sub- 
lacensis. Its length was fifty-eight thousand 
seven hundred passus (nearly fifty-nine miles), 
and some of its arches were one hundred and 
nine feet high. In the neighborhood of the city 
these two aqueducts were united, forming two 
channels on the same arches, the Claudia below 
and the Anio Novus above. An interesting 
monument connected with these aqueducts is 
the gate now called Porta Maggiore, which was 
originally a magnificent double arch, by means 
754 



of which the aqueduct was carried over the Via 
Labicana and the Via Pranestina. Over the 
double arch are three inscriptions, which recoref 
the names of Claudius as the builder, and of 
Vespasian andTitus as the restorers of the aque- 
duct. By the side of this arch the aqueduct 
passes along the wall of Aurelian for some dis- 
tance, and then it is continued upon the Arcua 
Neroniani or Caelimontani, which were added 
by Nero to the original structure, and which 
terminated at the temple of Claudius, which 
was also built by Nero on the Cselius, where 
the water was probably conveyed to a castel- 
lum already built for the Aqua Julia, and for a 
branch of the Aqua Marcia, which had been at 
some previous time continued to the Ccelius. 
10. Aqua Crabra, which had its source near that 
of the Julia, and which was originally carried 
right through the Circus Maximus ; but the 
water was so bad that Agrippa would not bring 
it into the Julia, but abandoned it to the people 
of the Tusculan land. Hence it was called 
Aqua Damnata. At a later period, part of the 
water was brought into the Aqua Julia. Con- 
siderable traces of it remain. 11. Aqua Traja- 
na, was brought by Trajan from the Lacus Sa- 
batinus (now Braeciano) to supply the Janiculus 
and the Regio Transtiberina. 12. Aqua Alex- 
andria, constructed by Alexander Severus ; its 
source was in the lands of Tusculum, about 
fourteen miles from Rome, between Gabii ane> 
the Lake Regillus. Its small height shows tha. 
it was intended for the baths of Severus, which 
were in one of the valleys of Rome. 13. Aqua 
Septimiana, built by Septimius Severus, was per- 
haps only a branch of the Aqua Julia, formed by 
the emperor to bring water to his baths. 14. 
Aqua Algentia had its source at Mount Algidus 
by the Via Tusculana. Its builder is unknown. 
Three of these aqueducts still supply the modern 
city of Rome with water. (1.) The Acqua Vcr- 
ginc, the ancient Aqua Virgo, which was re- 
stored by Pope Pius IV., and further embellish- 
ed by Benedict XIV. and Clement XIII. The 
chief portion of its waters gush out through the 
beautiful Fontana di Trevi, but it also supplies 
twelve other public fountains and the greatei 
part of the lower city. (2.) The Acqua Felice, 
named after the conventual name of its re- 
storer, Sixtus V. (Fra Felice), is probably a part 
of the ancient Aqua Claudia, though some take 
it for the Alexandrina. It supplies twenty-seven 
public fountains and the eastern part of the 
city. (3.) The Acqua. Paola, the ancient Alsie- 
tina, supplies the Transtevere and the Vatican, 
and feeds, among others, the splendid fountains 
before St. Peter's. — XVI. Sewers. Of these 
the most celebrated was the Cloaca Maxima, 
constructed by Tarquinius Priscus, which was I 
formed to carry off the waters brought down 
from the adjacent hills into the Velabrum and 
valley of the Forum. It empties itself into the 
Tiber nearly opposite one extremity of the In- 
sula Tiberina. This cloaca was formed by 
three arches, one within the other, the inner- 
most of which is a semicircular vault about 
fourteen feet in diameter. It is still extant in 
its original state, with not a stone displaced. — 
XVII. Palaces. I. Palatium, or the imperial pal- 
ace, was situated on the northeast side of the 
Palatine, between the arch of Titus and the 



ROMA. 

sanctuary of Vesta ; its front was turned toward 
the Forum, and the approach to it was from the 
Via Sacra, close by the arch of Titus. It was 
originally the house of the orator Hortensius, 
and was "enlarged by Augustus, who made it the 
imperial residence A part of the PaWtium 
was called Domus Tiberiana, which was origin- 
ally a separate house of Tiberius oi> the Pala- 
tine, and was afterward united to the palace of 
Augustus. It was on the side of the hill turned 
toward the Circus and the Velabrum, and is 
sometimes called Postica P^rs Patatit. It was 
through this part of the palace that the Emperor 
Otho fled into the Velabrum. We read of the 
Domus Tiberiana even after the imperial palace 
had been burned to the ground in the reign of 
Nero ; whence it follows that when the palace 
was rebuilt a portion of it still continued to bear 
this name. The Palatium was considerably en- 
larged by Caligula ; but it did not satisfy Nero's 
love of pomp and splendor. Nero built two 
magnificent palaces, which must be distinguish- 
ed from one another. The first, called the Do- 
mus Transitoria Neronis, covered the whole of 
the Palatine, and extended as far as the Esqui- 
line to the gardens of Maecenas. This palace 
was burned to the ground in the great fire of 
Rome, whereupon Nero commenced a new pal- 
ace, known by the name of Domus Aurca, which 
embraced the whole of the Palatine, the Velia, 
the valley of the Colosseum, and the heights of 
the Thermos of Titus, extended near the Esqui- 
line gate, and was cut through not only by the 
Via Sacra, but also by other streets. The whole 
| building, however, was not finished at the time 
i of Nero's death ; and Vespasian confined the 
I imperial palace to the Palatine, converting the 
other parts of the Domus Aurea into public or 
private buildings. The palace itself was not 
finished till the time of Domitian, who adorned 
it with numerous works of art. The Emperor 
Septimius Severus added on the south side of 
the Palatine a building called the Septizonium, 
which was probably intended as an Atrium. 
There were considerable remains of this Sep- 
tizonium down to the end of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, when Sixtus V. caused them to be destroy- 
ed, and the pillars brought to the Vatican. 
Among the numerous private palaces at Rome 
the following were some of the most important. 
2. Domus Ciceronis, close to the Porticus Catuli, 
probably on the nort heastern edge of the Palatine, 
was built by M. Livius Drusus, and purchased 
by Cicero of one of the Crassi. It was destroy- 
ed by Claudius after the banishment of Cicero, 
hut was subsequently rebuilt at the public ex- 
pense. 3. D. Pompeii, the palace of Pompey, 
was situated in the Carina? near the temple of 
Tellus. It was afterward the residence of M. 
Antonius. 4. D. Crassi, the palace of L. Cras- 
sus the orator, on the Palatine. 5. D. Scauri, 
also on the Palatine, celebrated for its magnifi- 
cence, subsequently belonged to Clodius. 6. D. 
Lateranorum, on the eastern confines of the Cas- 
lius, was a palace originally belonging to the 
distinguished family of thePlautii Laterani ; but 
after the execution of Plautius Lateranus under 
Nero, it became imperial property. It was given 
by Septimius Severus to his friend Lateranus, 
and was subsequently the palace of Constantine, 
who adorned it with great magnificence. The 



ROMA. 

modern palace of the Lateran occupies its site. 
— XVIII. Horti, The Horti were parks or gar- 
dens, which were laid out by wealthy Roman 
nobles on the hills around the city, and were 
adorned with beautiful buildings and works of 
art. 1. Horti Luculham, on Mount Pincius, 
which hill Was hence called Collis Hortorum. 
They were laid out by Lucullus, the conqueror 
of Mithradates. In the reign of Claudius they 
belonged to Valerius Asiaticus, who was put 
to death through the influence of Messalina, 
chiefly because she coveted the possession of 
these gardens. From this time they appear to 
have belonged to the imperial house. 2. H. 
Sallusliani,lal<l out by the historian Sallust, on 
his return from Numidia, in the valley between 
the Quirinal and the Pincius. 3. H. Ceesaris, 
bequeathed by Julius Caesar to the people, were 
situated on the right bank of the Tiber, at the 
foot of the Janiculus, probably on the spot where 
Augustus afterward constructed his great Nau- 
machia. 4. H. Mazcenalis, in the Campus Esqui- 
linus, bequeathed by Maecenas to Augustus, and 
frequently used by the imperial family. 5. H. 
Agrippincz, on the right bank of the Tiber, in 
which Caligula built his Circus. It was here 
that Nero burned the Christians to serve as 
lights for his nocturnal games, after previously 
wrapping them up in pitch. 6 H. Domitioz, also 
on the right bank of the Tiber, in which Hadrian 
built his Mausoleum. 7. H. Pallantiani, on the 
Esquiline, laid out by Pallas, the powerful freed- 
man of Claudius. 8. H. Gets., on the other side 
of the Tiber, laid out by Septimius Severus. 
— XIX. Sepulchral Monuments. 1. Mausole- 
um Augusti, was situated in the Campus Mar- 
tius, and was built by Augustus as the burial- 
place of the imperial family. It was surround- 
ed with an extensive garden or park, and was 
considered one of the most magnificent build- 
ings of his reign ; but there are only some in- 
significant ruins of it still extant. 2. Mausoleum 
Hadriani, was commenced by Hadrian in the 
gardens of Domitia, on the right bank of the 
Tiber, and was connected with the city by the 
Pons iElius ; it was finished and dedicated by 
Antoninus Pius, A.D. 140. Here were buried 
Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, L. Verus, Commodus, 
and probably also Septimius Severus, Geta, and 
Caracalla. This building, stripped of its orna- 
ments, still forms the fortress of modern Rome 
(the castle of S. Angelo). 3. Mausoleum Hel- 
ena, a round building on the Esquiline, of con- 
siderable extent, erected by Constantine as the 
sepulchre of his mother. Its remains, situated 
in the street on the right of the Porta Maggiore, 
are now called Torre Pignattara. 4. Sepulcrum 
Scipionum, the burial-place of the Scipios, was 
situated, left of the Via Appia, near the Porta 
Capena. Most of the tombs of the distinguish- 
ed Roman families during the Republican pe- 
riod lay on the Via Appia. The tomb of the 
Scipios was discovered in 1780, about four 
hundred paces within the modern Porta S. Se- 
bastiano. It contained many interesting mon- 
uments and inscriptions, which are now de- 
posited in the Museo Pio-Clementino. 5. Se- 
pulcrum CacilicB Mctellce, erected to the memory 
of Ca:ciliaMetella, the daughter of Metellus Cre- 
ticus, not far from the Circus Maxentii. This 
imposing monument is still extant, and known 

755 



ROMA. 

oy the name of Capo di Bove. 6. Sepulcrum 
Cestii, situated south of the Aventine, near the 
Porta Ostiensis, being partly within and partly 
without the walls of Aurelian. This monument, 
which is still extant, is in the form of a Pyra- 
mid, and was built in the time of Augustus for 
a certain C. Cestius. 7. Sepulcrum Septimii 
Scveri, on the Via Appia, built by Septimius Se- 
verus in his life-t ime, after the model of his Sep- 
tizonium. (Vii. above, XVI., No. 1).— XIX. 
Columns. Columns {Columna) were frequently 
erected at Rome to commemorate persons and 
events. 1. Columna Mania, near the end of the 
Forum, toward the Capitol, was erected to the 
honor of the consul C. Maenius, who conquered 
the Latins and took the town of Antium, B.C. 
338. 2. Col. Rostrata, also in the Forum, erect- 
ed in honor of the consul C. Duilius, to com- 
memorate his victory over the Carthaginian 
fleet, B.C. 260. The name of Rostrata was 
given to it from its being adorned with the 
beaks of the conquered ships. The inscription 
upon this column, written in obsolete Latin, is 
still preserved. 3. Col. Trajani, in the Forum, 
in which the ashes of the Emperor Trajan were 
deposited. This column is still extant, and is 
one of the most interesting monuments of an- 
cient Rome. It is, including the pedestal, one 
hundred and seventeen feet high. The top was 
originally crowned with the statue of the em- 
pe-or ; it is now surmounted by that of the 
apostle Peter. A spiral bas-relief is folded 
round the pillar, which represents the emperor's 
wars against Decebalus and the Dacians, and 
is one of the most valuable authorities for 
archaeological inquiries. 4. Col. Antonini Pii, 
erected in honor of Antoninus Pius after his 
death, consisted of a column of red granite on 
a pediment of white marble, and was situated 
in the Campus Martius, near the temple dedi- 
cated to this emperor. It stood at an earlier 
period not far from the Curia Innocenziana on 
Monte Citorio, in the garden of the Casa della 
Missione. At present the basis only is extant, 
and is preserved in the garden of the Vatican. 
5. Col. M. Aurelii Antonini, generally called the 
Antonine Column, erected to the memory of the 
Emperor M. Aurelius, also in the Campus Mar- 
tius, and still extant. It is an imitation of the 
Column of Trajan, and contains bas-reliefs rep- 
resenting the wars of M. Aurelius against the 
Marcomanni. — XX. Obelisks. The Obelisks 
(Obelisci) at Rome were mostly works of Egypt- 
ian art, which were transported from Egypt to 
Rome in the time of the emperors. Augustus 
caused two obelisks to be brought to Rome, one 
of which was erected in the Circus and another 
in the Campus Martius. The former was re- 
stored in 1589, and is called at present the Fla- 
minian Obelisk. Its whole height is about one 
hundred and sixteen feet, and without the base 
about seventy-eight feet. The obelisk in the 
Campus Martius was set up by Augustus as a 
sun-dial. It stands at present on the Monte 
Citorio, where it was placed in 1792. Its whole 
height is about one hundred and ten feet, and 
without the base about seventy-one feet. An- 
other obelisk was brought to Rome by Caligula, 
and placed on the Vatican in the Circus of Ca- 
ligula. It stands at present in front of St. Pe 
ter's, where it was placed in 1586, and its whole 
756 



ROMULUS. 

height is about one hundred and thirty-two feet, 
and without the base and modern ornaments at 
top about eighty-three feet. But the largest 
obelisk at Rome is that which was originally 
transported from Heliopolis to Alexandrea by 
Con&tantine, and conveyed to Rome by his son 
Constaivtius, who placed it in the Circus Max- 
imus. Its present position is before the north 
portico of the Lateran church, where it was 
placed in 1588. Its whole height is about one 
hundred and fon.y-nine feet, and without the 
base about one hundred and five feet. There 
are eight other obelises at Rome, besides those 
mentioned above, but none of them are of his- 
torical importance. — G. R OAr , s leading out op 
Rome. Of these the most important were, 1. 
Via Latina, the most ancient of the south roads! 
which issued at first from the Porta Capena, and 
after the time of Aurelian from the Porta Latina. 
It joined the Via Appia at Bene"entum. 2. Via 
Appia, the Great South Road, also issued from 
the Porta Capena, and was the most celebrated 
of all the Roman roads. It was commenced by 
Appius Claudius when censor, and was event' 
ually carried to Brundisium. Vii. Appia Via. 
3. Via Ostiensis, originally passed through the 
Porta Trigemina, afterward through the Porta 
Ostiensis, and kept the left bank of the Tiber to 
Ostia. 4. Via Porluensis, issued from the same 
gate as the Via Ostiensis, and kept the right 
bank of the Tiber to Portus, the new harbor 
founded by Claudius, near Ostia. 5. Via Labi- 
cana, issued from the Porta Esquilina, and pass- 
ing Labicum, fell into the Via Latina at the 
station ad Bivium, thirty miles from Rome. 6. 
Via Prancstina, originally the Via Gabina, issued 
at first from the Porta Esquilina, and subse- 
quently from the Porta Pr<enestina. Passing 
through Gabii and Praeneste, it joined the Via 
Latina just below Anagnia. 7. Via Tiburlina, 
issued originally from the Porta Esquilina, oi 
from the Porta Viminalis, and subsequently 
from the Porta Tiburtina, and proceeded to Ti- 
bur, from which it was continued under the 
name of the Via Valeria, past Corfinium to Adria. 
8. Via Nomentana, anciently Ficulnensis, ran 
from the Porta Collina, subsequently from the 
Porta Nomentana, across the Anio to Nomen- 
tum, and a little beyond fell into the Via Salaria 
at Eretrum. 9. Via Salaria, ran from the Porta 
Collina, subsequently from the Porta Salaria, 
past Fidens to Reate and Asculum Picenum. 
At Castrum Truentinum it reached the coast, 
which it followed until it joined the Vi.i Fla- 
minia at Ancona. 10. Via Flaminia, the Great 
North.Road, commenced in the censorship ol 
C. Flaminius, issued from the Porta Flaminia, 
and proceeded past Ocriculum, Narnia, and Pi- 
saurum to Ariminum, from which town it was 
continued under the name of the Via /Emilia to 
Placentia and Aquileia. 11. Via Aurclia, the 
Great Coast Road, issued originally from the 
Porta Janiculensis. It reached the coast at 
Alsium, and followed the shore of the Lower 
Sea along Etruria and Liguria by Genoa, as far 
as Forum Julii in Gaul. 

Romulea, an ancient town of the Hirpini in 
Samnium, on the road from Beneventum to Ta- 
rentum, destroyed at an early period by the Ro- 
mans. 

Romulus, the founder of the city of Borne, 



ROMULUS. 



ROMULUS. 



must not be regarded as a real personage. The 
stories about him are mythical, and represent 
the traditional belief of the Roman people re- 
specting their origin. Romulus, which is only 
a lengthened form of Romus, is the Roman peo- 
ple represented as an individual. The common 
legend about Romulus ran as follows : At Alba 
Longa there reigned a succession of kings, de- 
scended from lulus, the son of ./Eneas. One 
of the last of these kings left two sons, Numi- 
tor and Amulius. The latter, who was the 
younger, deprived Numitor of the kingdom, but 
allowed him to live in the enjoyment of his 
private fortune. Fearful, however, lest the 
heirs of Numitor might not submit so quietly to 
his usurpation, he caused his only son to be 
murdered, and made his daughter Silvia, or 
Rhea Silvia, one of the Vestal virgins. Silvia 
was violated by Mars, and in course of time 
gave birth to twins. Amulius doomed the 
guilty Vestal and her babes to be drowned in 
the river. In the Anio Silvia exchanged her 
earthly life for that of a goddess, and became 
the wife of the river god. The stream carried 
the cradle in which the children were lying into 
the Tiber, which had overflowed its banks far 
and wide. It was stranded at the foot of the 
Palatine, and overturned on the root of a wild 
fig-tree, which, under the name of the Ficus 
Ruminalis, was preserved and held sacred for 
many ages after. A she-wolf, which had come 
to drink of the stream, carried them into her 
den hard by, and suckled them, where they 
were discovered by Faustulus, the king's shep- 
herd, who took the children to his own house, 
and gave them to the care of his wife, Acca 
Larentia. They were called Romulus and Re- 
mus, and were brought up with the other shep- 
herds on the Palatine Hill. As they grew up, 
they became distinguished by the beauty of their 
person and the bravery of their deeds, and 
fought boldly against wild beasts and robbers. 
A quarrel having arisen between these shep- 
herds and the herdsmen of Numitor, who stalled 
their cattle on the neighboring hill of the Aven- 
tine, Remus was taken by a stratagem, during 
the absence of his brother, and carried off to 
Numitor. This led to the discovery of the 
parentage both of Romulus and Remus, who 
now slew Amulius, 'and placed their grand- 
father Numitor on the throne. Romulus and 
Remus loved their old abode, and therefore left 
Alba to found a city on the banks of the Tiber. 
A strife arose between the brothers where the 
city should be built, and after whose name it 
should be called. Romulus wished to build it 
oti the Palatine, Remus on the Aventine. It 
was agreed that the question should be decided 
by augury ; and each took his station on the top 
of his chosen hill. The night passed away, and 
as the day was dawning Remus saw six vul- 
tures ; but at sun-rise, when these tidings were 
brought to Romulus, twelve vultures flew by 
him. Each claimed the augury in his own 
favor ; but the shepherds decided for Romulus, 
and Remus was obliged to yield. Romulus now 
proceeded to mark out the pomosrivm of his city 
{vid. Diet, of Anliq., s. v.), and to raise the wall. 
Remus, who still resented the wrong he had 
suffered, leaped over the wall in scorn, where- 
upon he was slain by his brother As soon as 



the city was built, Romulus found his people toe 
few in numbers. He therefore set apart, on the 
Capitoline Hill, an asylum or a sanctuary, in 
which homicides and runaway slaves might 
take refuge. The city thus became filled with 
men, but they wanted women. Romulus, there- 
fore, tried to form treaties with the neighbor- 
ing tribes, in order to obtain connubium, or the 
right of legal marriage with their citizens ; but 
his offers we're treated with disdain, and he 
accordingly resolved to obtain by force what 
he could not gain by entreaty. In the fourth 
month after the foundation of the city, he pro- 
claimed that games were to be celebrated in 
honor of the god Consus, and invited his neigh- 
bors, the Latins and Sabines, to the festival. 
Suspecting no treachery, they came in num- 
bers, with their wives and children. But the 
Roman youths rushed upon their guests and 
carried off the virgins. The parents of the vir- 
gins returned home and prepared for vengeance. 
The inhabitants of three of the Latin towns, 
Caenina, Antemnas, and Crustumerium, took up 
arms, one after the other, and were successive- 
ly defeated by the Romans. Romulus slew with 
his own hand Acron, king of Ceenina, and ded- 
icated his arms and armor, as spolia opima, to 
Jupiter. At last the Sabine king, Titus Tatius, 
advanced with a powerful army against Rome. 
The fortress of the Saturnian, afterward called 
the Capitoline Hill, was surrendered to the Sa- 
bines by the treachery of Tarpeia, the daughter 
of the commander of the fortress. Vid. Tar- 
peia. On the next day the Romans endeavored 
to recover the hill, and a long and desperate 
battle was fought in the valley between the Pal- 
atine and the Capitoline. At length, when both 
parties were exhausted with the struggle, the 
Sabine women rushed in between them, and 
prayed their husbands and fathers to be recon- 
ciled. Their prayer was heard ; the two peo- 
ple not only made peace, but agreed to form 
only one nation. The Romans continued to 
dwell on the Palatine under their king Romu- 
lus ; the Sabines built a new town on the Cap- 
itoline and Quirinal Hills, where they lived un- 
der their king Titus Tatius. The two kings 
and their senates met for deliberation in the 
valley between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, 
which was hence called comitium, or the place 
of meeting. But this union did not last long. 
Titus Tatius was slain at a festival at Lavin- 
ium by some Laurentines, to whom he had re- 
fused satisfaction for outrages which had been 
committed by his kinsmen. Henceforward 
Romulus ruled alone over both Romans and 
Sabines. After reigning thirty-seven years, he 
was at length taken away from the world. One 
day, as he was reviewing his people in the Cam- 
pus Martius, near the Goat's Pool, the sun 
was suddenly eclipsed, darkness overspread the 
earth, and a dreadful storm dispersed the peo- 
ple. When daylight had returned Romulus had 
disappeared, for his father Mars had carried him 
up to heaven in a fiery chariot (Quirinus Mor- 
tis cquis Acheronta fvgit. Hor., Carm., iii., 3). 
Shortly afterward he appeared in more than 
mortal beauty to Proculus Julius, and hade him 
tell the Romans to worship him as their guard- 
ian god under the name of Qumuus. Such was 
the glorified end of Romulus in the genuine le 

757 



ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS. 

gend. But as it staggered the faith of a later 
age, a tale was invent°d to account for his mys- 
terious disappearance. It was related that the 
senators, discontented with the tyrannical rule 
of their king, murdered him during the gloom 
of a tempest, cut up his body, and carried home 
the mangled pieces under their robes. As Rom- 
ulus was regarded as the founder of Rome, its 
most ancient political institutions and the or- 
ganization of the people were ascribed to him. 
Thus he is said to have divided the people into 
three tribes, which bore the names Ramnes, Ti- 
ties, and Luceres. The Ramnes were supposed 
to have derived their name from Romulus, the 
Tities from Titus Tatius the Sabine king, and 
the Luceres from Lucumo, an Etruscan chief, 
who had assisted Romulus in the war against 
the Sabines. Each tribe contained ten curiae, 
which received their names from the thirty Sa- 
bine women who had brought about the peace 
between the Romans and their own people. 
Further, each curia contained ten gentes, and 
each gens one hundred men. Thus the people, 
according to the general belief, were divided orig- 
inally into three tribes, thirty curiae, and three 
hundred gentes, which mustered three thou- 
sand men, who fought on foot, and were called 
a legion. Besides those there were three hund- 
red horsemen, called Celeres, the same body as 
the Equites of a later time. To assist him in 
the government of the people, Romulus is said 
to have selected a number of the aged men in 
the state, who were called Patres or Senatores. 
The council itself, which was called the senatus, 
originally consisted of one hundred members; 
but this number was increased to two hundred 
when the Sabines were incorporated in the state. 
In addition to the senate, there was another as- 
sembly, consisting of the members of the gentes, 
which bore the name of comitia curiata, because 
they voted in it according to their division into 
curiae. 

Romulus Augustulus. Vid. Augustulus. 

Romulus SilvIus. Vid. Silvius. 

RosoiInum (now Rossano), a fortress on the 
eastern coast of Bruttium, between Thurii and 
Paternum. 

Roscillus. Vid. JEaus. 

Roscius. 1. L., a Roman ambassador sent 
to Fidenae in B.C. 438. He and his three col- 
leagues were killed by the inhabitants of Fide- 
nae, at the instigation of Lar Tolumnius, king 
of the Veientes. The statues of all four were 
erected in the Rostra at Rome. — 2. Sex., of 
Ameria, a town in Umbria. The father of this 
Roscius had been murdered at the instigation 
of two of his relations and fellow-townsmen, T. 
Roscius Magnus and T. Roscius Capito, who 
coveted the wealth of their neighbor. These 
two Roscii struck a bargain with Chrysogonus, 
the freedman and favorite of Sulla, to divide the 
property of the murdered man between them. 
But as the proceeding excited the utmost in- 
dignation at Ameria, and the magistrates of the 
town made an effort to obtain from Sulla the 
restitution of the property to the son, the rob- 
bers accused young Roscius of the murder of 
his father, and hired witnesses to swear to the 
fact. Roscius was defended by Cicero (B.C. 
80) in an oration which is still extant, and was 
acquitted. Cicero's speech was greatly admired 
758 



RUBELLIUS PLAUTUS. 

at the time, and though at a later period he found 
fault with it himself, as bearing marke of youth- 
ful exaggeration, it displays abundant evidence 
of his great oratorical powers. — 3. Q., the most 
celebrated comic actor at Rome, was a native 
of Solonium, a small place in the neighborhood 
of Lanuvium. His histrionic powers procured 
him the favor of many of the Roman nobles, 
and, among others, of the dictator Sulla, whc I 
presented him with a gold ring, the symbol of 
equestrian rank. Roscius enjoyed the friend- ' 
ship of Cicero, who constantly speaks of him in 
terms both of admiration and affection. Ros- 
cius was considered by the Romans to have 
reached such perfection in his own profession, 
that it became the fashion to call every one 
who became particularly distinguished in his 
own art by the name of Roscius. In his youn 
ger years Cicero received instruction from Ros- 
cius ; and at a later time he and Roscius often j 
used to try which of them could express a 
thought with the greatest effect, the orator by 
his eloquence, or the actor by his gestures. 
These exercises gave Roscius so high an opin- 
ion of his art, that he wrote a work in which he 
compared eloquence and acting. Like his cel- 
ebrated contemporary, the tragic actor iEsopus, 
Roscius realized an immense fortune by his 
profession. He died in 62. One of Cicero's 
extant orations is entitled Pro Q. Roscio Coma- 
do. It was delivered before the judex C. Piso, 
probably in 68, and relates to a claim for fifty 
thousand sesterces, which one C. Fannius Chae- 
rea brought against Roscius. — 4. Fabatus. Vid. 
Fabatus. — 5. Oth o. Vid. Otho. 

Rotomagus. Vid. Ratomagus. 

Roxana (Tofuv^), daughter of Oxyartes the 
Bactrian, fell into the hands of Alexander on 
his capture of the hill-fort in Sogdiana, named j 
"the rock," B.C. 327. Alexander was so cap- 
tivated by her charms that he married her. 
Soon after Alexander's death (323) she gave 
birth to a son (Alexander ^Egus), who was ad- 
mitted to share the nominal sovereignty with 
Arrhidaeus, under the regency of Perdiccas. 
Before the birth of the boy she had drawn Sta- 
tira, or Barsine, to Babylon by a friendly letter, 
and there caused her to be murdered. Roxana 
afterward crossed over to Europe with her son, 
and placed herself under the protection of Olym- 
pias. She shared the fortunes of Olympias, and 
threw herself into Pydna along with the latter, 
where they were besieged by Cassander. In 
316 Pydna was taken by Cassander, Olympias 
was put to death, and Roxana and her son were 
placed in confinement in Amphipolis. Here 
they were detained under the charge of Glau- 
cias till 311, in which year, soon after the gen- 
eral peace then concluded, they were murdered 
in accordance with orders from Cassander. 

RoxolXni. Vid. Rhoxolani. 

[Rubeas Promontorium, a promontory of 
Sarmatia Europaea, in the vicinity of the mouth 
of the Rubon. Mannert regards it as the north 
point of Curland.] 

[Rubellius Plautus. C, son of Rubellius 
and of Julia, great-grandson of the Emperor Ti- 
berius, was involved in the accusations which 
Junia Silana brought against Agrippina AD. 55: 
he was ordered by Nero to withdraw from Rome 
to his estates in Asia, where he employed him- 



RUBI. 



RUFUS, L. CjECILIUS. 



eelf in the study of the Stoic philosophy ; but in 
A. D. 62, Nero's fears having been again excited 
against Rubellius, the latter was murdered by 
order of the emperor.] 

Row (Rubustinus : now Ruvo), a town in 
Apulia, on the road from Canusium to Brundis- 
*um. 

RubIco, a small river in Italy, falling into the 
Adriatic a little north of Ariminum, formed the 
boundary in the republican period between the 
province of Gallia Cisalpina and Italia Proper. 
It is celebrated in history on account of Caesar's 
passage across it at the head of his army, by 
which act he declared war against the republic. 
A papal decree, issued in 1756, declared the 
modern Lusa to be the ancient Rubico, but the 
Pisatello, a little further north, has better claims 
to this honor. 

Rubra Saxa, called Rubrae Breves (sc. Pe- 
tree) by Martial, a small place in Etruria only a 
few miles from Rome, near the River Cremera, 
and on the Via Flaminia. It was near this spot 
that the great battle was fought in which Max- 
entius was defeated by Constantine, A.D. 312. 

[Rubrenus Lappa, a later Roman tragic writ- 
er, whose Atreus is mentioned by Juvenal (vii., 
78).] 

Rubresus Lacus. Vid. Narbo. 

Rubricates. 1. Or Ubus (now Seibous), a 
considerable river of Numidia in Northern Af- 
rica, rising in the mountains southeast of Cirta 
(now Constantineh), flowing northeast, and fall- 
ing into the Mediterranean east of Hippio Regi- 
us -(now Bonak). — 2. (Now Llobregat), a small 
river of Hispania Tarraconensis, flowing into 
the sea west of Barcino. 

[Rubrius. 1. Tribune of the plebs alongwith 
C. Gracchus, proposed the law for founding the 
colony at Carthage, which was carried into ef- 
fect. — 2. Q. Rubkius Varro, who was declared 
a public enemy along with Marius in B.C. 88, 
iss mentioned by Cicero as an energetic and pas- 
sionate accuser. — 3. One of the companions of 
Verres in his iniquities. — 4. L., a senator, was 
taken prisoner by Caesar at the capture of Cor- 
finium B.C. 49, and was dismissed by him un- 
injured.] 

Rubrum Mare. Vid. Erythk^eum Make. 

Rudi/e (Rudinus : now Rotigliano or Ruge), 
a town of the Pucetii in Apulia, on the road 
from Brundisium to Venusia, was originally a 
Greek colony, and afterward a Roman muni- 
cipium. Rudiae is celebrated as the birth-place 
of Ennius. 

Ruesium, a town of the Vellavi or Velauni, 
hence called simply Civitas Vellavorum, in Gal- 
lia Aquitanica (in the modern Velay), probably 
the modern St. Paulien or Paulhan, on the front- 
iers of Auvergne. 

Rufinus. 1. P. Cornelius Rufinus, was con- 
sul B.C. 290 with M'. Curius Dentatus, and, in 
conjunction with his colleague, brought the Sam- 
nite war to a conclusion, and obtained a tri- 
umph in consequence. He was consul a sec- 
ond time in 277, and carried on the war against 
the Samnites and the Greeks in Southern Italy. 
The chief event of his second consulship was 
the capture of the important town of Croton. 
In 275 Rufinus was expelled from the senate 
by the censors C. Fabricius and Q. vEmilius Pa- 
pus, on account of his possessing ten pounds of 



silver plate. The dictator Sulla was descend- 
ed from this Rufinus. His grandson was the 
first of the family who assumed the surname of 
Sulla. — 2. Licinius Rufinus, a jurist, who lived 
under Alexander Severus. There are in the 
Digest seventeen excerpts from twelve books 
of Regulce by Rufinus. — 3. The chief minister 
of state under Theodosius the Great, was an 
able, but, at the same time, a treacherous and 
dangerous man. He instigated Theodosius to 
those cruel measures which brought ruin upon 
Antioch, A D. 390. After the death of Theo- 
dosius in 395, Rufinus exercised paramount in- 
fluence over the weak Arcadius ; but towaiu 
the end of the year a conspiracy was formed 
against him by Eutropius and Stilicho, who in- 
duced Gainas, the Gothic ally of Arcadius, to 
join in the plot. Rubinus was, in consequence, 
slain by the troops of Gainas. — 4. Surnamed 
Tyrannius, orTuRRANius, or Toranus, a cele- 
brated ecclesiastical writer, was probably boi u 
about A.D. 345 in Italy. He was at first an in- 
mate of the monastery at Aquileia, and he aft- 
erward resided many years at a monastery in 
Palestine, where he became very intimate with 
St. Jerome. The two friends afterward quar- 
reled, and Jerome attacked Rufinus with the 
utmost vehemence on account of his support- 
ing the tenets of Origen. After remaining in 
the East for about twenty-six years, Rufinus 
returned to Italy in 397, where he published a 
Latin translation of the Apology for Origen by 
Pamphilus, and of the books of Origen De Prin- 
cipiis, together with an original tract Be Adul- 
teratione Librorum Origenis. In the preface to 
the Be Principiis, he quoted 3 panegyric, which 
Jerome had at an earlier period pronounced 
upon Origen. This led to a bitter correspond- 
ence between the two former friends, which 
was crowned by the Apologia of the one advcr- 
sus Hieronymum, and the Apologia of the othei 
adversus Rufinum. Rufinus died in Sicily in 
410, to which island he had fled upon the inva- 
sion of Italy by Alaric. Several of his works are 
extant, but there is no complete edition of them 
— 5. The author of a little poem in twenty -two 
lines, Pasiphaes Fabula ex omnibus Melris Hora- 
tianis, which, as the name imports, contains an 
example of each of the different metres em- 
ployed by Horace. His date is quite uncertain, 
but he may be the same person with the fol- 
lowing. — 6. A grammarian of Antioch, whose 
treatise Be Melris Comicis, or, rather, extracts 
from it, is contained in the Grammalica. Lalina 
Auctores Antiqui of Putschius, Hannov., 1605. 
— 7. The author of thirty-eight epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology. His date is uncertain ; but 
there can be no doubt that he was a Byzantine 
His verses are of the same light, amatory char- 
acter as those of Agathias, Paulus, Macedonius, 
and others. 

Rufr^e, a town in Campania, frequently con- 
founded with Rufrium. 

Rufrium, a town of the Hirpini in Samntum. 

Rufus, Curtius. Vid. Curtius. 

Rufus Ephesius, so called from the place of 
his birth, a celebrated Greek physician, lived in 
the reign of Trajan (A.D. 98-117), and wrote 
several medical works, some of which are still 
extant. 

Rufus, L. Cjecilius, brother of P. Sulla b\ 

759 



RUFUS, M. CAELIUS. 



RUTENI. 



the same mother, but not by the same father. 
He was tribune of the plebs B.C. 63, when he 
rendered warm support to Cicero, and, in par- 
ticular, opposed the agrarian law of Rullus. In 
his prsetorship, 57, he joined most of the other 
magistrates in proposing the recall of Cicero 
from banishment. 

Rufus, M. Celius, a young Roman noble, 
distinguished as an elegant writer and eloquent 
speaker, but equally conspicuous for his profli- 
gacy and extravagance. Notwithstanding his 
vices, he lived on intimate terms with Cicero, 
who defended him in B.C. 56 in an oration still 
extant. The accusation was brought against 
him by Sempronius Atratinus, at the instigation 
of Clodia Quadrantaria, whom he had lately de- 
serted. Clodia charged him with having bor- 
rowed money from her in order to murder Dion, 
the head of the embassy sent by Ptolemy Au- 
letes to Rome ; and with having made an at- 
tempt to poison her. In 52 Caelius was tribune 
of the plebs, and in 50 aedile. During the years 
51 and 50 he carried on an active correspond- 
ence with Cicero, who was then in Cilicia, and 
many of the letters which he wrote to Cicero 
at that time are preserved in the collection of 
Cicero's Letters. On the • breaking out of the 
civil war in 49 he espoused Caesar's side, and 
was rewarded for his services by the praetor- 
ship in 48. Being at this time overwhelmed 
with debt, he availed himself of Caesar's ab- 
sence from Italy to bring forward a law for the 
abolition of debts. He was, however, resisted 
by the other magistrates and deprived of his 
office, whereupon he went into the south of 
Italy to join Milo, whom he had secretly sent 
for from Massilia. Milo was killed near Thurii 
before Caelius could join him (vid. Milo), and 
Caelius himself was put to death shortly after- 
ward at Thurii. 

Rufus, Sextus. Vid. Sextus Rufus. 

Rugii, an important people in Germany, orig- 
: nally dwelt on the coast of the Baltic, between 
the Viadus (now Oder) and the Vistula. After' 
disappearing a long time from history, they are 
found at a later time in Attila's army ; and after 
Attila's death they founded a new kingdom on 
the northern bank of the Danube, in Austria 
and Hungary, the name of which is still pre- 
served in the modern Rugiland. They have 
left traces of their name in the country which 
they originally inhabited in the modern Rugen, 
Rugenwalde, Rega, Regenwalde. 

Rullus, P. Servilius, tribune of the plebs 
B.C. 63, proposed an agrarian law, which Cicero 
attacked in three orations which have come 
down to us. It was the most extensive agra- 
rian law that had ever been brought forward ; 
but as it was impossible to carry such a sweep- 
ing measure, it was withdrawn by Rullus him- 
self. 

Rupilius, P., consul B.C. 132, prosecuted 
with the utmost vehemence all the adherents 
of Tiberius Gracchus, who had been slain in the 
preceding year. In his consulship he was sent 
into Sicily against the slaves, and brought the 
servile war to a close. He remained in the isl- 
and as proconsul in the following year ; and, 
with ten commissioners appointed by the senate, 
he made various regulations for the government 
of the piovince, which were known by the name 
760 



of Leges Rupiliae. Rupilius was condemned in 
the tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123, on account 
of his illegal and cruel acts in the prosecution 
of the friends of Tiberius Gracchus. He was 
an intimate friend of Scipio Africanns the youn- 
ger, who obtained the consulship for him, but 
who failed in gaining the same honor for his 
brother Lucius. He is said to have taken his 
brother's failure so much to heart as to have 
died in consequence. 

[Rupilius Rex, P., of Praeneste, having been 
driven from his native city, is said to have 
served in Africa under Atius Varus, and later, 
when praetor, A.U.C. 711, being proscribed by 
Augustus, to have fled to the camp of Brutus : 
here his arrogance made Horace a bitter ene- 
my to him, and the poet subsequently took his 
revenge in a bitter satire on Rupilius.] 

Ruscino, a town of the Sordones or Sordi in 
the southeastern part of Gallia Narbonensis, at 
the foot of the Pyrenees, on the River Ruscino 
(now Tel), and on the road from Spain to Narbo. 
A tower of the ancient town is still extant neai 
Perpignan, called la Tour de Rousillon. 

Rusell^e (Rusellanus : ruins near Grosscto), 
one of the most ancient cities of Etruria, situ- 
ated on an eminence east of the Lake Prelius 
and on the Via Aurelia. It is first mentioned 
in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. It was taken 
by the Romans in B.C. 294, when two thousand 
of its inhabitants were slain, and as many more 
made prisoners. It was subsequently a Roman 
colony, and continued in existence till 1138, 
when its inhabitants were removed to Grosseto. 
The walls of Rusellae still remain, and are some 
of the most ancient in Italy. They are formed 
of enormous masses of travertine, piled up with- 
out regard to form, with small stones inserted 
in the interstices. The masses vary from six 
to eight feet in length, and from four to eight 
in height. The area inclosed by the walls forms 
an irregular quadrangle, between ten thousand 
and eleven thousand feet, or about two miles in 
circuit. 

Rusicada (southeast of the modern Storah, 
ruins), a sea-port and Roman colony in Numid- 
ia, used especially as the port of Cirta. 

Ruspinum, a town of Africa Propria (Byza- 
cium), two miles from the sea, between Leptis 
Parva and Hadrumetum. 

Russadik (now Ras-ud-Dir, or Capo di Tres 
Forcas : Rus in ancient Punic, and Ras in Ara- 
bic, alike mean cape), a promontory of Maure- 
taniaTingitana, in Northern Africa, on the coast 
of the Metagonitae. Southeast of it was a city 
of the same name (now probably Mclillah). 

RustTcus, FabTus, a Roman historian, and a 
contemporary of Claudius and Nero. 

Rusticus, L. Junius Arulenus, more usually 
called Arulenus Rusticus, but sometimes Junius 
Rusticus. He was a friend and pupil of Paetus 
Thrasea, and an ardent admirer of the Stoic 
philosophy. He was put to death by Domitian, 
because he had written a panegyric upon Thra- 
sea. 

Rusucurrum (now Coleah, opposite Algicr), a 
considerable sea-port in the eastern part of Mau- 
retania Caesa-iensis, constituted a Roman col- 
ony under Claudius. 

Ruteni, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, on the 
frontiers of Gallia Narbonensis, in the modern 



RUTILIA. 



SA.BJEI. 



Ri^crgne. Their chief town was Segodunum, 
afterward Civitas Rutenorum (now Rodez). The 
country of the Ruteni contained silver mines, 
and produced excellent flax. 

[Rutima, the mother of C. Cotta, the orator, 
accompanied her son into exile in B.C. 91, and 
remained with him abroad till his return some 
years afterward.] 

Rutilius Lupus. Vid. Lupus. 
Rutilius Numatianus, Claudius, a Roman 
poet, and a native of Gaul, lived at the begin- 
ning of the fifth century of the Christian era. 
He resided at Rome a considerable time, where 
he attained the dignity of prajfectus urbi about 
A.D. 413 or 414. He afterward returned to his 
native country, and has described his return to 
Gaul in an elegiac poem, which bears the title 
of Itinerarium, or De Reditu. Of this poem the 
first book, consisting of six hundred and forty- 
four lines, and a small portion of the second, 
have come down to us. It is superior both in 
poetical coloring and purity of language to most 
of the productions of the age ; and the passage 
in which he celebrates the praises of Rome is 
not unworthy of the pen of Claudian. Rutilius 
was a heathen, and attacks the Jews and monks 
with no small severity. The best edition is by 
A. W. Zumpt, Berlin, 1840. 

Rutilius Rufus, P., a Roman statesman and 
orator. He was military tribune under Scipio 
in the Numantine war, prator B.C. Ill, consul 
105, and legatus in 95 under Q. Mucius Scae- 
vola, proconsul of Asia. While acting in this 
capacity, he displayed so much honesty and 
firmness in repressing the extortions of the pub- 
licani, that he became an object of fear and 
hatred to the whole body. Accordingly, on his 
return to Rome, he was impeached of malversa- 
tion (de repetundis), found guilty, and compelled 
to withdraw into banishment, 92. He retired 
first to Mytilene, and from thence to Smyrna, 
where he fixed his abode, and passed the re- 
mainder of his days in tranquillity, having re- 
fused to return to Rome, although recalled by 
Sulla. Besides his orations, Rutilius wrote an 
autobiography, and a History of Rome in Greek, 
which contained an account of the Numantine 
war, but we know not what period it embraced. 

Rutilus, C. Map.cius, was consul B.C. 357, 
when he took the town of Privernum. In 356 
he was appointed dictator, being the first time 
that a plebeian had attained this dignity. In 
his dictatorship he defeated the Etruscans with 
great slaughter. In 352 he was consul a sec- 
ond time ; and in 351 he was the first plebeian 
censor. He was consul for the third time in 
344, for the fourth time in 342. The son of this 
Rutilus took the surname of Censorinus, which 
in the next generation entirely supplanted that 
of Rutilus, and became the name of the family. 
Vid. Censorinus. 

RutCba (now Roya), a river on the coast of 
Liguria, which flows into the sea near Albium 
Intemelium. 

Rutuli, an ancient people in Italy, inhabit- 
ing a narrow slip of country on the coast of 
Latium, a little to the south of the Tiber. Their 
chief town was Ardea, which was the residence 
of Turnus. They were subdued at an early pe- 
riod by the Romans, and disappear from history. 
RuTDPiB or RuTUPiiE (now Richborough), a 



port-town of the Car.tii in the southeast of Brit, 
ain, from which persons frequently passed over 
to the harbor of Gessoriacum in Gaul. Excel- 
lent oysters were obtained in the neighborhood 
of this place (Rutupino edita fundo ostrea, Juv., 
iv., 141). There are still several Roman re- 
mains at Richborough. 

S. 

Saba (Sa'fio). 1 . (In the Old Testament, Sheba), 
the capital of the Sab^ei in Arabia Felix, lay on 
a high woody mountain, and was pointed out by 
an Arabian tradition as the residence of the 
" Queen of Sheba," who went to Jerusalem to 
hear the wisdom of Solomon. Its exact site is 
doubtful. — 2. There was another city of the 
same name in the interior of Arabia Felix, where 
a place Sabea is still found, about in the centre 
of El-Yemen. — 3. A sea-port town of .-Ethiopia, 
on the Red Sea, south of Ptolemai's Theron. A 
town called XaBur and Sa66a-a is mentioned by 
Ptolemy, who places it on the Sinus Adulitanus ; 
and about in the same position Strabo mentions 
a town SabcB (I,u6ai) as distinct from Saba. 
The sites of these places (if they are really dif- 
ferent) are sought by geographers at Nowarat, 
or Port Mornington, in the southern part of the 
coast of Nubia, and Massawah on Foul Bay. on 
the northeastern coast of Abyssinia. 

Sabacon (lafaKuv), a king of ^Ethiopia, who 
invaded Egypt in the reign of the blind king 
Anysis, whom he dethroned and drove # into the 
marshes. The ^Ethiopian conqueror then reign- 
ed over Egypt for fifty years, but at length quit- 
ted the country in consequence of a dream, 
whereupon Anysis regained his kingdom. This 
is the account which Herodotus received from 
the priests (ii., 137-140) ; but it appears from 
Manetho that there were three ^Ethiopian kings 
who reigned over Egypt, named Sabacon, Se- 
bichus, and Taracus, whose collective reigns 
amount to forty or fifty years, and who form 
the twenty-fifth dynasty of that writer. The 
account of Manetho is to be preferred to that 
of Herodotus. It appears that this ^Ethiopian 
dynasty reigned over Egypt in the latter half 
of the eighth century before the Christian era. 
They are mentioned in the Jewish records. 
The So, king of Egypt, with whom Hosea, king 
of Israel, made an alliance about B.C. 722 (2 
Kings, xvii., 4), was probably the same as Sebi- 
chus ; and the Tirhakah, king of the ^Ethiopi- 
ans, who was preparing to make war against 
Sennacherib in 711 (Is., xxxvii., 9), is the same 
as Taracus. 

Sabjei or SIbjb (2a6aToi, Safiai : in the Old 
Testament, Shebaiim), one of the chief people 
of Arabia, dwelt in the southwestern corner of 
the peninsula, in the most beautiful part of Ara- 
bia Felix, the north and centre of the province 
of El- Yemen. So, at least, Ptolemy places them ; 
but the earlier geographers give them a wider 
extent, quite to the south of El- Yemen. The 
fact seems to be that they are the chief repre- 
sentatives of a race which, at an early period, 
was widely spread on both sides of the south- 
ern part of the Red Sea, where Arabia and 
^Ethiopia all but joined at the narrow strait of 
Bab-el- Mandeb ; and hence, probabl}', the con- 
fusion often made between the Sheba ;and Sebtt 

761 



SAB ATE. 



SABfNI. 



of Scripture, or between the Shebaiim of Arabia 
and the Sebaiim of ^Ethiopia. Another proof 
of the wide extent of this race is furnished by 
the mention, in the book of Job, of Sabeans as 
far north, probably, as Arabia Deserta (Job, i., 
15). The Sabeans of El-Yemen were celebrated 
for their wealth and luxury. Their country 
oroduced all the* most precious spices and per- 
fumes of Arabia, and they carried on an exten- 
sive trade with the East. Their capital was at 
Saba, where we are told that their king was 
kept a close prisoner in his palace. The mon- 
archy was not hereditary, but descended ac- 
cording to an order of succession arranged 
among the chief families of the country. 

Sabate, a town of Etruria, on the road from 
Cosa to Rome, and on the northwestern corner 
of a lake, which was named after it Lacus Sa- 
batinus (now Lago di Bracciano). 

[Sabatia Vada or Sabatium Vadum. Vid. 
Sato.] 

Sabatini, a people in Campania, who derived 
their name from the River Sabatus (now Sab- 
bato), a tributary of the Calor, which flows into 
the Vulturous. 

[Sabatra or Soatra, a town of Lycaonia, 
where, according to Strabo, water was so scarce 
as to be an article of sale. On the neighboring 
downs were numerous wild asses.] 

Sabazius (SaSdfiOf), a Phrygian divinity, com- 
monly described as a son of Rhea or Cybele. 
In later times he was identified with the mystic 
Dionysus (Bacchus), who hence is sometimes 
called Dionysus Sabazius. For the same reason, 
Sabazius is called a son of Zeus (Jupiter) by 
Persephone (Proserpina), and is said to have 
been reared by a nymph Nyssa ; though others, 
by philosophical speculations, were led to con- 
sider him a son of Cabirus, Dionysus (Bacchus), 
or Cronos (Saturn). He was torn by the Titans 
into seven pieces. The connection of Sabazius 
with the Phrygian mother of the gods accounts 
for the fact that he was identified, to a certain 
extent, with Zeus (Jupiter) himself, who is men- 
tioned as Zeus (Jupiter) Sabazius, both Zeus 
(Jupiter) and Dionysus (Bacchus) having been 
brought up by Cybele or Rhea. His worship 
and festivals (Sabazia) were also introduced 
into Greece ; but, at least in the time of Demos- 
thenes, it was not thought reputable to take 
part in them, for they were celebrated at night 
by both sexes in a licentious manner. Serpents, 
which were sacred to him, acted a prominent 
part at the Sabazia and in the processions : the 
god himself was represented with horns, be- 
cause, it is said, he was the first that yoked 
oxen to the plough for agriculture. 

[Sabbata. Vid. Savo.] 

Sabelli. Vid. Sabini. 

SabellTus, an heresiarch of the third century, 
of whose personal history hardly any thing is 
known. He broached his heresies in the Libyan 
Pentapolis, of which he appears to have been a 
native. His characteristic dogma related to the 
Divine Nature, in which he conceived that there 
was only one hypostasis or person, identifying 
with each other the Father, the Son, and the 
Spirit, " so that in one hypostasis there are three 
designations" (<jf clvai iv fiia. vnoaraoei rptif bvo- 
uaaia$). 

Sabina, the wife of the Emperor Hadrian, 
702 



was the grand-niece of Trajan, being the daugh- 
ter of Matidia, who was the daughter of Mar- 
ciana, the sister of Trajan. Sabina was mar- 
ried to Hadrian about A.D. 100 through the in- 
fluence of Plotina, the wife of Trajan. The 
marriage did not prove a happy one. Sabina at 
length put an end to her life, and there was a j 
report that she had even been poisoned by her i 
husband. She was certainly alive in 136, and 
probably did not die till 138, a few months be- 
fore Hadrian. She was enrolled among the gods 
after her decease. 

Sabina, Popp^ea, a woman of surpassing beau- 
ty, but licentious morals, was the daughter of 
T. Ollius, but assumed the name of her mater- , 
nal grandfather Poppeeus Sabinus, who had been 
consul in A.D. 9. She was first married to | 
Rufius Crispinus, and afterward to Otho, who i 
was one of the boon companions of Nero. The 
latter soon became enamored of her; and, in 
order to get Otho out of the way, Nero sent him 
to govern the province of Lusitania (58). Pop- j 
paea now became the acknowledged mistress of , 
Nero, over whom she exercised absolute sway 
Anxious to become the wife of the emperor, j 
she persuaded Nero first to murder his mother 
Agrippina (59), who was opposed to such a dis- 
graceful union, and next to divorce and shortly 
afterward put to death his innocent and virtu- 
ous wife Octavia (62). Immediately after the 1 
divorce of Octavia, Poppsea became the wife of 
Nero. In the following year she gave birth to 
a daughter atAntium, but the infant died at the ] 
age of four months. In 65 Poppa?a was preg- i 
nant again, but was killed by a kick from her j 
brutal husband in a fit of passion. She was 
enrolled among the gods, and a magnificent 
temple was dedicated to her by Nero. Poppaea i 
was inordinately fond of luxury and pomp, and 
took immense pains to preserve the beauty of 
her person. Thus we are told that all her j 
mules were shod with gold, and that five hund- 
red asses were daily milked to supply her with 
a bath. 

Sabini, one of the most ancient and power- 
ful of the nations of Central Italy. The an- 
cients usually derived their name from Sabinus, 
a son of the native god Sancus. The different 
tribes of the Sabine race were widely spread 1 
over the whole of Central Italy, and were con- 
nected with the Opicans, Umbrians, and those 
other nations whose languages were akin to the 
Greek. The earliest traces of the Sabines are I 
found in the neighborhood of Amiternum, at 
the foot of the main chain of the Apennines, 
whence they spread as far south as the con- 
fines of Lucania and Apulia. The Sabines may 
be divided into three great classes, called by 
the names of Sabini, Sabelli, and Samnites re- j 
spectively. The Sabini proper inhabited the 
country between the Nar, the Anio, and the Ti 
ber, between Latium, Etruria, Umbria, and Pi 
cenum. This district was mountainous, and 
better adapted for pasturage than corn. The 
chief towns were Amiternum, Reate, Nursia. 
Cutiliaj, Cures, Eretum, and Nomentum. The 
Sabelli were the smaller tribes who issued 
from the Sabines. To these belong the Ves- 
tini, Marsi, Marrucini, Peligni, Frentani, and 
Hirpini. In addition to these communities, to 
whom the name of Sabellians is usually re 



I 



SABINUS. 

stu'cted, the Picentes in Picenum, the Picenti- 
ni, who were transplanted from the latter coun- 
try to Campania, and the Lucani, were also of 
Sabine origin. The Samnites, who were by far 
the most powerful of all the Sabine communi- 
ties, are treated of in a separate article. Vid. 
Samnium. There were certain national charac- 
teristics which distinguished the whole Sabine 
race. They were a people of simple and vir- 
tuous habits, faithful to their word, and imbued 
with deep religious feeling. Hence we find fre- 
quent mention of omens and prodigies in their 
country. They were a migratory race, and 
adopted a peculiar system of emigration. In 
times of great danger and distress they vowed 
a Ver Sacrum, or Sacred Spring ; and all the 
children born in that spring were regarded as 
sacred to the god, and were compelled, at the 
end of twenty years, to leave their native coun- 
try and seek a new home in foreign lands. The 
form of government among the Sabines was re- 
publican, but in war they chose a sovereign 
ruler (Embratur), whom the Romans sometimes 
call dictator and sometimes king. With the ex- 
ception of the Sabines in Lucania and Campa- 
nia, they never attained any high degree of civ- 
ilization or mental culture ; but they were al- 
ways distinguished by their love of freedom, 
which they maintained with the greatest brave- 
ry. Of this the Samnites were the most stri- 
king example. After the decline of the Etrus- 
can power, the Samnites were for a long time 
the greatest people in Italy ; and if they had re- 
mained united, they might have conquered the 
whole peninsula. The Sabines formed one of 
the elements of which the Roman people was 
composed. In the time of Romulus, a portion 
of the Sabines, after the rape of their wives and 
daughters, became incorporated with the Ro- 
mans, and the two nations were united into one 
under the general name of Quirites. The re- 
.mainder of the Sabini proper, who were less 
warlike than the Samnites and Sabellians, were 
finally subdued by M'.Curius Dentatus, B.C. 
290, and received the Roman franchise, sine 
suffragio. The Sabellian tribes concluded a 
treaty with the Romans at an early period, 
namely, the Vestini in 328, and the Marsi, Mar- 
rucini, Peligni, and Frentani in 304; but these 
communities again took up arms against the 
Romans in the Social war (90-88), which ended 
in the complete subjugation of all the Sabellian 
tribes. The history of the wars between the 
Samnites and the Romans is given under Sam- 
nium. 

Sabinus. 1. A contemporary poet and a 
friend of Ovid. Ovid informs us that Sabinus 
had written answers to six of the Epistola Hero- 
idum of Ovid. Three answers enumerated by 
Ovid in this passage are printed in many edi- 
tions of the poet's works as the genuine poems 
of Sabinus ; but they were written by a modern 
scholar, Angelus Sabinus, about the year 1467. 
— 2. M. C melius, a Roman jurist, who succeed- 
ed Cassius Longinus, was consul A.D. 69. He 
was not the Sabinus from whom the Sabiniani 
took their name. He wrote a work, Ad Edic- 
tum JEdilium Curulium. There are no extracts 
from Caeliusin the Digest, but he is often cited, 
sometimes as Caelius Sabinus, sometimes by the 
name of Sabinus only. — 3. C. CalvYsius, one of 



SABINUS. 

Ca?sar's legates in the civil war, B.C. 48. In 
45 he received the province of Africa from Cae- 
sar. Having been elected prajtor in 44, he ob- 
tained from Antony the province of Africa again; 
but he did not return to Africa, as the senate, 
after the departure of Antony for Mutina, con- 
ferred it upon Q. Corhificius. Sabinus was con- 
sul 39, and in the following year commanded 
the fleet of Octavianus in the war with Sextus 
Pompey. He was superseded by Agrippa in the 
command of the fleet. He is mentioned, too, 
at a later time as one of the friends of Octavia- 
nus. — 4. T. Flavius, father of the Emperor Ves- 
pasian, was one of the farmers of the taxes in 
Asia, and afterward carried on business as a 
money-lendei among the Helvetians. — 5. Fla- 
vius, elder son of the preceding, and brother of 
the Emperor Vespasian. He governed Moesia 
for seven years during the reign of Claudius, 
and held the important office of praefectus urbis 
during the last eleven years of Nero's reign. 
He was removed from this office by Galba, but 
was replaced in it on the accession of Otho, 
who was anxious to conciliate Vespasian, who 
commanded the Roman legions in the East. 
He continued to retain the dignity under Vi- 
tellius ; but when Vespasian was proclaimed 
general by the legions in the East, and Anto- 
nius Primus and his other generals in the West, 
after the defeat of the troops of Vitellius, were 
marching upon Rome, Vitellius, despairing of 
success, offered to surrender the empire, and 
to place the supreme power in the hands of Sa- 
binus till the arrival of his brother. The Ger- 
man soldiers of Vitellius, however, refused sub- 
mission to this arrangement, and resolved to 
support their sovereign by arms. Sabinus 
thereupon took refuge in the Capitol, where he 
was attacked by the Vitellian troops. In the 
assault the Capitol was burned to the ground, 
Sabinus was taken prisoner, and put to death 
by the soldiers in the presence of Vitellius, who 
endeavored in vain to save his life. Sabinus 
was a man of distinguished reputation and of 
unspotted character. He left two sons, Flavius 
Sabinus and Flavius Clemens. Vid. Clemens. 
— 6. Flavius, son of the preceding, married Ju- 
lia, the daughter of his cousin Titus. He was 
consul 82, with his cousin Domitian, but was 
afterward slain by the latter. — 7. Massurius, a 
hearer of Ateius Capito, was a distinguished 
jurist in the time of Tiberius. This is the Sa- 
binus from whom the school of the Sabiniani 
took its name. Vid. Capito. There is no di- 
rect excerpt from Sabinus in the Digest, but he 
is often cited by other jurists, who commented 
upon his Libri Ires Juris Civilis. It is conjec- 
tured that Persius means to refer to this work 
(Sat., v., 90) when he says, " Excepto si quid 
Masuri rubrica vetavit." Massurius also wrote 
numerous other works, which are cited by name 
in the Digest. — 8. NymphYdYus. Vid. Nymphid- 
ius. — 9. Popp^eus, consul A.D. 9, was appoint- 
ed in the lifetime of Augustus governor of Mce 
sia, and was not only confirmed in this govern- 
ment by Tiberius, but received from the latter 
the provinces of Achaia and Macedonia in ad- 
dition. He continued to hold these provinces 
till his death in 35, having ruled over Moesia 
for twenty-four years. He was the maternal 
grandfather of Poppasa Sabina, the mistress 

763 



I 



SABIS. 

and afterward the wife of Nero. — 10. Q. Titu- 
rius, one of Caesar's legates in Gaul, who per- 
ished along with Aurunculeius Cotta in the at- 
tack made upon them by Ambiorix in B.C. 54. 

Sabis (now Sambre). 1. A broad and deep 
river in Gallia Belgica and in the territory of 
the Ambiani, falling into the River Mosa. — 2. 
A small river on the coast of Carmania. — 3. Vid. 
Sapis. 

Sabrata. Vid. Abrotonum. 

SabrIna, also called Sabriana (now Severn), 
a river in the west of Britain, which flowed by 
Venta Silurum into the ocean. 

[Sabrina -<Estuarium or Sabriana ^Estua- 
rium (laSpiava elcxvcic), the estuary formed by 
the River Sabrina (now Severn). Vid. Sabrina.] 

[Sabura or Saburra, the commander of Ju- 
ba's forces in Africa, defeated C. Curio, Caesar's 
general, in B.C. 49. He was destroyed, with all 
his forces, in B.C. 46, by P. Sittius.] 

Sacadas (Zaaddac), of Argos, an eminent 
Greek musician, was one of the masters who 
established at Sparta the second great school 
of music, of which Thaletas was the founder, 
as Terpander had been of the first. He gained 
the prize for flute-playing at the first of the mu- 
sical contests which the Amphictyons estab- 
lished in connection with the Pythian games 
(B.C. 590), and also at the next two festivals in 
succession (586, 582). Sacadas was a compo- 
ser of elegies as well as a musician. 

Slcx (2a/cai), one of the most numerous and 
most powerful of the Scythian nomad tribes, 
had their abodes east and northeast of the 
Massagetae, as far as Serica, in the steppes of 
Central Asia, which are now peopled by the 
Kirghiz Khasaks, in whose name that of their 
ancestors is traced by some geographers. They 
were very warlike, and excelled especially as 
cavalry, and as archers both on horse and foot. 
Their women shared in their military spirit ; 
and, if we are to believe .(Elian, they had the 
custom of settling before marriage whether the 
man or woman should rule the house, by the 
result of a combat between them. In early 
times they extended their predatory incursions 
as far west as Armenia and Cappadocia. They 
were made tributary to the Persian empire, to 
the army of which they furnished a large force 
of cavalry and archers, who were among the 
best troops that the kings of Persia had. It 
should be remembered that the name of the 
Sacae is often used loosely for other Scythian 
tribes, and sometimes for the Scythians in gen- 
eral. 

Sacasene CZaKaanvfi), a fertile district of Ar- 
menia Major, on the River Cyrus and the con- 
fines of Albania, so called from its having been 
at one period conquered by the Sacae. A dis- 
trict of Drangiana bore the same name for a 
similar reason. 

Sacer Mons. 1. An isolated hill in the coun- 
try of the Sabines, on the right bank of the Anio, 
and west of the Via Nomentana, three miles 
from Rome, to which the plebeians repaired in 
their celebrated secessions. The hill is not 
called by any special name at the present day, 
but there is upon its summit the Torre di Spec- 
ehio. — 2. A mountain in Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, near the Minius, probably the modern Puer- 
to de Rabanon, near Ponferrada. 
764 



SAGALASSTJS 

SacIli, with the surname Martialium, a town ; 
of the Turduli in Hispania Baetica. 

Sacra Via. Vid. Roma, p. 748, b. 

Sacraria, a town in Umbria, on the road be- 
tween Treba and Spoletium, supposed by some i 1 
to be identical with Clitumni Fanum on tke 
River Clitumnus. 

[Sacrativir, M., of Capua, a Roman eques, 
who fell fighting on Caesar's side at the battle j 
of Dyrrachium, B.C. 48.] 

Sacriportus, a small place in Latium, of un- 
certain site, memorable for the victory of Sulla 
over the younger Marius, B.C. 82. 

[Sacrovir, Julius, and Julius Florus, two 
Gauls, the former an ^Eduan, the latter a Trevi- j 
ran, were both of noble family, and had received 
the Roman citizenship on account of their serv- 
ices. These chiefs, in the reign of Tiberius, ! 

A. D. 21, excited an insurrection among the 
Gau]s. Florus, who had excited the Belgae to 
revolt, was soon overthrown, while Sacrovir, 
who had stirred up the ^Edui, though at first in 1 
a measure successful, was defeated by the Ro- ( 
man legate Silius : they both, after their defeat, 
put themselves to death.] 

Sacrum Flumen. 1. (Now in as), a river on 
the western coast of Sardinia. — 2. (Now Tavig- 
nano), a river on the eastern coast of Corsica, 
which flowed into the sea at Aleria. 

Sacrum Promontorium. 1. (Now Cape St. 
Vincent), on the western coast of Spain, said 
by Strabo to be the most westerly point in the ! 
whole earth. — 2. (Now Cape Corso), the north- 
eastern point of Corsica. — 3. (Now Cape Iria, also 
Makri, Efta Kavi, or Jedi Burun, i. e., the seven ' 
points), the extreme point of the mountain Cra- 
gus in Lycia, between Xanthus and Telmissus. 
— 4. (Now Cape Khelidoni), another promontory 
in Lycia, near the confines of Pamphylia, and 
opposite the Chelidonian islands, whence it is 
also called Promontorium Chelidonium. 

[Sadales, the son of Cotys, king of Thrace, * i 
was sent by his father to the assistance of Pom- 
pey, and fought on his side against Caesar in 

B. C. 48. In conjunction with Scipio, he de- 
feated L. Cassius Longinus, one of Caesar's le- 
gates. He was pardoned by Caesar after the bat- 
tle of Pharsalia. He died in B.C. 42, leaving 
his dominions to the Romans.] 

Sadyattes (ZadvaTTvc), king of Lydia, suc- 
ceeded his father Ardys, and reigned B.C. 629- 
617. He carried on war with the Milesians for 
six years, and at his death bequeathed the war 
to his son and successor Alyattes. Vid. Al- 
yattes. 

SiEPiNUM or Sepinum (Sepinas, -atis : now Se- 
pino), a municipium in Samnium, on the road 
from Allifae to Beneventum. 

S^etabis. 1. (Now Alcoyl), a river on the 
southern coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, west 
of the Sucro. — 2. Or Setabis (Setabitanus : now 
Jativa), an important town of the Contestaniin 
Hispania Tarraconensis, and a Roman muni- 
cipium, was situated on a hill south of the Su- 
cro, and was celebrated for its manufacture of 
linen. 

Sagalassus (laya^aacoc : now ruins at Al- 
lahshun), a large fortified city of Pisidia, near 
the Phrygian border, a day's journey southeast 
of Apamea Cibotus. It lay, as its large ruins 
still show, in the form of an amphitheatre on 



SAG ANUS. 



SALAMIS. 



the side of a hill, and had a citadel on a rock 
thirty feet high. Its inhabitants were reckoned 
the bravest of the Pisidians, and seem, from the 
word XaKsdaifiuv on their coins, to have claimed 
a Spartan origin. Among the ruins of the city 
are the remains of a very fine temple, of an 
amphitheatre, and of fifty-two other large build- 
ings. 

Saganus (Eayavog), a small river on the coast 
of Carmania. 
Sagapa, one of the mouths of the Indus. 
Sagaris (Ovid, Ex Pont., iv., 10,47), a river 
of Sarmatia Europaea, falling into a bay in the 
northwest of the Euxine, which was called after 
it Sagaricus Sinus, and which also received the 
River Axiaces. The bay appears to be that on 
which Odessa now stands, and the rivers the 
Bol-Kouialnik and the Mal-Kouialnik. 

[Sagaris, one of the companions of ^Eneas, 
slain by Turnus in Italy.] 

Sagartii CZayupTioi), according to Herodo- 
tus, a nomad people of Persis. Afterward they 
are found, on the authority of Ptolemy, in Me- 
dia and the passes of Mount Zagros. 

Sagra, a small river in Magna Graecia, on the 
southeastern coast of Bruttium, falling into the 
■sea between Caulonia and Locri, on the banks 
of which a memorable victory was gained by 
ten thousand Locrians over one hundred and 
twenty thousand Crotoniats. This victory ap- 
peared so extraordinary, that it gave rise to the 
proverbial expression, " It is truer than what 
happened onti„ Sagra," when a person wished 
to make any si-^qg asseveration. 

Saguntia. 1. , Now xigonza or Gigonza, 
northwest of Medi na sidonia), a town in the 
western part of Hispania Batica, south of the 
Baetis —2. A town of ti,„ Arevaoi in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, southwest f Bilbilis, near the 
Mons Solarius. 

Saguntdm, more rarely SA 0liNTUS (Sagunti- 
, nus : now Murviedro), a town of foe Edetani or 
Sedetani in Hispania Tarraconer«i 2- sout h f 
the Iberus, on the River Palantias, abcut three 
miles from the coast. It is said to have 
been founded by Greeks from Zacynthus. with 
whom Rutulians from Ardea were intermingled, 
whence it is sometimes called Ausonia Sagun- 
tus. It was situated on an eminence in the 
midst of a fertile country, and became a place 
of great commercial importance. Although 
south of the Iberus, it had formed an alliance 
with the Romans ; and its siege by Hannibal, 
B.C. 219, was the immediate cause of the second 
Punic war. The inhabitants defended their 
city with the utmost bravery against Hannibal, 
who did not succeed in taking the place till 
after a siege of nearly eight months. The 
greater part of the city was destroyed by Han- 
nibal ; but it was rebuilt by the Romans eight 
years afterward, and made a colony. Sagun- 
tum was celebrated for its manufacture of 
beautiful drinking-cups ; and the figs of the sur- 
rounding country were much valued in antiqui- 
ty. The ruins of the ancient town, consisting 
of a theatre and a temple of Bacchus, are extant 
at Murviedro, which is a corruption of Muri 
veteres. 

S.u's (laic, lairrjc : ruins at Sa-el-Hajjar), a 
great city of Egypt, in the Delta, on the eastern 
=^du of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It was 



the ancient capital of Lower Egypt, and con* 
tained the palace and burial-place of the Pha- 
raohs, as well as the tomb of Osiris. It was 
the chief seat of the worship of the Egyptian 
goddess Neith (also called Sals), who had here 
a splendid temple in the middle of an artificial 
lake, where a great feast of lamps was cele- 
brated yearly by worshippers from all parts of 
Egypt. The city gave its name to the Sa'ites 
Nomos. 

Saitis (Satnc), a surname of Minerva (Athe- 
na), under which she had a sanctuary on Mount 
Pontinus, near Lerna, in Argolis. The name 
was traced by the Greeks to the Egyptians, 
among whom Minerva (Athena) was said to 
have been called Sais. 

Sala. 1. (Now Saale), a river of Germany, 
between which and the Rhine Drusus died. It 
was a tributary of the Albis. — 2. (Now Saale), 
also a river of Germany and a tributary of the 
Mcenus, which formed the boundary between 
the Hermunduri and Chatti, with great salt 
springs in its neighborhood, for the possession 
of which these two communities frequently con- 
tended. — 3. (Now Burargag), a river in the 
northern part of the western coast of Maureta- 
nia Tingitana, rises in the Atlas Minor, and falls 
into the Atlantic, north of a town of the same 
name. — 4. A river in the same province, south 
of the one last mentioned, rises in the Atlas 
Major, and falls into the Atlantic near the south- 
ern boundary of Mauretania. — 5. A Samothra 
cian town in Thrace, on the coast of the ^Egean 
Sea, west of the mouth of the Hebrus. — 6. A 
town in Pannonia, on the road from Sabaria tft 
Poetovio. — 7. (Now Shclla), a town in the north- 
ern part of the western coast of Mauretania Tin- 
gitana, south of the mouth of the river of the 
same name mentioned under No. 3. This town 
was the furthest place in Mauretania toward 
the south possessed by the Romans ; for, al- 
though the province nominally extended further 
south, the Romans never fully subdued the no 
mad tribes beyond this point. 

Salacia, the female divinity of the sea among 
the Romans, and the wife of Neptune. The 
name is evidently connected with sal (a/If), and 
accordingly denotes the wide, open sea. 

Salacia (now Alcacer do Sal), a municipium 
of Lusitania, in the territory of the Turdetani, 
northwest of Pax Julia and southwest of Ebora, 
with the surname of Urbs Imperatoria, cele- 
brated for its woollen manufactures. 

Salamis {~Za.\au'ic : lalaixivioc). 1. (Now Ko- 
lun), an island off the western coast of Attica, 
from which it is separated by a narrow channel. 
It forms the southern boundary of the Bay of 
Eleusis. Its form is that of an irregular semi 
circle toward the west, with many small inden- 
tations along the coast. Its greatest length, 
from north to south, is about ten miles, and its 
width, in its broadest part, from east to west, is 
a little more. In ancient times it is said to 
have been called Piiyussa, from the pines which 
grew in it, and also Sciras and Cychrea, from 
the names of two native heroes. It is further 
said to have been called Salarnis from a daugh- 
ter of Asopus of this name. It was colonized 
at an early time by the ^Eacidae of ^Egina. 
Telamon, the son of ,-Eacus, fled thither after 
the murder of his half-brother PI ocus, and be- 

765 



SALAPIA. 



SALERNUM. 



came sovereign of the island. His son Ajax 
accompanied the Greeks with twelve Salaminan 
ships to the Trojan war. Salamis continued an 
independent state till about the beginning of the 
fortieth Olympiad (B.C. 620), when a dispute 
arose for its possession between the Megarians 
and the Athenians. After a long struggle, it 
first fell into the hands of the Megarians, but 
was finally taken possession of by the Atheni- 
ans through a stratagem of Solon (vid. Solon), 
and became one of the Attic demi. It contin- 
ued to belong to Athens till the time of Cas- 
sander, when its inhabitants voluntarily surren- 
dered it to the Macedonians, 318. The Athe- 
nians recovered the island in 232 through means 
of Aratus, and punished the Salaminians for 
their desertion to the Macedonians with great 
severity. The old city of Salamis stood on the 
south side of the island, opposite iEgina ; but 
this was afterward deserted, and a new city of 
the same name built on the eastern coast, oppo- 
site Attica, on a small bay now called Ambela- 
kia. Even this new city was in ruins in the 
time of Pausanias. At the extremity of the 
southern promontory forming this bay was the 
small island of Psyttalia (now Lypsohutali), 
which is about a mile long, and from two hund- 
red to three hundred yards wide. Salamis is 
chiefly memorable on account of the great battle 
fought off its coast, in which the Persian fleet of 
Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks, B.C. 480. 
The battle took place in the strait between the 
eastern part of the island and the coast of Attica, 
and the Greek fleet was drawn up in the small 
bay in front of the town of Salamis. The battle 
was witnessed from the Attic coast by Xerxes, 
who had erected for himself a lofty throne on 
one of the projecting declivities of Mount ^Ega- 
leos. — 2. A city of Cyprus, situated in the mid- 
dle of the eastern coast, a little north of the 
River Pediaeus. It is said to have been founded 
by Teucer, the son of Telamon, who gave it the 
name of his native island, from which he had 
been banished by his father. Salamis possess- 
ed an excellent harbor, and was by far the most 
important city in the whole of Cyprus. It be- 
came subject to the Persians with the rest of 
the island ; but it recovered its independence 
about 385, under Evagoras, who extended his 
sovereignty over the greater part of the island. 
Vid. Cyprus. Under the Romans the whole of 
the eastern part of the island formed pare of the 
territory of Salamis. In the time of Trajan a 
great part of the town was destroyed in an in- 
surrection of the Jews ; and under Constantine 
it suffered still more from an earthquake, which 
buried a large portion of the inhabitants beneath j 
its ruins. It was, however, rebuilt by Constan- 
tino, who gave it the name of Constantia, and 
made it the capital of the island. There are 
still a few ruins of this town. 

Salapia (Salapinus : now Salpi), an -ancient 
town of Apulia, in the district Daunia, was sit- 
uated south of Sipontum, on a lake named after 
it. According to the common tradition it was 
founded by Diomedes, though others ascribe its , 
foundation to the Rhodian Elpias. It is not j 
mentioned till the second Punic war, when it j 
revolted to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, | 
but it subsequently surrendered to the Romans, j 
and delivered to the latter the Carthaginian gar- | 
766 



I rison stationed in the town. The original site 
of Salapia was at some distance from the coast 
but, in consequence of the unhealthy exhalations 
arising from the lake above mentioned, the in- 
habitants removed to a new town on the sea- 

j coast, which was built by M. Hostilius with the 
approbation of the Roman senate, about B.C. 
200. This new town served as the harbor of 
Arpi. The ruins of the ancient town still exist 
at some distance from the coast at the village 
of Salpi. 

Salapina Palus (now Lago di Salpi), a lake 
of Apulia, between the mouths of the Cerbalus 
and Aufidus, which derived its name from the 
town of Salapia situated upon it, and which M. 
Hostilius connected with the Adriatic by means 
of a canal. 

Salaria, a town of the Bastetani in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, and a Roman colony. 
Salaria Via. Vid. Roma, p. 756, b 
Salassi, a brave and warlike people in Gallia 
Transpadana, in the valley of the Duria, at the 
foot of the Graian and Pennine Alps, whom 
some regarded as a branch of the Salyes or Sal- 
luvii in Gaul. They defended the passes of the 
Alps in their territory with such obstinacy and 
courage that it was long before the Romans 
were able to subdue them. At length, in t/ie 
reign of Augustus, the country was permanently 
occupied by Terentius Varro with a rowerful 
Roman force; the greater part of tie Salassi 
were destroyed in battle, and the amount- 
ing to thirty-six thousand, were sc'd as slaves. 
Their chief town was Augusia ^rajtona (now 
Aosta), which Augustus coloured with soldiers 
of the Praetorian cohorts. ■ . 

Sald*: (SdAAxt : ruins at Boujayah or Dcl- 
lyz i) a large sea-port «" v n of Northern Africa, 
originally the easter-i frontier town of the king- 
dom of Mauretavia. afterward in Mauretania 
Caesariensis apJ> a f ter tne division of that prov- 
ince the wcw* B frontier town of Mauretania 
Sitifensis. Augustus made it a colony. 

g ALD f, B i. 1. (Now Rio Verde), a river in the 
territory of the Turduli in Hispania Baatica, at 
the ipouth of which was situated a town of the 
sarpe name. — 2. Vid. C^esaraugusta. 
Sale (2uAt?), a town on the coast of Thrace. 
Salebro, a place in Etruria between Cosa 
and Populonium. 

Saleius Bassus. Vid. Bassos. 
Salem, i. e., peace, the original name of Jeru- 
salem (Gen., xlv., 18). 

Salentini or Sallentini, a people in the 
southern part of Calabria, who dwelt around the 
promontory Iapygium, which is hence called 
Salentinum or Salentina. They laid claim to 
a Greek origin, and pretended to have come 
from Crete into Italy under the guidance of Ido- 
meneus. They were subdued by the Romans 
at the conclusion of their war with Pyrrhus, and 
having revolted in the second Punic war, were 
again easily reduced to subjection. 

[Salentinum Promontorium. Vid. Salen- 
tini.] 

Salernum ( Salernitanus : now Salerno), an 
ancient town in Campania, at the innermost 
corner of the Sinus Pcestanus, was situated on 
a height not far from the coast, and possessed 
a harbor at the foot of the hill. It was made a 
Roman colony at the same time as Puteoli, B.C 



SALGANEUS. 

194 ; but it attained its greatest prosperity in 
the Middle Ages, after it had been fortified by 
the Lombards. 

Salganeus or Salganea (Zd'hyavevg : "ZaAya- 
vtof, laX-yaveiTTic), a small town of Boeotia, on 
the Etiripus, and on the road from Anthedon to 
Chaleis. 

[Salienus, T., a centurion in Caesar's army 
in Africa, in B.C. 46, induced the two Titii to 
surrender their ship to C. Virgilius, the Pom- 
peian leader. He was subsequently dismissed 
from the army by Caesar with disgrace. — 2. Cle- 
mens, a senator in the reign of Nero.] 

Saline, salt-works, the name of several 
towns which possessed salt-works in their vicin- 
ity. 1. A town in Britain, on the eastern coast, 
in the southern part of Lincolnshire. — 2. A town 
of the Suetrii, in the Maritime Alps, in Gallia 
Narbonensis, east of Reii. — 3. (Now Torre delle 
Saline), a place on the coast of Apulia, near Sa- 
lapia. — 4. A place in Picenum, on the River San- 
ies (now Salino). — 5. (Now Torda), a place in 
Dacia. — 6. Saline Hercules, near Hercula- 
num, in Campania. 

Salinator, Livius. 1. M., consul B.C. 219 
with L. ^Emilius Paulus, carried on war along 
with his colleague against the Illyrians. On 
their return to Rome, both consuls were brought 
to trial on the charge of having unfairly divided 
the booty among the soldiers. Paulus escaped 
with difficulty, but Livius was condemned. The 
sentence seems to have been an unjust one, and 
Livius took his disgrace so much to heart that 
he left the city and retired to his estate in the 
country, where he lived some years without 
taking any part in public affairs. In 210 the 
consuls compelled him to return to the city, and 
in 207 he was elected consul a second time with 
C. Claudius Nero. He shared with his col- 
league in the glory of defeating Hasdrubal on 
the Metaurus. (For details, vid. Nero, Clau- 
dius, No. 2). Next year (206) Livius was sta- 
tioned in Etruria as proconsul, with an army, 
and his imperium was prolonged for two suc- 
cessive years. In 204 he was censor with his 
former colleague in the consulship, Claudius 
Nero: The two censors had long been ene- 
mies ; and their long-smothered resentment 
now burst forth, and occasioned no small scan- 
dal in the state. Livius, in his censorship, im- 
posed a tax upon salt, in consequence of which 
he received the surname of Salinator, which 
seems to have been given him in derision, but 
which became, notwithstanding, hereditary in 
his family. — 2. C, curule aedile 203, and praetor 
202, in which year he obtained Bruttium as his 
province. In 193 he fought under the consul 
against the Boii, and in the same year was an 
unsuccessful candidate for the consulship. — 3. 
C, praetor 191, when he had the command of 
the fleet in the war against Antiochus. He was 
consul 188, and obtained Gaul as his province. 
Sallentini. Vid. Salentini. 
Sallustius or Salustius (SaAoiicrrioc). 1. 
Praefectus Praetorio under the Emperor Julian, 
with whom he was on terms of friendship. Sal- 
lustius was a heathen, but dissuaded the em- 
peror from persecuting the Christians. He was 
probably the author of a treatise Uepl &etiv nai 
icdtj/xov, which is still extant. If so, he was at- 
tached to the doctrines of the Neo-Platonists. 



SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS. 

The best edition of this treatise is by Orellius, 
Turici, 1821. — 2. A Cynic philosopher of some 
note, who lived in the latter part of the fifth 
j century after Christ. He was a native of Erne- 
sa in Syria, and studied successively at Emesa, 
Alexandrea, and Athens. Sallustius was sus- 
pected of holding somewhat impious opinions 
regarding the gods. He seems, at least, to have 
been unsparing in his attacks upon the fanat- 
ical theology of the Neo-Platonists. 

Sallustius Crispus, C, or Salustius. 1. 
The Roman historian, belonged to a plebeian 
family, and was born B.C. 86 at Amiternum, in 
the country of the Sabines. He was quaestor 
about 59, and tribune of the plebs in 52, the 
year in which Clodius was killed by Milo. In 
his tribunate he joined the popular party, and 
took an active part in opposing Milo. It is said 
that he had been caught by Milo in the act of 
adultery with his wife Fausta, the daughter of 
the dictator Sulla ; that he had received a sound 
whipping from the husband, and that he had 
been let off only on payment of a sum of money. 
In 50 Sallust was expelled from the senate by 
the censors, probably because he belonged to 
Caesar's party, though some give as the ground 
of his ejection fr'om the senate the act of adul- 
tery already mentioned. In the civil war he 
followed Caesar's fortune. In 47 we find him 
praetor elect, by obtaining which dignity he was 
restored to his rank. He nearly lost his life in 
a mutiny of some of Caesar's troops in Campa- 
nia, who had been led thither to pass over into 
Africa. He accompanied Caesar in his African 
war, 46, and was left by Caesar as the governor 
of Numidia, in which capacity he is charged 
with having oppressed the people, and enriched 
himself by unjust means. He was accused of 
maladministration before Cassar, but it does not 
appear that he was brought to trial. The charge 
is somewhat confirmed by the fact of his be- 
coming immensely rich, as was shown by the 
expensive gardens which he formed {horli Sal- 
lustiani) on the Quirinalis. He retired into priv 
acy after he returned from Africa, and he pass- 
ed quietly through the troublesome period aftei 
Caesar's death. He died 34, about four years 
before the battle of Actium. The story of his 
marrying Cicero's wife Terentia ought to be 
rejected. It was probably not ttll after his re- 
turn from Africa that Sallust wrote his histor- 
ical works. 1. The Catilina, or Bcllum Calili- 
narium, is a history of the conspiracy of Cati- 
line during the consulship of Cicero, 63. The 
introduction to this history, which some critics 
admire, is only a feeble and rhetorical attempt 
to act the philosopher and moralist. The his- 
tory, however, is valuable. Sallust was a liv- 
ing spectator of the events which he describes, 
and, considering that he was not a friend of 
Cicero, and was a partisan of Caesar, he wrote 
with fairness. The speeches which he has in- 
serted in his history are certainly his own com- 
position ; but we may assume that Caesar's 
speech was extant, and that he gave the sub- 
stance of it. 2. The Jugurlha, or Bellum Ju- 
gurthinum, contains the history of the war of 
the Romans against Jugurtha, king of Numidia, 
which began 111 and continued until 106. It 
'is likely enough that Sallust was led to write 
this work from having resided in Africa, and 

707 



SALMACIS. 



SALONINUS, P. LICINIUS 



that he collected some materials there. He 
cites the Punic Books of King Hiempsal as 
authority for his general geographical descrip- 
tion {Jug., c. 17). The Jugurthine war has a 
philosophical introduction of the same stamp as 
that to the Catilina. As a history of the cam- 
paign, the Jugurthine war is of no value : there 
is a total neglect of geographical precision, and 
•apparently not a very strict regard to chronol- 
ogy. 3. Sallustius also wrote Hisioriarum Libri 
Quinque, which were dedicated to Lucullus, a 
son of L. Licinius Lucullus. The work is sup- 
posed to have comprised the period from the 
consulship of M ^Emilius Lepidus and Q. Luta- 
tius Catulus, 78, the year of Sulla's death, to 
<he consulship of L. Vulcatius Tullus and M. 
/Emilius Lepidus, 66, the year in which Cicero 
was praetor. This work is lost, with the excep- 
tion of fragments which have been collected 
and arranged. The fragments contain, among 
other things, several orations and letters. Some 
fragments belonging to the third book, and re- 
lating to the war with Spartacus, have been 
published from a Vatican MS. in the present 
century. 4. Duo. Epistola de Re Publico, ordi- 
nanda, which appear to be addressed to Caesar 
at the time when he was engaged in his Span- 
ish campaign (49) against Petreius and Afra- 
nius, and are attributed to Sallust ; but the opin- 
ions of critics on their authenticity are divided, 
o. The Dedamatio in Sallustium, which is at- 
tributed to Cicero, is generally admitted to be 
the work of some rhetorician, the matter of 
which is the well-known hostility between the 
orator and the historian. The same opinion is 
generally maintained as to the Dedamatio in 
decrement, which is attributed to Sallust. Some 
of the Roman writers considered that Sallustius 
imitated the style of Thucydides. His language 
is generally concise and perspicuous: perhaps 
his love of brevity may have caused the am- 
biguity that is sometimes found in his senten- 
ces. He also affected archaic words. Though 
he has considerable merit as a writer, his art 
is always apparent. He had no pretensions to 
great research or precision about facts. His 
reflections have often something of the same 
artificial and constrained character as his ex- 
pressions. One may judge that his object was 
to obtain distinction as a writer ; that style was 
what he thought of more than matter. He has, 
however, probably the merit of being the first 
Roman who wrote what is usually called histo- 
ry. He was not above his contemporaries as a 
politician ; he was a party man, and there are 
no indications of any comprehensive views, 
which had a whole nation for their object. He 
hated the nobility, as a man may do, without 
loving the people. The best editions of Sallust 
are by Corte, Lips., 1724 ; Gerlach, Basil., 1823- 
1831, 3 vols. ; and by Kritz, Lips., 1828-1834, 
2 vols. ; [second edition, 1847, 2 vols.] — 2. The 
grandson of the sister of the historian, was 
adopted by the latter, and inherited his great 
wealth. In imitation of Maecenas, he prefer- 
red remaining a Roman eques. On the fall of 
Maecenas he became the principal adviser of 
Augustus. He died in A.D. 20, at an advanced 
age. One of Horace's odes (Carm., ii., 2) is 
addressed to him. 

[Salmacis (2aA//a«Y), a fountain in Halicar- 
768 



nassus, the water of which was believed to nave 
the property of rendering those who bathed in 
it effeminate.] 

SalmantIca (now Salamanca), called Hel- 
jiantica or Hermandica by Livy, and Elman- 
tica by Polybius, an important town of the Vet- 
tones in Lusitania, south of the Durius, on the 
road from Emerita to Caesaraugusta. It was | 
taken by Hannibal. A bridge was built here by | 
Trajan, of which the piers still exist. 

Salmone or Salmonia (XaX/MJvn, Sal/iuvla), 
a town of Elis, in the district Pisatis, on the 
River Enipeus, said to have been founded by 
Salmoneus. 

Salmoneus CZaXpuvevc), son of ^Eolus and 
Enarete, and brother of Sisyphus. He was first 
married to Alcidice and afterward to Sidero ; 
by the former of whom he became the father 
of Tyro. He originally lived in Thessaly, but 
emigrated to Elis, where he built the town of 
Salmone. His presumption and arrogance were 
so great that he deemed himself equal to Jupi- t 
ter (Zeus), and ordered sacrifices to be offered 
to himself ; nay, he even imitated the thunder j 
and lightning of Jupiter (Zeus), but the father 
of the gods killed him with his thunderbolt, de- 
stroyed his town, and punished him in the low- 
er world. His daughter Tyro bears the patro- 
nymic Salmonis. 

Salmonium or Salmone {"ZaXp-uvLov, "Zalfiuvn: 
now Cape Salmon), the most easterly promon- 
tory of Crete. 

Salmydessus, called Halmydessus also in j 
later times {ZaXjiviTjaooc, ' AXjivtincsGoc: SafyzD- 
dfioaoc: now Midja or Midjeh), a town of Thrace, 
on the coast of the Euxine, south of the proin- I 
ontory Thynias. The name was originally ap- 
plied to the whole coast from this promontory 
to the entrance of the Bosporus ; and it was 
from this coast that the Black Sea obtained the 
name of Pontus Axenos ("Aljevoc), or inhospita- 
ble. The coast itself was rendered dangerous 
by shallows and marshes, and the inhabitants 
were accustomed to plunder any ships that were 
driven upon them. 

Salo (now Xalon), a tributary of the Iberus 
in Celtiberia, which flowed by Bilbilis, the birth- 
place of Martial, who accordingly frequently | 
mentions it in his poems. 

[Sal'odurum. Vid. Salordurum.] 

Salona, Salon.'e, or Salon (SuAov : now Sa- i 
lona), an important town of Illyria and the cap- 
ital of Dalmatia, was situated on a small bay of 
the sea. It was strongly fortified by the Ro- 
mans after their conquest of the country, and i 
was at a later time made a Roman colony, and 
the seat of a conventus juridicus. The Emper- I 
or Diocletian was born at the small village Dio- 
clea near Salona ; and after his abdication he 
retired to the neighborhood of this town, and \ 
here spent the rest of his days. The remains 
of his magnificent palace are still to be seen at 
the village of Spalatro, the ancient Spolatum, 
three miles south of Salona. 

Salonika, Cornelia, wife of Gallienus and 
mother of Saloninus. She witnessed with her 
own eyes the death of her husband before Mi< | 
lan in A.D. 26S. 

Saloninus, P. Licinius Cornelius Valeria- 
nus, son of Gallienus and Salonina, grandson 
of the Emperor Valerian. When his father and I 



SALORDURUM. 



SAMARIA. 



grandfather assumed the title of Augustus in 
A.D. 253, the youth received the designation of 
Csesar. Some years afterward he was left in 
Gaul, and was put to death upon the capture of 
Colonia Agrippina by Postumus in 259, being 
about seventeen years old. 

Salordurum (now Solcure or Sololkurn), a 
town of the Helvetii, on the road from Aventi- 
cum to Vindonissa, was fortified by the Romans 
about A.D. 350. 

[Salsul^ Fons, a fountain in the neighbor- 
hood of the Sordice Lacus. in Gallia Narbonen- 
sis, south from Narbo : it corresponds to the 
Fountain of Salscs near the Etang de Leucate.'] 
Salsum Fi.umen, a tributary of the Bastis, in 
Hispania Baetica, between Attegua and Attubis. 

Salvianus, an accomplished ecclesiastical 
writer of the fifth century, was born in the vi- 
cinity of Treves, and passed the latter part of his 
life as a presbyter of the church at Marseilles. 
The following works of Salvianus are still ex- 
tant : 1. Adversus Avariliam Libri IV., ad Eccle- 
siam Catholicam, published under the name of 
Timotheus about A.D. 440. 2. De Providentia s. 
de Gubernatione Dei et de Justo Dei prassentique 
Judicio Libri, written during the inroads by the 
barbarians upon the Roman empire, 451-455. 
3. Episiolce IX., addressed to friends upon fa- 
miliar topics. The best edition of these works 
is by Baluzius, 8vo, Paris, 1684. 

Salvidienus Rufus, Q., orie of the early 
friends of Octavianus (Augustus), whose fleet 
he commanded in the war against Sextus Pom- 
peius, B.C. 42. In the Perusinian war (41-40) 
he took an active part as one of Octavianus's 
legates against L. Antonius and Fulvia. He 
was afterward sent into Gallia Narbonensis, 
from whence he wrote to M. Antonius, offering 
to induce the troops in his province to desert 
from Octavianus. But Antonius, who had just 
been reconciled to Octavianus, betrayed the 
treachery of Salvidienus. The latter was forth- 
with summoned to Rome on some pretext, and 
on his arrival was accused by Octavianus in the 
senate, and condemned to death, 40. 

Salvius, the leader of the revolted slaves in 
Sicily, better known by the name of Tryphon, 
which he assumed. Vid. Tryphon. 
Salvius Julianus. Vid. Julianus. 
Salvius Otho. Vid. Otho. 
[Salvius or Sylvius, otherwise called Pole- 
mius, the author of a sacred calendar, drawn up 
A.D. 448, which is entitled Laterculus s. Index 
Dierum Festorum, and which includes heathen 
as well as Christian festivals, is generally be- 
lieved to have been Bishop of Martigny, in the 
Valais.] 

Salus, a Roman goddess, the personification 
of health, prosperity, and the public welfare. 
In the first of these three senses she answers 
closely to the Greek Hygieia, and was accord- 
ingly represented in works of art with the same 
attributes as the Greek goddess. In the sec- 
ond sense she represents prosperity in general. 
In the third sense she is the goddess of the pub- 
lic welfare (Salus publico, or Romano). In this 
capacity a temple had been vowed to her, in the 
year B.C. 397, by the censor C. Junius Bubul- 
cus, on the Quirinal Hill, which was afterward 
decorated with paintings by C. Fabius Pictor. 
She was worshipped publicly on the 30th of 
49 



April, in conjunction with Pax, Concordia, and 
Janus. It had been customary at Rome ever} 
year, about the time when the consuls entered 
upon their office, for the augurs and other high- 
priests to observe the signs for the purpose of 
ascertaining the fortunes of the republic dur- 
ing the coming year : this observation of the 
signs was called augurium Salutis. In the time 1 
of Cicero this ceremony had become neglected ; 
but Augustus restored it, and the custom after- 
ward remained as long as paganism was the re- 
ligion of the state. Salus was represented, like 
Fortuna, with a rudder, a globe at her feet, and 
sometimes in a sitting posture, pouring from a 
patera a libation upon an altar, around which a 
serpent is winding. 

Salustius. Vid. Sallustius. 

Salyes or Salluvii, the most powerful and 
most celebrated of all the Ligurian tribes, inhab- 
ited the southern coast of Gaul from the Rhone 
to the Maritime Alps. They were troublesome 
neighbors to Massilia, with which city they fre- 
quently carried on war. They were subdued 
by the Romans in B.C. 123 after a long and ob- 
stinate struggle, and the colony of Aqua? Sex- 
tiae was founded in their territory by the con- 
sul Sextius. 

Samachonitis Lacus. Vid. Semechonitis La- 
cus. 

Samara. Vid. Samarobriva. 

Samaria (Zap.apeia : Heb. Shomron ; Chaldee, 
Shamra'in : ^a/iapevc, Zafiapeirric, Samarltes, pi. 
'Zap.apuc, Zafiapcirai, Samarltae), afterward SS- 
baste (ZefaoTr) : ruins at Scbustich), one of the 
chief cities of Palestine, was built by Omri, 
king of Israel (about B.C. 922), on a hill in the 
midst of a plain surrounded by mountains, just 
in the centre of Palestine, west of the Jordan. 
Its name was derived from Shemer, the owner 
of the hill which Omri purchased for its site. 
It was the capital of the kingdom of Israel, and 
the chief seat of the idolatrous worship to which 
the ten tribes were addicted, until it was taken 
by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria (about B.C. 
720), who carried away the inhabitants of the 
city and of the surrounding country, which is 
also known in history as Samaria {vid. below), 
and replaced them by heathen tribes from the 
eastern provinces of his empire. These set- 
tlers, being troubled with the wild beasts, who 
had become numerous in the depopulated coun- 
try, sought to propitiate the god of the land ; 
and Esarhaddon sent them a priest of the tribe 
of Levi, who resided at Bethel, and taught them 
the worship of the true God. The result was 
a strange mixture of religions and of races. 
When the Jews returned from the Babylonish 
captivity, those of the Samaritans who wor- 
shipped Jehovah offered to assist them in re- 
building the temple at Jerusalem ; but their aid 
was refused, and hence arose the lasting hatred 
between the Jews and the Samaritans. This 
religious animosity reached its height when, in 
the reign of Darius Nothus, the son of the Jew- 
ish high-priest, having married the daughter of 
Sanballat, governor of Samaria, went over to 
the Samaritans and became high-priest of a 
temple which his father-in-law built for him on 
Mount Gerizim, near Sichem. The erection of 
this temple had also the effect of diminishing 
the importance of the city of Samaria. Under 

760 



SAMAROBRITA. 



SAMNIUM. 



lie Syrian kings and the Maecabean princes, 
^ve find the name of Samaria used distinctly as 
chat of a province, which consisted of the dis- 
trict between Galilee on the north and Judaea 
on the south. In the persecution of Antiochus 
Epiphanes, the Samaritans escaped by conform- 
, ing to the king's edicts and dedicating the tem- 
ple on Mount Gerizirn to Jupiter (Zeus) Helle- 
nius, B.C. 167. As the power of the Asmonean 
princes increased, they attacked the Samari- 
tans ; and, about B.C. 129, John Hyrcanus took 
and destroyed the temple on Mount Gerizirn and 
the city of Samaria. The latter seems to have 
been soon rebuilt. Pompey assigned the dis- 
trict to the province of Syria, and Gabinius for- 
tified the city anew. Augustus gave the dis- 
trict to Herod, who greatly renovated the city 
of Samaria, which he called Sebaste, in honor 
of his patron. Still, as the Samaritans contin- 
ued to worship on Mount Gerizirn, even after 
their temple had been destroyed, the neighbor- 
ing city of Sichem was regarded as their cap- 
ital, and, as it grew, Samaria declined ; and, by 
the fourth century of our era, it had become a 
place of no importance. Its beautiful site is 
now occupied by a poor village, which bears the 
Greek name of the city, slightly altered, viz., 
Sebustieh. As a district of Palestine, Samaria 
extended from Ginaea (now Jenin) on the north, 
toBethhoron, northwest of Gibeon, on thesouth ; 
or, along the coast, from a little south of Caes- 
area on the north, to a little north of Joppa on 
the south. It was intersected by the mountains 
ofEphraim, running north and south through its 
middle, and by their lateral branches, which 
divide the country into beautiful and fertile val- 
leys. For its political history after the time of 
Herod the Great, vid. Pal^estina. A remnant 
of the ancient Samaritans have remained in the 
country to the present day, especially at Nablous 
(the ancient Sichem), and have preserved their 
ancient version of the Five Books of Moses, the 
only part of the Old Testament which they ac- 
knowledge. This version is known as the Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch, and is of vast importance 
in biblical criticism. 

Samarobriva, afterward Ambiani (now Ami- 
ens), the chief town of the Ambiani in Gallia 
Belgica, on the River Samara ; whence its name, 
which signifies Samara-Bridge. 

Sambana CLafi6ava), a city of Assyria, two 
days' journey north of Sittace. In its neigh- 
borhood dwelt the people called Sambatae (Sa/i- 
fiarai). 

Samb astve CZafiOaorai), a people of India intra 
Gangem, on the Lower Indus, near the island 
Pattalene. The fort of Sevistan or Sehoun in 
the same neighborhood has been thought to pre- 
serve their name, and is by some identified with 
the Brahman city taken by Alexander. 

[Sambus (2u/i6of : now Tschumbul or Sambul), 
a tributary of the Jomanes in India intra Gan- 
gem.] 

[Sambus (2a,u6of,Arr. ; Safiof, Diod. ; 2a'66af, 
Plut.), an Indian prince, whose kingdom bor- 
dered on Pattalene. When Alexander penetrat- 
ed into India, Sambus hastened to make his sub- 
mission to him, and was accordingly left in the 
possession of his kingdom.] 

Same or Samos ("Zafiri, Sa r uof), the ancient 
name of Cephallenia. Vid. Cephallenia. It 
770 



I was also the name of one of the four towns of 
Cephallenia. The town Same or Samos was 
situated on the eastern coast, opposite Ithaca, 
and was taken and destroyed by the Romans 
B.C. 189. 

Samia (Ea/iia : now Khaiaffa), a town of Elis 
in the district Triphylia, south of Olympia, be- 
tween Lepreum and the Alpheus, with a citadel 
called Samicum {"Za/unov), the same as the Ho 
meric Arene. 

[Samicum. Vid. Samia.] 

Saminthus (2(i[uvdoc : near Phiklia), a place 
in Argolis, on the western edge of the Argive 
plain, opposite Mycenae. 

Samnium (Samnltes, more rarely Samnltae, 
pi.), a country in the centre of Italy, bounded 
on the north by the Marsi, Peligni, and Marru- 
cini, on the west by Latium and Campania, on 
the south by Lucania, and on the east by the 
Frentani and Apulia. The Samnites were an 
offshoot of the Sabines, who emigrated from 
their country between the Nar, the Tiber, and 
the Anio, before the foundation of Rome, and 
settled in the country afterward called Sam- 
nium. Vid. Sabini. This country was at the 
time of their migration inhabited by Opicans, 
whom the Samnites conquered, and whose lan- 
guage they adopted ; for we find, at a later time, 
that the Samnites spoke Opican or Oscan. 
Samnium is a country marked by striking phys- 
ical features. The greater part of it is occupied 
by a huge mass of mountains, called at the pres- 
ent day the Matese, which stands out from the 
central line of the Apennines. The circum- 
ference of the Matese is between seventy and 
eighty miles, and its greatest height is six thou 
sand feet. ' The two most important tribes of 
the Samnites were the Caudini and Pentri, of 
whom the former occupied the southern side, 
and the latter the northern side of the Matese. 
To the Caudini belonged the towns of Allifae, 
Telesia, and Beneventum ; to the Pentri, those 
of iEsernia, Bovianum, and Sepinum. Besides 
these two chief tribes, we find mention of the 
Caraceni, who dwelt north of the Pentri, and 
to whom the town of Aufidena belonged ; ana 
of the Hirpini, who dwelt southeast of the Cau- 
dini, but who are sometimes mentioned as dis- 
tinct from the Samnites. The Samnites were 
distinguished for their bravery and love of free- 
dom. Issuing from their mountain fastnesses, 
they overran a great part of Campania ; and it 
was in consequence of Capua applying to the 
Romans for assistance against the Samnites 
that war broke out between the two nations in 
B.C. 343. The Romans found the Samnites the 
most warlike and formidable enemies whom 
they had yet encountered in Italy ; and the war, 
which commenced in 343, was continued with 
few interruptions for the space of fifty-three 
years. It was not till 290, when all their brav- 
est troops had fallen, and their country had 
been repeatedly ravaged in every direction by 
the Roman legions, that the Samnites sued for 
peace and submitted to the supremacy ol Rome. 
They never, however, lost their love of free- 
dom ; and, accordingly, they not only joined the 
other Italian allies in the war against Rome (90), 
but, even after the other allies had submitted, 
they still continued in arms. The civil war be- 
tween Marius and Sulla gave them hopes of re- 



SAMOLAS. 



SAMOS. 



covering their independence ; but they were de- 
feated before the gates of Rome (82), the great- 
er part of their troops fell in battle, and the re- 
mainder were put. to death. Their towns were 
laid waste, the inhabitants sold as slaves, and 
their place supplied by Roman colonists. 

[Samolas (Sa^o/Uf), an Achaean, one of the 
three commissioners sent by the Greek auxili- 
aries of Cyrus from Cotyora to Sinope in B.C. 
400 for ships to convey the army to Heraclea. 
Not long after, when the Greeks were atCalpe, 
we find Samolas commanding a division of the 
reserve in the successful engagement with the 
allied troops of the Bithynians and Pharnaba- 
zus.] 

Samos or Samus (Sa^of: 2a/iiof, Samius: now 
Grk. Samo, Turk. Susam Adassi), one of the 
principal islands of the ^Egean Sea, lying in 
that portion of it called the Icarian Sea, off the 
coast of Ionia, from which it is separated only 
by a narrow strait formed by the overlapping 
of its eastern promontory Posidium (now Cape 
Colonna) with the westernmost spur of Mount 
Mycale, Promontorium Trogilium (now Cape S. 
Maria). This strait, which is little more than 
three fourths of a mile wide, was the scene of 
the battle of Mycale. The island is formed by 
a range of mountains extending from east to 
west, whence it derived its name ; for 2,<l/ioc 
was an old Greek word signifying a mountain : 
and the same root is seen in Same, the old 
name of Cephallenia, and Samothrace, i. e., the 
Thracian Samos. The circumference of the 
island is about eighty miles. It was and is very 
fertile ; and some of its products are indicated 
by its ancient names, Dryusa, Anthemura, Me- 
lamphyllus, and Cyparissia. According to the 
earliest traditions, it was a chief seat of the 
Carians and Leleges, and the residence of their 
first king, Ancaeus ; and was afterward colo- 
nized by ^Eolians from Lesbos, and by Ionians 
from Epidaurus. In the earliest historical rec- 
ords, we find Samos decidedly Ionian, and a 
powerful member of the Ionic confederacy. 
Thucydides tells us that the Samians were the 
first of the Greeks, after the Corinthians, who 
paid great attention to naval affairs. They early 
acquired such power at sea, that, besides ob- 
taining possession of parts of the opposite coast 
of Asia, they founded many colonies ; among 
which were Bisanthe and Perinthus, in Thrace ; 
Celenderis and Nagidus, in Cilicia; Cydonia, 
in Crete ; Dicaearchia (Puteoli), in Italy ; and 
Zancle (Messana), in Sicily. After a transition 
from the state of an heroic monarchy, through 
an aristocracy, to a democracy, the island be- 
came subject to the most distinguished of the 
so-called tyrants, Polycrates (B.C. 532), under 
whom its power and splendor reached their 
highest pitch, and Samos would probably have 
become the mistress of the JEgean but for the 
murder of Polycrates. At this period the Sa- 
mians had extensive commercial relations with 
Egypt, and they obtained from Amasis the priv- 
ilege of a separate temple at Naucratis. Their 
commerce extended into the interior of Africa, 
partly through their relations with Cyrene, and 
also by means of a settlement which they effect- 
ed in one of the Oases, seven days' journey 
from Thebes. The Samians now became sub- 
ject to the Persian empire, under which they 



I were governed by tyrants, with a brief interval 
at the time of the Ionic revolt, until the battle 
'■ of Mycale, which made them independent, B.C. 
i 479. They now joined the Athenian confeder- 
I acy, of which they continued independent mem- 
j bers until B.C. 440, when an opportunity arose 
for reducing them to entire subjection and de- 
priving them of their fleet, which was effected 
by Pericles after an obstinate resistance of nina 
months' duration. (For the details, vid. the his- 
tories of Greece.) In the Peloponnesian war, 
Samos held firm to Athens to the last ; and in 
the history of the latter part of that war, the 
island becomes extremely important as the head- 
quarters of the exiled democratical party of the 
Athenians. Transferred to Sparta after the 
battle of ^Egospotami, 405, it was soon restored 
to Athens by that of Cnidus, 394, but went 
over to Sparta again in 390. Soon after, it fell 
into the hands of the Persians, being conquered 
by the satrap Tigranes ; but it was recovered 
by Timotheus for Athens. In the Social war, 
the Athenians successfully defended it against 
the attacks of the confederated Chians, Rho- 
dians, and Byzantines, and placed in it a body 
of two thousand cleruchi, B.C. 352. After Alex- 
ander's death, it was taken from the Athenians 
by Perdiccas, 323, but restored to them by 
Polysperchon, 319. In the subsequent period, 
it seems to have been rather nominally than 
really a part of the Greco-Syrian kingdom : we 
find it engaged in a long contest with Priene on 
a question of boundary, which was referred to 
Antiochus II., and afterward to the Roman sen- 
ate. In the Macedonian war, Samos was taken 
by the Rhodians again, B.C. 200. In the Syrian 
war, the Samians took part with Antiochus the 
Great against Rome. Little further mention is 
made of Samos till the time of Mithradates, with 
whom it took part in his first war against Rome, 
on the conclusion of which it was finally united 
to the province of Asia, B.C. 84. Meanwhile it 
had greatly declined, and during the war it had 
been wasted by the incursions of pirates. Its 
prosperity was partially restored under the pro- 
praetorship of Q. Cicero, B.C. 62, but still more 
by the residence in it of Antony and Cleopatra, 
32, and afterward of Octavianus, who made Sa- 
mos a free state. It was favored by Caligula, 
but was deprived of its freedom by Vespasian, 
and it sank into insignificance as early as the 
second century, although its departed glory is 
found still recorded, under the Emperor Decius, 
by the inscription on its coins, Xapiuv irpuruv 
laviac- Samos may be regarded as almost the 
chief centre of Ionian manners, energies, lux- 
ury, science, and art. In very early times there 
was a native school of statuary, at the head of 
which was Rhoecus, to whom tradition ascribed 
the invention of casting in metal. Vid. Rhce- 
cus, Telecles, Theodorus. In the hands of 
the same school architecture flourished greatly ; 
the Heraeum, one of the finest of Greek temples, 
was erected in a marsh, on the western side of 
the city of Samos ; and the city itself, especially 
under the government of Polycrates, was fur- 
nished with other splendid works, among which 
was an aqueduct pierced through a mountain. 
Samian architects became famous also beyond 
their own island ; as, for example, Mandrocles, 
who constructed Darius's bridge over the Bos 

771 



SAMOSATA. 



SANCUS. 



poms. In painting, the island produced Calli- 
phon, Theodorus, Agatharchus, and Timanthes. 
Its pottery was celebrated throughout the an- 
cient world. In literature, Samos was made 
illustrious by the poets Asius, Choerilus, and 
iEschrion ; by the philosophers Pythagoras and 
Melissus ; and by the historians Pagajus and 
Duris. The capital city, also called Samos, 
stood on the southeastern side of the island, 
opposite Promontoriurn Trogilium, partly on the 
shore, and partly rising on the hills behind in 
the form of an amphitheatre. It had a magnif- 
icent harbor, and numerous splendid buildings, 
among which, besides the Heraeum and other 
temples, the chief were the senate-house, the 
theatre, and a gymnasium dedicated to Eros. 
In the time of Herodotus, Samos was reckoned 
one of the finest cities of the world. Its ruins 
are so considerable as to allow its plan to be 
traced : there are remains of its walls and 
towers, and of the theatre and aqueduct. The 
Heraeum already mentioned, celebrated as one 
of the best early specimens of the Doric order 
of architecture, and as the chief centre of the 
worship of Juno (Hera) among the Ionian 
Greeks, stood about two miles west of the city, 
[ts erection is ascribed to Rhcecus and his sons. 
It was burned by the Persians, but soon rebuilt, 
probably in the time of Polycrates. This second 
temple was of the Ionic order, decastyle dipte- 
ral, three hundred and forty-six feet long by one 
hundred and eighty-nine wide, and is spoken 
of by Herodotus as the largest temple that he 
knew. It was gradually filled with works of 
sculpture and painting, of which it was plunder- 
ed, first by the pirates in the Mithradatic war, 
then by Verres, and lastly by Marcus Antonius. 
Nothing is left of it but traces of the founda- 
tions and a single capital and base. 

Samosata (tu. J,a/ioaara : Sa/ioaaTevg, Samo- 
satensis : now Somcisat), the capital of the prov- 
ince, and afterward kingdom, of Commagene, 
in the north of Syria, stood on the right bank 
of the Euphrates, northwest of Edessa. It was 
strongly fortified as a frontier post against Os- 
roene. In the first century of our era it was 
the capital of the kings of Commagene. It is 
celebrated in literary history as the birth-place 
of Lucian, and in church history as that of the 
heretic Paul, bishop of Antioch, in the third 
century. Nothing remains of it but a heap of 
ruins on an artificial mound. 

Samothrace CLa/j.odpg.K.71, Xaftodpaida, Ep. jj 
2a/i0f QprjiKLT} : 'SidfiodpaKec ■ now Samothraki), 
a small island in the north of the ^Egean Sea, 
opposite the mouth of the Hebrus in Thrace, 
from which it was thirty-eight miles distant. 
It is about thirty-two miles in circumference, 
and contains in its centre a lofty mountain, call- 
ed Saoce, from which Homer says that Troy 
could be seen. Samothrace bore various names 
in ancient times. It is said to have been called 
Melite, Saonnesus, Leucosia, and more frequent- 
ly Dardania, from Dardanus, the founder of 
Troy, who is reported to have settled here. Ho- 
mer calls the island simply Samos ; sometimes 
the Thracian Samos, because it was colonized, 
according to some accounts, from Samos on the 
coast of Asia Minor. Samothrace was the chief 
seat of the worship of the Cabiri (vid. Cabiri), 
and was celebrated for its religious mysteries, 
772 



which were some of the most famous in the 
ancient world. Their origin dates from the 
time of the Pelasgians, who are said to have 
been the original inhabitants of the island ; and 
they enjoyed great celebrity down to a very late 
period. Uoth Philip of Macedon and his wife 
Olympias were initiated in them. The political 
history of Samothrace is of little importance. 
The Samothracians fought on the side of Xerxes 
at the battle of Salamis ; and at this time they 
possessed on the Thracian main land a few 
places, such as Sale, Serrhion, Mesambria, and 
Tempyra. In the time of the Macedonian kings, 
Samothrace appears to have been regarded as 
a kind of asylum, and Perseus accordingly fled 
thither after his defeat by the Romans at the 
battle of Pydna. 

Sampsiceramus, the name of a petty prince 
of Emesa in Syria, a nickname given by Cicero ' 
to Cneius Pompeius. 

[Sana {Zdvjj), a town on the west coast of 
Pallene, south of Potidaea, a colony of Andros.] ' 

Sanchuniathon {"Zayxovviaduv), said to have | 
been an ancient Phoenician writer, whose works 
were translated into Greek by Philo Byblius, i 
who lived in the latter half of the first century 
of the Christian era. A considerable fragment 
of the translation of Philo is preserved by Eu- 
sebius in the first book of his Praparatio Evan- 
gclica. The most opposite opinions have been 
held by the learned respecting the authenticity 1 
and value of the work of Sanchuniathon ; but j 
it is now generally agreed among modern i 
scholars that the work was a forgery of Philo. 1 
Nor is it difficult to see with what object the I 
forgery was executed. Philo was one of the 
many adherents of the doctrine of Euhemerus, 
that all the gods were originally men, who had j 
distinguished themselves in their lives as kings, ! 
warriors, or benefactors of man, and became . 
worshipped as divinities after their death. This 1 
doctrine Philo applied to the religious system j 
of the Oriental nations, and especially of the |: 
Phoenicians ; and in order to gain more credit : 
for his statements, he pretended that they were j 
taken from an ancient Phoenician writer. San- I 
chuniathon, he says, was a native of Berytus, i 
lived in the time of Semiramis, and dedicated 
his work to Abibalus, king of Berytus. The | 
fragments of this work have been published 1 
separately by J. C. Orelli, Lips., 1826. In 1835 
a manuscript, purporting to be the entire trans 
lation of Philo Byblius, was discovered in 3 j 
convent in Portugal. The Greek text was pub- | 
lished by Wagenfeld, Bremae, 1837. It was al 
first regarded as genuine, but is now universal- 
ly agreed to have been the forgery of a later age. 

Sancus, Sangus, or Semo Sancus, a Roman 
divinity said to have been originally a Sabin« i 
god, and identical with Hercules and Dius Fid 
ius. The name, which is etymologically tlx 
same as Sanctus, and connected with Sancire, ; 
seems to justify this belief, and characterize! i 
Sancus as a divinity presiding over oaths. San 
cus also had a temple at Rome, on the Quirinal, 
opposite that of Quirinus, and close by the gate, 
which derived from him the name of Sanqualis 
porta. This sanctuary was the same as that I 
of Dius Fidius, which was consecrated B.C. 4G5 
by Sp. Postumius, but was said to have been I 
founded by Tarquinius Superbus. 



SANDROCOTTUS. 

Sandrocottus (I,avdp6icoTToc), an Indian king 
at the time of Seleucus Nicator, ruled over the 
powerful nation of the Gangaridas and Prasii on 
the banks of the Ganges. He was a man of 

I mean origin, and was the leader of a band of 
robbers before he obtained the supreme power. 
In the troubles which followed the death of 
Alexander, he extended his dominions over the 
greater part of Northern India, and conquered 
the Macedonians, who had been left by Alexan- 
der in the Punjab. His dominions were in- 
vaded by Seleucus, who did not, however, suc- 

! ceed in the object of his expedition ; for, in the 
peace concluded between the two monarchs, 
Seleucus ceded to Sandrocottus not only his 
conquests in the Punjab, but also the country 
of the Paropamisus. Seleucus, in return, re- 
ceived five hundred war elephants. Megas- 
thenes subsequently resided for many years at 
the court of Sandrocottus as the ambassador of 
Seleucus. Vid. Megasthenes. Sandrocottus 
is probably the same as the Chandragupla of 

I the Sanscrit writers. The history of Ohandra- 
gupta forms the subject of a Hindoo drama, en- 
titled Mudra Rakshasa, which has been trans- 
lated from the Sanscrit by Prof. Wilson. 

[Sanga Fabius, Q., the patronus of the Al- 
lobroges, to whom the ambassadors of that peo- 
ple disclosed the treasonable designs of Cati- 
line and his accomplices. Sanga communicated 
the intelligence to Cicero, who was thus ena- 
bled to obtain the evidence which led to the 
apprehension and execution of Lentulus and his 
associates, B.C. 63. Q. F. Sanga is mentioned 

I as one of the friends of Cicero who besought 

i the consul L. Piso, in B.C. 58, not to support 
Clodius in his measures against Cicero.] 

Sangakius, Sangaris, or Sagaris (Soyyupiof, 
HayyapiQ, Sdypayof : now Sakariyeh), the larg- 
est river of Asia Minor after the Halys, had its 
source in a mountain called Adoreus, near the 
little town of Sangia, on the borders of Gala- 
tia and Phrygia, whence it flowed first north 
through Galatia, then west and northwest 
through the northeastern part of Phrygia, and 
then north through Bithynia, of which it orig- 
inally formed the eastern boundary. It fell at 
last into the Euxine, about half way between 
the Bosporus and Heraclea. It was navigable 
in the lower part of its course. Its chief trib- 
utaries were the Thymbres or Thymbrus, the 
Bathys, and the Gallus, flowing into it from the 
west. 

Sangia. Vid. Sangarius. 

Sannio, a name of the buffoon in the mimes, 
derived from sanna, whence comes the Italian 
Zanni (hence our Zany). 

Sannyrion (Zawvpiav), an Athenian comic 
poet, belonging to the latter years of the Old 
Comedy, and the beginning of the Middle. He 
flourished B.C. 407 and onward. We know 
nothing of his personal history except that his 
excessive leanness was ridiculed by Strattis and 
Aristophanes. 

Santones or Santoni, a powerful people in 
Gallia Aquitanica, dwelt on the coast of the 
ocean, north of the Garumna. Under the Ro- 
mans they were a free people. Their chief 
town was Mediolanum, afterward Santones 
(now Sainles). Their country produced a spe- 
ries of wormwood which was much valued. 



SAPPHO. 

[Saoce. Vid. Samothrace.] 

Saocoras. Vid. Mascas. 

Sap^ei CSa-rrawi, 2unaioi), a people in Thrace, 
dwelt on Mount Pangajus, between the Lake 
Bistonis and the coast. 

Saphar, Sapphar, orTAPHAR (2<l<j>ap or "A<pap. 
2,uir<pap, Tu<papov : ruins at Dhafar), one of the 
chief cities of Arabia, stood on the southern 
coast of Arabia Felix, opposite to the Aromata 
Promontorium (now Cape Guardafui) in Africa. 
It was the capital of the Homeritee, a part of 
which tribe bore the name of Sapharitee or Sap 
pharitae (2an<t>apiTai). 

Sapis (now Savio), a small river in Gallia Cis 
alpina, rising in the Apennines, and flowing into 
the Adriatic south of Ravenna, between the Po 
and the Aternus. 

Sapor. Vid. SassanidjE. 

Sappho (Sampu, or, in her own ^Eolic dialect, 
"Zuncf>a), one of the two great leaders of the JEo 
lian school of lyric poetry (Alcaeus being the 
other), was a native of Mytilene, or, as some 
said, of Eresos in Lesbos. Her father's name 
was Scamandronymus, who died when she was 
only six years old. She had three brothers, 
Charaxus, Larichus, and Eurigius. Charaxus 
was violently upbraided by his sister in a poem 
because he became so enamored of the courte- 
san Rhodopis at Naucratis, in Egypt, as to ran- 
som her from slavery at an immense price. Vid. 
Charaxus. Sappho was contemporary with Al- 
caeus, Stesichorus, and Pittacus. That she was 
not only contemporary, but lived in friendly in- 
tercourse with Alcaeus, is shown by existing 
fragments of the poetry of both. Of the events 
of her life we have no other information than 
an obscure allusion in the Parian Marble, and 
in Ovid (Her.,xv., 51), to her flight from Myti- 
lene to Sicily to escape some unknown danger, 
between 604 and 592; and the common story 
that, being in love with Phaon, and finding her 
love unrequited, she leaped down from the Leu- 
cadian rock. This story, however, seems to 
have been an invention of later times. The 
name of Phaon does not occur in one of Sap- 
pho's poems, and there is no evidence that it 
was mentioned in her poems. As for the leap 
from the Leucadian rock, it is a mere metaphor, 
which is taken from an expiatory rite connected 
with the worship of Apollo, which seems to 
have been a frequent poetical image. At Myti- 
lene Sappho appears to have been the centre of 
a female literary society, most of the members 
of which were her pupils in poetry, fashion, 
and gallantry. Modern writers have indeed at- 
tempted to prove that the moral character of 
Sappho was free from all reproach ; but it is 
impossible to read the fragments which remain 
of her poetry without being forced to come to 
the conclusion that a female who could write 
such poetry could not be the pure and virtuous 
woman which her modern apologists pretend. 
Of her poetical genius, however, there can not 
be a question. The ancient writers agree in 
expressing the most unbounded admiration for 
her poetry. Already in her own age the reci- 
tation of one of her poems so affected Solon 
that he expressed an earnest desire to learn it 
before he died. Her lyric poems formed nine 
books, but of these only fragments have come 
down to us. The most important is a splendid 

773 



SARANCLE. 

ode to Aphrodite (Venus), of which we perhaps 
possess the whole. The best separate edition 
of the fragments is by Neue, Berol, 1827. 

Saranc.cE, SarangjE, or Sakanges CZapayyai, 
lapayyeee, Herod.), a people of Sogdiana. 

Saravus (now Saar), a small river in Gaul, 
flowing into the Mosella on its right bank. 

Sardanapalus (ZapSavaira'Xor), the last king 
of the Assyrian empire of Ninus or Nineveh, 
noted for his luxury, licentiousness, and effem- 
inacy. He passed his time in his palace un- 
seen by an) of his subjects, dressed in female 
apparel, and surrounded by concubines. At 
length Arbaces, satrap of Media, and Belesys, 
the noblest of the Chaldaaan priests, resolved to 
renounce allegiance to such a worthless mon- 
arch, and advanced at the head of a formidable 
army against Nineveh. But all of a sudden the 
effeminate prince threw off his luxurious hab- 
its, and appeared an undaunted warrior. Placing 
himself at the head of his troops, he twice de- 
feated the rebels, but was at length worsted and 
obliged to shut himself up in Nineveh. Here 
he sustained a siege for two years, till at length, 
finding it impossible to hold out any longer, he 
collected all his treasures, wives, and concu- 
bines, and placing them on an immense pile 
which he had constructed, set it on fire, and 
thus destroyed both himself and them. The 
enemies then obtained possession of the city. 
This is the account of Gtesias, which has been 
preserved by Diodorus Siculus, and which has 
been followed by most subsequent writers and 
chronologists. The death of Sardanapalus and 
the fall of the Assyrian empire is placed B.C. 
876. Modern writers, however, have shown 
that the whole narrative of Ctesias is mythical, 
and must not be received as a genuine history. 
The legend of Sardanapalus, who so strangely 
appears at one time sunk in the lowest effem- 
inacy, and immediately afterward an heroic war- 
rior, has probably arisen from his being the same 
with the god Sandon, who was worshipped ex- 
tensively in Asia, both as a heroic and a fe- 
male divinity. The account of Ctesias is also 
in direct contradiction to Herodotus and the 
writers of the Old Testament. Herodotus places 
the revolt of the Medes from the Assyrians about 
710, but relates that an Assyrian kingdom still 
continued to exist, which was not destroyed 
till the capture of Nineveh by the Median king 
Cyaxares, about 606. Further, the writers of 
the Old Testament represent the Assyrian em- 
pire in its glory in the eighth century before the 
Christian era. It was during this period that 
Pul,Tiglath-pileser, Shalmaneser, and Sennach- 
erib appear as powerful kings of Assyria, who, 
not contented with their previous dominions, 
subdued Israel, Phoenicia, and the surrounding 
countries. In order to reconcile these state- 
ments with those of Ctesias, modern writers 
have invented two Assyrian kingdoms at Nin- 
eveh, one which was destroyed on the death 
of Sardanapalus, and another which was estab- 
lished after that event, and fell on the capture 
of Nineveh by Cyaxares. But this is a purely 
gratuitous assumption, unsupported by any evi- 
dence. We nave only records of one Assyrian 
empire and of one destruction of Nineveh. 

Sardemisus, a branch of Mount Taurus, ex- 
tending southward on the borders of Pisidia 
774 



SARDINIA, 

and Pamphylia as far as PI aselis in Lycia 
whence it was continued in the chain called 
Climax. It divided the district of Milyas from 
Pisidia Proper. 

Saroene (Zapdivn), a mountain of Mysia, 
north of the Hermus, near Cyme. The town 
of Neontichos was built on its side. 

[Sardes. Vid. Sardis.] 

Sardi. Vid. Sardinia. 

[Sardica, also called Ulpia Sardica (now 
Tria&itza, near Sophia), a city of Mcesia Supe- 
rior, in a plain watered by the River CEscus. It 
derived its name Ulpia from the inhabitants of 
Ulpia, in Dacia Trajani, having been transfer- ! 
red thither. In its vicinity the Emperor Max- 
imian was born, and it was also famous for a 
council held there.] 

Sardinia (f/ 2«piSoj or J,apd6v, G. Sapdovor, 
D. TZapdol, A. SapcSu : subsequently 2ap6uvia, ' 
Sapdavia, or ~Lap5r}VLa : Sapduof, 'Zapdovior, Sap- 
Suvioc, Sardus : now Sardinia), a large island 
in the Mediterranean, is in shape in the form of 
a parallelogram, upward of one hundred and \ 
forty nautical miles in length from north to 
south, with an average breadth of sixty. It 
was regarded by the ancients as the largest of 
the Mediterranean islands, and this opinion, 
though usually considered an error, is now 
found to be correct, since it appears by actual 
admeasurement that Sardinia is a little larger 
than Sicily. Sardinia lies in almost a central 
position between Spain, Gaul, Italy, and Africa, j 
The ancients derived its name from Sardus, a 
son of Hercules, who was worshipped in the 
island under the name of Sardus pater. The I 
Greeks called it Ichnusa {'Ixvoioa), from its re- 
semblance to the print of a foot, and Sandalid- 
lis (2avdaXc£)Tic), from its likeness to a sandal, j 
A chain of mountains runs along the whole of 
the eastern side of the island from north to 
south, occupying about one third of its surface. 
These mountains were called by the ancients j) 
Insani Montes, a name which they probably de- 
rived from their wild and savage appearance, 
and from their being the haunt of numerous 
robbers. In the western and southern parts of 
Sardinia there are numerous plains, intersected i 
by ranges of smaller hills ; but this part of the I 
island was in antiquity, as in the present day, 
exceedingly unhealthy. The principal rivers I 
are the Termus (now Tcrmo) in the north, the 
Thyrsus (now Oristano) on the west (the larg- 
est river in the island), and the Flumen Sacrum j 
(now Uras) and the Sa?prus (now Flumendoso) 
on the east. The chief towns in the island 
were, on the northern coast, Tibula (now Porte 
Polio) and Turris Libyssonis ; on the southern 
coast, Sulci and Caralis (now Cagliari) ; on the 
eastern coast, Olbia ; and in the interior, Cor- | 
nus (now Corncto) and Nora (now Nurri). Sar- 
dinia was very fertile, but was not extensively 
cultivated, in consequence of the uncivilized 
character of its inhabitants. Still, the plains in 
the western and southern parts of the island 
produced a great quantity of corn, of which a 
large quantity was exported to Rome every 
year. Among the products of the island, one of 
the most celebrated was the Sardonica hcrba. a 
poisonous plant, which was said to produce fa- 
tal convulsions in the person who ate of it. 
These convulsions agitated and distorted tan 



SARDINIA. 



SARDOUM. 



mouth so that the person appeared to laugh, 
though in. excruciating pain; hence the well- 
known risus Sardonicus. No plant possessing 
these properties is found at present in Sardinia ; 
and it is not impossible that the whole tale may 
have arisen from a piece of bad etymology, since 
we find mention in Homer of the ~Zap5u.vi.os yi- 
Auf. which can not have any reference to Sar- 
dinia, but is probably connected with the verb 
aatpuv, "to grin." Another of the principal 
productions of Sardinia was its wool, which was 
obtained from a breed of domestic animals be- 
tween a sheep and a goat, called musmones. 
The skins of these animals were used by the 
inhabitants as clothes, whence we find them 
often called Pelliti and Mastrucati. Sardinia 
also contained a large quantity of the precious 
metals, especially silver, the mines of which 
were worked in antiquity to a great extent. 
There were likewise numerous mineral springs, 
and large quantities of salt were manufactured 
on the western and southern coasts. The pop- 
ulation of Sardinia was of a very mixed kind. 
To what race the original inhabitants belonged 
we are not informed ; but it appears that Phos- 
nicians, Tyrrhenians, and Carthaginians settled 
in the island at different periods. The Greeks 
are also said to have planted colonies in the 
island, but this account is very suspicious. The 
first Greek colony is said to have been led by 
lolaus, a son of Hercules, and from him a tribe 
in the island, called lolai ('luXaoi, 'lokuuoi, 'Io- 
laslg), or Menses ('1/Uetf) derived their name. 
These were some of the most ancient inhabit- 
ants of Sardinia, and were probably not of Greek, 
but Tyrrhenian origin. Their name is still pre- 
served in the modern town of Iliola, in the mid- 
dle of the western coast. We also find in the 
island Corsi, who had crossed over from Corsi- 
ca, and Balari, who were probably descendants 
of the Iberian and Libyan mercenaries of the 
Carthaginians, who revolted from the latter in 
the first Punic war, and settled in the mount- 
ains. At a later time all these names became 
merged under the general appellation of Sardi, 
although, even in the Roman period, we still 
find mention of several tribes in the island un- 
der distinct names. The Sardi are described 
as a rude and savage people, addicted to thiev- 
ery and lying. Sardinia was known to the 
Greeks as early as B.C. 500, since we find that 
Histiasus of Miletus promised Darius that he 
would render the island of Sardo tributary to 
his power. It was conquered by the Carthagin- 
ians at an early period, and continued in their 
possession till the end of the first Punic war. 
Shortly after this event, the Romans availed 
themselves of the dangerous war which the 
Carthaginians were carrying on against their 
mercenaries in Africa to take possession of 
Sardinia, B.C. 238. It was now formed into a 
Roman province, under the government of a 
praetor ; but a large portion of it was only nom- 
inally subject to the Romans, and it was not 
till after many years and numerous revolts that 
the inhabitants submitted to the Roman domin- 
ion. It was after one of these revolts that so 
many Sardinians were thrown upon the slave- 
market as to give rise to the proverb " Sardi 
venales," to indicate any cheap and worthless 
commodity. In fact, the inhabitants of the 



mountains in the eastern side of the island 
were never completely subdued, and gave trou- 
ble to the Romans even in the time of Tibe- 
rius. Sardinia continued to belong to the Ro- 
man empire till the fifth century, when it was 
taken possession of by the Vandals. 

Sardis or Sardes (ai ZupSecc, Ion. Hup&ut,, 
contracted ldp6lg : Zupdwc, ~Zap6iavog, Ion. 2ap- 
diTjvoc, Sardianus : ruins at Sart), one of the 
most ancient and famous cities of Asia Minor, 
and the capital of the great Lydian monarchy, 
stood on the southern edge of the rich valley 
of the Hermus, at the northern foot of Mount 
Tmolus, on the little River Pactolus, thirty sta- 
dia (three geographical miles) south of the junc- 
tion of that river with the Hermus. On a lofty 
precipitous rock, forming an outpost of the range 
of Tmolus, was the almost impregnable citadel, 
which some suppose to be the Hyde of Homer, 
who, though he never mentions the Lydians or 
Sardis by name, speaks of Mount Tmolus and 
the Lake of Gyges. The erection of this cita- 
del was ascribed to Meles, an ancient king of 
Lydia. It was surrounded by a triple wall, and 
contained the palace and treasury of the Lyd- 
ian kings. At the downfall of the Lydian em- 
pire it resisted all the attacks of Cyrus, and 
was only taken by surprise. The story is told 
by Herodotus, who relates other legends of the 
fortress. The rest of the city, which stood on 
the plain on both sides of the Pactolus, was 
very slightly built, and was repeatedly burned 
down, first by the Cimmerians, then by the 
Greeks in the great Ionic revolt, and again, in 
part at least, by Antiochus the Great ; but on 
each occasion it was restored. For its history 
as the capital of the Lydian monarchy, vid. 
Lydia. Under the Persian and Greco-Syrian 
empires, it was the residence of the satrap of 
Lydia. The rise of Pergamus greatly dimin- 
ished its importance ; but under the Romans it 
was still a considerable city, and the seat of a 
conventus juridicus. In the reign of Tiberius 
it was almost entirely destroyed by an earth- 
quake, but it was restored by the emperors aid. 
It was one of the earliest seats of the Christian 
religion, and one of the seven churches of the 
province of Asia, to which St. John addressed 
the Apocalypse ; but the apostle's language im- 
plies that the church at Sardis had already sunk 
into almost hopeless decay (Rev., iii., 1, foil.). 
In the wars of the Middle Ages the city was 
entirely destroyed, and its site now presents one 
of the most melancholy scenes of desolation to 
be found among the ruins of ancient cities. 
Though its remains extend over a large sur- 
face on the plain, they scarcely present an ob- 
ject of importance, except two or three Ionic 
columns, belonging probably to a celebrated 
temple of Cybele. The chief of the other re- 
mains are those of a theatre, stadium, and a 
building supposed to be the senate-house. The 
triple wall of the acropolis can still be traced, 
and some of its lofty towers are standing. The 
necropolis of the city stood on the banks of the 
Lake of Gyges (vid. Gyg^us Lacus), near which 
the sepulchre ofAlyattes may still be seen. Vid 
Alyattes. 

Sardoum or Sardonicum Mare (to Zapduov 
or lapAuvcov Tte\ayoc), the part of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea on the west and south of Sardinia, 

775 



SARDUS. 



SARPEDON. 



separated from the Libyan Sea by a line drawn 
from the promontory Lilybaeum in Sicily. 

[SARDUs,a son of Hercules. Vid. Sardinia.] 

[Sare, a village of the Maronita? in Thrace, 
mentioned by Livy (xxxviii., 41).] 

Sarepta or Sarephtha (2dpe<pda, ^dpenra, 
2a.pa.TTTa. : in the Old Testament, Zarephath : 
now Surafend, Serphant, or Tzarphand), a city 
of Phoenicia, about ten miles south of Sidon, to 
tko territory of which it belonged ; well known 
as the scene of two miracles ofElijah (1 Kings, 
xvii.). It was celebrated for its wine. 

Sargetia (now Strcl or Sl.rey), a tributary of 
the Marosch), a river in Dacia, on which was 
situated the residence of Decebalus. 

Sariphi Montes (tu 2dpi$a opr/ : now Haza- 
rth Mountains), a mountain- range of Central 
Asia, separating Margiana on the north from 
Aria on the south, and forming a western part 
of the great chain of the Indian Caucasus, 
which may be regarded as a prolongation 
through Central Asia of the chain of Anti-Tau- 
rus. 

Sarmat^e or Sauromatve (Sappd-at, Strabo ; 
"Zavpop.d-ai, Herod.), a people of Asia, dwelling 
on the northeast of the Palus Majotis (now Sea 
of Azov), east of the River Tanai's (now Don), 
which separated them from the Scythians of 
Europe. This is the account of Herodotus, 
who tells us that the Sarmatians were allied 
to the Scythians, and spoke a corrupted form 
of the Scythian language ; and that their origin 
was ascribed to the intercourse of Scythians 
with Amazons. Strabo also places the Sau- 
romata? between the Tanai's and the Caspian ; 
but he elsewhere uses the word in the much 
more extended sense, in which it was used by 
the Romans and by the later geographers. Vid. 
Sarmatia. 

Sarmatia (r) lapparia : 'Zapfidrai, 'Zavpoud- 
rai • the eastern part of Poland, and southern 
part of Russia in Europe), a name first used by 
Mela for the part of Northern Europe and Asia 
extending from the Vistula (now Wisla) and the 
Sarjiatici Montes on the west, which divided 
it from Germany, to the Rha (now Volga) on 
the east, which divided it from Scythia ; bound- 
ed on the southwest and south by the rivers 
Ister (now Danube), Tibiseus (now Thciss), and 
Tyras (now Dniester), which divided it from 
Pannonia and Dacia, and, further, by the Euxine, 
and beyond it by Mount Caucasus, which di- 
vided it from Colchis, Iberia, and Albania ; and 
extending on the north as far as the Baltic and 
the unknown regions of Northern Europe. The 
part of this country which lies in Europe just 
corresponds to the Scythia of Herodotus. The 
people from whom the name of Sarmatia was 
derived inhabited only a small portion of the 
country. Vid. Sarmatje. The greater part of 
it was peopled by Scythian tribes ; but some 
of the inhabitants of its western part seem to 
have been of German origin, as the Venedi on 
the Baltic, and the Iazyges, Rhoxolani, and 
Hamaxobii in Southern Russia ; the chief of the 
other tribes west of the Tanai's were the Alauni 
or Alani Scythae, a Scythian people who came 
out of Asia and settled in the central parts of 
Russia. Vid. Alani. The people east of the 
Tanais were not of sufficient importance in an- 
cient history to require specific mention. The 
776 



whole country was divided by the River Tanais 
\ (now Don) into two parts, called respective]'/ 
Sarmatia Europsea and Sarmatia Asiatica (t) iv 
Evpunri and r) ev 'Ada Xapfiaria) ; but it should 
be observed that, according to the modern di- 
vision of the continent, the whole of Sarmatia 
belongs to Europe. It should also be noticed I 
that the Chersonesus Taurica (now Crimea), 
though falling within the specified limits, was 
not considered as a part of Sarmatia, but as a 
separate country. 

Sarjiatici? Port^e (ai Xapuanxai ?rvXac : 
now Pass of Dariel), the central pass of the 
Caucasus, leading from Iberia to Sarmatia. It 
was more commonly called Caucasia? Porta?. 
Vid. Caucasus. It was also called Caspia? Por- 
ta?, apparently through a confusion with the pass 
of that name at the eastern end of the Cauca- 
sus. Vid. Caspia Ported. The remains of 
an ancient wall are still seen in the pass. 

SarmatIci Montes (tu "SapfiarcKu opn : part 
of the Carpathian Mountains), a range of mount- 
ains in Central Europe, extending from the I 
sources of the Vistula to the Danube, between 
Germany on the west and Sarmatia on the east. 

Sarmaticus Oceanus and Pontus, Sarmati- 
cum Mare (ZapfiariKoc WKeavoc : now Baltic), a 
great sea, washing the northern coast of Euro- 
pean Sarmatia. 

[Sarmentus, a runaway slave, employed by 
Maecenas as a scribe, and forming one of his 
train on the Brundisian journey so humorous- 
ly described by Horace (Sat., i., 5, 52, sqq.).~\ 

[Sarmia (now Guernsey), an island of the At- 
lantic Ocean, lying in the channel between Gal- ' 
lia and Britannia.] 

Sarmizegethusa (near Vachely, also called 
Gradischte, ruins), one of the most important | 
towns of Dacia, and the residence of its kings, 
was situated on the River Sargetia (now Strel 
or Slrcy). It was subsequently a Roman colo- 
ny under the name of Colonia JJlpia Trajana i 
Aug., and the capital of the province in which 
a legion had its head-quarters. 

Sarnus (now Samo), a river in Campania, 
flowing by Nuceria, and falling into the Sinus 
Puteolanus near Pompeii. Its course was I 
changed by the great eruption of Vesuvius, 
A.D. 79. On its banks dwelt a people named 
Sarrastes, who are said to have migrated from 1 
Peloponnesus. 

Saron (Supuv : in the Old Testament, Sharon), 
a most beautiful and fertile plain of Palestine, j 
extending along the coast north of Joppa toward 
Caesarea ; celebrated for its pastures and its 
flowers. 

Saronicus Sinus (2apm>(«df koXttoc, also 7ro» 
poc, irilayoc, and ttovtoc : now Gulf of Egina), 
a bay of the .Egean Sea lying between Attica | 
and Argolis, and commencing between the 
promontory of Sunium in Attica and that of 
Scylla?um in Argolis. It contains within it the 
islands of iEgina and Salamis. Its name was 
usually derived from Saron, king of Trcezene, 
who was supposed to have been drowned in I 
this part of the sea while swimming in pursuit 
of a stag. 

Sarpedon ( lapm'iiuv ). 1. Son of Jupitei 
(Zeus) and Europa, and brother of Minos and j 
Rhadamanthus. Being involved in a quarrel 
with Minos about Miletus, he took refuge witlj 



SARPEDON PROMONTORIUM. 



SASSANIDyE. 



Cilix, whom he assisted against the Lycians. 
Vid. Miletus. He afterward became king of 
the Lycians, and Jupiter (Zeus) granted him the 
privilege of living three generations. — 2. Son of 
Jupiter (Zeus) and Laodamia, or, according to 
others, of Evander and Deidamia, and a brother 
of Clarus and Themon, was a Lycian prince. 
In the Trojan war he was an ally of the Tro- 
jans, and distinguished himself by his valor, 
but was slain by Patroclus. Apollo, by the com- 
mand of Jupiter (Zeus), cleansed Sarpedon's 
body from blood and dust, covered it with am- 
brosia, and gave it to Sleep and Death to carry 
into Lycia, there to be honorably buried. 

Sarpedon Promontorium CSapTvrjduvia uKpa: 
now Cape Lissan el Kapek), a promontory of 
Cilicia, in longitude 34° east, eighty stadia west 
of the mouth of the Calycadnus. In the peace 
between the Romans and Antiochus the Great, 
the western boundary of the Syrian kingdom 
was fixed here. 

SarpedonIum Promontorium {tj y,apnrj8uvLrj 
uKpa), a promontory of Thrace, between the 
mouths of the rivers Melas and Erginus, oppo- 
site the island of Imbros. 

Sarrastes. Vid. Sarnus. 

Sars (now Sar), a small river on the western 
coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, between the 
Promontorium Nerium and the Minius. 

Sarsina (Sarsinas, -atis : now Sarsina), an 
ancient town of Umbria, on the River Sapis, 
southwest of Ariminum, and subsequently a Ro- 
man municipium, celebrated as the birth-place 
of the comic poet Plautus. 

Saius (6 Sapof - now Seihan), a considerable 
river in the southeast of Asia Minor. Rising 
in the Anti-Taurus, in the centre of Cappadocia, 
it flows south past Comana to the borders of 
Cilicia, where it receives a western branch that 
has run nearly parallel to it ; and thence, flow- 
ing through Cilioia Campestris in a winding 
course, it falls into the sea a little east of the 
mouth of the Cydnus, and southeast of Tarsus. 
Xenophon gives three plethra (three hundred 
and three feet) for its width at its mouth. 

[Saserna. 1. The name of two writers, fa- 
ther and son, on'agrieulture, who lived in the 
time between Cato and Varro. — 2. C. and P., 
two brothers, who served under Julius Ceesar 
in the African war, B.C. 46, and one of whom 
is mentioned by Cicero as a friend of Antonius 
and Octavianus after the death of Caesar.] 

Saso or Sasonis Insula (now Saseno, Sasso- 
io, Sassa), a small rocky island off the coast of 
Illyria, north of the Acroceraunian promontory, 
much frequented by pirates. 

Saspires, or -i, or Sapires (Zaaneipec, 2a<r- 
ireipoi, ~Z6.izeipec, liuirneipec), a Scythian people 
of Asia, south of Colchis and north of Media, in 
an inland position {i. e. in Armenia) according 
to Herodotus, but, according to others, on the 
coast of the Euxine. 

Sassanid^e, the name of a dynasty which 
reigned in Persia from A.D. 226 to A.D. 651. 
1. Artaxerxes (the Ardishir or Ardshiu of 
the Persians), the founder of the dynasty of the 
Sassanidae, reigned A.D. 226-240. He was a 
son of one Babek, an inferior officer, who was 
the son of Sassan, perhaps a person of some 
consequence, since his royal descendants chose 
to call themselves after him Artaxerxes had 



served with distinction in the army of Ar- 
tabanus, the king of Parthia, was rewarded 
with ingratitude, and took revenge in revolt. 
He obtained assistance from several grandees, 
and having met with success, claimed the 
throne on the plea of being descended from the 
ancient kings of Persia, the progeny of the great 
Cyrus. The people warmly supported his cause, 
as he declared himself the champion of the an- 
cient Persian religion. In 226 Artabanus was 
defeated in a decisive battle, and Artaxerxes 
thereupon assumed the pompous but national 
title of " King of Kings." One of his first leg- 
islative acts was the restoration of the pure re- 
ligion of Zoroaster and the worship of fire. The 
reigning branch of the Parthian Arsacidae was 
exterminated, but some collateral branches were 
suffered to live and to enjoy the privileges of 
Persian grandees, who, along with the Magi, 
formed a sort of senate. Having succeeded in 
establishing his authority at home, Artaxerxes 
demanded from theEmperor AlexanderSeverus 
the immediate cession of all those portions of 
the Roman empire that had belonged to Persia 
in the time of Cyrus and Xerxes, that is, the 
whole of the Roman possessions in Asia as 
well as Egypt. An immediate war between 
the two empires was the direct consequence. 
After a severe contest, peace was restored, 
shortly after the murder of Alexander in 237, 
each nation retaining the possessions which 
they held before the breaking out of the war. — ■ 
2. Sapor I. (Shapur), the son and successor of 
Artaxerxes I., reigned 240-273. He carried on 
warfirst against Gordian and afterward against 
Valerian. The latter emperor was defeated by 
Sapor, taken prisoner, and kept in captivity for 
the remainder of his life. After the capture of 
Valerian, Sapor conquered Syria, destroyed An- 
tioch, and, having made himself master of the 
passes in the Taurus, laid Tarsus in ashes, and 
took Caesarea. His further progress was stop- 
ped by Odenathus and Zenobia, who drove the 
king back beyond the Euphrates, and founded a 
new empire, over which they ruled at Palmyra. 
In his reign lived the celebrated Mani, who, en- 
deavoring to amalgamate the Christian and Zo- 
roastrian religions, gave rise to the famous sect 
of the Maniehaeans, who spread over the whole 
East, exposing themselves to most sanguinary 
persecutions from both Christians and fire-wor- 
shippers. — 3. Hormisdas I. (Hormuz), son of 
the preceding, who reigned only one year, and 
died 274. — 4. Varanes otVararanes I. (Bah- 
ram or Baharam), son of Hormisdas I., reign- 
ed 274-277. He carried on unprofitable wars 
against Zenobia, and, after her captivity, was 
involved in a contest with Aurelian, which, 
however, was not attended with any serious re- 
sults, on account of the sudden death of Aure- 
lian in 275. In his reign the celebrated Mani 
was put to death. — 5. Varanes II. (Bahram), 
son of Varanes I., reigned 277-294. He was 
defeated by Carus, who took both Seleucia and 
Ctesiphon, and his dominions were only saved 
from further conquests by the sudden death of 
Carus (283). — 6. Varanes III. (Bahram), elder 
son of Varanes II., died after a reign of eight 
months, 294. — 7. Narses (Narsi), younger son 
of Varanes II., reigned 294-303. He carried 
1 on a formidable war against the Emperor Dio 

777 



SASSANHLE. 

cletian The Roman army was commanded by 
Galerius Ca3sar, who in the first campaign (296) 
sustained most signal defeats in Mesopotamia, 
and fled in disgrace to Antioch. In the second 
campaign Narses was defeated with great loss, 
and was obliged to conclude a peace v/ith the 
•Romans, by which he ceded to Diocletian Mes- 
opotamia, five small provinces beyond the Ti- 
gris, the kingdom of Armenia, some adjacent 
Median districts, and the supremacy over Iberia, 
the kings of which were henceforth under the 
protection of Rome. In 303 Narses abdicated 
in favor of his son, and died soon afterward. — 
8. Hormisdas II. (Hormuz), son ofNarses, reign- 
ed 303-310. During his reign nothing of im- 
portance happened regarding Rome. — 9. Sapor 
II. Postumus (Shapur), son of Hormisdas II., 
was born after the death of his father, and was 
crowned in his mother's womb, the Magi plac- 
ing the diadem with great solemnity upon the 
body of his mother. He reigned 310-381. His 
reign was signalized by a cruel persecution of 
the Christians. He carried on war for many 
years against Constantius II. and his successors. 
The armies of Constantius were repeatedly de- 
feated ; Julian, as is related elsewhere (vid. 
Julianus), perished in battle ; and the war was 
at length brought to a conclusion by Jovian 
ceding to the Persians the five provinces be- 
yond the Tigris, and the fortresses of Nisibis, 
Singara, &c. Iberia and Armenia were left to 
their fate, and were completely reduced by Sa- 
por in 3C5 and the following year. Sapor has 
been surnamed the Great, and no Persian king 
had ever caused such terror to Rome as this 
monarch. — 10. Artaxerxes II. (Ardishir), the 
successor of Sapor II., reigned 381-385. He 
was a prince of royal blood, but was not a son 
of Sapor. — 11. Sapor III. (Shapur), reigned 385 
-390. He sent an embassy to Theodosius the 
Great, with splendid presents, which was re- 
turned by a Greek embassy headed by Stilicho 
going to Persia. Owing to these diplomatic 
transactions, an arrangement was made in 384, 
according to which Armenia and Iberia recov- 
ered their independence. — 12. Varanes IV. 
(Bahram), reigned A.D. 390-404, or perhaps not 
so long. He was the brother of Sapor III., and 
founded Kermanshah, still a flourishing town. 
— 13. YesdigerdI. (Yezdijird), surnamed Ula- 
thim, or the Sinner, son or brother of the pre- 
ceding, reigned 404-420 or 421. He was on 
friendly terms with the Emperor Arcadius, who 
is said to have appointed him the guardian of 
his infant son and successor, Theodosius the 
younger. He concluded a peace with Arcadius 
for one hundred years. — 14. Varanes V. (Bah- 
kam), son of Yesdigerd I., surnamed Gour, or 
the "Wild Ass," on account of his passion for 
the chase of that animal, reigned 420 or 421- 
448. He persecuted his Christian subjects with 
such severity that thousands of them took ref- 
uge within the Roman dominions. He carried 
on war with Theodosius, which was terminated 
by a peace for one hundred years, which peace 
lasted till the twelfth year of the reign of the 
Emperor Anastasius. During the latter part 
of his reign Varanes carried on wars against 
the Huns, Turks, and Indians, in which he is 
eaid to have achieved those valorous deeds for 
which he has ever since continued to be a fa- [ 
778 



SASSANID^E. 

vorite hero in Persian poetry. He was acci- 
dentally drowned in a deep well together with It 
his horse, and neither man nor beast ever rose | 
again from the fathomless pit. — 15. Yezdigerd ' 
II., son of the preceding, reigned 448-458. The ; 
persecutions against the Christians were re- 
newed b/ him with unheard-of cruelty. His re- , 
lations with Rome were peaceful. — 16. Hor- 
misdas III. (Hormuz), and, 17. Peroses (Firoze), 
sons of the preceding, claimed the succession, [ 
and rose in arms against each other. Peroses 
gained the throne by the assistance of the White i 
Huns, against whom he turned his sword in 
after years. He perished in a great battle with 
them in 484, together with all of his sons ex- 
cept Pallas and Cobades. — 18. Pallas (Pal- I 
lash), who reigned 484-488, had to contest the 
throne with Cobades. He perished in a battle 
with his brother Cobades in 488. — 19. Cobades "I 
(Kobad), reigned 488-498, and again 501 or 502- 1 
531. The years from 498 till 502 were filled up ( 
by the short reign of, 20. Zames (Jamaspes). 
The latter was the brother of Cobades, whom 
he dethroned, and compelled to fly to the Huns, 
with whose assistance Cobades recovered his 
throne about 502. He carried on war with suc- 
cess against the Emperor Anastasius ; but in 
consequence of the Huns, who had previously 
been his auxiliaries, turning their arms against 
him, he made peace with Anastasius in 505, on 
receiving eleven thousand pounds of gold as an 
indemnity. He also restored Mesopotamia and i 
his other conquests to the Romans, being un- 
able to maintain his authority there on account 
of the protracted war with the Huns. About I 
this time the Romans constructed the fortress 
of Dara, the strongest bulwark against Persia, 
and situated in the very face of Ctesiphon. The 
war with Constantinople was renewed in 521, 
in the reign of the Emperor Justin I.— -21. Chos- 
roes I. (Khosru or Khosrew). surnamed Nu- 
shirwan, or " the generous mind," reigned 531- 
579. He carried on several wars against the 
Romans. The first war was finished in 532 oi 
533, Justinian having purchased peace by an 
annual tribute of four hundred and forty thou- J 
sand pieces of gold. One ofthe conditions of j 
Chosroes was, that seven Greek, but pagan j 
philosophers, who.had resided some time at the 
Persian court, should be allowed to live in the 
Roman empire without being subject to the im- 
perial laws against pagans. The second wai 
lasted from 540 to 561. Peace was concluded 
on condition of Justinian promising an annual i 
tribute of forty thousand pieces of gold, and re- 
ceiving, in return, the cession of the Persian 
claims upon Colchis and Lazica. The third 
war broke out in 571, in the reign of Justin IT., 
but Chosroes died before it was concluded. j 
Chosroes was one of the greatest kings of Per- 
sia. In his protracted wars with the Romans 
he disputed the field with the conquerors of 
Africa and Italy, and with those very generals, 
Tiberius and Mauricius, who brought Persia to 
the brink of ruin but a few years after his death. 
His empire extended from the Indus to the Red 
Sea, and large tracts in Central Asia, perhaps 
a portion of Eastern Europe, recognized him 
for a time as their sovereign. He received em- 
bassies and presents from the remotest kings I 
of Asia and Africa. His internal government 



SASSULA. 



SATURNINUS. 



was despotic and cruel, but of that firm descrip- 
tion which pleases Orientals, so that he still 
lives in the memory of the Persians as a model 
of justice. He provided for all the wants of 
his subjects ; and agriculture, trade, and learn- 
ing were equally protected by him. He caused 
the best Greek, Latin, and Indian works to be 
translated into Persian. — 22. Hormisdas IV. 
(Hormuz), son of Chosrpes, reigned 579-590. 
He continued the war with the Romans, which 
had been bequeathed him by his father, but was 
defeated successively by Mauricius and Hera- 
clius. Hormisdas was deprived of his sight, 
and subsequently put to death by the Persian 
aristocracy. — 23. Varanes VI. (Bahram) Shu- 
bin, a royal prince, usurped the throne on the 
death of Hormisdas, and reigned 590-591. Un- 
able to maintain the. throne against Chosroes, 
who was supported by the Emperor Mauricius, 
he fled to the Turks. — 24. Chosroes II. (Khos- 
ru) Pubwiz, reigned 590 or 591-628. He was 
the son of Hormisdas IV., and recovered his 
father's throne with the assistance of the Em- 
peror Mauricius. After the murder of Mauri- 
cius, Chosroes declared war against the tyrant 
Phocas, and met with extraordinary success. 
In several successive campaigns he conquer- 
ed Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Asia 
Minor, and: finally pitched his camp at Chalce- 
don, opposite Constantinople. At length Herac- 
lius saved the empire from the brink of ruin, 
and in a series of splendid campaigns not only 
recovered the provinces which the Romans had 
lost, but carried his victorious arms into the 
heart of the Persian empire. Borne down by 
his misfortunes, and worn out by age and fa- 
tigue, Chosroes resolved, in 628, to abdicate in 
favor of his son Merdaza ; but Shirweh, or 
Siroes, his eldest son, anticipated his design, 
and at the head of a band of conspirators seized 
upon the person of his father, deposed him, and 
put him to death. The Orientals say that Chos- 
roes reigned six years too long. No Persian 
king lived in such splendor as Chosroes ; and 
however fabulous the Eastern accounts respect- 
ing his magnificence may be, they are true in 
the main, as is attested by the Western writers. 
— 25. Siroes (Shirweh), reigned only eight 
months, 628. He concluded peace with the 
Emperor Heraclius. The numerous captives 
were restored on both sides. Siroes also re- 
stored the holy cross which had been taken at 
the conquest of Jerusalem. — 26. Artaxerxes 
III. (Ardishir), the infant son of Siroes, was 
murdered a few days after the death of his fa- 
ther. He was the last male Sassanid. After 
him the throne was disputed by a host of candi- 
dates of both sexes and doubtful descent, who 
had no sooner ascended the throne than they 
were hurried from it into death or captivity. 
The last king was Yesdigerd III., who was de- 
feated and slain in 651 by Kaleb, the general 
of the khalif Abu-Bekr. Persia now became a 
Mohammedan country. 

Sassula, a town in Latium, belonging to the 
territory of Tibur. 

. Satala (ra XuraAa, q XardXa), a considerable 
town in the northeast of Armenia Minor, im- 
portant as the key of the mountain passes into 
Pontus. It stood at the junction of four roads 
leading to places on the Euxine, a little north 



of the Euphrates, in a valley surrounded by 
mouotains, tlfree hundred and twenty-five Ro- 
man^miles from Ca?sarea in Cappadocia, and 
one hundred and thirty-five from Trapezus. 
Under the later Roman empire it was the sta- 
tion of the fifteenth legion. Notwithstanding 
the above indications, its site has not yet been 
identified with certainty. 

Satarch^e, a Scythian t/ibe on the eastern 
coast of the Tauric Chersonesus. 

[Sataspes (ZaTacTTris), a Persian, son of Te 
aspes, sentenced by Xerxes to be impaled foi 
having offered violence to the daughter of Zo- 
pyrus, the son of Megabyzus : this punishment 
was remitted on condition of his circumnavi- 
gating Africa. He set sail accordingly from 
Egypt, passed through the Straits of Gibraltar, 
and continued his voyage for a considerable 
time southward, but at length became discour- 
aged, and returned home. Xerxes thereupon 
cause'd the original sentence to be executed.] 

SaticCla (Saticulanus), a town of Samnium, 
situated upon a mountain on the frontiers of 
Campania, probably upon one of the furthest 
heights of the mountain chain of Cajazzo. It 
was conquered by the Romans and colonized 
B.C. 313. 

SatnTois (Zarvwetc: : now Tuzla), a river in 
the south of the Troad, rising in Mount Ida, 
and flowing west into the JEgean north of Prom- 
ontorium Lectum, between Larissa and Hamax 
itus. 

[Satnius (Zdrvioc;), son of Enops and of a 
river-nymph of the Satnioi's, slain by Ajax, son 
of Oi'leus, in the Trojan war.] 

[Satr^e (Zdrpai), a people of Thrace, on Mount 
Pangsus, between the Nestus and the Strymon, 
a very brave race, and hence never deprived 
of their freedom ; they dwelt upon lofty heights 
covered with forests and snow. On one of their 
hills was ah oracle of Bacchus (Dionysus), 
whose priests were the Bessi, whence it is prob- 
able that they themselves were only a branch 
of the Bessi.] 

Satricom (Satricanus : now Casale di Conca), 
a town in Latium, near Antium, to the terri- 
tory of which it belonged. It was destroyed 
by the Romans. 

Saturn Palus (now Logo di Paolo), a lake 
or marsh in Latium, formed by the River Nym- 
phseus, and near the Promontory Circeium. 

Saturium or Satureium (now Saturo), a town 
in the south of Italy, near Tarentum, celebrated 
for its horses. (Hor., Sat., i., 6, 59). 

Saturnia. 1. An ancient name of Italy. Vid. 
Italia. : — 2. (Saturninus : now Saturnia), for- 
merly called Aurinia, an ancient town of Etru- 
ria, said to have been founded by the Pelasgians, 
was situated in the territory of Caletra, on the 
road from Rome to Cosa, about twenty miles 
from the sea. It was colonized by the Romans, 
B.C. 183. The ancient town was rather more 
than two miles in circuit, and there are still re- 
mains of its walls and tombs. 

Saturninus I., one of the Thirty Tyrants, 
was a general of Valerian, by whom he was 
much beloved. Disgusted by the debauchery 
of Gallienus, he accepted from the soldiers the 
title of emperor, but was put to death by the 
troops, who could not endure the sternness of 
his discipline. The country, however, in which 

779 



SATURNINUS. 



SATURNUS. 



these events took place is not mentioned. — II. A 
native of Gaul, and an able officer, was appoint- 
ed by Aurelian commander of the Eastern fron- 
tier, and was proclaimed emperor at Alexan- 
irea during the reign of Probus. He was event- 
ually slain by the soldiers of Probus, although 
the emperor would willingly have spared his life. 

Saturninus, L. Antonius, governor of Upper 
Germany in the reign of Domitian, raised a re- 
bellion against that emperor A.D. 91, but was 
defeated and put to death by Appius Maximus, 
the general of Domitian. 

Saturninus, L. Appuleius, the celehrated 
demagogue, was quaestor B.C. 104, and tribune 
of the plebs for the first time, 102. He entered 
into a close alliance with Marius and his friends, 
and soon acquired great popularity. He be- 
came a candidate for the tribunate for the sec- 
ond time, 100. At the same time, Glaucia, who, 
next to Saturninus, was the greatest demagogue 
of the day, offered himself as a candidate for 
the praetorship, and Marius for the consulship. 
Marius and Glaucia carried their elections ; but 
A. Nonius, a partisan of the aristocracy, was 
chosen tribune instead of Saturninus. Nonius, 
however, was murdered on the same evening 
by the emissaries of Glaucia and Saturninus, 
and early the following morning Saturninus 
was chosen to fill up the vacancy. As soon as 
he had entered upon his tribunate, he brought 
forward an agrarian law, which led to the ban- 
ishment of Metellus Numidicus, as is related 
elsewhere. Vid. Metellus, No. 10. Saturni- 
nus proposed other popular measures, such as 
a Lex Frumentaria, and a law for founding new 
colonies in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia. In 
the comitia for the election of the magistrates 
for the following year, Saturninus obtained the 
tribunate for the third time, and along with him 
there was chosen a certain Equitius, a runaway 
slave, who pretended to be a son of Tiberius 
Gracchus. Glaucia was at the same time a 
candidate for the consulship ; the two other 
candidates were M. Antonius and C. Memmius. 
The election of M. Antonius was certain, and 
the struggle lay between Glaucia and Memmius. 
As the latter seemed likely to carry his election, 
Saturninus and Glaucia hired some ruffians who 
murdered him openly in the comitia. This last 
act produced a complete reaction against Satur- 
ninus and his associates. The senate declared 
them public enemies, and ordered the consuls 
to put them down by force. Marius was un- 
willing to act against his friends, but he had no 
alternative, and his backwardness was compen- 
sated by the zeal of others. Driven out of the 
forum, Saturninus, Glaucia, and the quaestor 
Saufeius took refuge in the Capitol, but the par- 
tisans of the senate cut off the pipes which sup- 
plied the Capitol with water. Unable to hold 
out any longer, they surrendered to Marius. 
The latter did all he could to save their lives : 
as soon as they descended from the Capitol, he 
placed them for security in the Curia Hostilia, 
but the mob pulled off the tiles of the senate- 
house, and pelted them with the tiles till they 
died. The senate gave their sanction to these 
proceedings by rewarding with the citizenship 
a slave of the name of Scaeva, who claimed the 
honor of having killed Saturninus. Nearly forty 
years after these events, the tribune T. Labie- 
780 



nus accused an aged senator Rabirius of having 
been the murderer of Saturninus. An account 
of this trial is given elsewhere. Vid. Rabir- 
ius. 

Saturninus, Claudius, a jurist from whose 
Liber Singularis de Painis Paganorum there is a 
single excerpt in the Digest. He was praetor 
under Antoninus Pius. 

Saturninus, Pompeius, a contemporary of 
the younger Pliny, is praised by the latter as a 
distinguished orator, historian, and poet. Sev- 
eral of Pliny's letters are addressed to him. 

Saturninus, C. Sentius. 1. Propraetor ol 
Macedonia during the Social war, and probably 
for some time afterward. He defeated the 
Thracians, who had invaded his province. — 2. 
One of the persons of distinguished rank who 
deserted Sextus Pompeius in B.C. 35, and pass- 
ed over to Octavianus. He was consul in 19, 
and afterward appointed to the government of 
Syria. Three sons of Saturninus accompanied 
him as legati to Syria, and were present with 
their father at the trial of Herod's sons at Bery- 
tus in B.C. 6. 

Saturninus, Venuleius, a Roman jurist, is 
said to have been a pupil of Papinianus, and a 
consiliarius of Alexander Severus. There are 
seventy-one excerpts from his writings in the 
Digest. 

Saturnius, that is, a son of Saturnus, and ac- 
cordingly used as a surname of Jupiter, Nep- 
tune, and Pluto. For the same reason, the name 
of Saturnia is given both to Juno and Vesta. 

Saturnos, a mythical king of Italy, to whom 
was ascribed the introduction of agriculture and 
the habits of civilized life in general. The 
name is connected with the verb sero, scvi, sa- 
tum. The Romans invariably identified Satur- 
nus with the Greek Cronos, and hence made 
the former the father of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, 
Juno, &c. {vid. Cronos) ; but there is, in reality, 
no resemblance between the attributes of the 
two deities, except that both were regarded as 
the most ancient divinities in their respective 
countries. The resemblance is much stronger 
between Demeter and Saturn, for all that the 
Greeks ascribe to their Demeter is ascribed by 
the Italians to Saturn. Saturnus, then, deriving 
his name from sowing, is justly called the in- 
troducer of civilization and social order, both 
of which are inseparably connected with agri- 
culture. His reign is conceived for the same 
reason to have been the golden age of Italy, and 
more especially of the Aborigines, his subjects. 
As agricultural industry is the source of wealth 
and plenty, his wife was Ops, the representative 
of plenty. The story ran that the god came to 
Italy, in the reign of Janus, by whom he was 
hospitably received, and that he formed a set- 
tlement on the Capitoline Hill, which was hence 
called the Saturnian Hill. At the foot of that 
hill, on the road leading up to the Capitol, there 
stood in after times the temple of Saturn. Sat- 
urn then taught the people agriculture, sup- 
pressed their savage mode of life, and intro- 
duced among them civilization and morality. 
The result was, that the whole country was 
called Saturnia, or the land of plenty. Saturn 
was suddenly removed from earth to the abodes 
of the gods, whereupon Janus erected an altar 
to him in the forum. It is further related thai 



SATYRl. 



SAXONES. 



Latium received its name (from lateo) from this 
disappearance of Saturn, who for the same rea- 
son was regarded by some as a divinity of the 
nether world. Respecting the festival solem- 
nized by the Romans in honor of Saturn, vid. 
Diet, of Anliq., s. v. Saturnalia. The statue of 
Saturnus was hollow and filled with oil, proba- 
bly to denote the fertility of Latium in olives ; 
in his hand he held a crooked pruning knife, 
and his feet were surrounded with a woollen 
ribbon. In the pediment of the temple of Sat- 
urn were seen two figures resembling Tritons 
with horns, and whose lower extremities grew 
out of the ground ; the temple itself was used 
as the treasury of the state, and many laws also 
were deposited in it. 

Satyri (Idrvpoi), the name of a class of be- 
ings in Greek mythology who are inseparably 
connected with the worship of Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus), and represent the luxuriant vital pow- 
ers of nature. Homer does not mention the 
Satyrs. Hesiod describes them as a race good 
for nothing and unfit for work. They are com- 
monly said to be the sons of Mercury (Hermes) 
and Iphthima, or of the Naiads. The Satyrs 
are represented with bristly hair, the nose round 
and somewhat turned upward, the ears pointed 
at the top like those of animals, with two small 
horns growing out of the top of the forehead, 
and with a tail like that of a horse or goat. In 
works of art they are represented at different 
stages of life ; the older ones were commonly 
called Sileni, and the younger ones are termed 
Satyrisci. The Satyrs are always described as 
fond of wine (whence they often appear either 
with a cup or a thyrsus in their hand), and of 
every kind of sensual pleasure, whence they 
are seen sleeping, playing musical instruments, 
or engaged in voluptuous dances with nymphs. 
Like all the gods dwelling in forests and fields, 
they were greatly dreaded by mortals. Later 
writers, especially the Roman poets, confound 
the Satyrs with the Italian Fauni, and accord- 
ingly represent them with larger horns and 
goats' feet, although originally they were quite 
distinct kinds of beings. Satyrs usually appear 
with flutes, the thyrsus, syrinx, the shepherd's 
staff, cups or bags filled with wine ; they are 
dressed with the skins of animals, and wear 
wreaths of vine, ivy, or fir. Representations 
of them are still very numerous, but the most 
celebrated in antiquity was the Satyr of Praxit- 
eles at Athens. 

Satyrus ("Zdrvpoc). 1. I. King of Bosporus, 
was a son of Spartacus I., and reigned B.C. 407 
or 406-393. He maintained friendly relations 
with Athens. He was slain at the siege of 
Theudosia in 393, and was succeeded by his 
son Leucon. — 2. II. King of Bosporus, was the 
eldest of the sons of Paerisades I., whom he 
succeeded in 311, but reigned only nine months. 
— 3. A distinguished comic actor at Athens, is 
said to have given instructions to Demosthenes 
in the art of giving full effect to his speeches 
by appropriate action. — 4. A distinguished Per- 
ipatetic philosopher and historian, who lived in 
the time of Ptolemy Philopator, if not later. 
He wrote a collection of biographies, among 
which were lives of Philip and Demosthenes, 
and which is frequently cited by ancient writ- 
ers. — 5. A. physician in the second century after 



Christ, who wrote some works which are no 
longer extant. 

Sauconna. Vid. Arar. 

Saufeius. 1. C, quajstor B.C. 100, was one 
of the partisans of Saturninus, took refuge with 
him in the Capitol, and was slain along with his 
leader when they were obliged to surrender tc 
Marius. — 2. L., a Roman eques, was an inti- 
mate friend of Atticus, and a warm admirer of 
the Epicurean philosophy. He had very val 
uable property in Italy, which was confiscated by 
the triumvirs, but was restored to him through 
the exertions of Atticus. 

Saulo'e Parthaunisa (SavAu?/ YlapOavvioa), 
the later capital of Parthia, called by the Greeks 
Nisasa. Its site is not known. 

Sauromatte. Vid. Sarmat^:. 

Saurojiates CZavpo/xuTris), the name of sev- 
eral kings of Bosporus, who are for the most 
part known only from their coins. We find 
'kings of this name reigning over Bosporus from 
the time of Augustus to that of Constantine. 

Saverrio, P. Sulpicius. 1. Consul B.C. 304, 
when he carried on the war against the Sarri- 
nites. He was censor in 219 with Sempronius 
Sophus, his former colleague in the consulship. 
In their censorship two new tribes were form- 
ed, the Aniensis and Terentina. — 2. Son of the 
preceding, consul 279 with P. Decius Mus, com- 
manded, with his colleague, against Pyrrhus. 

Savo (now Sao?ie), a river in Campania, which 
flows into the sea south of Sinuessa. 

Savus (now Save or Sau), a navigable trib- 
utary of the Danube, which rises in the Carnic 
Alps, forms first the boundary between Noricum 
and Italy, and afterward between Pannonia and 
Illy ria, and falls into the Danube near Singidu- 
num. 

Saxa, Decidius, a native of Celtiberia, was 
originally one of Caesar's common soldiers. He 
was tribune of the plebs in B.C. 44, and after 
Caesar's death in this year he took an active 
part in supporting the friends of his murdered 
patron. He served under M. Antonius in the 
siege of Mutina, and subsequently under both 
Antonius and Octavianus in their war against 
Brutus and Cassius. After the battle of Philip- 
pi Saxa accompanied Antony to the East, and 
was made by the latter governor of Syria. Hera 
he was defeated by the younger Labienus and 
the Parthians, and was slain in the flight after 
the battle (B.C. 40). 

Saxa, Q. Voconius, tribune of the plebs B.C. 
169, proposed the Voconia lex, which was sup- 
ported by the elder Cato, who spoke in its fa- 
vor when he was sixty-five years of age. Re- 
specting this lex, vid. Diet, of Antiq., s. v. 

Saxa Rubra. Vid. Rubra Saxa. 

Saxones, a powerful people in Germany, who 
originally dwelt in the southern part of the Cim- 
bric Chersonesus, between the rivers Albis and 
Chalusus (now Trave), consequently in the mod- 
ern Holstein. They are not mentioned by Tac- 
itus and Pliny, since these writers appear to 
have comprehended all the inhabitants of the 
Cimbric Chersonesus under the general name 
of Cimbri. The Saxones first occur in history 
in A.D. 286, when they are mentioned as brave 
and skillful sailors, who often joined the Chau- 
ci in piratical expeditions against the coast of 
Gaul. The Saxones afterward appear at the 

781 



SOEA PORTA. 



SCiEVOLA, MUCIUS. 



nead of a powerful confederacy of Germar com- 
munities, who became united under the general 
name of Saxons, and who eventually occupied 
the country between the Elbe, the Rhine, the 
Lippe, and tne German Ocean. A portion of 
the Saxons, in conjunction with the Angli, led 
by Hengist and Horsa, conquered Britain, as is 
well known, about the middle of the fifth cen- 
tury. The Romans never came into close con- 
tact with the Saxons. 

[ScjEa Porta (Stcai?) wuXt], usually in pi. 2/raj- 
al nv?Mt), a celebrated gate of Troy, on the 
west side, toward the sea : near it was the tomb 
of Laomedon. Vid. Troja.] 

Sceva, Cassxus, a centurion in Caesar's army, 
who distinguished himself by his extraordinary 
feats of valor at the battle of Dyrrhachium. He 
survived the battle, and is mentioned as one of 
the partisans of Caesar after the death of the 
latter. 

Scaevola, Q. Cervidius, a Roman jurist, lived 
under Antoninus Pius. He wrote several works, 
and there are three hundred and seven excerpts 
from him in the Digest. 

Sc/evola, Mucius. 1. C, the hero of a cel- 
ebrated story in early Roman history. When 
King Porsenna was blockading Rome, C. Mu- 
cius, a young man of the patrician class, re- 
solved to rid his country of the invader. He 
went out of the city, with a dagger hid beneath 
his dress, and approached the place where Por- 
senna was sitting, with a secretary by his side, 
dressed nearly in the same style as the king 
himself. Mistaking the secretary for the king, 
Mucius killed him on the spot. He was seized 
by the king's guards, and brought before the 
royal seat, when he declared his name, and his 
design to kill the king himself, and told him 
that there were many more Romans ready to 
attempt his life. The king, in his passion and 
alarm, ordered him to be burned alive unless he 
explained more clearly what he meant by his 
vague threats, upon which Mucius thrust his 
right hand into a fire which was already lighted 
for a sacrifice, and held it there without flinch- 
ing. The king, who was amazed at his firm- 
ness, ordered him to be removed from the al- 
tar, and bade him go away free and uninjured. 
To make some return to the. king for his gen- 
erous behavior, Mucius told him that there were 
three hundred of the first youths of Rome who 
had agreed with one another to kill the king, 
that the lot fell on him to make the first at- 
tempt, and that the rest would do the same 
when their turn came. Mucius received the 
name of Scaevola, or left-handed, from the cir- 
cumstance of the loss of his right hand. Por- 
senna, being alarmed for his life, which he could 
not secure against so many desperate men, made 
proposals of peace to the Romans, and evacu- 
ated the territory. The patricians gave Mucius 
a tract of land beyond the Tiber, which was 
thenceforth called Mucin Praia. The Mucius 
of this story was a patrician, but the Mucii of 
the historical period were plebeians. — 2. Q., 
praetor B.C. 215, had Sardinia for his province, 
where he remained for the next three years. 
He was decemvir sacrorum, and died 209. — 3. 
Q., probably son of No. 2, was praetor 179, with 
Sicily for his province, and consul 174. — 4. P., 
rother of No. 3, was praetor with his brother 
78? 



179, and consul 175. In his consulship he gained 
a victory over the Ligurians. — 5. P., probably 
son of No. 4, was tribune of the plebs 141, prae- 
tor urbanus 136, and consul 133, the year in 
which Tiberius Gracchus lost his life. In 131 
he succeeded his brother Mucianus (vid.MvciA- 
nus) as pontifex maximus. Scaevola was dis- 
tinguished for his knowledge of the Jus Ponti- 
ficium. He was also famed for his skill in play- 
ing at ball, as well as at the game called Duo- 
decim Scripta. His fame as a lawyer is re- 
ccjrded by Cicero in several passages. There 
is no excerpt from his writings in the Digest, 
but he is cited several times by the jurists whose 
works were used for that compilation. — 6. Q., 
called the Augur, was son of No. 3, and mar 
ried the daughter of C. Laelius, the friend of 
Scipio Africanus the younger. He was tribune 
of the plebs 128, plebeian aedile 125, and as prae- 
tor was governor of the province of Asia in 121, 
the year in which C. Gracchus lost his life. He 
was prosecuted after his return from his prov- 
ince for the offence of repetundae in 120 by T. 
Albucius, but was acquitted. He was consul 
117. He lived at least to the tribunate of P. 
Sulpicius Rufus 88. Cicero, who was born 106, 
informs us that, after he had put on the toga 
virilis, his father took him to Scaevola, who was 
then an old man, and that he kept as close to 
him as he could, in order to profit by his re- 
marks. After his death Cicero became a hear- 
er of Q. Mucius Scaevola, the pontifex. The au- 
gur was distinguished for his knowledge of the 
law ; but none of his writings are recorded. Mu- 
cia, the augur's daugliter, married L. Licinius 
Crassus, the orator, who was consul 95, with Q. 
Mucius Scaevola, the pontifex maximus ; whence 
it appears that the Q. Mucius, who is one of the 
speakers in the treatise de Oratore, is not the 
pontifex and the colleague of Crassus, but the 
augur, the father-in-law of Crassus. He is 
also one of the speakers in the Lalius sive de 
Amicitia (c. 1), and in the de Repubiica (i., 12). 
— 7. Q., Pontifex Maximus, was son of No. 5, 
and is quoted by Cicero as an example of a son 
who aimed at excellence in that which had 
given his father distinction. He was tribune 
of the plebs in 108, curule aedile in 104, and con- 
sul 95, with Licinius Crassus, the orator, as his 
colleague. After his consulship Scaevola was 
the governor (proconsul) of the province of Asia, 
in which capacity he gained the esteem of the 
people who were under his government. Sub- 
sequently he was made pontifex maximus, by 
which title he is often distinguished from Q. 
Mucius the augur. He lost his life in the con- 
sulship of C. Marius the younger and Cn. Pa- 
pirius Carbo (82), having been proscribed by the 
Marian party, from which we may conclude that 
he belonged to Sulla's party. His body was 
thrown into the Tiber. The virtues of Scaevola 
are recorded by Cicero, who, after the death of 
the augur, became an attendant (auditor) of the 
pontifex. The purity of his moral character, 
his exalted notions of equity and fair dealing, 
his abilities as an administrator, an orator, and 
a jurist, place him among the first of the illus- 
trious men of all ages and countries. He was, 
says Cicero, the most eloquent of jurists, and 
the most learned jurist among orators. Q. Scae- 
vola the nontifex is the first Roman to whom 



SCALABL3. 



SCAURUS, ^EMILIUS. 



we can attribute a scientific and systematic 
handling of the Jus Civile, which he accom- 
plished in a work in eighteen books. He also 
wrote a Liber Singularis nepl opuv, a work on 
Definitions, or perhaps, rather, short rules of 
law, from which there are four excerpts in the 
Digest. This is the oldest work from which 
there are any excerpts in the Digest, and even 
these may have been taken at second hand. 

Scalabis (now Santarcm), a town in Lusita- 
nia, on the road from Olisipo to Emerita and 
Bracara, also a Roman colony with the sur- 
name Presidium Julium, and the seat of one of 
the three Conventus Juridici of the province. 
The town is erroneously called Scalabiscus by 
Ptolemy. 

Scalms (now Scheldt), an important river in 
the north of Gallia Belgica, flowing into the 
ocean, but which Caesar erroneously makes a 
tributary of the Mosa. Ptolemy calls this river 
Tabudas or Tabullas, which name it continued 
\<j bear in the Middle Ages under the form of 
Tabul or Tabula. 

Scamander (iKufiavdpoc). 1. A river in the 
western part of the northern coast of Sicily, 
falling into the sea near Segesta. — 2. The cel- 
ebrated river of the Troad. Vid. Troas. Asa 
mythological personage, the river-god was call- 
ed Xanthus by the gods. His contest with 
Achilles is described by Homer {II., xxi., 136, 
foil.). 

Scamandrius {^KajidvdpLor). 1. Son of Hec- 
tor and Andromache, whom the people of Troy 
called Astyanax, because his father was the 
protector of the city of Troy. — [2. A Trojan 
warrior, son of Strophius, slain by Menelaus.] 

Scambonid^e (2,Ka/j.6uvlSai), a demus in Atti- 
ca, between Athens and Eleusis, belonging to 
the tribe Leontis. 

Scampa (Sna/ma : now Skumbi or Iscampi), a 
town in the interior of Greek Illyria, on the Via 
Egnatia, between Clodiana and Lychnidus. 

Scandea (2,Kavdeia), a port-town on the east- 
ern side of the island Cythera, forming the har- 
bor of the town of Cythera, from which it was 
ten stadia distant. 

Scandia or Scandinavia, the name given by 
the ancients to Norway, Sweden, and the sur- 
rounding islands. Even the later Romans had 
a very imperfect knowledge of the Scandinavian 
peninsula. They supposed it to have been sur- 
rounded by the ocean, and to have been com- 
posed of several islands called by Ptolemy Scan- 
diae. Of these the largest bore especially the 
name of Scandia or Scandinavia, by which the 
modern Sweden was undoubtedly indicated. 
This country was inhabited by the Hilleviones, 
of whom the Suiones and Sitones appear to 
have been tribes. 

ScandIla (now Scandole), a small island in 
the northeast of the iEgean Sea, between Pepa- 
rethos and Scyros. 

Scantia Silva, a wood in Campania, in which 
were probably the Aquas Scantiae mentioned by 
Pliny. 

[Scantilla, Manlia, the wife of Didius Ju- 
lianus, whom she urged to buy the empire when 
set up for sale : she enjoyed the title Augusta 
during the brief period of her husband's reign.] 
Scapte Hyle CZKanTTi v^rj), also called, but 
ess correctly, Scaptesyle {licanTrjav^ri), a small 



town on the coast of Thrace, opposite the isl- 
and of Thasos. It contained celebrated gold 
mines, which were originally worked by the 
Thasians. Thucydides, who had some proper- 
ty in these mines, retired to this place after his 
banishment from Athens, and here arranged the 
materials for his history. 

Scaptia (Scaptiensis or Scaptius), an ancient 
town in Latium, which gave its name to a Ro- 
man tribe, but which disappeared at an early 
period. 

[Scapula Quintius, T., a Roman officer, pass 
ed over into Spain with Cn. Pompeius, and took 
an active part against Caesar: he fought at the 
battle of Munda, B.C. 45, and after the battle, 
seeing that all was lost, fled to Corduba, and 
there burned himself to death on a pyre which 
he had erected for that purpose.] 

Scapula, P. Ostorius, succeeded A. Plautius 
as governor of Britain about A.D. 50. He de- 
feated the powerful tribe of the Silures, took 
prisoner their king Caractacus, and sent him in 
chains to Rome. In consequence of this suc- 
cess he received the insignia of a triumph, but 
died soon afterward in the province. 

Scarabantia (now Oldenburg), a town in Pan- 
nonia Superior, on the road from Vindobona to 
Postovio, and a municipium with the surname 
Flavia Augusta. 

Scardona CZKapduva or ZKapduv). 1. (Now 
Skardona or Skardin), the chief town of Libur- 
nia in Illyria, on the right bank of the Titius, 
twelve miles from its mouth, the seat of a Con- 
ventus Juridicus. — 2. (Now Arbe), a small isl- 
and off the coast of Liburnia, also called Arba, 
which was the name of the principal town. 

Scardus or Scordus Mons (to "ZKapSov bpoc), 
a small range of lofty mountains, forming the 
boundary between Mcesia and Macedonia. 

SCARPHE, ScARPHEA, Or ScARPHIA (S/Capip^, 

"ZicupQeta, TZicapcpla : Stcapfevc, SnapQtevc, 2/fap- 
faloc, S/fap^£Of), a town of the Epicnemidii Lo- 
cri, ten stadia frofn the coast, at which the roads 
united leading through Thermopylae. It pos- 
sessed a harbor on the coast, probably at the 
mouth of the River Boagrius. 

Scarponna (now Charpeigne), a town in Gallia 
Belgica, on the Mosella, and on the road from 
Tullum to Divodurum. 

Scato or Cato, Vettius, one of the Italian 
generals in the Marsic war, B.C. 90. He de- 
feated the consuls, L. Julius Caesar and P. Rutil- 
ius Lupus, in two successive battles. He wa? 
afterward taken prisoner, and was s'tabbed to 
death by his own slave as he was being dragged 
before the Roman general, being thus delivered 
from the ignominy and punishment that await- 
ed him. 

Scaurus, JSmilius. 1. M., raised his family 
from obscurity to the highest rank among the 
Roman nobles. He was born in B.C. 163. His 
father, notwithstanding his patrician descent, 
had been obliged, through poverty, to carry on 
the trade of a coal merchant, and left his son a 
very slender patrimony. The latter had thought 
at first of carrying on the trade of a money-lend- 
er ; but he finally resolved to devote himself to 
the study of eloquence, with the hope of rising 
to the honors of the state. He likewise served 
in the army, where he appears to have gained 
some distinction. He was curule aedile in 123 

783 



SCAURUS, iEMILIUS. 



SCEPSIS. 



Ha obtained the consulship in 115, when he car- 
ried on war with success against several of the 
Alpine tribes. In 112 he was sent at the head 
of an embassy to Jugurtha ; and in 111 he ac- 
companied the consul L. Calpurnius Bestia, as 
one of his legates, in the war against Jugurtha. 
The Numidian king bestowed large sums of 
money upon both Bestia and Scaurus, in conse- 
quence of which the consul granted the king 
most favorable terms of peace. This disgrace- 
ful transaction excited the greatest indignation 
at Rome ; and C. Mamilius, the tribune of the 
plebs, 110, brought forward a bill by which an 
inquiry was to be instituted against all those 
who had received bribes from Jugurtha. Al- 
though Scaurus had been one of the most guilty, 
such was his influence in the state that he con- 
trived to be appointed one of the three quae- 
sitores who were elected under the bill for 
the purpose of prosecuting the criminals. But, 
though lie thus secured himself, he was unable 
to save any of his accomplices. Bestia and 
many others were condemned. In 109, Scaurus 
was censor with M. Livius Drusus. In his con- 
sulship he restored the Milvian bridge, and con- 
structed the .-Emilian road, which ran by Pisae 
and Luna as far as Dertona. In 107 he was 
elected consul a second time, in place of L. Cas- 
sius Longinus, who had fallen in battle against 
the Tigurini. In the struggles between the 
aristocratical and popular parties, Scaurus was 
always a warm supporter of the former. He 
was several times accused of different offences, 
chiefly by his private enemies ; but such was 
his influence in the state that he was always 
acquitted. He died about 89. By his wife Cae- 
cilia Scaurus had three children, two sons men- 
tioned below, and a daughter ^Emilia, first mar- 
ried to M'. Glabrio, and next to Cn. Pompey, 
subsequently the triumvir. — 2. M., eldest son of 
the preceding, and step-son of the dictator Sul- 
la, whom his mother Caecilia married after the 
death of his father. In the third Mithradatic 
war he served under Pompey as quaestor. The 
latter sent him to Damascus with an army, and 
from thence he marched into Judaea to settle 
the disputes between the brothers Hyrcanus and 
Aristobulus. Scaurus was left by Pompey in 
the command of Syria with two legions. Dur- 
ing his government of Syria he made a preda- 
tory incursion into Arabia Petraea, but with- 
drew on the" payment of three hundred talents 
by Aretas, the king of the country. He was 
curule aedile in 58, when he celebrated the pub- 
lic games with extraordinary splendor. The 
temporary theatre which he built accommoda- 
ted eighty thousand spectators, and was adorned 
in the most magnificent manner. Three hund- 
red and sixty pillars decorated the stage, ar- 
ranged in three stories, of which the lowest was 
made of white marble, the middle one of glass, 
and the highest of gilt wood. The combats of 
wild beasts were equally astonishing. One 
hundred and fifty panthers were exhibited in the 
circus, and five crocodiles and a hippopotamus 
were seen for the first time at Rome. In 56 he 
was praetor, and in the following year governed 
the province of Sardinia, which he plundered 
without mercy. On his return to Rome he was 
accused of the crime of repetundae. He was 
defended by Cicero, Hortensius, and others, and 
784 



was acquitted, notwithstanding his guilt. He 
was accused again in 52, under Pompey's new 
law against ambitus, and was condemned. He 
married Mucia, who had been previously the 
wife of Pompey, and by her he had one son 
(No. 4). — 3. Younger son of No. 1, fought under 
the proconsul, Q. Catulus, against the Cimbri at 
the Athesis, and, having fled from the field, was 
indignantly commanded by his father not to come 
into his presence, whereupon the youth put an 
end to his life. — 4. M., son of No. 2, and Mucia, 
the former wife of Pompey the triumvir, and 
consequently the half-brother of Sextus Pom- 
pey. He accompanied the latter into Asia after 
the defeat of his fleet in Sicily, but betrayed him 
into the hands of the generals of M. Antonius in 
35. After the battle of Actium he fell into the 
power of Octavianus, and escaped death, to 
which he had been sentenced, only through the 
intercession of his mother, Mucia. — 5. Mamer- 
cus, son of No. 4, was a distinguished orator 
and poet, but of a dissolute character. He was 
a member of the senate at the time of the ac- 
cession of Tiberius, A. D. 14, when he offend- 
ed this suspicious emperor by some remarks 
which he made in the senate. Being accused 
of majestas in 34, he put an end to his own 
life." 

Scaurus, M. AurelIus, consul suffectus B.C, 
108, was three years afterward consular legate 
in Gaul, where he was defeated by the Cimbri, 
taken prisoner, and put to death. 

Scaurus, Q. TerentTus, a celebrated gram- 
marian who flourished under the Emperor Ha- 
drian, and whose son was one of the preceptors 
of the Emperor Verus. He was the author of 
an Ars Grammatica, and of commentaries upon 
Plautus, Virgil, and the Ars Pottica of Horace, 
which are known to us from a few scattered 
notices only, for the tract entitled Q. Tcrentii 
Scauri de Orthographia ad Theseum included in 
the " Grammaticae Latinae Auctores Antiqui' 
of Putschius (Hannov., 1605), is not believed to 
be a genuine production of this Scaurus. 

Sceleratus Campus. Vid. Roma, p. 748, a. 

Scen^e (Znnvai, i. e., the tents), a town ot 
Mesopotamia, on the borders of Babylonia, on 
a canal of the Euphrates, twenty-five days' jour- 
ney below Zeugma. It belonged to the Sceni 
tje, and was evidently only a collection of tents 
or huts. 

Scenit/e (Zkvvitcii, i. e., dwellers in tents), the 
general name used by the Greeks for the Beda- 
wee (Bedouin) tribes of Arabia Deserta. It was 
also applied to nomad tribes in Africa, who like- 
wise lived in tents. 

Scepsis (2kT/i[>ic : now probably ruins at Eskt- 
Upshi or Eski-Shupshe), an ancient city in the in- 
terior of the Troad, southeast of Alexandrea, in 
the mountains of Ida. Its inhabitants were re- 
moved by Antigonus to Alexandrea ; but, being 
permitted by Lysimachus to return to their 
homes, they built a new city, called ri via K<j : uii, 
and the remains of the old town were then call- 
ed naXataKtjtptc. Scepsis is celebrated in lit- 
erary history as the place where certain MSS 
of Aristotle and Theophrastus were buried, to 
prevent their transference to Pergamus. When 
dug up again, they were found nearly destroyed 
by mould and worms, and in this condition they 
were ; tmoved by Sulla to Athens. The philos- 



SCERDILAIDAS. 



SCIPIO. 



opher Metrodorus and the grammarian Deme- 
trius were natives of Scepsis. 

ScERDILAIDAS Or ScERDIL^EDUS (ZliepdtXuidai; 

or 2,/cepSAaidoc ), king of IHyria, was in all prob- 
ability a son of Pleuratus, and younger brother 
of Agron, both of them kings of that country. 
After the defeat and abdication of Teuta (B.C. 
229), he probably succeeded to a portion of her 
dominions, but did not assume the title of king 
til! after the death of his nephew Pinnes. He 
carried on war for some years against Philip, 
king of Macedonia, and thus appears as an ally 
of the Romans. He probably died about 205, 
and was succeeded by his son Pleuratus. 

[Schedia (2^£(5/o), a large village of Lower 
Egypt, on the great canal which united Alex- 
andra with the Canobic mouth of the Nile, four 
schoeni from Alexandrea, was the station of the 
splendid galleys in which the prefects visited the 
upper districts.] 

SchedIus (S^£(5tof). 1. Son of Iphitus and 
Hippolyte, commanded the Phocians in the war 
against Troy, along with his brother Epistro- 
phus. He was slain by Hector, and his remains 
were carried from Troy to Anticyra in Phocis. 
— 2. Son of Perimedes, likewise aPhocinn who 
was killed at Troy by Hector. 

Schera (Scherinus), a town in the interior of 
Sicily, in the southwest part of the island. 
Scheria. Vid. PhjEaces. 
[Schiste ( Via, rj cxi-gtt] 656<;, now Zimeno or 
Zemino), a road leading from Delphi over a de- 
clivity of Parnassus to Daulis, and still further 
northward, deriving its name from the fact that 
it began in a mountain gorge, and then, two ge- 
ographical miles east of Delphi, at a place called 
Tpuc nilevdoL, divided itself into two roads, one 
to the northeast toward Daulis, the other to the 
southeast toward Lebadea or Helicon. At the 
point where the three roads met was erected 
the tumulus to commemorate the murder of 
Laius by CEdipus, which was said to have oc- 
curred there.] 

Schcenus (Xxotvoc; : 'Zx oLVU '"S)i a town of 
Bceotia, on a river of the same name, and on 
the road from Thebes to Anthedon. 

Schoenus (Xxoivovc, -ovvtoq ). 1. A harbor of 
Corinth, north of Cenchreae, at the narrowest 
part of the isthmus. — 2. A place in the interior 
of Arcadia, near Methydrium. 

Sciathus (EiciaOoc : S«ia0tof : now Skiatho), 
a small island in the ^Egean Sea, north of Eu- 
bffia and east of the Magnesian coast of Thes- 
saly, with a town of the same name upon it. It is 
said to have been originally colonized by Pelas- 
gians from Thrace. It is frequently mentioned 
in the history of the invasion of Greece by Xerx- 
es, since the Persian and Grecian fleets were 
stationed near its coasts. It subsequently be- 
came one of the subject allies of Athens, but at- 
tained such little prosperity that it only had to 
pay the small tribute of two hundred drachma} 
vearly. Its chief town was destroyed by the 
last Philip of Macedonia. At a later time it was 
restored by Antonius to the Athenians. Scia- 
thus produced good wine. 

Scidrus (2/u'dpof), a place in the south of 
Italy, of uncertain site, in which some of the 
Sybarites settled after the destruction of their 
own city. 

Scillus ( S/aXP.oOf, -ovvTog : 'SkMovvt of, 



ZKU?iovcnoe), a town of Elis, in the district Tn 
phylia, on the River Selinus, twenty stadia 
south of Olympia. It was destroyed by the 
i Eleans in the war which they carried on against 
' the PisaBans, whose cause had been espoused 
! by the inhabitants of Scillus. The Laccdsemo- 
I nians subsequently took possession of the ter- 
j ritory of Scillus ; and, although the Eleans still 
laid claim trj it, they gave it to Xenophon after 
: his banishment from Athens. Xenophon re- 
sided at this place during the remainder of his 
life, and erected here a sanctuary to Diana (Ar- 
temis), which he had vowed during the retreat 
of the Ten Thousand. 

Scingomagus, a small place in the southeast- 
ern part of Gallia Transpadana, in the kingdom 
of Cottius, west of Segusio, at the pass across 
the Alps. 

Scione (Iikiuvti : 2/ciwi>aioc, Xkiuvevc), the 
chief town in the Macedonian peninsula of Pal- 
lene, on the western coast. It is said to have 
been founded by some Pellenians of Achaia, 
who settled here after their return from Troy. 
It revolted from the Athenians in the Pelopon- 
nesian war, but was retaken by Cleon ; where- 
upon all the men were put to death, the women 
I and children sold as slaves, and the town given 
to the Plataeans. 

Scipio, the name of an illustrious patrician 
family of the Cornelia gens. This name, which 
signifies a stick or staff, is said to have been 
given to the founder of the family, because he 
served as a staff in directing his blind father. 
This family produced some of the greatest men 
in Rome, and to them she was more indebted 
than to any others for the empire of the world. 
The family tomb of the Scipios was discovered 
in 1780, on the left of the Appia Via, about four 
hundred paces within the modern Porta S. Se- 
bastiano. The inscriptions and other curiosi- 
ties are now deposited in the Museo Pio-Clem- 
entino at Rome. 1. P. Cornelius Scipio, ma- 
gister equitum B.C. 396, and consular tribune 
395 and 394.-2. L. Corn. Scipio, consul 350. 
— 3. P. Corn. Scipio Barbatus, consul 328, and 
dictator 306. He was also pontifex maximus. — 
4. L. Corn. Scipio Barbatus, consul 298, when 
he carried on war against the Etruscans, and de- 
feated them near Volaterra;. He also served 
under the consuls in 297, 295, and 293, against 
the Samnites. This Scipio was the great-grand- 
father of the conqueror of Hannibal. The gen- 
ealogy of the family can be traced with more 
certainty from this time. — 5. Cn. Corn. Scipio 
Asina, son of No. 4, was consul 260, in the first 
Punic war. In an attempt upon the Liparasan 
islands, he was taken prisoner with seventeen 
ships. He probably recovered his liberty when 
Regulus invaded Africa, for he was consul a sec- 
ond time in 254. In this year he and his col- 
league, A. Atilius Calatinus, crossed over into 
Sicily and took the town of Panormus. — 6. L. 
Corn. Scipio, also son of No. 4, was consul 259. 
He drove the Carthaginians out of Sardinia and 
Corsica, defeating Hanno, the Carthaginian 
commander. He was censor in 258. — 7. P. 
Corn. Scipio Asina, son of No. 5, was consul 
221, and carried on war, with his colleague M. 
Minucius Rufus, against the Istri, who were 
subdued by the consuls. He is mentioned again 
in 211, when he recommended that the senate 

785 



SC1PI0. 



SCIPIO. 



stiould recall all the generals and armies from 
Italy for the defence of the capital, because Han- 
nibal was marching upon the city. — 8. P. Corn. 
Scipio, son of No. 6, was consul, with Ti. Sem- 
pronius Longus, in 218, the first year of the sec- 
ond Punic war. He sailed with an army to 
Gaul, in order to encounter Hannibal before 
crossing the Alps ; but, finding that Hannibal 
had crossed the Rhone, and had got the start of 
him by a three days' march, he resolved to sail 
back to Italy and await Hannibal's arrival in 
Cisalpine Gaul. But as the Romans had an 
army of twenty-five thousand men in Cisalpine 
Gaul, under the command of two praetors, Scip- 
io sent into Spain the army which he had brought 
with him, under the command of his brother 
Cn. Scipio. On his return to Italy, Scipio took 
the command of the army in Cisalpine Gaul, 
and hastened to meet Hannibal. An engage- 
ment took place between the cavalry and light- 
armed troops of the two armies. The Romans 
were defeated ; the consul himself received a 
severe wound, and was only saved from death 
by the courage of his young son Publius, the 
future conqueror of Hannibal. Scipio now re- 
treated across the Ticinus, crossed the Po also, 
first took up his quarters at Placentia, and sub- 
sequently withdrew to the hills on the left bank 
of the Trebia, where he was joined by the oth- 
er consul, Sempronius Longus. The latter re- 
solved upon a battle, in opposition to the advice 
of his colleague. The result was the complete 
defeat of the Roman army, which was obliged 
to take refuge within the walls of Placentia. 
In the following year, 217, Scipio, whose impe- 
rium had been prolonged, crossed over into 
Spain. He and his brother Cneius continued in 
Spain till their death in 211 ; but the history of 
their campaigns, though important in their re- 
sults, is full of confusions and contradictions. 
They gained several victories over the enemy, 
and they felt themselves so strong by the be- 
ginning of 212, that they resolved to cross the 
Iberus, and to make a vigorous effort to drive 
the Carthaginians out of Spain. They accord- 
ingly divided their forces, but they were defeat- 
ed and slain in battle by the Carthaginians. — 9. 
Cn. Corn. Scipio Calvus, son of No. 6, and 
brother of No. 8, was consul 222, with M. Clau- 
dius Marcellus. In conjunction with his col- 
league, he carried on war against the Insu- 
brians. In 218 he carried on war as the legate 
of his brother Publius for eight years in Spain, 
as has been related above. — 10. P. Corn. Scipio 
Africanus Major, son of No. 8, was born in 234. 
He was unquestionably one of the greatest men 
of Rome, and he acquired at an early age the 
confidence and admiration of his countrymen. 
His enthusiastic mind led him to believe that 
he was a special favorite of the gods, and he 
never engaged in any public or private business 
without first going to the Capitol, where he sat 
some time alone, enjoying communication from 
the gods. For all he proposed or executed, he 
alleged the divine approval ; and the Roman 
people gave credit to his assertions, and re- 
garded him as a being almost superior to the 
common race of men. There can be no doubt 
that Scipio believed himself in the divine reve- 
lations, which he asserted to have been vouch- 
safed to him, and the extraordinary success 
786 



which attended all his enterprises must have 
deepened this belief. He is first mentioned in 
218 at the battle of the Ticinus, when he saved 
the life of his father* as has been already re- 
lated. He fought at Cannae two years after- 
ward (216), when he was already a tribune of 
the soldiers, and was one of the few Roman of- 
ficers who survived that fatal day. He was 
chosen, along with Appius Claudius, to com- 
mand the remains of the army, which had taken 
refuge at Canusium ; and it was owing to his 
youthful heroism and presence of mind that the 
Roman nobles, who had thought of leaving It- 
aly in despair, were prevented from carrying 
their rash project into effect. He had already 
gained the favor of the people to such an extent 
that he was elected aedile in 212, although he 
had not yet reached the legal age. In 210, after 
the death of his father and uncle in Spain, the 
Romans resolved to increase their army in that 
country, and to place it under the command of 
a proconsul. But when the people assembled 
to elect a proconsul, none of the generals of ex- 
perience ventured to sue for so dangerous a com- 
mand. At length Scipio, who was then barely 
twenty-four, offered himself as a candidate, and 
was chosen with enthusiasm to take the com- 
mand. His success in Spain was striking and 
rapid. In the first campaign (210) he took the 
important city of Carthago Nova, and in the 
course of the next three years he drove the 
Carthaginians entirely out of Spain, and became 
master of that country. He returned to Rome 
in 206, and was elected consul for the follow- 
ing year (205), although he had not yet filled 
the office of praetor, and was only thirty years 
of age. He was anxious to cross over at once 
to Africa, and bring the contest to an end at 
the gates of Carthage ; but the oldest members 
of the senate, and among them Q. Fabius Max- 
imus, opposed his project, partly through timid- 
ity and partly through jealousy of the youthful 
conqueror. All that Scipio could obtain was 
the province of Sicily, with permission to cross 
over to Africa ; but the senate refused him an 
army, thus making the permission of no prac- 
tical use. But the allies had a truer view of 
the interests of Italy than the Roman senate, 
and from all the towns of Italy volunteers flock- 
ed to join the standard of the youthful hero. 
The senate could not refuse to allow him to en- 
list volunteers ; and such was the enthusiasm 
in his favor, that he was able to cross over to 
Sicily with an army and a fleet contrary to the 
expectations and even the wishes of the sen- 
ate. After spending the winter in Sicily, and 
completing all his preparations for the invasion 
of Africa, he crossed over to the latter country 
in the course of the following year. Success 
again attended his arms. The Carthaginians 
and their ally Syphax were defeated with great 
slaughter, and the former were compelled to 
recall Hannibal from Italy as the only hope of 
saving their country. The long struggle be- 
tween the two nations was at length brought 
to a close by the battle fought near the city of 
Zama on the 19th of October, 202, in which 
Scipio gained a decisive and brilliant victory 
over Hannibal. Carthage had no alternative 
but submission ; but the final treaty was not 
concluded till the following year (201). Scipio 



SCIPIO. 

Teturned to Italy in 201, and entered Rome in 
triumph.- He was received with universal en- 
thusiasm, and the surname of Africanus was 
conferred upon him. The people wished to 
make him consul and dictator for life, and to 
erect his statue in the eomitia, the rostra, the j 
curia, and even in the Capitol, but he prudently 
declined all these invidious distinctions. As 
he did not choose to usurp the supreme power, 
and as he was an object of suspicion and dis- 
like to the majority of the senate, he took no 
prominent part in public affairs during the next 
few years. He was censor in 199 with P. 2E\i- 
us Paetus, and consul a second time in 194 with 
Ti. Sempronius Longus. In 193 he was one 
of the three commissioners who were sent to 
Africa to mediate between Masinissa and the 
Carthaginians ; and in the same year he was 
one of the ambassadors sent to Antiochus at 
Ephesus, at whose court Hannibal was then re- 
siding. The tale runs that he had there an in- 
terview with the great Carthaginian, who de- 
clared him the greatest general that ever lived. 
The compliment was paid in a manner the most 
flattering to Scipio. The latter had asked, 
" Who was the greatest general V " Alexan- 
der the Great," was Hannibal's reply. " Who 
was the second 1" " Pyrrhus." " Who the 
third!" "Myself," replied the Carthaginian. 
" What would you have said, then, if you had 
conquered mel" asked Scipio, in astonishment. 
"I should then have placed myself before Alex- 
ander, before Pyrrhus, and before all other gen- 
erals." In 190 Africanus served as legate un- 
der his brother Lucius in the war against An- 
tiochus the Great. Shortly after his return, he 
and his brother Lucius were accused of having 
received bribes from Antiochus to let the mon- 
arch off too leniently, and of having appropria- 
ted to their own use part of the money which 
had been paid by Antiochus to the Roman state. 
The details of the accusation are related with 
such discrepancies by the ancient authorities, 
that it is impossible to determine with certainty 
the true history of the affair, or the year in 
which it occurred. It appears, however, that 
there were two distinct prosecutions, and the 
following is perhaps the most probable history 
of the transaction. In 187, two tribunes of the 
people of the name of Petillii, instigated by Cato 
and the other enemies of the Scipios, required 
L. Scipio to render an account of all the sums 
of money which he had received from Antio- 
chus. L. Scipio accordingly prepared his ac- 
counts, but as he was in the act of delivering 
them up, the proud conqueror of Hannibal in- 
dignantly snatched them out of his hands and 
tore them up in pieces before the senate. But 
this haughty conduct appears to have produced 
an unfavorable impression, and his brother, 
when brought to trial in the course of the same 
year, was declared guilty, and sentenced to pay 
a heavy fine. The tribune C. Minucius Augu- 
rinus ordered him to be dragged to prison and 
there detained till the money was paid ; where- 
upon Africanus rescued his brother from the 
hands of the tribune's officer. The contest 
would probably have been attended with fatal 
results had not Tib. Gracchus, the father of the 
celebrated tribune, and then tribune himself, had 
the prudence to release Lucius from the sentence 



SCIPIO. 

of imprisonment. The successful issue of the 
prosecution of Lucius emboldened his enemies 
to bring the great Africanus himself before the 
people. His accuser was M. Naevius, the trib- 
une of the people, and the accusation was 
brought in 185. When the trial came on, and 
Africanus was summoned, he proudly remind 
ed the people that this was the anniversary 
of the day on which he had defeated Hannibal 
ut Zama, and called upon them to follow hirn 
to the Capitol, in order there to return thanks 
to the immortal gods, and to pray that they 
would grant the Roman state other citizens like 
himself. Scipio struck a chord which vibrated 
on every heart, and was followed by crowds to 
the Capitol. Having thus set all the laws at 
defiance, Scipio immediately quitted Rome, and 
retired to his country seat at Liternum. The 
tribunes wished to renew the prosecution, but 
Gracchus wisely persuaded them to let it drop. 
Scipio never returned to Rome. He passed his 
remaining days in the cultivation of his estate 
at Liternum ; and, at his death, is said to have 
requested that his body might be buried there, 
and not in his ungrateful country. The year 
of his death is equally uncertain, but he prob- 
ably died in 183. Scipio married .^Emilia, the 
daughter of L. JEmilius Paulus, who fell at the 
battle of Cannae, and by her he had four chil- 
dren, two sons (Nos. 12, 13) and two daugh- 
ters, the elder of whom married P. Scipio Nasica 
Corculum (No. 17), and the younger Tib. Grac- 
chus, and thus became the mother of the two 
celebrated tribunes. Vid. Cornelia. — 11. L. 
Corn. Scipio Asiaticus, also called Asiagenes 
or Asiagenus, was the son of No. 8, and the 
brother of the great Africanus. He served un- 
der his brother in Spain ; was praetor in 193, 
when he obtained the province of Sicily ; and 
consul in 190 with C. Laelius. The senate had 
not much confidence in his abilities, and it was 
only through the offer of his brother Africanus 
to accompany him as a legate that he obtained 
the province of Greece and the conduct of the 
war against Antiochus. He defeated Antio- 
chus at Mount Sipylus in 190, entered Rome in 
triumph in the following year, and assumed the 
surname of Asiaticus. The history of his accu 
sation and condemnation has been already re- 
lated in the life of his brother. He was a can- 
didate for the censorship in 184, but was de 
feated by the old enemy of his family, M. Por- 
cius Cato, who deprived Asiaticus of his horse 
at the review of the equites. It appears, there- 
fore, that even as late as this time an eques did 
not forfeit his horse by becoming a senator. — 
12. P. Corn. Scipio Africanus, elder son of the 
great Africanus, was prevented by his weak 
health from taking any part in public affairs. 
Cicero praises his oratiuncula? and his Greek 
history, and remarks that, with the greatness of 
his father's mind, he possessed a larger amount 
of learning. He had no son of his own, but 
adopted the son of L. ^Emilius Paulus {mi. be- 
low, No. 15). — 13. L. or Cn. Corn. Scipio Af- 
ricanus, younger son of the great Africanus. 
He accompanied his father into Asia in 190, and 
was taken prisoner by Antiochus. This Scipio 
was a degenerate son of an illustrious sire, and 
only obtained the praetorship in 174 through 
Cicereius, who had been a scriba of his father 

787 



SCIPIO. 



SCIPIO. 



sriving way to him. In the same year he was 
expelled from the senate by the censors. — 14. 
L. Corn. Scii'io Asiaticus, a descendant of No. 
11, belonged to the Marian party, and was con- 
sul 83 with C. Norbanus. In this year Sulla 
returned to Italy : Scipio was deserted by his 
troops, and taken prisoner in his camp along 
with his son Lucius, but was dismissed by Sulla 
uninjured. He was, however, included in the 
proscription in the following year (82), where- 
upon he fled to Massilia, and passed there the 
remainder of his life. His daughter was mar- 
ried to P. Sestius. — 15. P. Corn. Scipio ^Emili- 
anus Africanus Minor, was the younger son 
of L. ^Emilius Paulus, the conqueror of Mace- 
donia, and was adopted by P. Scipio (No. 12), 
the son of the conqueror of Hannibal. He was 
born about 185. In his seventeenth year he 
accompanied his father Paulus to Greece, and 
fought under him at the battle of Pydna, 168. 
Scipio devoted himself with ardor to the study 
of literature, and formed an intimate friendship 
with Polybius when the latter came to Rome 
along with the other Achaean hostages in 167. 
Vid. Polybius. At a later period he also cultiva- 
ted the acquaintance of the philosopher Panae- 
tius, and he likewise admitted the poets Lucilius 
and Terence to his intimacy, and is said to have 
assisted the latter in the composition of his com- 
edies. His friendship with Lselius, whose tastes 
and pursuits were so congenial to his own, has 
been immortalized by Cicero's celebrated treat- 
ise entitled " Lselius sive de Amicitia." Al- 
though thus devoted to the study of polite liter- 
ature, Scipio is said to have cultivated the vir- 
tues which distinguished the older Romans, and 
to have made Cato the model of his conduct. 
If we may believe his panegyrists, he possessed 
all the simple virtues of an old Roman, mellow- 
ed by the refining influences of Greek civiliza- 
tion. Scipio first served in Spain with great 
distinction as military tribune under the consul 
L. Lucullus in 151. On the breaking out of the 
third Punic war in 149, he accompanied the Ro- 
man army to Africa, again with the rank of 
military tribune. Here he gained still more re- 
nown. By his personal bravery and military 
skill he repaired, to a great extent, the mistakes 
of the consul Manilius, whose army on one oc- 
casion he saved from destruction. He returned 
to Rome in 148, and had already gained such 
popularity, that when he became a candidate for 
the aedileship for the following year (147), he 
was elected consul, although he was only thirty- 
seven, and had not, therefore, attained the legal 
age. The senate assigned to him Africa as his 
province, to which he forthwith sailed, accom- 
panied by his friends Polybius and Leelius. He 
prosecuted the siege of Carthage with the ut- 
most vigor. The Carthaginians defended them- 
selves with the courage of despair, and the Ro- 
mans were unable to force their way into the 
city till the spring of the following year (146). 
The inhabitants fought from street to street, 
and from house to house, and the work of de- 
struction and butchery went on for days. The 
fate of this once magnificent city moved Scipio 
to tears, and, anticipating that a similar catas- 
trophe might one day befall Rome, he repeated 
the lines of the Iliad (vi., 448-9), in which Hec- 
tor bewails the approaching fall of Troy. After 
788 



reducing Africa to the form of a Roman prov 
ince, Scipio returned to Rome in the same year, 
and celebrated a splendid triumph on account 
of his victory. The surname of Africanus, 
which he had inherited by adoption from the 
conqueror of Hannibal, had been now acquired 
by him by his own exploits. In 142 Scipio 
was censor, and in the administration of the 
duties of his office he attempted to repress the 
growing luxury and immorality of his contem- 
poraries. His efforts, however, were thwart- 
ed by his colleague Mummius, who had him- 
self acquired a love for Greek and Asiatic lux- 
uries. In 139 Scipio was accused by Ti. Clau- 
dius Asellus of majestas. Asellus attacked him 
out of private animosity, because he had been 
deprived of his horse, and reduced to the con- 
dition of an agrarian by Scipio in his censorship. 
Scipio was acquitted, and the speeches whicr. 
he delivered on the occasion obtained great 
celebrity, and were held in high esteem in a 
later age. It appears to have been after this 
event that Scipio was sent on an embassy to 
Egypt and Asia to attend to the Roman inter- 
ests in those countries. The long continuance 
of the war in Spain again called Scipio to the 
consulship. He was appointed consul in his 
absence, and had the province of Spain assigned 
to him in 134. His operations were attended 
with success ; and in 133 he brought the wat 
to a conclusion by the capture of the city of Nu- 
mantia after a long siege. He now received 
the surname of Numantinus in addition to that 
of Africanus. During his absence in Spain Ti- 
berius Gracchus had been put to death. Scipio 
was married to Sempronia, the sister of the 
fallen tribune, but he had no sympathy with his 
reforms, and no sorrow for his fate. Upon his 
return to Rome in 132, he did not disguise his 
sentiments, and when asked in the assembly of 
the tribes by C. Papirius Carbo, the tribune, 
what he thought of the death of Tiberius Grac- 
chus, he boldly replied that he was justly slain 
(jure casum). The people loudly expressed 
their disapprobation ; whereupon Scipio proudly 
bade them to be silent. He now took the lead 
in opposing the popular party, and endeavored 
to prevent the agrarian law of Tiberius Grac- 
chus from being carried into effect. In order 
to accomplish this object, he proposed in the 
senate (129) that all disputes respecting the 
lands of the allies should be taken out of the 
hands of the commissioners appointed under 
the law of Tiberius Gracchus, and should be 
committed to other persons. This would have 
been equivalent to an abrogation of the law ; 
and accordingly, Fulvius Flaccus, Papirius Car- 
bo, and C. Gracchus, the three commissioners, 
offered the most vehement opposition to his pro- 
posal. In the forum he was accused by Carbo 
with the bitterest invectives as the enemy of 
the people, and upon his again expressing his 
approval of the death of Tiberius Gracchus, the 
people shouted out, " Down with the tyrant.' 
In the evening he went home with the intention 
of composing a speech for the following day; 
but next day he was found dead in his room. 
The most contradictory rumors were circulated 
respecting his death, but it was generally be- 
lieved that he was murdered. Suspicion fell 
upon various persons ; his wife Sempronia and 



SCIPIO. 



SCIRONIA SAXA. 



ner mother Cornelia were suspected by some ; 
Carbo, Fulvius, and C. Gracchus by others. Of 
all these, Carbo was most generally believed to 
have been guilty, and is expressly mentioned 
as the murderer by Cicero. The general opin- 
ion entertained by the Romans of a subsequent 
age respecting Scipio is given by Cicero in his 
work on the Republic, in which Scipio is intro- 
duced as the principal speaker. — 16. P. Corn. 
Scipio Nasica, that is, " Scipio with the pointed 
nose," was the son of Cn. Scipio Calvus, who 
fell in Spain in 211. {Vid. No. 9). He is first 
mentioned in 204 as a young man who was 
judged by the senate to be the best citizen in the 
state, and was therefore sent to Ostia along with 
the Roman matrons to receive the statue of the 
Ida;an Mother, which had been brought from 
Pessinus. He was curule aedile 196 ; praetor 
in 194, when he fought with success in Further 
Spain; and consul 191, when he defeated the 
Boii, and triumphed over them on his return to 
Rome. Scipio Nasica was a celebrated jurist, 
and a house was given him by the state in the 
Via Sacra, in order that he might be more easily 
consulted. — 17. P. Corn. Scipio Nasica Cor- 
culum, son of No. 16, inherited from his father 
a love of jurisprudence, and became so cele- 
brated for his discernment and for his knowl- 
edge of the pontifical and civil law, that he re- 
ceived the surname of Carculum. He married 
a daughter of Scipio Africanus the elder. He 
was consul for the first time 162, but abdicated, 
together with his colleague, almost immediately 
after they had entered upon their office, on ac- 
count of some fault in the auspices. He was 
censor 159 with M. Popilius Lamas, and was 
consul a second time in 155, when he subdued 
the Dalmatians. He was a firm upholder of 
the old Roman habits and manners, and in his 
second consulship he induced the senate to order 
the demolition of a theatre, which was near 
completion, as injurious to public morals. When 
Cato repeatedly expressed his desire for the de- 
struction of Carthage, Scipio, on the other hand, 
declared that he wished for its preservation, 
since the existence of such a rival would prove 
a useful check upon the licentiousness of the 
multitude. He was elected pontifex maximus 
in 150. — 18. P. Corn. Scipio Nasica Serapio, 
son of No. 17, is chiefly known as the leader of 
the senate in the murder of Tiberius Gracchus. 
He was consul in 138, and in consequence of 
the severity with which he and his colleague 
conducted the levy of troops, they were thrown 
into prison by C. Curiatius, the tribune of the 
plebs. It was this Curiatius who gave Nasica 
the nickname of Serapio, from his resemblance 
to a person of low rank of this name ; but, though 
given him in derision, it afterward became his 
distinguishing surname. In 133, when the tribes 
met to re-elect Tiberius Gracchus to the tribu- 
nate, and the utmost confusion prevailed in the 
Forum, Nasica called upon the consuls to save 
the republic ; but as they refused to have re- 
course to violence, he exclaimed, " As the con- 
sul betrays the state, do you who wish to obey 
the laws follow me ;" and, so saying, he rushed 
forth from the temple of Fides, where the senate 
was sitting, followed by the greater number of 
the senators. The people gave way before 
them, and Gracchus was assassinated as he at- 



tempted to escape. In consequence of his con- 
duct on this occasion, Nasica became an object 
of such detestation to the people, that the senate 
found it advisable to send him on a pretended 
mission to Asia, although he was pontifex max- 
imus, and ought not, therefore, to ha,ve quitted 
Italy. He did not venture to return to Rome, 
and after wandering about from place to place, 
died soon afterward at Pergamum. — 19. P. 
Corn. Scipio Nasica, son of No. 18, was consul 
111, and died during his consulship. — 20. P. 
Corn. Scipio Nasica, son of No. 19, preetor 94, 
is mentioned by Cicero as one of the advocates 
of Sextus Roscius of Ameria. He married Li- 
cinia, the second daughter of L. Crassus, the 
orator. He had two sons, both of whom were 
adopted, one by his maternal grandfather L. 
Crassus in his testament, and is therefore called 
L. Licinius Crassus Scipio, and the other by 
Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius, consul 80, and i3 
therefore called Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scip- 
io. This Scipio became the father-in-law of 
Cn. Pompey the triumvir, and fell in Africa in 
46. His life is given under Metellus, No. 15. 
— 21. Cn. Corn. Scipio Hispallus, son of L. 
Scipio, who is only known as a brother of the 
two Scipios who fell in Spain. Hispallus was 
praetor 179, and consul 171. — 22. Cn. Corn. 
Scipio Hispallus, son of No. 21, was praetor 
139, when he published an edict that all Chal- 
daeans (i. c, astrologers) should leave Paime and 
Italy within ten days. 

[Sciradium (2/apaoW), a promontory of Sala- 
mis, on the north side of the island, with a tem- 
ple of Minerva (Athena) Sciras.] 

Sciras or Sclerias (S«t'paf, S/c/l^p/af), of Ta- 
rentum, was one of the followers of Rhinthon 
in that peculiar sort of comedy, or rather bur- 
lesque tragedy, which was cultivated by the Do- 
rians of Magna Graecia, and especially at Ta- 
rentum. Vid. Rhinthon. 

Sciras (Septic), a surname of Minerva (Athe- 
na), under which she had a temple in the Attic 
port of Phalerum, and in the island of Salamis. 
The foundation of the temple at Phalerum is 
ascribed by Pausanias to a soothsayer, Scirus 
of Dodona, who is said to have come to Attica 
at the time when the Eleusinians were at war 
with Erechtheus. 

Sciritis (2/upmc), a wild and mountainous 
district in the north of Laconia, on the borders 
of Arcadia, with a town called Scirus (Sfapoc), 
which originally belonged to Arcadia. Its in- 
habitants, the Scirit^e (2/aptraO, formed a spe- 
cial division of the Lacedaemonian army. This 
body, which, in the time of the Peloponnesian 
war, was six hundred in number, was stationed 
in battle at the extreme left of the line, formed 
on march the vanguard, and was usually em- 
ployed on the most dangerous kinds of service. 

Sciron (Zupuv or ZKeipuv), a famous robber 
who infested the frontier between Attica and 
Megaris. He not only robbed the travellers 
who passed through the country, but compelled 
them, on the Scironian rock, to wash his feet, 
and kicked them into the sea while they were 
thus employed. At the foot of the rock there 
was a tortoise which devoured the bodies of 
the robber's victims. He was slain by Theseus. 

ScironIa Saxa (Z/upuviSeg nerpai, also 2/ct 
pdcSef : now Dervcni Bouno), large rocks on the 

789 



SCIRRI. 



SCORDTSCI. 



eastern coast of Megaris, between which and 
the sea there was only a narrow dangerous pass, 
failed the Scironian road ({] 'Ztipuvrj or Impuvic 
riiStlf : now Kaki Skala). This road was after- 
ward enlarged by the Emperor Hadrian. The 
name of the rocks was derived from the cele- 
brated robber Sciron. 

Scirri orSciRi, a people in European Sarma- 
tia, on the northern coast, immediately east of 
the Vistula, in the modern Curland and Samo- 
gitien. The Sciri afterward joined the Huns; 
and to this people belonged Odoacer, the con- 
queror of Italy. 

Scirtonium (SmpTuvioi'), a town in the south 
of Arcadia, belonging to the district iEgytis, the 
inhabitants of which removed to Megalopolis 
upon the foundation of the latter. 

Scirtus (Ssiprof : now Jillab), a river in Mes- 
opotamia, flowing past Edessa into a small lake 
near Charrae. Its name, which signifies leap- 
ing, was derived from its rapid descent in a se- 
ries of small cascades. 

[Scirus (Hidpoc, ('))• 1. A soothsayer of Do- 
dona. Vid. Sciras. — 2. CZulpog, ^), a town of 
Laconia. Vid. Sciritis. — 3. (2,Kipoc, 6), a brook 
near Scirum, which traversed the sacred road 
northwest of Athens, and watered the gardens 
north of Dipylon.] 

Sclerias. Vid. Sciras. 

Scodra (Scodrensis : now Scodar or Scutari), 
one of the most important towns in Illyrieum, 
on the left bank of the River Barbana, at the 
southeastern corner of the Lacus Labeatis, and 
about seventeen miles from the coast. It was 
strongly fortified, and was the residence of the 
Illyrian king Gentius. It subsequently contain- 
ed many Roman inhabitants. 

Scodrus. Vid. Scakdus. 

SCCEDISES, ScYDISSES, Or ScORDISCUS (2/C0£- 

diarjc, S/cutSiciT^f, ?.KopdioKoc: now Dassim Dagh, 
or Chambu-Bcl Dagh), a mountain in the north- 
east of Asia Minor, dividing Pontus Cappado- 
cius from Armenia Minor, and forming a part 
of the same range as Mount Paryades. 

Scoli.is (2/cd/l/lif : now Sandameri), a rocky 
mountain between Elis and Achaia, three thou- 
sand three hundred and thirty-three feet high, 
which joins on the east the mountain Lampea. 

Scoloti {"ZkoIotol), the native name of the 
Scythians, according to Herodotus, is in all prob- 
ability the Greek form of Slave-nie or Slove-nie, 
ihe generic name of the Slavonian race. Vid. 
Scythia. The later Greek writers call them 

Scolus (2/cc3Aof : S/cuAiOf, Xnufaevc-). l.An 
ancient town in Bceotia, on the road from 
Thebes to Aphidnae in Attica, was situated on 
the northern slope of Mount Cithaeron, and forty 
stadia south of the River Asopus. — 2. A small 
place in Macedonia, near Olynthus. 

Scombraria (now Islole), an island in front of 
the bay, on the southeast coast of Spain, which 
formed the harbor of Carthago Nova. It re- 
ceived its name from the scombri or mackerel 
taken off its coast, from which the Romans pre- 
pared their garum. 

Scomius Mons (to Hko/uov opoc), a mountain 
in Macedonia, which runs east of Mount Scar- 
dus, in the direction of north to south toward 
Mount Haemus. 

Scopas (Znonac). 1. An ^Etolian, who held 
790 



a leading position among his countrymen at the 
period of the outbreak of the war with Philip 
and the Achaeans, B.C. 220. He commanded 
the JEtolian army in the first year of the war; 
and he is mentioned again as general of the 
^Etolians, when the latter people concluded an 
alliance with the Romans to assist them against 
Philip (211) After the close of the war with 
Philip, Scopas and Dorimachus were appointed 
to reform the^Etolian constitution (204) Sco- 
pas had only undertaken the charge from mo- 
tives of personal ambition ; on finding himself 
disappointed in this object, he withdrew to 
Alexandrea. Here he was received with the 
utmost favor by the ministers of the young 
king, Ptolemy V., and appointed to the chief 
command of the army against Antiochus the 
Great. At first he was successful, but was aft- 
erward defeated by Antiochus at Panium, and 
reduced to shut himself up within the walls of 
Sidon, where he was ultimately compelled by 
famine to surrender. Notwithstanding this ill 
success, he continued in high favor at the Egyp- 
tian court ; but, having formed a plot in 196 to 
obtain by force the chief administration of the 
kingdom, he was arrested and put to death. — 
2. A distinguished sculptor, was a native of 
Paros, and appears to have belonged to a fam- 
ily of artists in that island. He flourished from 
B.C. 395 to 350. He was probably somewhat 
older than Praxiteles, with whom he stands at 
the head of that second period of perfected art 
which is called the later Attic school (in con- 
tradistinction to the earlier Attic school of 
Phidias), and which arose at Athens after the 
Peloponnesian war. Scopas was an architect 
and a statuary as well as a sculptor. He was 
the architect of the temple of Minerva (Athe- 
na) Alea at Tegea, in Arcadia, which was com- 
menced soon after B.C. 394. He was one of 
the artists employed in executing the bas-re- 
liefs which decorated the frieze of the Mauso- 
leum at Halicarnassus in Caria. A portion of 
these bas-reliefs is now deposited in the Brit- 
ish Museum. Among the single statues and 
groups of Scopas, the best known in modern 
times is his group of figures representing the 
destruction of the sons and daughters of Niobe. 
In Pliny's time the statues stood in the temple 
of Apollo Sosianus. The remaining statues of 
this group, or copies of them, are all in the 
Florence Gallery, with the exception of the so- 
called Ilioneus at Munich, which some suppose 
to have belonged to the group. There is a head 
of Niobe in the collection of Lord Yarborough 
which has some claim to be considered as the 
original. But the most esteemed of all the 
works of Scopas, in antiquity, was his group 
which stood in the shrine of Cn. Domitius in 
the Flaminian circus, representing Achilles con- 
ducted to the island of Leuce by the divinities 
of the sea. It consisted of figures of Neptune 
(Poseidon), Thetis, and Achilles, surrounded by 
Nereids, and attended by Tritons, and by an as- 
semblage of sea monsters. 

Scopas (2k6voc : now Aladan), a river of Ga- 
latia, falling into the Sangarius, from the east," 
at Juliopolis. 

Scordisci, a people in Pannonia Superior, 
are sometimes classed among the Illyrians, but 
were the remains of an ancient and powerful 



SCORDISCUS. 



SCYLLA. 



(.-fclttc trrae. T'iey dwelt between the Savus 
and Dravus. 

Scordiscus. Vid. Sccedises. 

Scotz, a pei>f«; mentioned, together with the 
Picti, by the later Roman writers as one of the 
chief tribes of the ancient Caledonians. They 
dwelt in the south of Scotland and in Ireland ; 
and from them the former country has derived 
its name. 

Scotitas (S-KOTLTa^), a woody district in the 
north of Laconia, on the frontiers of Tegea- 
tis. 

Scotussa {'Zk.otovogo. : Snorovaoaioi;), a very 
ancient town of Thessaly, in the district Pelas- 
giotis, near the source of the Onchestus, and not 
far from the hills Cynoscephalae, where Flami- 
ninus gained his celebrated victory over Philip, 
B.C. 197. 

Scribonia, wife of Octavianus, afterward the 
Emperor Augustus, had been married twice be- 
fore. By one of her former husbands, P. Scip- 
io, she had two children, P. Scipio, who was 
consul B.C. 16, and a daughter, Cornelia, who 
was married to Paulus iEmilius, censor B.C. 
22. Scribonia was the sister of L. Scribonius 
Libo, who was the father-in-law of Sextus Pom- 
pey. Augustus married her in 40, on the ad- 
vice of Maecenas, because he was then afraid 
that Sextus Pompey would form an alliance 
with Antony to crush him ; but, having re- 
newed his alliance with Antony, Octavianus 
divorced her, in order to marry Livia, in the 
following year (39), on the very day on which 
she had borne him a daughter, Julia. Scribonia 
long survived her separation from Octavianus. 
In A.D. 2 she accompanied, of her own accord, 
her daughter Julia into exile, to the island of 
Pandataria. 

Scribonius Curio. Vid. Curio. 

Sribonius Largus. Vid. Largus. 

Scribonius Libo. Vid. Libo. 

Scribonius Proculus. Vid. Proculus. 

Scultenna (now Panaro), a river in Gallia 
Cispadana, rising in the Apennines, and flow- 
ing to the east of Mutina into the Po. 

Soupi (now Uskub), a town in Moesia Supe- 
rior, on the Axius, and the capital of Dardania. 
It was the residence of the Archbishop of Illyr- 
icum, and in the Middle Ages of the Servian 
kings. 

Scydisses. Vid. Sccedises. 

Scylace (jLicvMarj), or Scylacei'on, an an- 
cient city on the coast of Mysia Minor, at the 
foot of Mount Olympus, said to have been found- 
ed by the Pelasgians. 

ScYLACIUM, also ScYLACEUM Or ScYLLETIUM 

(2,KV?idiuov, S/cuAafCfiov, "ZKvTiTirjTLOv : now Squil- 
lace), a Greek town on the eastern coast of 
Bruttium, was situated on two adjoining hills 
at a short distance from the coast, between the 
livers Caacinus and Carcines. It is said to have 
been founded by the Athenians. It belonged 
to the territory of Croton, but was subsequently 
given by the elder Dionysius to the Locrians, 
and came eventually into the possession of the 
Romans. It had no harbor, whence Virgil {Mn., 
iii., 553) speaks of it as navifragum Scylaceum. 
From this town the Scylacius or Scylleticus 
Sinus (S/cti/U^rtKoc Kd?iiroc) derived its name. 
The isthmus which separated this bay from the 
Sinus Hipponiates, on the western coast of 



Bruttium was only twenty miles broad, and 
formed the ancient boundary of CEnotria. 

Scylax (S/ctUaf). 1. Of Caryanda in Caria, 
was sent by Darius Hystaspis on a voyage of 
discovery down the Indus. Setting out from 
the city of Caspatyrus and the Pactyican dis- 
trict, Scylax reached the sea, and then sailed 
west through the Indian Ocean to the Red Sea, 
performing the whole voyage in thirty months. 
— 2. Of Halicarnassus, a friend of Panaetius, 
distinguished for his knowledge of the stars, 
and for his political influence in his own state. 
There is still extant a Pcriplus, containing a 
brief description of certain countries in Europe, 
Asia, and Africa, and bearing the name of Scy- 
lax of Caryanda. This work has been ascribed 
by some writers to the Scylax mentioned by 
Herodotus, and by others to the, contemporary 
of Panaetius and Polybius ; but most modern 
scholars suppose the writer to have lived in the 
first half of the reign of Philip, the father of 
Alexander the Great, about B.C. 350. It is 
clear from internal evidence that the Periplus 
must have been composed after the time of He- 
rodotus ; while, from its omitting to mention any 
of the cities founded by Alexander, such as Al- 
exandra in Egypt, we may conclude that it 
was drawn up before the reign of Alexander. 
It is probable that the author prefixed to his 
work the name of Scylax of Caryanda on ac- 
count of the celebrity of this navigator. This 
Periplus is printed by Hudson, in his Geographi 
GrcBci Minores, and by Klausen, attached to his 
fragments of Hecataeus, Berlin, 1831. 

Scylax (S/cw/Wf : now Choterlek-IrmaJc), a riv- 
er in the southwest of Pontus, falling into the 
Iris, between Amasia and Gaziura. 

Scylitzes or Scylitza, Joannes, a Byzantine 
historian, surnamed, from his office, Curopa- 
lates, flourished A.D. 1081. His work extends 
from the death of Nicephorus I. (811) down to 
the reign of Nicephorus Botaniotes (1078-1081). 
The portion of the history of Cedrenus, which 
extends from the death of Nicephorus I. (811) 
to the close of the work (1057), is found almost 
verbatim in the history of Scylitzes. Hence it 
has been supposed that Scylitzes copied from 
Cedrenus, and consequently the entire work of 
Scylitzes has not been published separately, 
but only the part extending from 1057 to 1080, 
which has been printed as an appendix to Cedre- 
nus. Vid. Cedrenus. It is now, however, gen- 
erally admitted that Cedrenus copied from Scy- 
litzes. 

Scylla {lnvTila) and Charybdis, the names 
of two rocks between Italy and Sicily, and only 
a short distance from one another. In the one 
of these rocks which was nearest to Italy, there 
was a cave, in which dwelt Scylla, a daughter 
of Crataeis, a fearful monster, barking like a dog, 
with twelve feet, and six long necks and heads, 
each of which contained three rows of sharp 
teeth. The opposite rock, which was much 
lower, contained an immense fig-tree, under 
which dwelt Charybdis, who thrice every day 
swallowed down the waters of the sea, and 
thrice threw them up again : both were formi- 
dable to the ships which had to pass between 
them. This is the Homeric account. Later 
traditions give different accounts of Scylla's 
parentage. Some describe her as a monster 

79J 



SCYLLA. 



SCYTHIA. 



with six heads of different animals, or with only 
three heads. One tradition relates that Seylla 
was originally a beautiful maiden, who often 
played with the nymphs of the sea, and was be- 
loved by the marine god Glaucus. The latter 
applied to Circe for means to make Seylla re- 
turn his love ; but Circe, jealous of the fair 
maiden, threw magic herbs into the well in 
which Seylla was wont to bathe, by means of 
which the lower part of her body was changed 
into the tail of a fish or serpent, surrounded by 
dogs, while the upper part remained that of a 
woman. Another tradition related that Seylla 
was beloved by Neptune (Poseidon), and that 
Amphitrite, from jealousy, metamorphosed her 
into a monster. Hercules is said to have killed 
her because she stole some of the oxen of Ge- 
ryon ; but Phorcys is said to have restored her 
to life. Virgil (JEn., vi., 286) speaks of several 
Seylla?, and places them in the lower world. 
Charybdis is described as a daughter of Nep- 
tune (Poseidon) and Terra (Gaea), and a vora- 
cious woman, who stole oxen from Hercules, 
and was hurled by the thunderbolt of Jupiter 
(Zeus) into the sea. 

Scylla, daughter of King Nisus of Megara, 
who fell in love with Minos. For details, vid. 
Nisus and Minos. 

Scyll^eum (I.icvTi'Xaiov). 1. (Now Scigiio), a 
promontory on the coast of Bruttium, at the 
northern entrance to the Sicilian Straits, where 
the monster Seylla was supposed to live. Vid. 
Scylla. — 2. (Now Scilla or Scigiio), a town 
in Bruttium, on the above-named promontory. 
There are still remains of the ancient citadel. 
— 3. A promontory in Argolis, on the coast of 
Trcezen, forming, with the promontory of Su- 
nium in Attica, the entrance to the Saronic 
Gulf. It is said to have derived its name from 
Scylla, the daughter of Nisus. Vid. Nisus. 

Scylleticus Sinus. Vid. Scylacium. 

ScYLLETIUM. Vid. ScYLACIUM. 

[Scyllias or Scyllis (XkvIaitjc (Ion.), Hdt. ; 
IkvIaic, Paus.), a celebrated diver of Scione in 
Macedonia. When the Persian fleet of Xerxes 
was wrecked off Mount Pelion and the Prom- 
ontory of Sepias, much treasure was sunk with 
the vessels that were overtaken by the storm ; 
Scyllias recovered much of this treasure for the 
Persians, and also obtained considerable for him- 
self. Wishing to escape from the Persians, he 
is said to have swum under water from Aphe- 
tae to Artemisium, where the Greek fleet lay, a 
distance of eighty stadia (nearly ten miles), and 
to have communicated to the Greeks the plans 
of the Persians. This is the account of He- 
rodotus, who, in relating the story, ranks the 
latter part among the ipevSeai cinema irepl rov 
avdpdc tovtov. Pausanias relates that Scyllis 
(as he calls him) had his daughter Cyana (al. 
Hydna) taught swimming, and that they two, 
on occasion of the storm off Pelion, dove under 
water and tore up the anchors of the Persian 
fleet, thereby causing much loss to the Per- 
sians : for this exploit, the Amphictyons conse- 
crated at Delphi statues of Scyllis and his daugh- 
ter. The statue of Cyana (Hydna) was among 
those that were carried from Delphi to Rome 
by Nero.] 

Scyllis. Vid. Dipcenus. 
Scymnus (Sku^voc), of Chios, wrote a I'crie- 
792 



gesis, or description of the earth, which is re- 
ferred to by later writers. This work was i«i 
prose, and consequently different from the Pe- 
riegesis in Iambic metre which has come down 
to us, and which many modern writers have er- 
roneously ascribed to Seymn-js of Chios. The 
poem is dedicated to Nicomedes HI., king of 
Bithynia, who died B.C. 74 ; but this is quite 
uncertain. The best edition of the poem is by 
Meineke, Berlin, 1846. 

[Scyras CLKvpac : now River of Dhikova), a 
river in the southwest of Laconia, which rises 
in Mount Taygetus, flows in an easterly direc- 
tion, and empties into the Laconicus Sinus 
south of Gytheum.] 

Scyros (2/cupoc : 'SKvptoc: now Scyro), an isl- 
and in the ^Egean Sea, east of Eubcea, and one 
of the Sporades. It contained a town of the 
same name, and a river called Cephisus. Its 
ancient inhabitants are said to have been Pe- 
lasgians, Carians, and Dolopians. The island 
is frequently mentioned in the stories of the 
mythical period. Here Thetis concealed her 
son Achilles in woman's attire among the daugh- 
ters of Lycomedes, in order to save him from 
the fate which awaited him under the walls of 
Troy. It was here, also, that Pyrrhus, the son 
of Achilles by Deidamia, was brought up, and 
it was from this island that Ulysses fetched him 
to the Trojan war. According to another tra- 
dition, the island was conquered by Achilles, in 
order to revenge the death of Theseus, who is 
said to have been treacherously destroyed in 
Scyros by Lycomedes. The bones of Theseus 
were discovered by Cimon in Scyros, after his 
conquest of the island in B.C. 476, and were 
conveyed to Athens, where they were preserv- 
ed in the Theseum. From this time Scyros 
continued subject to Athens till the period of 
the Macedonian supremacy ; but the Romans 
compelled the last Philip to restore it to Ath- 
ens in 196. The soil of Scyros was unpro- 
ductive ; but it was celebrated for its breed 
of goats, and for its quarries of variegated 
marble. 

ScYTHIA (fj 'Z/CvdlKTl, 7j ~Zkv6lO., Ion. 2,Kv6il], 7) 

tuv 'ZavBiuv x^PVi Herod. : ^nvdrjc. Scythes, 
Sc} r tha, pi. Ixvdai, Scythse ; fem. 2/a'0('c, Scythis, 
Scythissa), a name applied to very different 
countries at different times. The Scythia of 
Herodotus comprises, to speak generally, the 
southeastern parts of Europe, between the Car- 
pathian Mountains and the River Tanais (now 
Don). The Greeks became acquainted with 
this country through their settlements on the 
Euxine ; and Herodotus, who had himself vis- 
ited the coasts of the Euxine, collected all the 
information he could obtain about the Scythians 
and their country, and embodied the results in 
a most interesting digression, which forms the 
first part of his fourth book. The details, for 
which there is not room in this article, must be 
read in Herodotus. He describes the country 
as a square of four thousand stadia (four hund- 
red geographical miles) each way, the western 
boundary being the Ister (now Danube) and the 
mountains of the Agathyrsi ; the southern, the 
shores of the Euxine and Palus Mseotis, from 
the mouth of the Ister to that of the Tanais, 
this side being divided into two equal parts, of 
two thousand stadia each, by the mouth of the 



I 



SCYTHIA. 



SCYTHOTAURI. 



Borysthcnes (now Dnieper) ; the eastern bound- 
ary was the Tanai's, and on the north Scythia 
was divided by deserts from the Melanchlaeni, 
Androphagi, and Budini. It corresponded to 
the southern part of Russia in Europe. The 
people who inhabited this region were called by 
the Greeks Ztivdai, a word of doubtful origin, 
which first occurs in Hesiod ; but, in their own 
language, 2k62,otoc, i.e., Slavonians. They were 
believed by Herodotus to Be of Asiatic origin ; 
and his account of them, taken in connection 
with the description given by Hippocrates of 
their physcial peculiarities, leaves no doubt that 
they were a part of the great Mongol race, who 
have wandered, from unknown antiquity, over 
the steppes of Central Asia. Herodotus says 
further that they were driven out of their abodes 
in Asia, north of the Araxes, by the Massage- 
ta? ; and that, migrating into Europe, they drove 
out the Cimmerians. If this account be true, 
it can hardly but have some connection with the 
irruption of the Cimmerians into Asia Minor, in 
the reign of the Lydian king Ardys, about B.C. 
640. The Scythians were a nomad people, that 
is, shepherds or herdsmen, who had no fixed 
habitations, but roamed over a vast tract of 
country at their pleasure, and according to the 
wants of their cattle. They lived in a kind of 
covered wagons, which iEsehylus describes as 
"lofty houses of wicker-work, on well-wheeled 
chariots." They kept large troops of horses, 
and were most expert in cavalry exercises and 
archery ; and hence, as the Persian king Da- 
ru;s found, when he invaded their country (B.C. 
507), it was almost impossible for an invading 
army to act against them. They simply re- 
treated, wagons and all, before the enemy, har- 
assing him with their light cavalry, and leaving 
famine and exposure, in their bare steppes, to 
do the rest. Like all the Mongol race, they 
were divided into several hordes, the chief of 
whom were called the Royal Scythians ; and to 
these all the rest owned some degree of alle- 
giance. Their government was a sort of pa- 
triarchal monarchy or chieftainship. An im- 
portant modification of their habits had, how- 
ever, taken place, to a certain extent, before 
Herodotus described them. The fertility of the 
plains on the north of the Euxine, and the in- 
fluence of the Greek settlements at the mouth 
of the Borysthenes and along the coast, had led 
the inhabitants of this part of Scythia to settle 
down as cultivators of the soil, and had brought 
them into commercial and other relations with 
the Greeks. Accordingly, Herodotus mentions 
two classes or hordes of Scythians who had 
thus abandoned their nomad life ; first, on the 
west of the Borysthenes, two tribes of Hellen- 
ized Scythians, called Callipidae and Alazones ; 
then, beyond these, " the Scythians who are 
ploughers {licvOai apart/peg), who do not grow 
their corn for food, but for sale;" these dwelt 
about the River Hypanis (now Boug), in the re- 
gion now called the Ukraine, which is still, as 
it was to the Greeks, a great corn-exporting 
country. Again, on the east of the Borysthenes 
were '-the ecyttiians who are nusoanainen- 
(Sicvdai yeupyoi), i. e., who grew corn for their 
own consumption : these were called Borys- 
thenitee by the Greeks ; their country extended 
three days' journey 5ast of the Borysthenes to 



the River Panticapes. Beyond these, to the 
east, dwelt " the nomad Scythians (voftathc. 2kv 
Oat), who neither sow nor plough at all." He- 
rodotus expressly states that the trihes east of 
the Borysthenes were not Scythian. Of the his. 
tory of these Scythian tribes there is little to 
state, beyond the tradition already mentioned, 
that they migrated from Asia and expelled the 
Cimmerians; their invasion of Media, in the 
reign of Cyaxares, when they held the suprem- 
acy of Western Asia for twenty-eight years 
and the disastrous expedition of Darius into 
their countiy. In later times they were gradu 
ally overpowered by the neighboring people, es 
pecially the Sarmatians, who gave their name 
to the whole country. Vid. Sarmatia. Mean- 
while, the conquests of Alexander and his suc- 
cessors in Central Asia had made the Greeks 
acquainted with tribes beyond the Oxus and 
the Jaxartes, who resembled the Scythians, and 
belonged, in fact, to the same great Mongo' 
race, and to whom, accordingly, the same name 
was applied. Hence, in writers of the time ot 
the Roman empire, the name of Scythia denotes, 
the whole of Northern Asia, from the River Rha 
(now Volga) on the west, which divided it from 
Asiatic Sarmatia, to Serica on the east, ex 
tending to India on the south. It was divided 
by Mount Imaus into two parts, called respect- 
ively Scythia intra Imaum, i. e., on the north- 
western side of the range, and Scythia extra 
Imaum, on its southeastern side. Of the peo- 
ple of this region nothing was known except 
some names ; but the absence of knowledge 
was supplied by some marvellous and not unin- 
teresting fables. 

Scythini {^KvOivoi), a people on the western 
border of Armenia, through whose country the 
Greeks under Xenophon marched four days' 
journey. Their territory was bounded on the 
east by the River Harpasus, and on the west by 
the River Apsarus. 

Scythinus (Xnvdivog), of Teos, an iambic 
poet, turned into verse the great work of the 
philosopher Heraclitus, of which a considerable 
fragment is preserved by Stobaeus. 

Scythopolis CZicvdoiroXic : in the Old Test- 
ament, Bethshean : ruins at Beisan), an im- 
portant city of Palestine, in the southeast of 
Galilee, according to the usual division, bul 
sometimes also reckoned to Samaria, some- 
times to Decapolis, and sometimes to Coele 
syria. It stood on a hill in the Jordan valley, 
west of the river, and near one of its fords. Its 
site was fertilized by numerous springs ; and to 
this advantage, as well as to its being the centrf 
of several roads, it owed its great prosperity 
and its importance in the history of Palestine 
It is often mentioned in Old Testament his 
tory, in the time of the Maccabees, and undei 
the Romans. It had a mixed population of Ca 
naanites, Philistines, and Assyrian settlers; Jo 
sephus adds Scythians, but this is perhaps ar, 
error, founded on a false etymology of the name 
Under the later Roman empire it became the 
seat of the Archbishop of Palasstina Secunda. 
ana it continued a flourishing city to the time 
of the first Crusade. 

Scythotauri, Tauri Scythe, or Tauro- 
scYTHffi, a people of Sarmatia Europaea, just 
without the Chersonesus Taurica, between the 

70S 



SEBASTE. 

rivers Carcinites and Hypanis, as far as the 
tongue of land called Dromos Achilleos. 

Sebaste {~Zt6aaTTi = Augusta : 2e6aa~rjv6c). 1. 
(Now ruins at Ayash), a city on the coast of 
Cilicia Aspera, built for a residence by Arche- 
laus, king of Cappadocia, to whom the Romans 
had granted the sovereignty of Cilicia, and 
named in honor of Augustus. It stood west of 
the River Lamus, on a small island called Ele- 
ousa, the name of which appears to have been 
afterward transferred to the city. — 2. (Now Se- 
gikler), a city of Phrygia, northwest of Eume- 
nia. — 3. Vid. Cabira. This city was also call- 
ed Ss&zorfia. — 4. Vid. Samaria. 

Sebastopolis (Ze6<igt6-xo'Xl<; : now Tarkhal), a 
city of Pontus, on the Iris, southeast of Ama- 
sia, by some identified with Gaziura. There 
were some other places of the name, which do 
not require particular notice. 

Sebennytus CZe6hvv~og, rj ~2e6evvvTiKri tto- 
%i<; : now ruins at Scmennout), a considerable 
city of Lower Egypt, in the Delta, on the west- 
ern side of the branch of the Nile called after it 
the Sebennytic Mouth, just at the fork made by 
this and the Phatnitic Mouth, and south of Busi- 
ris. It was the. capital of the Nomos Sebenny- 
tes or Sebennyticus. 

Sebethus (now Maddalcna), a small river in 
Campania, flowing round Vesuvius, and falling 
into the Sinus Puteolanus at the eastern side 
of Neapolis. 

Sebinus Lacus (now Lago Seo or Iseo), a lake 
in Gallia Cisalpina, formed by the River Ollius 
between the lakes Larius and Benacus. 

[Sebosus, Statius, a writer on geography, 
cited by Pliny. He is, perhaps, the same as Se- 
bosus, the friend of Catulus.] 

Secundus, PomponIus. 1. A distinguished 
poet in the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and 
Claudius. He was one of the friends of Seja- 
nus, and on the fall of that minister in A.D. 31, 
was thrown into prison, where he remained till 
the accession of Caligula in 37, by whom he 
was released. He was consul in 41, and in the 
reign of Claudius commanded in Germany, when 
he defeated the Chatti. Secundus was an in- 
timate friend of the elder Pliny, who wrote his 
life in two books. His tragedies were the most 
celebrated of his literary compositions. — [2. Ju- 
lius, a Roman orator, and a friend of Quintil- 
ian, is one of the speakers in the Dialogus it 
Oratoribus, usually ascribed to Tacitus.] 

SedetIni. Vid. Edetani. 

Sedigitus, Volcatius, from whose work De 
Poctis A. Gellius (xv., 24) has preserved thir- 
teen iambic seEarians, in which the principal 
Latin comic dramatists are enumerated in the 
order of merit. In this "Canon," as it has 
been termed, the first place is assigned to Cse- 
cilius Statius, the second to Plautus, the third 
to Naevius, the fourth to Licinius, the fifth to 
Attilius, the sixth to Terentius, the seventh to 
Turpilius, the eighth to Trabea, the ninth to 
Luscius, the tenth, " causa antiquitalis," to En- 
nius. 

Sedulius, Cojlios, of Seville, a Christian po- 
et, flourished about A.D. 450. Of his personal 
history we know nothing. His works are : 1. 
Paschale Carmen s. Mirabilium Divinorum Libri 
V., in heroic measure. 2. Veleris et Novi Tes- 
iamenti Collatio, a sort of hymn containing a 
794 



SEGNI. 

collection of texts from the Old and New Te* 1 
taments, arranged in such a manner as to en- 
able the reader to compare the two dispensa- 
tions. 3. Hymnus de Chrislo, an account of the 
life and miracles of Christ. 4. De Verbi Incar- 
natione, a Cento Virgilianus. The best editions 
are by Cellarius, Hal., 1704 and 1739 ; by Arnt- 
zenius, Leovard., 1761 ; and by Arevalus, Rom., 
1794. 

Seduni, an Alpine people in Gallia Belgiea, 
east of the Lake of Geneva, in the valley of the 
Rhone, in the modern Vallais. Their chief 
town was called Civitas Sedunorum, the modern 

Sion. 

Sedusii, a German people, forming part of the 
army of Ariovistus when he invaded Gaul, B.C i 
58. They are not mentioned at a later period, ; 
and consequently their site can not be determ ! 
ined. 

[Segallauni or Segovellauni, a people of 
Gallia Naxbonensis, between the Vocontii and 
Allobroges, to whom Ptolemy assigns the city 
Valentia.] 

Segesama or SEGisAiio(Segisamonensis : now 
Sasamo), a town of the Murbogi or Turmodigi 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from 
Tarraco to Asturica. 

Segesta (Segestanus : ruins near Alcamo) 
the later Roman form of the town, called by the 
Greeks Egesta or ^Egesta CE-ysara, Alyeara, I 
in Virg. Acesta : 'Eyea-aloc, Alyecravoc, Aces- 
tasus), situated in the northwest of Sicily, neai 
the coast, between Panormus and Drepanum 
It is said to have been founded by the Trojans 
on two small rivers, to which they gave the | 
names of Simois and Scamander ; hence the 
Romans made it a colony of iEneas. One tra- 
dition, indeed, ascribed to it a Greek origin ; bul 
in later times it was never regarded as a Greek I 
city. Its inhabitants were constantly engaged 
in hostilities with Selinus ; and it was at theii 
solicitation that the Athenians were led to em- 
bark in their unfortunate expedition against Si- 
cily. The town was taken by Agathocles, who 
I destroyed or sold as slaves all its inhabitants, i 
I peopled the city with a body of deserters, and j 
changed its name into that of Dicreopolis : bul i 
after the death of this tyrant, the remains of 
the ancient inhabitants returned to the city and I 
resumed their former name. In the neighbor- j 
hood of the city, on the road to Drepanum, were 
celebrated mineral springs, called Aqua Segcs- 
iana or Aqua. Pinlianaz. 

Segestes, a Cheruscan chieftain, the oppo- I 
nent of Arminius. Private injuries embittered ' 
their political feud, for Arminius carried off and 
forcibly married the daughter of Segestes. In 
A.D. 9 Segestes warned Quintilius Varus of the 
conspiracy of Arminius and other Cheruscan \ 
chiefs against him ; but his warning was disre- I 
garded, and Varus perished. In 14 Segestes 
was forced by his tribesmen into a war with 
Rome ; but he afterward made his peace with 
the Romans, and was allowed to reside at Nar- 
bonne. 

Segetia, a Roman divinity, who, together 
with Setia or Seja and Semonia, was invoked j 
by the early Italians at seed-time, for Segetia, 
like the two other names, is connected with j 
sero and seges. 

Segni, a German people in Gallia Belgiea I 



SEGOBRIGA. 



SELEUCIA. 



Detweeii the Treveri and Eburones, the name 
of whom is still preserved in the modern town 
o f Sinei or Signei. 

Segobrio.4, the chief town of the Celtiberi, in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, southwest of Caesarau- 
gusta, probably in the neighborhood of the mod- 
ern Priego. 

[Segodunum. Vid. Ruteni.] 
[Segonax. Vid. Segovax.] 
Segontia or Seguntia, a town of the Celti- 
beri, in Hispania Tarraconensis, sixteen miles 
from Caesaraugusta. 

[Segontiaci, according to Caesar (B. G., v., 
21), a people in the extreme south of Britannia.] 
[Segontium, a town of Britain, from which a 
road led toDeva : its ruins are found near Caer- 
narvon, on the little river Seiont.] 

[Segovax (where the common text has Sego- 
nax), one of the kings of the nations in the south 
of Britannia, who aided Cassivellaunus against 
the Romans under Caesar.] 

Segovia. 1. (Now Segovia), a town of the 
Arevaci, on the road from Emerita to Caesarau- 
gusta. A magnificent Roman aqueduct is still 
extant at Segovia. — 2. A town in Hispania Bae- 
tica, on the Flumen Silicense, near Sacili. 

Segusia.ni, one of the most important com- 
munities in Gallia Lugdunensis, bounded by the 
Allobroges on the south, by the Sequani on the 
east, by the ^Edui on the north, and by the Ar- 
verni on the west. In the time of Caesar they 
were dependent on the ^Edui. In their terri- 
tory was the town of Lugdunum, the capital of 
the province. 

Segusio (now Susa), the capital of the Segu- 
sini and the residence of King Cottius, was sit- 
uated in Gallia Transpadana, at the foot of the 
Cottian Alps. The triumphal arch erected at 
this place by Cottius in honor of Augustus is 
still extant. 

Seius Strabo. Vid. Sejanus. 
Sejanus, melius, was born at Vulsinii, in 
Etruria, and was the son of Seius Strabo, who 
was commander of the praetorian troops at the 
close of the reign of Augustus, A.D. 14. In the 
same year Sejanus was made the colleague of 
his father in the command of the praetorian 
bands ; and upon his father being sent as gov- 
ernor to Egypt, he obtained the sole command 
of these troops. He ultimately gained such in- 
fluence over Tiberius, that this suspicious man, 
who was close and reserved to all mankind, 
opened his bosom to Sejanus, and made him his 
confidant. For many years he governed Tibe- 
rius ; but, not content with this high position, 
he formed the design of obtaining the imperial 
power. With this view he sought to make him- 
self popular with the soldiers, and gave posts 
of honor and emolument to his creatures and 
favorites. With the same object, he resolved 
to get rid of all the members of the imperial 
family. He debauched Livia, the wife of Dru- 
sus, the son of Tiberius ; and by promising her 
marriage and a participation in the imperial 
power, he was enabled to poison Drusus with 
her connivance and assistance (23). An acci- 
dent increased the credit of Sejanus, and con- 
firmed the confidence of Tiberius. The emper- 
or, with Sejanus and others, was feasting in a 
natural cave, between Amyclae, which was on 
the sea-coast, and the hills of Fundi. The en- 



trance of the cave suddenly fell in and crushed 
some of the slaves ; and all the guests, in alarm, 
tried to make their escape. Sejanus, resting 
his knees on the couch of Tiberius, and placing 
his shoulders under the falling rock, protected 
his master, and was discovered in this posture 
by the soldiers who came to their relief. After 
Tiberius had shut himself up in the island of 
Capreae, Sejanus had full scope for his machina- 
tions ; and the death of Livia, the mother of 
Tiberius (29), was followed by the banishment 
of Agrippina and her sons Nero and Drusus. 
Tiberius at last began to suspect the designs of 
Sejanus, and felt that it was time to rid himself 
of a man who was almost more than a rival. 
To cover his schemes and remove Sejanus from 
about him, Tiberius made him joint consul with 
himself in 31. He then sent Sertorius Macro 
to Rome, with a commission to take the com- 
mand of the praetorian cohorts. Macro, after 
assuring himself of the troops, and depriving 
Sejanus of his usual guard, produced a letter 
from Tiberius to the senate, in which the em- 
peror expressed his apprehensions of Sejanus. 
The consul Regulus conducted him to prison, 
and the people loaded him with insult and out- 
rage. The senate on the same day decreed his 
death, and he was immediately executed. His 
body was dragged about the streets, and finally 
thrown into the Tiber. Many of the friends of 
Sejanus perished at the same time ; and his son 
and daughter shared his fate. 

[Selemnus (Se'Ae/iyof, now River of Kaslrilza), 
a river of Achaia, emptying near the promon- 
tory Rhium, to the waters of which tradition 
ascribed the power of curing the pangs of love.] 
Selene (SeXijvri), called Luna by the Romans, 
was the goddess of the moon, or the moon per- 
sonified as a divine being. She is called a 
daughter of Hyperion and Thia, and according- 
ly a sister of Helios (Sol) and Eos (Aurora) ; 
but others speak of her as a daughter of Hype- 
rion by Euryphaessa, or of Pallas, or of Jupiter 
(Zeus) and Latona. She is also called Phoebe, 
as the sister of Phoebus, the god of the sun. By 
Endymion, whom she loved, and whom she sent 
to sleep in order to kiss him, she became the 
mother of fifty daughters ; and to Jupiter (Zeus) 
she bore Pandia, Ersa, and Nemea. Pan also 
is said to have had connection with her in the 
shape of a white ram. Selene is described as 
a very beautiful goddess, with long wings and 
a golden diadem. She rode, like her brother 
Helios, across the heavens in a chariot drawn 
by two white horses. In later times Selene 
was identified with Artemis or Diana, and the 
worship of the two became amalgamated. In 
works of art, however, the two divinities are 
usually distinguished ; the face of Selene being 
more full and round, her figure less tall, and 
always clothed in a long robe ; her veil forms 
an arch over her head, and above it there is the 
crescent. At Rome Luna had a temple on the 
Aventine. 

Selene. Vid. Cleopatra, No. 9. 
Seleucia, and rarely Seleucea (SeAstkeja : 
2eAfu/cEijf : Seleucensis, Seleucenus), the name 
of several cities in Asia, built by Seleucus I., 
king of Syria. 1. S. ad Tigrin (^ im rov Ti- 
ypVToe TTOTafiov, jrpof Tiypei, awo Tiyptoe), also 
called S. Babylonia (2. q Iv Ba6vXovi), S. As- 

795 



SELEUCIA 



SELEUCUS. 



stride, and S. Parthorum, a great city on the 
confines of Assyria and Babylonia, and for a 
long time the capital of Western Asia, until it 
was eclipsed by Ctesiphon. Its exact site has 
been disputed ; but the most probable opinion 
is that it stood on the western bank of the Ti- 
gris, north of its junction with the Royal Canal, 
opposite to the mouth of the River Delas or 
Silla (now Diala), and to the spot where Ctesi- 
phon was afterward built by the Parthians. It 
was a little to the south of the modern city of 
Bagdad. Perhaps a better site could not be 
found in Western Asia. It commanded the nav- 
igation of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the 
whole plain of those two rivers ; and it stood at 
the junction of all the chief caravan roads by 
which the traffic between eastern and western 
Asia was carried on. In addition to these ad- 
vantages, its people had, by the gift of Seleu ,us, 
the government of their own affairs. It was 
built in the form of an eagle with expanded 
wings, and was peopled by settlers from Assyria, 
Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Syria, and Judaea. It 
rapidly rose, and eclipsed Babylon in wealth and 
splendor. Even after the Parthian kings had 
become masters of the banks of the Tigris, and 
had fixed their residence at Ctesiphon, Seleu- 
cia, though deprived of much of its importance, 
remained a very considerable city. In the reign 
of Titus, it had, according to Pliny, six hundred 
thousand inhabitants. It was burned by Trajan 
in his Parthian expedition, and again by L. Ve- 
rus, the colleague of M. Aurelius Antoninus, 
when its population is given by different au- 
thorities as three hundred thousand or four 
hundred thousand. It was again taken by Se- 
verus ; and from this blow it never recovered. 
In Julian's expedition it was found entirely de- 
serted. — 2. Seleucia Piekia (2. Tliep'ta, tj ev Hie- 
pia, i] Trpof 1 ' kvTLOxtia, 7] npbg daXaoari, t) emdaX- 
Tiaaaia, ruins, called Seleukeh or Kepsc, near 
Suadeiah), a great city and fortress of Syria, 
founded by Seleucus in April, B.C. 300, one 
month before the foundation of Antioch. It 
stood on the site of an ancient fortress, on the 
rocks overhanging the sea, at the foot of Mount 
Pieria, about four miles north of the Orontes, 
and twelve miles west of Antioch. Its natural 
strength was improved by every known art of 
fortification, to which were added all the works 
of architecture and engineering required to 
make it a splendid city and a great sea-port, 
wjrile it obtained abundant supplies from the 
fertile plain between the city and Antiocn. The 
remains of Seleucus I. were interred at Seleu- 
cia, in a mausoleum surrounded by a grove. In 
the war with Egypt, which ensued upon the 
murder of Antiochus II., Seleucia surrendered 
to Ptolemy III. Euergetes (B.C. 246). It was 
Steward recovered by Antiochus the Great 
^19). In the war between Antiochus VIII. 
and IX. , the people of Seleucia made themselves 
independent (109 or 108). Afterward, having 
successfully resisted the attacks of Tigranes for 
fourteen years (84-70), they were confirmed in 
their freedom by Pompey. The city had fallen 
entirely into decay by the sixth century of our 
era. There are considerable ruins of the har- 
bor and mole, of the walls of the city, and of its 
necropolis. The surrounding district was called 
Seleucis. — 3. Seleucia ad Belum, a city of 
796 



I Syria, in the valley of the Orontes, near Apa- 
mea. Its site is doubtful. — 4. Seleucia Tra- 
cheitis (now ruins at Selcfkeh), an important city 
of Cilicia Aspera, was built by Seleucus I. on 
the western bank of the River Calycadnus, 
about four miles from its mouth, and peopled 
with the inhabitants of several neighboring 
cities. It had an oracle of Apollo, and annual 
games in honor of Jupiter (Zeus) Olympius. It 
vied with Tarsus in power and splendor, and 
was a free city under the Romans. It has re- 
markable claims to renown both in political and 
literary history : in the former, as the place 
where Trajan and Frederic Barbarossa died ; 
in the latter, as the birth-place of the philoso- 
phers Athenaeus and Xenarchus, of the sophist 
Alexander, the secretary of M. Aurelius Anto- 
ninus, and of other learned men. On its site 
are still seen the ruins of temples, porticoes, 
aqueducts, and tombs. — 5. Seleucia in Meso 
potamia (now Bir), on the left bank of the Eu- 
phrates, opposite to the ford of Zeugma, was a 
fortress of considerable importance in ancient 
military history. — 6. A considerable cityofMar- 
giana, built by Alexander the Great, in a beau- 
tiful situation, and called Alexandrea ; destroy- 
ed by the barbarians, and rebuilt by Antiochus 

I. , who named it Seleucia after his father Se- 
leucus I. The Roman prisoners taken at the 
defeat of Crassus by the Parthians were settled 
here by King Orodes. — 7. Seleucia in Caria. 
( Vid. Tralles.) There were other cities of the 
name, of less importance, in Pisidia, Pamphylia, 
Palestine, and Elymai's. 

Seleucis (XsXevKic). 1. The most beautiful 
and fertile district of Syria, containing the north- 
western part of the country, between Mount 
Amanus on the north, the Mediterranean on the 
west, the districts of Cyrrhestice and Chaly- 
bonitis on the northeast, the desert on the east, 
and Ccelesyria and the mountains of Lebanon 
on the south. It included the valley of the 
Lower Orontes, and contained the four great 
cities of Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea, and Apa- 
mea, whence it was also called Tetrapolis. In 
later times the name was confined to the small 
district north of the Orontes, the southern part 
of the former Seleucis being divided into Cas- 
siotis, west of the Orontes, and Apamene, east 
of the river. — 2. A district of Cappadocia. — 3. 
A name which Selecus I. endeavored to give to 
the Caspian Sea, in memory of a voyage of ex- 
ploration made round it by his command. 

Seleucus (SeAeu/coc), the name of several 
kings of Syria. I. SurnamedNicATOR, the found- 
er of the Syrian monarchy, reigned B.C. 312- 
280. He was the son of Antiochus, a Macedo- 
nian of distinction among the officers of Philip 

II. , and was born about 358. He accompanied 
Alexander on his expedition to Asia, and dis- 
tinguished himself particularly in the Indian 
campaigns. After the death of Alexander (323) 
he espoused the side of Perdiccas, whom he ac- 
companied on his expedition against Egypt ; but 
he took a leading part in the mutiny of the sol- 
diers, which ended in the death of Perdiccas 
(321). In the second partition of the provinces 
which followed, Seleucus obtained the wealthy 
and important satrapy of Babylonia. In the war 
between Antigonus and Eumenes, Seleucus af- 
forded efficient support to the former ; but after 



SELEUCUS. 



SELEUCUS. 



-he death of Eumenes (316), Antigonus began to 
treat the other satraps as his subjects. There- 
upon Seleucus fled to Egypt, where he induced 
Ptolemy to unite with Lysimachus and Cassan- 
der in a league against their common enemy. 
In the war that ensued Seleucus took an active 
part. At length, in 312, he recovered Babylon ; 
and it is from this period that the Syrian mon- 
archy is commonly reckoned to commence. 
This era of the Seleucidas, as it is termed, has 
been determined by chronologers to the 1st of 
October, 312. Soon afterward Seleucus. defeat- 
ed Nicanor, the satrap of Media, and followed 
up his victory by the conquest of Susiana, Me- 
dia, and some adjacent districts. For the next 
few years he gradually extended his power over 
all the eastern provinces which had formed part 
of the empire of Alexander, from the Euphrates 
to the banks of the Oxus and the Indus. In 306 
Seleucus followed the example of Antigonus 
and Ptolemy, by formally assuming the regal 
title and diadem. In 302 he joined the league 
formed for the second time by Ptolemy, Ly- 
simachus, and Cassander, against their com- 
mon enemy Antigonus. The united forces of 
Seleucus and Lysimachus gained a decisive vic- 
tory over Antigonus at Ipsus (301), in which 
Antigonus himself was slain. In the division 
of the spoil, Seleucus obtained the largest share, 
being rewarded for his services with a great 
part of Asia Minor (which was divided between 
him and Lysimachus), as well as with the whole 
of Syria, from the Euphrates to the Mediterra- 
nean. The empire of Seleucus was now by far 
the most extensive and powerful of those which 
had been formed out of the dominions of Alex- 
ander. It comprised the whole of Asia, from 
the remote provinces of Bactria and Sogdiana 
to the coasts of Phoenicia, and from the Paro- 
pamisusto the central plains of Phrygia, where 
the boundary which separated him from Lysim- 
achus is not clearly defined. Seleucus appears 
to have felt the difficulty of exercising a vigilant 
control over so extensive an empire, and ac- 
cordingly, in 293, he consigned the government 
of all the provinces beyond the Euphrates to 
his son Antiochus, upon whom he bestowed the 
title of king, as well as the hand of his own 
youthful wife, Stratonice, for whom the prince 
had conceived a violent attachment. In 288, 
the ambitious designs of Demetrius (now be- 
come king of Macedonia) once more aroused 
the common jealousy of his old adversaries, and 
led Seleucus again to unite in a league with 
Ptolemy and Lysimachus against him. After 
Demetrius had been driven from his kingdom 
by Lysimachus, he transported the seat of war 
into Asia Minor, but he was compelled to sur- 
render to Seleucus in 286. The Syrian king 
kept Demetrius in confinement till three years 
afterward, but during the whole of that time 
treated him in a friendly and liberal manner. 
For some time jealousies had existed between 
Seleucus and Lysimachus; but the' immediate 
cause of the war between the two monarchs, 
which terminated in the defeat and death of 
Lysimachus (281), is related in the life of the 
latter. Seleucus now crossed the Hellespont 
in order to take possession of the throne of 
Macedonia, which had been left vacant by the 
death of Lysimachus ; but he bad advanced no 



farther than Lysimachia, when he was assas- 
sinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, to whom, as the 
son of his old friend and ally, he had extended 
a friendly protection. His death took place in 
the beginning of 280, only seven months after 
that of Lysimachus, and in the thirty-second 
year of his reign, fie was in his seventy-eighth 
year. Seleucus appears to have carried out, 
with great energy and perseverance, the pro- 
jects originally formed by Alexander himself 
for the Hellenization of his Asiatic empire ; and 
we find him founding, in almost every province, 
Greek or Macedonian colonies, which became 
so many centres of civilization and refinement. 
Of these no less than sixteen are mentioned as 
bearing the name of Antiochia, after his father ; 
five that of Laodicea, from his mother; seven 
were called after himself, Seleucia ; three from 
the name of his first wife, Apamea ; and one 
Stratonicea, from his second wife, the daughter 
of Demetrius. Numerous other cities, whose 
names attest their Macedonian origin — Bercea, 
Edessa, Pella, &c. — likewise owed their first 
foundation to Seleucus. — II. Surnamed Cal- 
linicus (246-226), was the eldest son of Antio- 
chus II. by his first wife Laodice. The first 
measure of his administration, or rather that 
of his mother, was to put to death his step- 
mother Berenice, together with her infant son. 
This act of cruelty produced the most disastrous 
effects. In order to avenge his sister, Ptolemy 
Euergetes, king of Egypt, invaded the domin- 
ions of Seleucus, and not only made himself 
master of Antioch and the whole of Syria, but 
carried his arms unopposed beyond the Euphra- 
tes and the Tigris. During these operations 
Seleucus kept wholly aloof; but when Ptolemy 
had been recalled to his own dominions by do- 
mestic disturbances, he recovered possession 
of the greater part of the provinces which he 
had lost. Soon afterward Seleucus became in- 
volved in a dangerous war with his brother An- 
tiochus Hierax, who attempted to obtain Asia 
Minor as an independent kingdom for himself, i 
This war lasted several years, but was at length 
terminated by the decisive defeat of Antiochus, 
who was obliged to quit Asia Minor and take 
refuge in Egypt. Seleucus undertook an expe- 
dition to the East, with the view of reducing 
the revolted provinces of Parthia and Bactria, 
which had availed themselves of the disordered 
state of the Syrian empire to throw off its yoke. 
He was, however, defeated by Arsaces, king of 
Parthia, in a great battle, which was long after 
celebrated by the Parthians as the foundation 
of their independence. After the expulsion of 
Antiochus, Attalus, king of Pergamus, extend- 
ed his dominions over the greater part of Asia 
Minor; and Seleucus appears to have been en- 
gaged in an expedition for the recovery of the? 
provinces, when he was accidentally killed b, 
a fall from his horse, in the twenty-first year 
of his reign, 226. He left two sons, who suc- 
cessively ascended the throne, Seleucus Cerau- 
nus and Antiochus, afterward surnamed the 
Great. His own surname of Callinicus was 
probably assumed after his recovery of the prov- 
inces that had been overrun by Ptolemy. — III. 
Surnamed Ceraunus (226-223), eldest son and . 
successor of Seleucus II. The surname of Ce- 
raunus was given him by the soldiery, appar 

797 



SELGE. 



SEMECHONITIS. 



ently in derision, as he appears to have been 
feeble both in mind and body. He was assas- 
sinated by two of his officers, after a reign of 
only three years, and was succeeded by his 
brother, Antiochus the Great. — IV. Surnamed 
Philopator (187-175), was the son and suc- 
cessor of Antiochus the Great. The defeat of 
his father by the Romans, and the ignominious 
peace which followed it, had greatly diminished 
the power of the Syrian monarchy, and the 
reign of Seleucus was, in consequence, feeble 
and inglorious, and was marked by no striking 
events. He was assassinated in 175 by one of 
his own ministers. He left two children : De- 
metrius, who subsequently ascended the throne; 
and Laodice, married to Perseus, king of Mace- 
donia. — V. Eldest son of Demetrius II., assum- 
ed the royal diadem on learning the death of 
his father, 125 ; but his mother Cleopatra, who 
had herself put Demetrius to death, was indig- 
nant at hearing that her son had ventured to 
take such a step without her authority, and 
caused Seleucus also to be assassinated. — VI. 
Surnamed Epiphanes, and also Nicator (95- 
93), was the eldest of the five sons of Antio- 
chus VIII. Grypus. On the death of his father 
in 95, he ascended the throne, and defeated 
and slew in battle his uncle Antiochus Cyzice- 
nus, who had laid claim to the kingdom. But 
shortly after Seleucus was in his turn defeated 
by Antiochus Eusebes, the son of Cyzicenus, 
and expelled from Syria. He took refuge in 
Cilicia, where he established himself in the city 
of Mopsuestia; but, in consequence of his tyr- 
anny, he was burned to death by the inhabit- 
ants in his palace. 

Selge (Z£7i-yr) : SeZyeiif : now Siirk ? ruins), 
one of the chief of the independent mountain 
cities of Pisidia, stood on the southern side of 
Mount Taurus, on the Eurymedon, just where 
the river breaks through the mountain chain. 
On a rock above it was a citadel named Kea- 
6iSiov, in which was a temple of Juno (Hera). 
Its inhabitants, who were the most warlike of 
all the Pisidians, claimed descent from the La- 
cedeemonians, and inscribed the name AaiceSac- 
uuv on their coins. They could bring an army 
of twenty thousand men "into the field, and, as 
late as the fifth century, we find them beating 
back a horde of Goths. In a valley near the 
city, in the heart of lofty mountains, grew wine, 
and oil, and other products of the most luxuri- 
ant vegetation. 

[Selgov^e (Selyoovai, Ptol.), a people on the 
western coast of Britannia Barbara, in the east- 
ern part of the modern Galloway and in Dum- 
friesshire] 

Selinus (SfAivoii, -ovvrog, contraction of <xc- 
Tiivoeig, from aeTiivov, "parsley"). 1. A small 
river on the southwestern coast of Sicily, flow- 
ing by the town of the same name. — 2. (Now 
Crcstcna), a river of Elis, in the district Tri- 
phylia, near Scillus, flowing into the Alpheus 
west of Olympia. — 3. (Now Vostitza), a river of 
Achaia, rising in Mount Erymanthus. — 4. A 
tributary of the Caicus in Mysia, flowing by the 
town of Pergamum. — 5. CZelivovvnoe, Xelivov- 
aioc : near the modern Castel vctrano, ruins), one 
of the most important towns in Sicily, situated 
upon a hill on the southwestern coast, and upon 
a river of the same name. It was founded by 
798 



the Dorians from Megara Hyblasa, on the east- 
ern coast of Sicily, B.C. 628. It soon attained 
great prosperity ; but it was taken by the Car- 
thaginians in 409, when most of its inhabitants 
were slain or sold as slaves, and the greatei 
part of the city destroyed. The population of 
Selinue must at that time have been very con- 
siderable, since we are told that sixteen thou- 
sand men fell in the siege and conquest of the 
town, five thousand were carried to Carthage 
as slaves, two thousand six hundred fled to Ag- 
rigentum, and many others took refuge in the 
surrounding villages. The Carthaginians, how- 
ever, allowed the inhabitants to return to Seli- 
nus in the course of the same year, and it con- 
tinued to he a place of secondary importance 
till 249, when it was again destroyed by the 
Carthaginians, and its inhabitants transferred to 
Lilybaeum.. The surrounding country produced 
excellent wheat. East of Selinus, on the road 
to Agrigentum, were celebrated mineral springs 
called Aqua Selinuntia>, subsequently Aqua. La- 
boda. or Laboics, the modern Baths of Sciacca. 
There are still considerable ruins of Selinus. — 
6. (Now Sclenti), a town in Cilicia, situated on 
the coast, and upon a rock which was almost 
entirely surrounded by the sea. In consequence 
of the death of the Emperor Trajan in this 
town, it was for a longtime called Trajanopolis. 

Sellasia (Sc/l/Wia or SeAaot'a), a town in 
Laconia, north of Sparta, was situated near the 
River CEnus, and commanded one of the princi- 
pal passes leading to Sparta. Here the cele- 
brated battle was fought between Cleomenes 
III. and Antigonus Doson, B.C. 221, in which 
the former was defeated. 

Selleis (ZMrjetc). 1. A river in Elis, on 
which the Homeric Ephyra stood, rising in 
Mount Pholog, and falling into the sea south 
of the Peneus. — 2. A river near Sicyon. — 3. A 
river in Troas, near Arisbe, and a tributary of 
the Rhodius. 

Seixi or Helli. Vid. Dodona. 

SelymbrIa or Selybria {'Zij'XviiSpia, 2r/?^v6fi'ta, 
Dor. 'La7.a(i6pla : 2,7i?a'fi6piavoc : now Sclivria), 
an important town in Thrace, situated on the 
Propontis. It was a colony of the Megarians, 
and was founded earlier than Byzantium. It 
perhaps derived its name from its founder Se- 
lys and the Thracian word Bria, a town. It 
continued to be a place of considerable import. 
ance till its conquest by Philip, the father of 
Alexander, from which time its decline may be 
dated. Under the later emperors it was called 
Eudoxiupolis, in honor of Eudoxia, the wife of 
Arcadius ; but it afterward recovered its an- 
cient name. 

Semechonitis or Samachonitis Lacus (lefie- 
Xuvirtc, la/j-axuviric, and -iruv "Kiy.vrj : in the 
! Old Testament, Waters of Merom : now Nahr- 
el-Huleh), a small lake in the north of Palestine, 
J the highest of the three formed by the Jordan, 
both branches of which fall into its northern 
end, while the river flows out of its southern 
end in one stream. The valley in which it lies 
is inclosed on the west and east by mountains 
belonging to the two ranges of Lebanon, form- 
ing a position which has been of military im- 
portance both in ancient and modern times, es- 
pecially as the great Damascus road crosses the 
Jordan just below the lake. According to the 



SEMELE. 



SENECA. 



division of Palestine under the Roman empire, 
it belonged to Galilee, but in earlier times, un- 
der the Syrian kings, it was reckoned to Coele- 

syria. 

Semele (Se^e/.j?), daughter of Cadmus and 
Harmonia, at Thebes, and accordingly sister of 
Ino, Agave, Autonoe, and Polydorus. She was 
beloved by Jupiter (Zeus). Juno (Hera), stim- 
ulated by jealousy, appeared to her in the form 
of her aged nurse Beroe, and induced her to ask 
Jupiter (Zeus) to visit her in the same splendor 
and majesty with which he appeared to Juno 
(Hera). Jupiter (Zeus) warned her of the dan- 
ger of her request ; but as he had sworn to 
grant whatever she desired, he was obliged to' 
comply with her prayer. He accordingly ap- 
peared before her as the god of thunder, and 
Semele was consumed by the lightning ; hut 
Jupiter (Zeus) saved her child Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus), with whom she was pregnant. Her son 
afterward carried her out of the lower world, 
and conducted her to Olympus, where she be- 
came immortal under the name of Thyone. 

Semiramis {~Zejj.ipu.iiis) and Ninus (Nlvoc), the 
mythical founders of the Assyrian empire of 
Ninus or Nineveh. Ninus was a great war- 
rior, who built the town of Ninus or Nineveh 
about B.C. 2182, and subdued the greater part 
of Asia. Semiramis was the daughter of the 
fish-goddess Derceto of Ascalon in Syria by a 
Syrian youth ; but, being ashamed of her frail- 
ty, she made away with the youth, and exposed 
her infant daughter. But the child was mirac- 
ulously preserved by doves, who fed her till she 
was discovered by the shepherds of the neigh- 
borhood. She was then brought up by the chief 
shepherd of the royal herds, whose name was 
Simmas, and from whom she derived the name 
of Semiramis. Her surpassing beauty attracted 
the notice of Onnes, one of the king's friends 
and generals, who married her. He subse- 
quently sent for his wife to the army, where 
the Assyrians were engaged in the siege of 
Bactra, which they had long endeavored in vain 
to take. Upon her arrival in the camp she 
planned an attack upon the citadel of the town, 
mounted the walls with a few brave followers, 
and obtained possession of the place. Ninus 
was so charmed by her bravery and beauty that 
he resolved to make her his wife, whereupon 
her unfortunate husband put an end to his life. 
By Ninus Semiramis had a son, Ninyas, and on 
the death of Ninus she succeeded him on the 
throne. According to another account, Semi- 
ramis had obtained from her husband permis- 
sion to rule over Asia for five days, and availed 
herself of this opportunity to cast the king into 
a dungeon, or, as is also related, to put him to 
death, and thus obtained the sovereign power. 
Her fame threw into the shade that of Ninus ; 
and later ages loved to tell of her marvellous 
deeds and her heroic achievements. She built 
numerous cities, and erected many wonderful 
buildings ; and several of the most extraordi- 
nary works in the East, which were extant in 
a later age, and the authors of which were un- 
known, were ascribed by popular tradition to 
this queen. In Nineveh she erected a tomb for 
her husband, nine stadia high and ten wide ; 
she built the city of Babylon, with all its won- 
ders ; and she constructed the hanging gardens 



in Media, of which later writers give us such 
strange accounts. Besides conquering many 
nations of Asia, she subdued Egypt and a great 
part of ^Ethiopia, but was unsuccessful in an 
attack which she made upon India. After a 
reign of forty-two years she resigned the sov- 
ereignty to her son Ninyas, and disappeared 
from the earth, taking her flight to heaven in 
the form of a dove. The fabulous nature of 
this narrative is apparent. It is probable that 
Semiramis was originally a Syrian goddess, per- 
haps the same who was worshipped at Asca- 
lon under the name of Astarte, or the Heavenly 
Aphrodite, to whom the dove was sacred. Hence 
the stories of her voluptuousness, which were 
current even in the time of Augustus (Ov.,^lm., 
i., 5, 11). 

Semnones, more rarely Sennones, a German 
people, described by Tacitus as the most pow- 
erful tribe of the Suevic race, dwelt between 
the rivers Viadus (now Oder) and Albis (now 
Elbe), from the Riesengebirge in the south as 
far as the country around Frankfurt on the Oder 
and Potsdam in the north. 

Semo Sancus. Vid. Sancus. 

Sempronia. 1. Daughter of Tib. Gracchus, 
censor B.C. 169, and sister of the two celebra- 
ted tribunes, married Scipio Africanus minor. 
— 2. Wife of D. Junius Brutus, consul 77, was 
a woman of great personal attractions and lit- 
erary accomplishments, but of a profligate char- 
acter. She took part in Catiline's conspiracy, 
though her husband was not privy to it. 

Sempronia Gens, was of great antiquity, and 
one of its members, A. Sempronius Atratinus, 
obtained the consulship as early as B.C. 497, 
twelve years after the foundation of the repub- 
lic. The Sempronii were divided into many 
families, of which the Atratini were patrician, 
but all the others were plebeian : their names 
are Asellio, Bl^esus, Gracchus, Sophus, Tu- 
ditanus. 

Sena (Senensis). 1. (Now Senigaglia), sur 
named Gallica, and sometimes called Seno 
gallia, a town on the coast of Umbria, at the 
mouth of the small river Sena, was founded 
by the Senones, a Gallic people, and was made 
a colony by the Romans after the conquest of 
the Senones, B.C. 283. In the civil war it es- 
poused the Marian party, and was taken and 
sacked by Pompey. — 2. (Now Siena), a town in 
Etruria and a Roman colony, on the road from 
Clusium to Florentia, is only mentioned in the 
times of the emperors. 

Seneca. 1. M. Ann^eus, the rhetorician, was 
born at Corduba (now Cordova), in Spain, about 
B.C. 61. Seneca was at Rome in the early pe- 
riod of the power of Augustus, for he says that 
he had seen Ovid declaiming before Arellius 
Fuscus. He afterward returned to Spain, and 
married Helvia, by whom he had three sons, L. 
Anneeus Seneca, L. Annaeus Mela or Mella, the 
father of the poet Lucan, and M. Novatus. Nova- 
tus was the eldest son, and took the name of Ju- 
nius Gallio upon being adopted by Junius Gallio. 
Seneca was rich, and he belonged to the eques- 
trian class. At a later period Seneca returned 
to Rome, where he resided till his death, which 
probably occurred near the end of the reign of 
Tiberius. Two of Seneca's works have come 
down to us. 1. Controversiarum Libri decern 

799 



SENECA. 



SENECA 



which lie addressed to his three sons. The 
first, second, seventh, eighth, and tenth books 
only are extant, and these are somewhat mu- 
tilated : of the other books only fragments re- 
main. These Controversial are rhetorical ex- 
ercises on imaginary cases, filled with common- 
places, such as a man of large verbal memory 
and great reading carries about with him as his 
ready money. 2. Suasoriarum Liber, which is 
probably not complete. We may collect from 
its contents what the subjects were on which 
the rhetoricians of that age exercised their wits : 
one of them is, " Shall Cicero apologize to M. 
Antonius ] Shall he agree to burn his Philip- 
pies, if Antonius requires itl" Another is, 
" Shall Alexander embark on the ocean V If 
there are some good ideas and apt expressions 
in these puerile declamations, they have no val- 
ue where they stand, and probably most of them 
are borrowed. No merit of form can compen- 
sate for worthlessness of matter. The best edi- 
tion of these works is by A. Schottus, Heidel- 
berg, 1603, frequently reprinted. — 2. L. Ann^e- 
us, the philosopher, the son of the preceding, 
was born at Corduba, probably a few years B.C., 
and brought to Rome by his parents when he 
was a child. Though he was naturally of a weak 
body, he was a hard student from his youth, and 
he devoted himself with great ardor to rhetoric 
and philosophy. He also soon gained distinc- 
tion as a pleader of causes, and he excited the 
jealousy and hatred of Caligula by the ability 
with which he conducted a case in the senate 
before the emperor. In the first year of the 
reign of Claudius (A.D. 41), Seneca was ban- 
ished to Corsica on account of his intimacy 
with Julia, the niece of Claudius, of whomMes- 
salina was jealous. After eight years' residence 
in Corsica, Seneca was recalled (59) by the in- 
fluence of Agrippina, who had just married her 
uncle the Emperor Claudius. He now obtained 
a praetorship, and was made the tutor of the 
young Domitius, afterward the Emperor Nero, 
who was the son of Agrippina by a former hus- 
band. On the accession of his pupil to the im- 
perial throne (54) after the death of Claudius, 
Seneca became one of the chief advisers of the 
young emperor. He exerted his influence to 
check Nero's vicious propensities, but at the 
same time he profited from his position to amass 
an immense fortune. He supported- Nero in 
his contests with his mother Agrippina, and 
was not only a party to the death of the latter 
(60), but he wrote the letter which Nero ad- 
dressed to the senate in justification of the mur- 
der. After the death of his mother Nero aban- 
doned himself without any restraint to his vi- 
cious propensities ; and the presence of Seneca 
soon became irksome to him, while the wealth 
of the philosopher excited the emperor's cupid- 
ity. Burrus, the praefect of the praetorian guards, 
who had always been a firm supporter of Sen- 
eca, died in 63 His death broke the power of 
Seneca'; and Nero now fell into the hands of 
persons who were exactly suited to his taste. 
Tigellinus and Fennius Rufus, who succeeded 
Burrus in the command of the praetorians, be- 
gan an attack on Seneca. His enormous wealth, 
his gardens and villas, more magnificent than 
those of the emperor, his exclusive claims to 
eloquence, and his disparagement of Nero's skill 
800 



in driving and singing, were all urged against 
him ; and it was time, they said, fo: Nero to get 
rid of a teacher. Seneca heard of the charges 
against him : he was rich, and he knew that 
Nero wanted money. He asked the emperor 
for permission to retire, and offered to surren 
der all that he had. Nero affected to be grate- 
ful for his past services, refused the proffere>] 
gift, and sent him away with perfidious assur- 
ances of his respect and. affection. Seneca no v 
altered his mode of life, saw little company, and 
seldom visited the city, on the ground of feeble 
health, or being occupied with his philosophical 
studies. The conspiracy of Piso (65) gave the 
emperor a pretext for putting his teacher to 
death, though there was not complete evidence 
of Seneca being a party to the conspiracy. Sen- 
eca was at the time returning from Campania, 
and had rested at a villa four miles from the 
city. Nero sent a tribune to him with the or- 
der of death. Without showing any sign of 
alarm, Seneca cheered his weeping friends by 
reminding them of the lessons of philosophy. 
Embracing his wife Pompeia Paulina, he prayed 
her to moderate her grief, and to console her- 
self for the loss of her husband by the reflection 
that he had lived an honorable life. But as 
Paulina protested that she would die with him, 
Seneca consented, and the same blow opened 
the veins in the arms of both. Seneca's body 
was attenuated by age and meagre diet ; the 
blood would not flow easily, and he opened the 
veins in his legs. His torture was excessive ; 
and, to save himself and his wife the pain of 
seeing one another suffer, he bade her retire to 
her chamber. His last words were taken down 
in writing by persons who were called in for the 
purpose, and were afterward published. Sen- 
eca's torments being still prolonged, he took 
hemlock from his friend and physician, Statius 
Annaeus, but it had no effect. At last he en- 
tered a warm bath, and as he sprinkled some 
of the water on the slaves nearest to him, he 
said that he made a libation to Jupiter the Lib- 
erator. He was then taken into a vapor stove, 
where he was quickly suffocated. Seneca died, 
as was the fashion among the Romans, with 
the courage of a stoic, but with somewhat of a 
theatrical affectation, which detracts from the 
dignity of the scene. Seneca's great misfor- 
tune was to have known Nero ; and though we 
can not say that he was a truly great or a truly 
good man, his character will not lose by com- 
parison with that of many others who have been 
placed in equally difficult circumstances. Sen- 
eca's fame rests on his numerous writings, of 
which the following are extant : 1. Dc Ira, in 
three books, addressed to Novatus, probably 
the earliest of Seneca's works. In the first 
book he combats what Aristotle says of Anger 
in his Ethics. 2. Dc Consolatione ad Hclviam 
Matron Liber, a consolatory letter to his moth- 
er, written during his residence in Corsica. It 
is one of his best treatises. 3. Be Consolatione 
ad Folybium Liber, also written in Corsica. If 
it is the work of Seneca, it does him no credit. 
Polybius was the powerful freedman of Clau- 
dius, and the Consolatio is intended to comfort 
him on the occasion of the loss of his brother. 
But it also contains adulation of the emperor, 
and many expressions unworthy of a true stoic 



SENECA. 



SENECfO. 



or of an honest man. 4. Liber de Consolatione 
ad Marciam, written after his return from exile, 
was designed to console Marcia for the loss of 
her son. Marcia was the daughter of A. Cre- 
mutius Cordus. 5. De Procidentia Liber, or 
Qnarc bonis viris mala, accidant cum sit Provi- 
dentia, is addressed to the younger Lucilius, 
procurator of Sicily. The question that is here 
discussed often engaged the ancient philoso- 
phers : the stoical solution of the difficulty is 
that suicide is the remedy when misfortune has 
become intolerable. In this discourse Seneca 
says that he intends to prove " that Providence 
hath a power over all things, and that God is 
always present with us." 6. De Animi Tran- 
quillitatc, addressed to Serenus, probably writ- 
ten soon after Seneca's return from exile. It 
is in the form of a letter rather than a treatise : 
the object is to discover the means by which 
tranquillity of mind can be obtained. 7. De Con- 
stanlia Sapientis seu quod in sapientem non cadit 
injuria, also addressed to Serenus, is founded 
on the stoical doctrine of the impassiveness of 
the wise man. 8. De dementia ad Neronem 
Cozsarem Libri duo, written at the beginning of 
Nero's reign. There is too much of the flat- 
terer in this ; but the advice is good. The sec- 
ond book is incomplete. It is in the first chap- 
ter of this second book that the anecdote is told 
of Nero's unwillingness to sign a sentence of 
execution, and his exclamation, " I would I 
could neither read nor wiite." 9. De Brevitate 
Vita ad Paulinum Liber, recommends the proper 
employment of time and the getting of wisdom 
as the chief purpose of life. 10. De Vita Beata 
ad Gallionem, addressed to his brother, L. Junius 
Gallio, is probably one of the later works of 
Seneca, in which he maintains the stoical doc- 
trine that there is no happiness without virtue ; 
but he does not deny that other things, as health 
and riches, have their value. The conclusion 
of the treatise is lost. 11. De Olio aut Secessu 
Sapientis, is sometimes joined to No. 10. 12. 
De Beneficiis Libri septem, addressed to ^Ebu- 
cius Liberalis, is an excellent discussion of the 
way of conferring a favor, and of the duties of 
the giver and of the receiver. The handling is 
not very methodical, but it is very complete. 
It is a treatise which all persons might read 
with profit. 13. Epistoltz ad Lucilium, one hund- 
red and twenty-four in number, are not the cor- 
respondence of daily life, like that of Cicero, 
but a collection of moral maxims and remarks 
without any systematic order. They contain 
much good matter, and have been favorite read- 
ing with many distinguished men. It is pos- 
sible that these letters, and, indeed, many of 
Seneca's moral treatises, were written in the 
latter part of his life, and probably after he had 
lost the favor of Nero. That Seneca sought j 
consolation and tranquillity of mind in literary 
occupation is manifest. 14. Apocolocyntosis, is 
a satire against the Emperor Claudius. The 
word is a play on the term Apotheosis or deifi- i 
cation, and is equivalent in meaning to Pump- 
kinification, or the reception of Claudius among 
the pumpkins. The subject was well enough, 
but the treatment has no great merit ; and Sen- j 
eca probably had no other object than to gratify ! 
his spite against the emperor. 15. Quastionum I 
Naluralium Libri septem, addressed to Lucilius 



Junior, is not a systematic work, but a collec 
tion of natural facts from various writers, Greek 
and Roman, many of which are curious. The 
first book treats of meteors, the second of thun- 
der and lightning, the third of water, the fourth 
of hail, snow, and ice, the fifth of winds, the 
sixth of earthquakes and the sources of th^ 
Nile, and the seventh of comets. Moral re- 
marks are scattered through the work ; and, in- 
deed, the design of the whole appears to be to 
find a foundation for ethic, the chief part of 
philosophy, in the knowledge of nature (Physic). 
16. Tragmdia, ten in number. They are en- 
titled Hercules Furens, Thyestes, Thebais or Phoz- 
nisstz, Hippolytus or Phcedra, (Edipus, Troades 
or Hecuba, Medea, Agamemnon, Hercules (Etaus, 
and Octavia. The titles themselves, with the 
exception of the Octavia, indicate sufficiently 
what the tragedies are, Greek mythological sub- 
jects treated in a peculiar fashion. They are 
written in Iambic senarii, interspersed with 
choral parts, in anapaestic and other metres. 
The subject of the Octavia is Nero's ill-treat- 
ment of his wife, his passion for Poppaea, and 
the exile of Octavia. These tragedies are not 
adapted, and certainly were never intended for 
the stage. They were designed for reading or 
for recitation after the Roman fashion, and they 
bear the stamp of a rhetorical age. They con- 
tain many striking passages, and have some 
merit as poems. Moral sentiments and maxims 
abound, and the style and character of Seneca 
are as conspicuous here as in his prose works. 
The judgments on Seneca's writings have been 
as various as the opinions about his character, 
and both in extremes. It has been said of him 
that he looks best in quotations ; but this is an 
admission that there is something worth quot- 
ing, which can not be said of all writers. That 
Seneca possessed great mental powers can not 
be doubted. He had seen much of human life, 
and he knew well what man was. His philos- 
ophy, so far as he adopted a system, was the 
stoical, but it was rather an eclecticism of stoi- 
cism than pure stoicism. His style is antithet- 
ical, and apparently labored ; and when there is 
much labor, there is generally affectation. Yet 
his language is clear and forcible ; it is not 
mere words : there is thought always. It would 
not be easy to name any modern writer who 
has treated on morality, and has said so much 
that is practically good and true, or has treated 
the matter in so attractive a way. The best edi- 
tions of Seneca are by J. F. Gronovius, Leiden, 
1649-1658, 4 vols. 12mo ; by Ruhkopf, Leipzig, 
1797-1811, 5 vols. 8vo ; and the Bipont edition, 
Strassburg, 1809, 5 vols. 8vo. [A new edition 
is in course of publication by Fickert, of which 
three volumes have appeared, Leipzig, 1842-5.] 
Senecio, Hekennius. 1. Was a native of 
Baetica in Spain, where he served as quaestor. 
He was put to death by Domitian on the accusa- 
tion of Metius Carus, in consequence of his 
having written the life of Helvidius Priscus, 
which he composed at the request of Fannia, 
the wife of Helvidius. — [2. C. Sosius, consul 
suffectus A.D. 98, and consul A.D. 99, 102, and 
107. — 3. Tullius, a friend of Nero, neverthe- 
less took part in Piso's conspiracy against the 
emperor, and on its detection was obliged to 
put an end to his life ] 

801 



SENXA.. 



SERAPION. 



Senia (Senensis : now Segna or Zengg), a 
Roman colony in Liburnia in Illyricum, on the 
coast, and on the road from Aquileia to Siscia. 

Senones, a powerful people in Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis, dwelt along the upper course of the Se- 
quana (now Seine), and were bounded on the 
north by the Parisii, on the west by the Car- 
nutes, on the south by the ^Edui, and on the 
east by the Lingones and Mandubii. Their 
chief town was Agendicum, afterward called 
Senones (now Sens). A portion of this people 
crossed the Alps about B.C. 400, in order to 
settle in Italy ; and as the greater part of Upper 
Italy was already occupied by other Celtic tribes, 
the Senones were obliged to penetrate a con- 
siderable distance to the south, and took up : 
their abode on the Adriatic Sea, between the 
Rivers Utis and ^Esis (between Ravenna and i 
Ancona), after expelling the Umbrians. In this j 
country they founded the town of Sena. They 
extended their ravages into Etruria ; and it was 
in consequence of the interference of the Ro- 
mans while they were laying siege to Clusium 
that they marched against Rome and took the 
city, B.C. 390. From this time we find them 
engaged in constant hostilities with the Ro- 
mans, till they were at length completely sub- 
dued, and the greater part of them destroyed 
by the consul Dolabella, 283. 

Sentinum (Sentinas, Sentinatis : ruins near 
Sassoferrato), a fortified town in Umbria, not 
far from the River ^Esis. 

[Sewtius Augurinus, an epigrammatic poet 
in the time of the younger Pliny, whom he 
praised in his verses. One of his poems in 
praise of Pliny is preserved in a letter of the 
iatter.] 

Sentius Saturninus. Vid. Saturninus. 

Sepias (Zrjmac : now St. George), a promon- 
tory in the southeast of Thessaly, in the district 
Magnesia, on which a great part of the fleet of 
Xerxes was wrecked. 

[Sepinum (now Attilia, about ten miles from 
Sepino), a city of the Samnites, to the south- 
east of Bovianum: it became a Roman colony 
in the reign of Nero ] 

Seplasia, one of the principal streets in Cap- 
ua, where perfumes and luxuries of a similar 
kind were sold. 

Sepphoris CZenQupic : now Sefurieh), a city 
of Palestine, in the middle of Galilee, about 
halfway between Mount Carmel and the Lake 
of Tiberias, was an insignificant place until 
Herod Antipas fortified it, and made it the cap- 
ital of Galilee, under the name of Dioc^esarea. 
It was the seat of one of the five Jewish San- 
hedrim, and continued to flourish until the 
fourth century, when it was destroyed by the 
Caesar Gallus on account of a revolt of its in- 
habitants. 

Septem Aqu^e, a place in the territory of the 
Sabini, near Reate. 

Septem Fratres ('E7rru udsXipol : now Jcbel 
Zatout, i. e., Apes' Hill), a mountain on the 
northern coast of Mauretania Tingitana, at the 
narrowest part of the Fretum Gaditanum (now 
Straits of Gibraltar), connected by a low tongue 
of land with the promontory of Abyi.a, which is 
also included under the modern name. 

Septem Maria, the name given by the an- 
cients to the lagoons formed at the mouth of 
802 



the Po by the frequent overflows of this river. 
Persons usually sailed through these lagoons 
from Ravenna to Altinum. 

Septempeda (Septempedanus : now San Sev- 
erinu), a Roman niunicipium in the interior of 
Picenum, on the road from Auximum to TJrbs 
Salvia. 

Septimius Geta. Vid. Get a. 

Septimius Serenus. Vid. Serenus. 

Septimius Severus. Vid. Severus. 

Septimius Tmus, a Roman poet, whom Hor- 
ace (i., 3, 9-14) represents as having ventured 
to quaff a draught from the Pindaric spring, and 
as having been ambitious to achieve distinction 
in tragedy. In this passage Horace speaks of 
him under the name of Titus ; and he is prob- 
ably the same individual with the Septimius 
who is addressed in the sixth ode of the second 
book, and who is introduced in the ninth epistle 
of the first book. 

[Septimius, Q., the translator of the work on 
the Trojan war, bearing the name of Dictys 
Cretensis] 

[Sepyra, a city of Cilicia, at the base of 
Mount Amanus, near Arae Alexandri, taken by 
Cicero while proconsul in that province ] 

Sequana (now Seine), one of the principal 
rivers of Gaul, rising in the central parts of that 
country, and flowing through the province of 
Gallia Lugdunensis into the ocean opposite 
Britain. It is three hundred and forty-six miles 
in length. Its principal affluents are the Ma- 
trona (now Marne), Esm (now Oisc), with its trib- 
utary the Axona (now Aisne) and Incaunus (now 
Yonne). This river has a slow current, and 
is navigable beyond Lutetia Parisioruin (now 
Paris). * 

Sequani, a powerful Celtic people in Gallia 
Belgica, separated from the Helvetii by Mons 
Jurassus, from the ^Edui by the Arar, and from 
the province Narbonensis by the Rhone, inhab- 
iting the country called Fran/Ac Compte and 
Burgundy. In the later division of the prov- 
inces of the empire, the country of the Sequani 
formed a special province under the name of 
Maxima Sequanorum. They derived their name 
from the River Sequana, which had its source 
in the northwestern frontiers of their territory ; 
but their country was chiefly watered by the 
rivers Arar and Dubis. Their chief town was 
Vesontio (now Bcsancon). They were govern- 
ed by kings of their own, and were constantly 
at war with the ^Edui. 

Sequester, Vibius, the name attached to a 
glossary which professes to give an account of 
the geographical names contained in the Roman 
poets. The tract is divided into seven sections : 
1. Flumina. 2. Fontcs. 3. Lactis. 4. Nemora. 
5. Paludes. C. Montes. 7. Gentcs. To which, 
in some MSS., an eighth is added, containing a 
list of the seven wonders of the world. Con- 
cerning the author personally we know nothing ; 
and he probably lived not earlier than the mid- 
dle of the fifth century. The best edition is by 
Oberlinus, Argent., 1778. 

Sera. Vid. Serica. 

SerapIo, a surname of P. Cornelius Scipio 
Nasica, consul B.C. 138. Vid. Scipio. No. 18. 

Serapion (Xe/jairiuv), a physician of Alexan- 
dra, who lived in the third jentury B.C. Ho 
belonged to the sect of the Empirici, and so 



SERAPIS. 



SERIPHUS. 



much extended and improved the system of 
Philinus, that the invention of it is by some au- 
thors attributed to him. Serapion wrote against 
Hippocrates with much vehemence ; but neither 
this, nor any of his other works, is now extant. 
He is several times mentioned and quoted by 
Celsus, Galen, and others. 

Serapis or Sarapis {"Zupanic), an Egyptian 
divinity, whose worship was introduced into 
Greece in the time of the Ptolemies. His wor- 
ship was introduced into Rome together with 
that of Isis. For details, vid. Isis. 

[Serbonis Lacus. Vid. Sirbonis Lacus.] 

SerdTca' or Sardica, an important town in 
Upper Mossia, and the capital of Dacia Interior, 
situated in a fertile plain near the sources of 
the CEscus, and on the road from Naissus to 
Philippopolis. It was the birth-place of the 
Emperor Maximianus ; it was destroyed by At- 
tila, but was soon afterward rebuilt ; and it bore 
in the Middle Ages the name of Triadiiza. Its 
extensive ruins are to be seen south of Sophia. 
Serdica derived its name from the Thracian 
people Serdi. 

Serena, niece of Theodosius the Great, fos- 
ter-mother of the Emperor Honorius, and wife 
of Stilicho. 

Serbnus, AnnvEus', one of the most intimate 
friends of the philosopher Seneca, who dedi- 
cated to him his work De Tranquillitate and De 
Conslanlia. He was praefectus vigilum under 
Nero, and died in consequence of eating a pois- 
onous kind of fungus. 

Serenus, Q. Sammonicus, (or Samonicus), en- 
joyed a high reputation at Rome, in the early 
part of the third century after Christ, as a man 
of taste and varied knowledge. As the friend 
of Geta, by whom his compositions were studied 
with great pleasure, he was murdered while at 
supper, by command of Caracalla, A.D. 212, 
leaving behind him many learned works. His 
son, who bore the same name, was the precep- 
tor of the younger Gordian, and bequeathed to 
his pupil the magnificent library which he had 
inherited from his father. A medical poem, ex- 
tending to one hundred and fifteen hexameter 
lines, has descended to us under the title Q. 
Sereni Sammonici de Medicina prcecepta saluber- 
rima., or Pracepta de Medicina parvo prelio para- 
hili, which is usually ascribed to the elder Sam- 
monicus. It contains a considerable amount of 
information, extracted from the best authorities, 
on natural history and the healing art, mixed up 
with a number of puerile superstitions, the 
whole expressed in plain and almost prosaic 
language. The best edition is that of Burmann, 
in his Poetce Latini Minores (4to, Leid., 1731, 
vol. ii., p. 187-388). 

Serenus, A. SeptimIus, a Roman lyric poet, 
who exercised his muse chiefly in depicting the 
charms of the country and the delight of rural 
pursuits. His works are lost, but are frequent- 
ly quoted by the grammarians. 

Seres. Vid. Serica. 

[Sergestus, a Trojan warrior, who accom- 
panied jEneas to Italy after the destruction of 
Troy, and^from whom the Sergia gens were 
fabled to have derived their name and lineage.] 

[Sergia, sister of Catiline, was married to 
Q. Caacilius, a Roman eques, who was slain by 
his brother-in-law during the proscription of 



Sulla. Sergia, like her brother, bore a bad char 
acter.] 

Sergia Gens, patrician. The Sergii traced 
their descent from the Trojan Sergestus (Virg., 
JEn., v., 121). The Sergii were distinguished 
in the early history of the republic, and the first 
member of the gens who obtained the consul- 
ship was L. Sergius Fidenas, in B.C. 437. Cat- 
iline belonged to this gens. Vid. CatIlina. 
The Sergii bore also the surnames of Esquili- 
nus, Fidenas, Orata, Paulus, Plancus, and Silus ; 
but none of them are of sufficient importance 
to require a separate notice. 

Sergius, a grammarian of uncertain date, but 
later than the fourth century after Christ, the 
author of two tracts ; the first entitled In pri- 
mam Donat.i Editionem Commentarium ; the sec- 
ond, In scciindam Donati Editionem Commcnta- 
ria. They are printed in the Grammaticce Lali- 
na auclores antiqui of Putschius (Hannov., 1605, 
p. 1816-1838). 

Serica (j? InpcKr/, Zf/pec ; Seres, also rarely in 
the sing. 2f/p, Ser), a country in the extreme 
east of Asia, famous as the native region of the 
silk- worm, which was also called or/p; and hence 
the adjective " sericus" for silken. The name 
was known to the western nations at a very early 
period, through the use of silk, first in Western 
Asia, and afterward in Greece. It is clear, 
however, that, until some time after the com- 
mencement of our era, the name had no distinct 
geographical signification. Serica and Seres 
were simply the unknown country and people 
in the far East, from whom the article of" com- 
merce, silk, was obtained. At a later period, 
some knowledge of the country was obtained 
from the traders, the results of which are re- 
corded by Ptolemy, who names several posi- 
tions that can be identified with reasonable 
probability, but the detailed mention of which 
does not fall within the object of this work. 
The Serica of Ptolemy corresponds to the north- 
western part of China, and the adjacent por- 
tions of Thibet and Chinese Tartary. The cap- 
ital, Sera, is supposed by most to be Singan, on 
the Hoang-ho, but by some Peking. The coun- 
try was bounded, according to Ptolemy, on the 
north by unknown regions, on the west by 
Scythia, on the south and southeast by India 
and the Sinae. The people were said by some 
to be of Indian, by others of Scythian origin, 
and by others to be a mixed race. The Great 
Wall of China is mentioned by Ammianus Mar 
cellinus under the name of Aggeres Serium. 

SerIphus CZepiipoc : "Zep'upioc : now Serpho), 
an island in the jEgean Sea, and one of the Cyc- 
lades, lying between Cythnus and Siphnus. It 
was a small rocky island about twelve miles in 
circumference. It is celebrated in mythology as 
the island where Danae and Perseus landed 
after they had been exposed by Acrisius, where 
Perseus was brought up, and where he after- 
ward turned the inhabitants into stone with 
the Gorgon's head. Seriphus was colonized by 
Ionians from Athens, and it was one of the 
few islands which refused submission to Xerx- 
es. At a later time the inhabitants of Seri- 
phus were noted for their poverty and wretch- 
edness ; and for this reason the island was 
employed by the Roman emperors as a place 
of banishment for state criminals. The an- 

803 



SERMYLA. 



SERVILIA. 



cient writers relate that the frogs in Seriphos 
were mute. 

Sermyla (Lepuvln : 2epfiv2.ioc), a town in 
Macedonia, on the isthmus of the peninsula Si- 
ihonia. 

Serranus, Atilius. Serranus was originally 
an agnomen of C. Atilius Regulus, consul B.C. 
257, but afterward became the name of a dis- 
tincUfamily of the Atilia gens. Most of the an- 
cient writers derive the name from screrc, and 
relate that Regulus received the surname of 
Serranus, because he was engaged in sowing 
when the news was brought him of his eleva- 
tion to the consulship (Virg., JEn., vi., 845). It 
appears, however, from coins, that Saranus is 
the proper form of the name, and some modern 
writers think that it is derived from Saranum, 
a town of TJmbria. — 1. C, praetor B.C. 218, the 
first year of the second Punic war, and was sent 
into Northern Italy. At a later period of the 
year he resigned his command to the consul P. 
Scipio. He was an unsuccessful candidate for 
the consulship for 216.— 2. C, curule aedile 193, 
with L. Scribonius Libo. They were the first 
aediles who exhibited the Megalesia as ludi sce- 
nici. He was praetor 185. — 3. A., praetor 192, 
when he obtained, as his province, Macedonia 
and the command of the fleet. He was praetor 
a second time in 173. He was consul in 170. 
— 4. M., praetor 174, when he obtained the prov- 
ince of Sardinia. — 5. M., praetor 152, in Further 
Spain, defeated the Lusitani. — 6. Sex., consul 
136.— 7. C, consul 106 with Q. Servilius Cae- 
pio, the year in which Cicero and Pompey were 
born. Although a " stultissimus homo" ac- 
cording to Cicero, he was elected in preference 
to Q. Catulus. He was one of the senators who 
took up arms against Saturninus in 100. — 8. 
Sex., surnamed Gavianus, because he original- 
ly belonged to the Gavia gens. He was quaes- 
tor in 63 in the consulship of Cicero, who treat- 
ed him with distinguished favor ; but in his 
tribunate of the plebs, 57, he took an active part 
n opposing Cicero's recall from banishment. 
After Cicero's return to Rome he put his veto 
upon the decree of the senate restoring to Ci- 
cero the site on which his house had stood, but 
he found it advisable to withdraw his opposition. 

Serrhium (lepp'Eiov), a promontory of Thrace 
in the ^Egean Sea, opposite the island of Samo- 
thrace, with a fortress of the same name upon it. 

Sertorius, Q., one of the most extraordinary 
men in the later times of the republic, was a 
native of Nursia, a Sabine village, and was born 
of obscure but respectable parents. He served 
under Marius in the war against the Teutones ; 
and before the battle of Aquae Sextiae (now Aix), 
B.C. 102, he entered the camp of the Teutones 
in disguise as a spy, for which hazardous un- 
dertaking his intrepid character and some knowl- 
edge of the Gallic language well qualified him. 
He also served as tribunus militum in Spain 
under T. Didius (97). He was quaestor in 91, 
and had before this time lost an eye in battle. 
On the outbreak of the civil war in 88, he de- 
clared himself against the party of the nobles, 
though he was by no means an admirer of his 
old commander, C. Marius, whose character he 
well understood. He commanded one of the 
four armies which besieged Rome under Marius 
and Cinna. He was, however, opposed to She 
804 



bloody massacre which ensued after Marius 
and Cinna entered Rome ; and he was so in- 
dignant at the horrible deeds committed by the 
slaves whom Marius kept as guards, that he fell 
j upon them in their camp, and speared four thou- 
i sand of them. In 83 Sertorius was praetor, and 
j either in this year or the following he went into 
Spain, which had been assigned to him as his 
province by the Marian party. After collecting 
a small body of troops in Spain, he crossed over 
j to Mauretania, where he gained a victory over 
I Paccianus, one of Sulla's generals. In conse- 
' quence of his success in Africa, he was invited ! 
by the Lusitani, who were exposed to the inva- 
sion of the Romans, to become their leader. He 
gained great influence over the Lusitanians and 
the other barbarians in Spain, and soon succeed- 
ed in forming an army which for some years 
successfully opposed all the power of Rome. 
He also availed himself of the superstitious 
character of the people among whom he was 
to strengthen his authority over them. A fawn | 
was brought to him by one of the natives as a 
present, which soon became so tame as to ac- 
company him in his walks, and attend him on 
all occasions. After Sulla had become master 
of Italy, Sertorius was joined by many Romans 
who had been proscribed by the dictator ; and 
this not only added to his consideration, but 
brought him many good officers. In 79 Metel- 
lus Pius was sent into Spain with a considera- 
ble force against Sertorius ; but Metellus could 
effect nothing against the enemy. He was un- 
able to bring Sertorius to any decisive battle, 
but was constantly harassed by the guerilla war- ( 
fare of the latter. In 77 Sertorius was joined 
by M. Perperna with fifty-three cohorts. Vid. 
Perperna. To give some show of form to his 
formidable power, Sertorius established a sen- 
ate of three hundred, into which no provincial 
was admitted ; but, to soothe the more distin- 
guished Spaniards, and to have some security 
for their fidelity, he established a school at Hu- 
esca (now Osca), in Aragon, for the education 
of their children in Greek and Roman learning 
The continued want of success on the part of 
Metellus induced the Romans to send Pompey 
to his assistance, but with an independent com 
mand. Pompey arrived in Spain in 76 with 
thirty thousand infantry and one thousand cav- 
alry, but even with this formidable force he was 
unable to gain any decisive advantages over 
Sertorius. For the next five years Sertorius i 
kept both Metellus and Pompey at bay, and cut 
to pieces a large number of their forces. Ser- 
torius was at length assassinated in 72 at a - 
banquet by Perperna and some other Roman 
officers, who had long been jealous of the au- 
thority of their commander. 

Sekvilia. 1. Daughter of Q. Servilius Cae- 
pio and the daughter of Livia, the sister of the 
celebrated M. Livius Drusus, tribune of the 
plebs B.C. 91. Servilia was married twice; j 
first to M. Junius Brutus, by whom she became 
the mother of the murderer of Caesar, and sec- 
ondly to D. Junius Silanus, consul 62. She was 
the favorite mistress of the dictator Caesar ; and I 
it is reported that Brutus was her son by Caesar. 
This tale, however, can not be true, as Caesai | 
was only fifteen years older than Brutus, the j 
former having been born in 100, and the lattei 



SERVILIA GENS. 



SETIA. 



in 85. She survived both her lover and her 
son. After the battle of Philippi, Antony sent 
her the ashes t>f her son. — 2. Sister of the pre- 
ceding, was the second wife of L. Lucullus, 
consul 74. She bore Lucullus a son, but, like 
her sister, she was faithless to her husband ; 
and the latter, after putting up with her conduct 
for some time from regard to M. Cato Uticen- 
sis, her half-brother, at length divorced her. 

Servilia Gens, was one of-the Alban houses 
removed to Rome by Tullus Hostilius. This 
gens was very celebrated during the early ages 
of the republic, and it continued to produce men 
of influence in the state down to the imperial 
period. It was divided into numerous families, 
of which the most important bore the names of 
Ahala, Cxpio, Casca, Glaucia, Rui.lus, Vatia. 

Servids Maurus Honoratus, or Servius Ma- 
bibs Honoratus, a celebrated Latin gramma- 
rian, contemporary with Macrobius, who intro- 
duces him among the dramatis persona? of the 
Saturnalia. His most celebrated production 
was an elaborate commentary upon Virgil. 
This is, nominally at least, still extant ; but, 
from the widely different forms which it as- 
sumes in different MSS., it is clear that it must 
have been changed and interpolated to such an 
extent by the transcribers of the Middle Ages 
that it is impossible to determine how much 
belongs to Servius and how much to later hands. 
Even in its present condition, however, it is 
deservedly regarded as the most important and 
valuable of all the Latin Scholia. It is attach- 
ed to many of the earlier editions of Virgil, but 
it will he found under its best form in the edi- 
tion of Virgil by Burmann. [A separate edition 
was published by Lion, Gottingen, 1825, 2 vols. 
8vo.] We possess also the following treatises 
bearing the name of Servius : 1. In secundam 
Donali Editionem Intcrprelatio. 2. De Ratione 
ultiniarum Syllabarum ad Aquilinum Liber. 3. 
Ars de centum Metris s. Cenlimetrum. 

Servius Tullius. Vid. Tullius. 

Sesamos (ZTjaafioc), a little coast river of 
Paphlagonia, with a town of the same name : 
both called afterward Amastris. 

Sesostris (Ee'crcjoTptf), the name given by the 
Greeks to the great King of Egypt, who is call- 
ed in Manetho and on the monuments Ramses 
or Ramesses. Ramses is a name common to 
several kings of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and 
twentieth dynasties; but Sesostris must be iden- 
tified with Ramses, the third king of the nine- 
teenth dynasty, the son of Seti, and the father 
of Menephthah. Sesostris was a great con- 
queror. He is said to have subdued ^Ethiopia, 
the greater part of Asia, and the Thracians in 
Europe ; and in all the countries which he con- 
quered he erected stela, on which he inscribed 
nis own name. He returned to Egypt after an 
absence of nine years, and the countless cap- 
tives whom he brought back with him were 
employed in the erection of numerous public 
works. Memorials of Ramses-Sesostris still 
exist throughout the whole of Egypt, from the 
mouth of the Nile to the south of Nubia. In the 
remains of his palace-temple at Thebes we see 
his victories and conquests represented on the 
walls, and we can still trace there some of the 
nations of Africa and Asia whom he subdued. 
The name of Sesostris is not found on monu- 



ments, and it was probably a popular surname 
given to the great hero of the nineteenth dy- 
nasty, and borrowed from Sesostris, one of the 
renowned kings of the twelfth dynasty, oi per- 
haps from Sesorthus, a king of the third dy- 
nasty. 

[Sessites (now Sessia or Sesia), a small river 
of Gallia Cisalpina, flowing past Vercellae, and 
emptying into the Padus (now Po).] 

Sestianye Arye (now Cape Villano), the most 
westerly promontory on the northern coast of 
Hispania Tarraconensis in Gallaeeia, with three 
altars consecrated to Augustus. 

Sestinum (Sestinas, -atis : now Sestino), a 
town in Umbria, on the Apennines, near the 
sources of the Pisaurus. 

Sestius. Vid. Sextius. 

Sestus (S^arof : "Zriarioc: now Ialova), a town 
in Thrace, situated at the narrowest part of the 
Hellespont, opposite Abydos in Asia, from which 
it was only seven stadia distant. It was found- 
ed by the /Eolians. It was celebrated in Gre- 
cian poetry on account of the loves of Leander 
and Hero (vid. Leander), and in history on ac- 
count of the bridge of boats which Xerxes here 
built across the Hellespont. Sestus was always 
reckoned a place of importance in consequence 
of its commanding, to a great extent, the passage 
of the Hellespont. It was for some time in the 
possession of the Persians, but was retaken 
by the Greeks, B.C. 478, after a long siege. It 
subsequently formed part of the Athenian em- 
pire. 

[Sesuvii, a people of Gallia Celtica, inhabit- 
ing part of the department de I'Orne and of that 
of Calvados : Seez, in the former of these, recalls 
the ancient name.] 

Setabis. Vid. S^ETABIS. 

Sethon (2£0cjv),a priest of Vulcan (Hephaes- 
tus), made himself master of Egypt after the ex- 
pulsion of Sabacon, king of the /Ethiopians, and 
was succeeded by the Dodecarchia, or govern- 
ment of the twelve chiefs, which ended in the 
sole sovereignty of Psammitichus. Herodotus 
relates (ii., 141) that in Sethon's reign, Sana- 
charibus, king of the Arabians and Assyrians, 
advanced against Egypt, at which Sethon was 
in great alarm, as he had insulted the warrior 
class, and deprived them of their lands, and 
they now refused to follow him to the war. But 
the god Vulcan (Hephaestus) came to his assist- 
ance ; for while the two armies were encamped 
near Pelusium, the field-mice in the night gnaw- 
ed to pieces the bow-strings, the quivers, and the 
shield-handles of the Assyrians, who fled on the 
following day with great loss. The recollection 
of this miracle was perpetuated by a statue of 
the king in the temple of Vulcan (Hephaestus), 
holding a mouse in his hand, and saying, " Let 
every man look at me and be pious." This San- 
acharibus is the Sennacherib of the Scriptures, 
and the destruction of the Assyrians at Pelu- 
sium is evidently only another version of the 
miraculous destruction of the Assyrians by the 
angel of the Lord, when they had advanced 
against Jerusalem in the reign of Hezekiah. 
According to the Jewish records, this event 
happened in B.C.' 711. 

Setia (Setinus: now Sesza or Sesse), an an- 
cient town of Latium, in the east of the Pontine 
Marshes, originally belonged to the VolsciaD 

805 



SETIUM PROMONTORIUM. 



SEVERUS, SEPTIMTUS. 



confederacy, but was subsequently taken by the 
Romans and colonized. It was here tbat the 
Romans kept the Carthaginian hostages. It 
was celebrated for the excellent wine grown in 
the neighborhood of the town, which was reck- 
oned in the time of Augustus the finest wine in 
Italy. 

[Setium Promontorium (now Cape Cetle), a 
promontory on the south coast of Gallia, north- 
east of Agatha (now Agde), and near the island 
Blascon (now Brescon).] 

Severus, M. Aurelius Alexander, usually 
called Alexander Severus, Roman emperor 
A.D. 222-235, the son of Gessius Marcianus and 
Julia Mamaea, and first cousin of Elagabalus, 
was born at Arce, in Phoenicia, in the temple of 
Alexander the Great, to which his parents had 
repaired for the celebration of a festival, the 1st 
of October, A.D. 205. His original name ap- 
pears to have been Alexianus Bassianus, the 
latter appellation having been derived from his 
maternal grandfather. Upon the elevation of 
Elagabalus, he accompanied his mother and the 
court to Rome, a report having been spread 
abroad that he also, as well as the emperor, 
was the son of Caracalla. In 221 he was adopt- 
ed by Elagabalus and created Caesar. The 
names Alexianus and Bassianus were laid aside, 
and those of M. Aurelius Alexander substituted ; 
M. Aurelius in virtue of his adoption ; Alexan- 
der in consequence, as was asserted, of a direct 
revelation on the part of the Syrian god. On 
the death of Elagabalus, on the 11th of March, 
A.D. 222, Alexander ascended the throne, add- 
ing Severus to his other designations, in order 
to mark more explicitly the descent which he 
claimed from the father of Caracalla. After 
reigning in peace some years, during which he 
reformed many abuses in the state, he was in- 
volved in a war with Artaxerxes, king of Per- 
sia, who had lately founded the new empire of 
the Sassanidae on the ruins of the Parthian mon- 
archy. Alexander gained a great victory over 
Artaxerxes in 232 ; but he was unable to pros- 
ecute his advantage in consequence of intelli- 
gence having reached him of a great movement 
among the German tribes. He celebrated a tri- 
umph at Rome in 233, and in the following year 
(234) set out for Gaul, which the Germans were 
devastating ; but, before he had made any prog- 
ress in the campaign, he was waylaid by a small 
band of mutinous soldiers, instigated.it is said, 
by Maximinus, and slain, along with his moth- 
er, in the early part of 235, in the thirtieth year 
of his age and the fourteenth of his reign. Al- 
exander Severus was distinguished by justice, 
wisdom, and clemency in all public transactions, 
and by the simplicity and purity of his private 
life. 

Severus, A. GaxiNA. Vid. Cecina. 

Severus, Cassius, a celebrated orator and 
satirical writer in the time of Augustus and Ti- 
berius, was born about B.C. 50, at Longula, in 
Latium. He was a man of low origin and dis- 
solute character, but was much feared by the 
severity of his attacks upon the Roman nohles. 
He must have commenced his career as a pub- 
lic slanderer very early, if he is the person 
against whom the sixth epode of Horace is di- 
rected, as is supposed by many ancient and mod- 
ern commentators. Toward the latter end of 
806 



the reign of Augustus, Severus was banished 
by Augustus to the island of Crete on account 
of his libellous verses ; but as he' still continued 
to write libels, he was removed by Tiberius, in 
in A.D. 24, to the desolate island of Seriphos, 
where he died in great poverty in the twenty- 
fifth year of his exile, A.D. 33. 

Severus, Cornelius, the author of a poem 
entitled Bellum Siculum, was contemporary with 
Ovid, by whom he is addressed in one of the 
Epistles written from Pontus. 

Severus, Flavius Valerius, Roman emper- 
or A.D. 306-307. He was proclaimed Caesar 
by Galerius in 305; and on the death of Con- 
stantius Chlorus in the following year, he was 
further proclaimed Augustus by Galerius. Soon 
afterward he was sent against Maxentius, who 
had assumed the imperial title at Rome. The 
expedition, however, was unsuccessful ; and 
Severus, having surrendered at Ravenna, was 
taken prisoner to Rome and compelled to put 
an end to his life. 

Severus, Libius, Roman emperor A.D. 461— 
465, was a Lucanian by birth, and owed his ac- 
cession to Ricimer, who placed him on the 
throne after the assassination of Majorian. 
During his reign the real government was in 
the hands of Ricimer. Severus died a natural 
death. 

Severus, Septimius L., Roman emperor A.D. 
193-211, was born 146, near Leptis in Africa. 
After holding various important military com- 
mands under M. Aurelius and Commodus, he 
was at length appointed commander-in-chief of 
the army in Pannonia and Illyria. By this army 
he was proclaimed emperor after the death of 
Perlinax (193). He forthwith marched upon 
Rome, where Julianus had been made emperor 
by the praetorian troops. Julianus was put to 
death upon his arrival before the city. Vid. Ju- 
lianus. Severus then turned his arms against 
Pescennius Niger, who had been saluted em- 
peror by the eastern legions. The struggle was 
brought to a close by a decisive battle near Is- 
sus, in which Niger was defeated by Severus, 
and, having been shortly afterward taken pris- 
oner, was put to death by order of the latter 
(194). Severus then laid siege to Byzantium, 
which refused to submit to him even after the 
death of Niger, and which was not taken till 
196. The city was treated with great severity 
by Severus. Its walls were levelled with the 
earth, its soldiers and magistrates put to death, 
and the town itself, deprived of all its political 
privileges, made over to the Perinthians. Dur- 
ing the continuance of this siege, Severus had 
crossed the Euphrates (195) and subdued the 
Mesopotamian Arabians. He returned to Italy 
in 196, and in the same year proceeded to Gaul 
to oppose Albinus, who had been proclaimed 
emperor by the troops in that country. Albinus 
was defeated and slain in a terrible battle fought 
near Lyons on the 19th of February, 197. Se- 
verus returned to Rome in the same year ; but 
after remaining a short time in the capital, he 
set out for the East in order to repel the inva- 
sion of the Parthians, who were ravaging Mes- 
opotamia. He crossed the Euphrates early in 
198, and commenced a series of operations which 
were attended with brilliant results. Seleucin 
and Babylon were evacuated by the enemy, and 



SEVERUS, SULPICIUS. 

Ctesiphon was taken and plundered after a short 
siege. After spending three years in the East, 
and visiting Arabia, Palestine, and Egypt, Se- 
verus returned to Rome in 202. For~the next 
seven years he remained tranquilly at Rome, 
but in 203 he went to Britain with his sons 
Caracalla and Geta. Here he carried on war 
against the Caledonians, and erected the cele- 
brated wall, which bore his name, from the Sol- 
way to the mouth of the Tyne. After remain- 
ing two years in Britain, he died at Ehoracum 
(York) on the 4th of February, 211, in the six- 
ty-fifth year of his age and the eighteenth of 
his reign. 

Severus, SulpTcIus, chiefly celebrated as an 
ecclesiastical historian, was a native of Aquita- 
nia, and flourished toward the close of the fourth 
century under Areadius and Honorius. He was 
descended from a noble family, and was orig- 
inally an advocate ; but he eventually became 
a presbyter of the church, and attached himself 
closely to St. Martin of Tours. The extant 
works of Severus are, 1. Historia Sacra, an epit- 
ome of sacred history, extending from the crea- 
tion of the world to the consulship of Stilicho 
and Aurelianus, A.D. 400. 2. Vita S. Martini 
Turoncnsis. 3. Ties Epistola. 4. Dialogi duo, 
containing a review of the dissensions which 
had arisen among ecclesiastics in the East re- 
garding the works of Origen. 5. Epistolce Sex. 
The best edition of the complete works of Se- 
verus is by Hieronymus de Prato, 4to, 2 vols., 
Veron., 1741-1754. 

[Severus, the architect, with Celer, of Ne- 
ro's golden house.] 

[Severus Mons, a rocky eminence in the land 
of the Sabini, on the borders of Picenum, prob- 
ably belonged to Mons Fiscellus (now Monti 
della Sibilla).] 

[Sevinus Lacus. Vid. Sebinus Lacus. 

[Sevo Mons (now Mount Kjolcri), an exten- 
sive and lofty range of mountains in Scandi- 
navia.] 

Seuthes {^.evdnc), the name of several kings 
of the Odrysians in Thrace. Of these the most 
important was the nephew of Sitalces, whom he 
succeeded on the throne in 424. During a long 
reign he raised his kingdom to a height of pow- 
er and prosperity which it had never previously 
attained. 

Sextia or Sestia Gens, plebeian, one of whose 
members, namely, L. Sextius Sextinus Latera- 
nus, was the first plebeian who obtained the 
consulship, B.C. 366. 

Sexti^e Ao.uiE. Vid. Aqu^s Sexti/e. 

Sextius or SestTus. 1. P., quaestor B.C. 63, 
and tribune of the plebs 57. In the latter year 
he took an active part in obtaining Cicero's re- 
call from banishment. Like Milo, he kept a 
band of armed retainers to oppose P. Clodius 
and his partisans; and in the following year 
(56) he was accused of Vis on account of his 
violent acts during his tribunate. He was de- 
fended by Cicero in an oration still extant, and 
was acquitted on the 14th of March, chiefly in 
consequence of the powerful influence of Pom- 
pey. In 53 Sextius was praetor. On the break- 
ing out of the civil war in 49, Sextius first es- 
poused Pompey's party, but he afterward joined 
Caesar, who sent him, in 48, into Cappadocia. 
He was alive in 43, as appears from Cicero's 



SIBYLLA. 

correspondence. — 2. L., son of the preceding bj 
his first wife, Postumia. He served under M. 
Brutus in Macedonia, but subsequently became 
the friend of Augustus. Or.e of Horace's odes 
is addressed to him. — 3. T., one of Caesar's le- 
gates in Gaul, and afterward governor of the 
province of Numidia or New Africa, at the time 
of Caesar's death (44). Here he carried on war 
against Q. Cornificius, who held the province of 
Old Africa, and whom he defeated and slew in 
battle. 

Sextius Calvinus. Vid. Calvinus. 

Sextus EmpirIcus, was a physician, and re- 
ceived his name Empiricus from belonging to 
the school of the Empirici. He was a contem- 
porary of Galen, and lived in the first half of 
the third century of the Christian era. Noth- 
ing is known of his life. He belonged to the 
Skeptical school of philosophy. Two of his 
works are extant : 1. Tivpfauviai 'YnoTviruoEie fj 
OKcirTitca vKOfivr/ftaTa, containing the doctrines 
of the Skeptics in three books. 2. TJpoc rove 
padrjixariKovc avrtpprjrucoi, against the Mathe- 
matici, in eleven books, is an attack upon all 
positive philosophy. The first six books are a 
refutation of the six sciences of grammar, rhet- 
oric, geometry, arithmetic, astrology, and mu- 
sic. The remaining five books are directed 
against logicians, physical philosophers, and 
ethical writers, and form, in fact, a distinct 
work, which may be viewed as belonging to the 
'YTTorvnuaeie. The two works are a great re- 
pository of doubts; the language is as clear and 
perspicuous as the subject will allow. Edited 
by Fahricius, Lips., 1718. [A reimpression of 
this edition appeared at Leipzig, 1842, 2 vols. 
8vo : a new edition, with an amended text, was 
published by Bekker at Berlin, 1842.] 

[Sextus, of Chaeronea, Plutarch's sister's 
son, a Stoic philosopher, instructor of the Em- 
peror Antoninus] 

Sextus Rufus. 1. The name prefixed to a 
work entitled De Regionibus Urbis Roma, pub- 
lished by Onuphrius Panvinius at Frankfort in 
1558. This work is believed by the best to- 
pographers to have been compiled at a late pe- 
riod, and is not regarded as a document of au- 
thority. — 2. Sextus Rufus is also the name pre- 
fixed to an abridgment of Roman History in 
twenty-eight short chapters, entitled Breviarium 
de Victoriis el Provinciis Populi Romani, and ex- 
ecuted by command of the Emperor Valens, to 
whom it is dedicated. This work is usually 
printed with the larger editions of Eutropius, 
and of the minor Roman historians. There are 
no grounds for establishing a connection be- 
tween Sextus Rufus the historian and the au- 
thor of the work De Regionibus. 

Sid^e or Sibi (2i6ai, 2('6o(), a rude people in 
the northwest of India (in the Punjab), above 
the confluence of the Rivers Hydaspes (now 
Jelum) and Acesines (now Chcnab), who were 
clothed in skins and armed with clubs, and 
whom, therefore, the soldiers of Alexander re- 
garded, whether seriously or in jest, as descend- 
ants of Hercules. 

Sibylla (2i6v\lai), the name by which sev- 
eral prophetic women are designated. The first 
Sibyl, from whom all the rest are said to have 
derived their name, is called a daughter of Dar- 
danus ?nd Neso. Some authors mention only 

807 



SICAMBRI. 



SICILIA 



I 



four Sibyls, the Erythraean, the Samian, the 
Egyptian, and the Sardian ; but it was more 
commonly believed that there were ten, namely, 
the Babylonian, the Libyan, the Delphian (an 
elder Delphian, who was a daughter of Zeus 
and Lamia, and a younger one), the Cimmerian, 
the Erythraean (also an elder and a younger 
one, the latter of whom was called Herophile), 
the Samian, the Cumaean (sometimes identified 
with the Erythraean), the Hellespontian or Tro- 
jan, the Phrygian, and the Tiburtine. The 
most celebrated of these Sibyls is the Cumaean, 
who is mentioned under the names of Hero- 
phile, Demo, Phemonoe, Deiphobe, Demophile, 
and Amalthea. She was consulted by .Eneas 
before he descended into the lower world. She 
is said to have come to Italy from the East, and 
she is the one who, according to tradition, ap- 
peared before King Tarquinius, offering him the 
Sibylline books for sale. Respecting the Sibyl- 
line books, vid. Diet, of Antiq., art. Sibyluni 
Libri. 

SlCAMBRI. Vid. SVGAMBEI. 

[Sicana (ZiKavn), a city of Iberia, on the River 
Sicanus, whence tradition made the Sicani to 
have emigrated to Sicily. Vid. Sicilia.] 

Sicani, Siceli, Siceliot^;. Vid. Sicilia. 

[Sicanus. Vid. Sicana.] 

[Sicanus (2«ai>6c), a Syracusan, son of Exe- 
cestus, one of the generals of the Syracusans 
at the time of the Athenian expedition, B.C. 
415. He was sent to Agrigentum, which he 
endeavored to regain by stratagem from the 
party who had seized upon it and driven out 
those favorable to Syracuse. At the great bat- 
tle in the harbor of Syracuse he commanded a 
wing of the Syracusan fleet.] 

Sicarii (i. e., assassins), the name given by 
the Romans to certain savage mountain tribes 
of the Lebanon, who were, like the Thugs of 
India, avowed murderers by profession. In the 
same mountains there existed, at the time of 
the Crusades, a branch of the fanatic sect call- 
ed Assassins, whose habits resembled those of 
the Sicarii, and whose name the Crusaders im- 
ported into Europe ; but these were of Arabian 
origin. 

Sicca Veneria (now probably Al-Kaff), a con- 
siderable city of Northern Africa, on the fron- 
tier of Numidia and Zeugitana, built on a hill 
near the River Bagradas. It derived its name 
from a temple of Venus, in which the goddess 
was worshipped with rites peculiar to the cor- 
responding Eastern deity Astarte, whence it 
may be inferred that the place was a Phoenician 
settlement. 

Sich^eus, also called Acerbas. Vid. Acerbas. 

Sicilia (now Sicily), one of the largest islands 
in the Mediterranean Sea. It was supposed by 
the ancients to be the same as the Homeric isl- 
and Thrinacia (QpLvauLa), and it was therefore 
frequently called Thrinacia, Trinacia, or Tri- 
nacris, a name which was believed to be de- 
rived from the triangular figure of the island. 
For the same reason, the Roman poets called it 
Triquetra. Its more usual name came from 
its later inhabitants, the Siceli, whence it was 
called Sicelia (Si/ceXia), which the Romans 
changed into Sicilia. As the Siceli also bore 
the name of Sicani, the island was also called 
Sicani a (Zmavia). Sicily is separated from the 
808 



southern coast of Italy by a narrow cha. ne 
called Fretum Siculum, sometimes simply Fre 
tum {TlopOfioc), and also Scyll^eitm Fretum, ol 
which the modern name is Faro di Messina 
The sea on the east and south of the island waa 
also called Mare Siculum. The island itself is 
in the shape of a triangle. The northern and 
southern sides are about one hundred and sev 
enty-five miles each in length, not including the 
windings of the coast ; and the length of the 
eastern side is about one hundred and fifteen 
miles. The northwestern point, the Promonto- 
rium Lilybezum, is about ninety miles from Cape 
Bon, on the coast of Africa ; the northeastern 
point, Promontorium Pelorus, is about three miles 
from the coast of Calabria in Italy ; and the 
southeastern point, Promontorium Pachynus, is 
sixty miles from the island of Malta. Sicily 
formed originally part of Italy, and was torn 
away from it by some volcanic eruption, as the 
ancients generally believed. A range of mount 
ains, which are a continuation of the Apen- 
nines, extends throughout the island from east 
to west. The general name of this mountain 
range was Nebrodi Montes (now Madonia), of 
which there were several offshoots known by 
different names. Of these the most important 
were the celebrated volcano .■Etna on the east- 
ern side of the island, Eryx (now St. Giuliano) 
in the extreme west, near Drepanum, and the 
Heraei Montes (now Monti Sori) in the south, 
running down to the promontory Pachynus. A 
large number of rivers flow down from the 
mountains, but most of them are dry, or nearly 
so, in the summer. The soil of Sicily was very 
fertile, and produced in antiquity an immense 
quantity of wheat, on which the population of 
Rome relied to a great extent for their subsist- 
ence. So celebrated was it even in early times 
on account of its corn, that it was represented 
as sacred to Demeter (Ceres), and as the favor- 
ite abode of this goddess. Hence it was in this 
island that her daughter Persephone (Proser- 
pina) was carried away by Pluto. Besides corn 
the island produced excellent wine, saffron, 
honey, almonds, and the other southern fruits 
The earliest inhabitants of Sicily are said to 
have been the savage Cyclopes and Laestry- 
gones ; but these are fabulous beings, and the 
first inhabitants mentioned in history are the 
Sicani CZinavoi) or Siculi (Sjke/W), who cross- 
ed over into the island from Italy. Some writ- 
ers, indeed, regard the Sicani and Siculi as two 
distinct tribes, supposing the latter only to have 
migrated from Italy, and the former to have 
been the aboriginal inhabitants of the country ; 
but there is no good reason for making any dis- 
tinction between them. They appear to have 
been a Celtic people. According to Thucyd- 
ides, their original settlement was on the River 
Sicanus in Iberia ; but as Thucydides extends 
Iberia as far as the Rhone, it is probable that 
Sicanus was a river of Gaul, and it may have 
been the Sequana, as some modern writers sup- 
pose. The ancient writers relate that these 
Sicani, being hard pressed by the Ligyes (Li- 
gures), crossed the Alps and settled in Latium , 
that, being driven out of this country by the 
Aborigines with the help of Pelasgians. they 
migrated to the south of the peninsula, where 
they lived for a considerable time along with 



SICILIA. 



SICULUS FLACCUS. 



the CEnotrians ; and that at last they crossed 
over to Sicily, to which they gave their name. 
They spread over the greater part of the island, 
but in later times were found chiefly in the in- 
terior and in the northern part ; some of the 
most important towns belonging to them were 
Herbita, Agyrium, Adranum, and Enna. The 
next immigrants into the island were Cretans, 
who are said to have come to Sicily under their 
king, Minos, in pursuit of Daedalus, and to have 
settled on the southern coast in the neighbor- 
hood of Agrigentum, where they founded Minoa 
(afterward Heraclea Minoa). Then came the 
ElymEei, a small band of fugitive Trojans, who 
are said to have built Entella, Eryx, and Egesta. 
These Cretans and Elymaei, however, if indeed 
they ever visited Sicily, soon became incorpo- 
rated with the Sieuli. The Phoenicians, like- 
wise, at an early period formed settlements, for 
the purposes of commerce, on all the coasts of 
Sicily, but more especially on the northern and 
northwestern parts. They were subsequently 
obliged to retire from the greater part of their 
settlements before the increasing power of the 
Greeks, and to confine themselves to Motya, 
Solus, and Panormus. But the most important 
of all the immigrants into Sicily were the 
Greeks. The first body of Greeks who landed 
in the island were Chaleidians from Euboea, and 
Megarians led by the Athenian Thucles. These 
Greek colonists built the town of Naxos, B.C. 
735. They were soon followed by other Greek 
colonists, who founded a number of very flour- 
ishing cities, such as Syracuse in 734, Leontini 
and Catana in 730, Megara Hybla in 726, Gela 
in 690, Selinus in 626, Agrigenturn in 579, etc. 
The Greeks soon became the ruling race in the 
island, and received the name of Siceliotje 
(Si/cerUurac) to distinguish them from the earlier 
inhabitants. At a later time the Carthaginians 
obtained a firm footing in Sicily. Their first 
attempt was made in 480 ; but they were de- 
feated by Gelon of Syracuse, and obliged to re- 
tire with great loss. Their second invasion in 
409 was more successful. They took Selinus 
in this year, and four years afterward (405) the 
powerful city of Agrigentum. They now be- 
came the permanent masters of the western 
part of the island, and were engaged in frequent 
wars with Syracuse and the other Greek cities. 
The struggle between the Carthaginians and 
Greeks continued, with a few interruptions, 
down to the first Punic war ; at the close of 
which (241) the Carthaginians were obliged to 
evacuate the island, the western part of which 
now passed into the hands of the Romans, and 
was made a Roman province. The eastern 
part still continued under the rule of Hieron of 
Syracuse as an ally of Rome ; but after the re- 
volt of Syracuse in the second Punic war, and 
the conquest of that city by Marcellus, the whole 
island was made a Roman province, and was 
administered by a praetor. Under the Roman 
dominion more attention was paid to agricul- 
ture than to commerce ; and, consequently, the 
Greek cities on the coast gradually declined in 
prosperity and in wealth. The inhabitants of 
the province received the Jus Latii from Julius 
Caesar ; and Antony conferred upon them, in 
accordance, as it was said, with Caesar's will, 
the full Roman franchise. Augustus, after his 



conquest Df Sex. Pompey, who had held the isl- 
and for several years, founded colonies at Mes- 
sana, Tauromenium, Catana, Syracuse, Ther- 
mae, and Panormus. On-.the downfall of the 
Roman empire, Sicily formed part of the king- 
dom of the Ostrogoths ; but it was taken from 
them by Belisarius in A.D. 536, and annexed 
to the Byzantine empire. It continued a prov 
ince of this empire till 828, when it was con- 
quered by the Saracens. Literature and the 
arts were cultivated with great success in the 
Greek cities of Sicily. It was the birth-place 
of the philosophers Empedocles, Epicharmus, 
! and Dicasarchus; of the mathematician Archi- 
I medes ; of the physicians Herodicus and Acron ; 
of the historians Diodorus, Antiochus, Philis- 
tus, and Timaeus ; of the rhetorician Gorgias 
and of the poets Stesichorus and Theocritus. 
Sicima. Vid. Neapolis, No. 5. 
Sicinius. 1. L. SiciniusBellutus, the leader 
of the plebeians in their secession to the Sa- 
cred Mount in B.C. 494. He was chosen one 
of the first tribunes. — 2. L. Sicinius Dentatus, 
called by some writers the Roman Achilles. He 
is said to have fought in one hundred and twenty 
' battles, to have slain eight of the enemy in sin 
1 gle combat, to have received forty-five wounds 
j on the front of his body, and to have accom- 
• panied the triumphs of nine generals, whose 
' victories were principally owing to his "valor 
He was tribune of the plebs in 454. He was 
put to death by the decemvirs in 450, because 
he endeavored to persuade the plebeians to se- 
cede to the Sacred Mount. The persons sent 
to assassinate him fell upon him in a lonely 
spot, but he killed most of them before they suc- 
ceeded in dispatching him. . 

[Sicinnus or Sicinus (Si'/civvof, 2i'/cti>of), a 
Persian, according to Plutarch, a slave of The- 
mistocles, and naiSayuyog to his children. In 
j B.C. 480 he was employed by his master to con- 
vey to Xerxes the intelligence of Che intended 
flight of the Greeks from Salamis ; and after 
J the battle, when the Greeks had desisted from 
the further pursuit of the Persians, Themisto- 
cles again sent Sicinnus, with others, to Xerxes, 
to claim merit with him for having dissuaded 
the Greeks from intercepting his flight. As a 
reward for his services, Themistoeles afterward 
enriched Sicinnus, and obtained for him the 
citizenship of Thespiae.] 

Sicinus {Xiicwog : "Zlklv'ltti^ : now Sikino), a 
small island in the ^Egean Sea, one of the Spo- 
| rades, between Pholegandrus and Ios, with a 
j town of the same name. It is said to have been 
originally called CEnoe from its cultivation of 
the vine, but to have been named Sicinus after 
a son of Thoas and CEnoe. It was probably 
colonized by the Ionians. During the Persian 
war it submitted to Xerxes, but it afterward 
formed part of the Athenian maritime empire. 
Sicokis (now Scgre), a river in Hispania Tar- 
I raconensis, which had its source in the terri- 
tory of the Cerretani, divided the Ilergetes and 
Lacetani, flowed by Ilerda, and after receiving 
the River Cinga (now Cinca), fell into the Ibe- 
rus near Octogesa. 
Siculi. Vid. Sicilia. 

Siculum FrtETOM, Siculum Mare. Vid. S' 

CILIA. 

Siculus Flaccus. Vid. Flaccus. 

809 



sicum. 

[Sicum CZikovv), the northernmost maritime 
city of Dalmatia, where the Emperor Claudius, 
according to Pliny, planted a colony of veter- 
ans] 

Sicyonia (2invcvia), a small district in the 
northeast of Peloponnesus, bounded on the east 
by the territory of Corinth, on the west by Ach- 
aia, on the south by the territory of Phlius and 
Cleonaj, and on the north by the Corinthian 
Gulf. The area of the country was probably 
somewhat less than one hundred square miles. 
It consisted of a plain near the sea, with mount- 
ains in the interior. Its rivers, which ran in a 
northeasterly direction, were Sythas on the fron- 
tier of Achaia, Helisson, Sellei's, and Asopus in 
the interior, and Nemea on the frontier of the 
territory of Corinth. The land was fertile, and 
produced excellent oil. Its almonds and its fish 
were also much prized. Its chief town was Sic- 
von (SiKuuv : Xikvuvioc), which was situated a 
little to the west of the River Asopus, and at 
the distance of twenty, or, according to others, 
twelve stadia from the sea. The ancient city, 
which was situated in the plain, was destroyed 
by Demelrius Poliorcetes, and a new city, which 
bore for a short time the name of Demetrias, was 
built by him on the high ground close to the 
Acropolis. The harbor, which, according to 
some, was connected with the city by means of 
long walls, was well fortified, and formed a town 
of itself. Sicyon was one of the most an- 
cient cities of Greece. It is said to have been 
originally called ^Egialea or ^Egiali (Atyiafeia, 
Aiyialoi), after an ancient king, iEgialeus ; to 
have been subsequently named Mecone (M77- 
kuv7j), and to have been finally called Sicyon 
from an Athenian of this name. Sicyon is rep- 
resented by Homer as forming part of the em- 
pire of Agamemnon ; but on the invasion of Pe- 
loponnesus it became subject to Phalces, the 
son of Temenus, and was henceforward a Do- 
rian state. The ancient inhabitants, however, 
were formed into a fourth tribe called ^Egialeis, 
which possessed equal rights with the three 
tribes of the Hylleis, Pamphyli, and Dymanatae, 
into which the Dorian conquerors were divided. 
Sicyon, on account of the small extent of its 
territory, never attained much political impor- 
tance, and was generally dependent either on 
Argos or Sparta. At the time of the second 
Messenian war it became subject to a succes- 
sion of tyrants, who administered their power 
with moderation and justice for one hundred 
years. The first of these tyrants was Andreas, 
who began to rule B.C. 676. He was followed 
in succession by Myron, Aristonymus, and Clis- 
thenes, on whose death, about 576, a republican 
form of government was established. Clisthe- 
nes had no male children, but only a daughter, 
Agariste, who was married to the Athenian 
Megacles. In the Persian war the Sicyonians 
sent fifteen ships to the battle of Salamis, and 
three hundred hoplites to the battle of Plataeae. 
In the interval between the Persian and the Pe- 
loponnesian wars, the Sicyonians were twice 
defeated and their country laid waste by the 
Athenians, first under Tolmides in 456, and 
again under Pericles in 454. In the Pelopon- 
nesian war they took part with the Spartans. 
From this time till the Macedonian supremacy 
heir history requires no special mention ; but 
810 



SIDON. 

in the middle of the third century Sicyon took 
an active part in public affairs, in consequence 
of its being the native town of Aratus, who 
united it to the Achaean league in 251. Under 
the Romans it gradually declined ; and in the 
time of Pausanias, in the second century of the ' 
Christian era, many of its public buildings were 
in ruins. Sicyon was for a long time the chief 
seat of Grecian art. It gave its name to one of 
the great schools of painting, which was found- 
ed by Eupompus, and which produced Pamphi- 
lus and Apelles. It is also said to have been 
the earliest school of statuary in Greece, which 
was introduced into Sicyon by Dipcenus and 
Scyllis from Crete about 560 ; but its earliest 
native artist of celebrity was Canachus. Ly- 
sippus was also a native of Sicyon. The town 
was likewise celebrated for the taste and skill 
displayed in the various articles of dress made J 
by its inhabitants, among which we find men- 
tion of a particular kind of shoe, which was 
much prized in all parts of Greece. 

Sida, Side CZlSti, iL&irrjg, and J,i6fjTrjQ, Sidltes 
and Sidetes). 1. (Ruins at Eski Adalia), a city I 
of Pamphylia, on the coast, a little west of the 
River Melas. It was an /Eolian colony from 
Cyme in ^Eolis, and was a chief seat of the 
worship of Minerva (Athena), who is repre- 
sented on its coins holding a pomegranate {ai6ri) 
as the emblem of the city. In the division of 
the provinces under Constantine, it was made 
the capital of Pamphylia Prima. — 2. The old 
name of Polemonium, from which a flat district 
in the northeast of Pontus Polemoniacus, along 
the coast, obtained the name of Sidene {~Li6j]vfi). 1 

[Sidene (2l6^vjj), a town of Mysia, on the 
Granicus, already, in Strabo's time, destroyed.] 

[Sideko (2«5)7pu), wife of Salmoneus, step- I 
mother of Tyro, was slain by Pelias in the grove |> 
and at the altar of Juno ] 

Sidenus. Vid. Polemonium. 

Sidicini, an Ausonian people in the north- 
west of Campania and on the borders of Sam- 
nium, who, being hard pressed by the Samnites, 
united themselves to the Campanians. Their 1 
chief town was Teanum. 

Sidon, gen. -oNis (Xtduv, gen. Xiduvoc, some- 
times also SitSdvof, in the Old Testament Tsidon, 
or, in the English form, Zidon : 2«5ov, Ziduvwc, , 
J,l56vio<;, Sidonius : ruins at Saida), for a long 
time the most powerful, and probably the most 
ancient of the cities of Phcenice. As early as 
the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites it is 
called ,; Great Zidon" (Joshua, xi., 8). It stood 
in a plain, about a mile wide, on the coast of the 
Mediterranean, two hundred stadia (twenty ge- 
ographical miles) north of Tyre, four hundred 
stadia (forty geographical miles) south of Bery-' 
tus, sixty-six miles west of Damascus, and a 
day's journey northwest of the source of the 
Jordan at Paneas. It had a fine double harbor, 
now almost filled with sand, and was strongly 
fortified. It was the chief seat of the maritime 
power of Phcenice, until eclipsed by its own col- 
ony, Tyre (vid. Tyrus) ; and its power on the 
land side seems to have extended over all Phce- 
nice, and at one period (in the time of the 
Judges) over at least a part of Palestine. In 
the time of David and Solomon, Sidon appears 
to have been subject to the King of Tyre. It | 
probably regained its former rank, as the first 



SIDONIUS APOLLINARIS. 



SILANION. 



of the Phoenician cities, by its submission to 
Shalmanezer at the time of the Assyrian con- 
quest of Syria, for we find it governed by its 
own king under the Babylonians and Persians. 
In the expedition of Xerxes against Greece, the 
Sidonians furnished the best ships in the whole 
fleet, and their king obtained the highest place, 
next to Xerxes, in the council, and above the 
King of Tyre. Sidon received the great blow to 
her prosperity in the reign of Artaxerxes III. 
Ochus, when the Sidonians, having taken part 
in the revolt of Phcenice and Cyprus, and being 
betrayed to Ochus by their own king Tennes, 
burned themselves with their city, B.C. 351. 
The city was rebuilt, but the fortifications were 
not restored, and the place was therefore of 
no further importance in military history. It 
shared the fortunes of the rest of Phcenice, and 
under the Romans it retained much of its com- 
mercial importance, which it has not yet en- 
tirely lost. In addition to its commerce, Sidon 
was famed for its manufactures of glass, the 
invention of which was said to have been made 
in Phoenicia. 

Sidonius Apollinaris, whose full name was 
C. Soltius Sidonius Apollinaris, was born at Lug- 
dunum (now Lyons) about A.D. 431. At an 
early age he married Papianilla, the child of 
Flavius Avitus ; and upon the elevation of his 
father-in-law to the imperial dignity (456) he 
accompanied him to Rome, and celebrated his 
consulship in a poem still extant. Avitus raised 
Sidonius to the rank of a senator, nominated 
him prefect of the city, and caused his statue 
to be placed among the effigies which graced 
the library of Trajan. The downfall of Avitus 
threw a cloud over the fortunes of Sidonius, 
who, having been shut up in Lyons, and having 
endured the hardships of the siege, purchased 
pardon by a complimentary address to the vic- 
torious Majorian. The poet was not only for- 
given, but was rewarded with a laurelled bust, 
and with the title of count. After passing some 
years in retirement during the reign of Severus, 
Sidonius was dispatched to Rome (467) in the 
character of ambassador from the Arverni to An- 
themius, and on this occasion delivered a third 
panegyric in honor of a third prince, which 
proved not less successful than his former ef- 
forts, for he was now raised to the rank of a 
patrician, again appointed prefect of the city, 
and once more honored with a statue. But a 
still more remarkable tribute was soon after- 
ward rendered to his talents ; for, although not 
a priest, the vacant see of Clermont in Auvergne 
was forced upon his reluctant acceptance (472) 
at the death of the bishop Eparchius. During 
the remainder of his life he devoted himself to 
the duties of his sacred office, and especially re- 
sisted with energy the progress of Arianism. 
He died in 482, or, according to others, in 484. 
The extant works of Sidonius are, 1. Carmina, 
twenty-four in number, composed in various 
measures upon various subjects. Of these the 
most important are the three panegyrics already 
mentioned. 2. Epistolarum Libri IX., contain- 
ing one hundred and forty-seven letters, many 
of them interspersed with pieces of poetry. 
They are addressed to a wide circle of relatives 
and friends upon topics connected with politics, 
literature, and domestic occurrences, but sel- 



dom touch upon ecclesiastical matters. The 
writings of Sidonius are characterised by great 
subtlety of thought, expressed in phraseology 
abounding with harsh and violent metaphors. 
Hence he is generally obscure ; but his works 
throughout bear the impress of an acute, vigor- 
ous, and highly-cultivated intellect. The best 
edition of his works is that of Sirmond, 4to, 
Paris, 1652. — [2. A sophist in Athens' in the 
second century after Christ.] 

Sidus (Sjdoiic, -ovvrog : "Z,idovvrios), a fortified 
place in the territory of Corinth, on the bay of 
Cenchreae, and a little to the east of Crommyon. 
It was celebrated for its apples. 

Sidussa (HcSovaaa), a small place in Lydia, 
belonging to the territory of the Ionian city of 
Erythrae. 

Sidyma (ra liiSvfia: ruins at T&rtoorcar Hi- 
sar), a town in the interior of Lycia, on a mount- 
ain, north of the mouth of Xanthus. 

Siga (Si'ya), a considerable sea-port town of 
Mauretania Caesariensis, on a river of the same 
name, the mouth of which opened into a large 
bay, which formed the harbor of the town. Its 
site has not been identified with certainty. 

[Sigei Campi, in the Mneid of Virgil (vii., 
294), the region around the Sigeum Promonto- 
rium.] 

Sigeum (now Yenisheri), the northwestern 
promontory of the Troad, of Asia Minor, and of 
all Asia, and the southern headland at the en- 
trance of the Hellespont, opposite to the Prom- 
ontorium Mastusium (now Cape Helles), at the 
extremity of the Thracian Chersonese. It is 
here that Homer places the Grecian fleet and 
camp during the Trojan war. Near it was a 
sea-port town of the same name, which was the 
object of contention between the iEolians and 
the Athenians in the war in which Pittacus dis= 
tinguished himself by his valor, and in which Al- 
caeus lost his shield. Vid. Pittacus, Alceus. 
It was afterward the residence of the Pisistra- 
tidas, when they were expelled from Athens. It 
was destroyed by the people of Ilium soon after 
the Macedonian conquest. 

Sign! a (Signinus : now Segni), a town in La- 
tium, on the east side of the Volscian Mount- 
ains, founded by Tarquinius Priscus. It was 
celebrated for its temple of Jupiter Urius, for 
its astringent wine, for its pears, and for a par- 
ticular kind of pavement for the floors of houses, 
called opus Signinum, consisting of plaster made 
of tiles beaten to powder and tempered with 
mortar. There are still remains of the polygo- 
nal walls of the ancient town. 

[Sigriane (Ziypiavri), an extensive tract of 
country in the southeast of Media.] 

Sigrium (Ziypiov. now Sigri), the western 
promontory of the island of Lesbos. 

Sila Silva (now Sila), a large forest in Brut- 
tium, on the Apennines, extending south of Con- 
sentiato the Sicilian Straits, a distance of seven 
hundred stadia. It was celebrated for the ex- 
cellent pitch which it yielded. 

[Silana (now probably Poliana), a city in the 
western part of Thessaly, south of the Peneus.] 

Silanion (JZAaviuv), a distinguished Greek 
statuary in bronze, was an Athenian and a con- 
temporary of Lysippus, and flourished 324. The 
statues of Silanion belonged to two classes, ideal 
and actual portraits. Of the former the most 

811 



SILANUS, JUNIUS. 



SILICIUS. 



celebrated was his dying Jocasta, in which a 
deadly paleness was given to the face by the 
mixture of silver with the bronze. His statue 
of Sappho, which stood in the prylaneum at Syr- 
acuse in the time of Verres, is alluded to by 
Cicero in terms of the highest praise. 

Silanus, Junius. 1. M., was praetor 212 B.C. 
In 210 he accompanied P. Scipio to Spain, and 
served under him with great distinction during 
the whole of the war in that country. He fell 
in battle against the Boii in 196, fighting under 
the consul M. Marcellus. — 2. D., surnamed Man- 
lianus, son of the jurist T. Manlius Torquatus, 
but adopted by a D. Junius Silanus. He was 
praetor 142, and obtained Macedonia as his prov- 
ince. Being accused of extortion by the inhab- 
itants of the province, the senate referred the 
investigation of the charges to his own father 
Torquatus, who condemned his son, and banish- 
ed him from his presence ; and when Silanus 
hanged himself in grief, his father would not at- 
tend his funeral. — 3. M., consul 109, fought in 
this year against the Cimbri in Transalpine 
Gaul, and was defeated. He was accused in 
104, by the tribune Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
in consequence of this defeat, but was acquitted. 
— 4. D., stepfather of M. Brutus, the murderer 
of Caesar, having married his mother Servilia. 
He was elected consul in 63 for the following 
year ; and in consequence of his being consul 
designatus, he was first asked for his opinion by 
Cicero in the debate in the senate on the pun- 
ishment of the Catilinarian conspirators. He 
was consul 62, with L. Licinius Murena, along 
with whom he proposed the Lex Licinia Julia. 
— 5. M., son of No. 4 and of Servilia, served in 
Gaul as Caesar's legatus in 53. After Caesar's 
murder in 44, he accompanied M. Lepidus over 
the Alps ; and in the following year Lepidus 
sent him with a detachment of troops into Cis- 
alpine Gaul, where he fought on the side of 
Antony. He was consul in 25. He had two 
sisters, one married to M. Lepidus, the triumvir, 
and the other to C. Cassius, one of Caesar's mur- 
derers. — 6. M., consul A.D. 19, with L. Norbanus 
Balbus. In 33 his daughter Claudia was mar- 
ried to C. Caesar, afterward the Emperor Calig- 
ula. Silanus was governor of Africa in the 
reign of Caligula, but was compelled by his 
fathei-in-law to put an end to his life. Julius 
Graecinus, the father of Agricola, had been or- 
dered by Caligula to accuse Silanus, but he de- 
clined the odious task. — 7. App., consul A.D. 28, 
with P. Silius Nerva. Claudius, soon after his 
accession, gave to Silanus in marriage Domitia 
Lepida, the mother of his wife Messalina, and 
treated him otherwise with the greatest dis- 
tinction. But shortly afterward, having refused 
the embraces of Messalina, he was put to death 
by Claudius, on the accusations of Messalina 
and Narcissus. The first wife of Silanus was 
^Emilia Lepida, the proneptis or great-grand- 
daughter of Augustus. — 8. M., son of No. 7, con- 
sul 46. Silanus was proconsul of Asia at the 
succession of Nero in 54, and was poisoned by 
command of Agrippina, who feared that he might 
avenge the death of his brother (No. 9), and 
that his descent from Augustus might lead him 
to be preferred to the youthful Nero. — 9. L., 
also a son of No 7, was betrothed to Octavia, 
the daughter of the Emperor Claudius ; but 
812 



when Octavia was married to Nero in 48, Sua 
nus knew that his fate was sealed, and there- 
fore put an end to his life. — 10. D. Junius Tor- 
quatus Silanus, probably also a son of No. 7, 
was consul 53. He was compelled by Nero in 
64 to put an end to his life, because he had 
boasted of being descended from Augustus. — 
11. L. Junius Torquatus Silanus, son of No. 8, 
and consequently the atnepos, or great-great- 
great-grandson of Augustus. His descent from 
Augustus rendered him an object of suspicion 
to Nero. He was accordingly accused in 65 ; 
was sentenced to banishment ; and was shortly 
afterward put to death at Barium in Apulia. 

Silarus (now Silaro), a river in Lower Italy, 
forming the boundary between Lucania and 
Campania, rises in the Apennines, and, after 
receiving the Tanager (now Negri) and Calor 
(now Calore), falls into the Sinus Paestanus a 
little to the north of Peestum. Its water is said 
to have petrified plants. 

Silenus (Sef/l^vdf). 1. (Mythological.) It is 
remarked in the article Satyri that the older 
Satyrs were generally termed Sileni ; but one 
of these Sileni is commonly the Silenus, who 
always accompanies the god, and whom he is 
said to have brought up and instructed. Like 
the other Satyrs, he is called a son of Mercury 
(Hermes) ; but others make him a son of Pan 
by a nymph, or of Terra (Gaea). Being the con- 
stant companion of Bacchus (Dionysus), he is 
said, like the god, to have been born at Nysa. 
Moreover, he took part in the contest with the 
Giants, and slew Enceladus. He is described 
as a jovial old man, with a bald head, a puck 
nose, fat and round like his wine bag, which he 
always carried with him, and generally intox- 
icated. As he could not trust his own legs, he 
is generally represented riding on an ass, or 
supported by other Satyrs. In every other re- 
spect he is described as resembling his brethren 
in their love of sleep, wine, and music. He is 
mentioned, along with Marsyas and Olympus, 
as the inventor of the flute, which he is often 
seen playing; and a special kind of dance was 
called after him Silenus, while he himself is 
designated as the dancer. But it is a peculiar 
feature in his character that he was conceived 
also as an inspired prophet, who knew all the 
past and the most distant future, and as a sage 
who despised all the gifts of fortune. When 
he was drunk and asleep, he was in the power 
of mortals, who might compel him to prophesy 
and sing by surrounding him with chains of 
flowers. — 2. (Literary.) A native of Calatia, 
[wrote a work entitled linehtKa in at least three 
books ; he also wrote an account of the cam- 
paigns of Haniiibal, in whose camp he was, and 
with whom he lived as long as fortune permit- 
ted, says Cornelius Nepos : he was also] a writ- 
er upon Roman history. — 3. It was probably a 
different writer from the last, who is quoted 
several times by Athenaeus and others as the 
author of a work on foreign words. [Silenus 
also compiled a collection of fabulous histories.] 

Silicense Fluiwen, a river in Hispania Bae- 
tica, in the neighborhood of Corduba, probably 
the Guadajoz, or a tributary of the latter. 

[Silicius, P. (Coronas), one of the jndices 
appointed to try the conspirators against the 
life of Caesar in B.C. 43, according to the Lex 



SILIUS ITALICUS. 



SIMARISTUS. 



Pedia. He voted for the acquittal of M. Brutus, 
and was, on this account, afterward proscribed 
by the triumvirs.] 

Siuus ItalIous, C, a Roman poet, was born 
about A.D. 25. The place of his birth is uncer- 
tain, as is also the import of his surname Ital- 
icus. From his early years he devoted himself 
to oratory and poetry, taking Cicero as his mod- 
el in the former and Virgil in the latter. He 
acquired great reputation as an advocate, and 
was afterward one of the Centumviri. He was 
consul in 68, the year in which Nero perished ; 
he was admitted to familiar intercourse with 
Vitellius, and was subsequently proconsul of 
Asia. His two favorite residences were a man- 
sion near Puteoli, formerly the Academy of 
Cicero, and the house in the vicinity of Naples 
once occupied by Virgil; and here he continued 
to reside until he had completed his seventy- 
fifth year, when, in consequence of the pain 
caused by an incurable disease, he starved him- 
self to death. The great work of Silius Ital- 
icus was a heroic poem in seventeen books, en- 
titled Punka, which has descended to us en- 
tire. It contains a narrative of the events of 
the second Punic war, from the capture of Sa- 
guntum to the triumph of Scipio Africanus. 
The materials are derived almost entirely from 
Livy and Polybius. It is a dull, heavy per- 
formance, and hardly deserves the name of a 
poem. The best editions are by Drakenborch, 
4to, Traj. ad Rhen., 1717, and Ruperti, 2 vols. 
8vo, Goetting., 1795. 

[Silo Abronius. Vid. Abronius Silo.] 
Silo, Q. Pomp^edIus, the leader of the Marsi 
in the Social war, and the soul of the whole un- 
dertaking. He fell in battle against Q. Metellus 
Pius, B.C. 88, and with his death the war came 
to an end. 

Silo (2tA6, 2?;/lu, ?,n2.uv, 2i?.ovv : in the Old 
Testament, Shiloh and Shilon : ruins at Sei- 
lun), a city of Palestine, in the mountains of 
Ephraim, in the district aftervvard called Sama- 
ria ; important as the seat of the sacred ark and 
the tabernacle from the time of Joshua to the 
capture of the ark in the time of Eli, after which 
itseems to have fallen into insignificance, though 
it is occasionally mentioned in the Old Testa- 
ment. 

SllSah, Siloam (StAoa, SiAod/i : in the Old 
Testament, Shiloah : now Siloah), a celebrated 
fountain in the southeast of Jerusalem, just 
without the city, at the southern entrance of 
the valley called Tyropceon, between the hills of 
Zion and Moriah. It is remarkable for the ebb 
and flow of its waters at the different seasons. 

[Silpia, a city of Hispania Beetica, north of 
the Bastis, to be sought for in the Sierra More- 
na. Reichard considers it as identical with the 
'HAi'jya of Polybius, which lay in this same re- 
gion, and as corresponding to the modern Li- 
n ares.] 

Silsilis (Sf'/ltTt/Uf : now ruins at Hajjar Scl- 
seleh or Jebel Selseleh), a fortified station in Up- 
per Egypt, on the western bank of the Nile, 
south of Apollinopolis the Great. The name 
signifies the Rock or Hill of a Chain, and is de- 
rived from the circumstance of the river flow- 
ing here in a ravine so narrow that a chain can 
easily be stretched across it to command the 
navigation. 



Silures, a powerful people in Britain, inhab- 
iting South Wales, long offered a formidable re- 
sistance to the Romans, and were the only peo- 
ple in the island who at a later time maintained 
their independence against the Saxons. 

[Silus, Albuoius C, a Roman rhetorician, a 
native of Novaria, in the north of Italy, was 
asdile in his native town. Having left Novaria 
in consequence of a public insult, he repaired 
to Rome in the time of Augustus, and there 
acquired great renown by his oratory in the 
school of Plancus. Failing in one of his causes 
as a pleader, he left Rome for Milan, hut finally 
retired to his native town, and there put an end 
to his life.] 

[Silus Domitius, the former husband of Ar- 
ria Galla, whom he quietly surrendered to 
Piso.] 

Silvanus, a Latin divinity of the fields and 
forests, to whom in the earliest times the Tyr- 
rhenian Pelasgians are said to have dedicated 
a grove and a festival. He is also called the 
protector of the boundaries of fields. In con- 
nection with woods (sylvestris deus), he espe- 
cially presided over plantations, and delighted 
in trees growing wild ; whence he is represent- 
ed as carrying the trunk of a cypress. Respect- 
ing his connection with cypress, moreover, the 
following story is told. Silvanus, or, accord- 
ing to others, Apollo, once killed by accident a 
hind belonging to the youth Cyparissus, with 
whom the god was in love : the youth, in con- 
sequence, died of grief, and was metamorphosed 
into a cypress. Silvanus is further described 
as the divinity protecting the flocks of cattle, 
warding off wolves, and promoting their fertil- 
ity. Being the god of woods and flocks, he is 
also described as fond of music ; the syrinx 
was sacred to him, and he is mentioned along 
with the Pans and Nymphs. Later writers even 
identified Silvanus with Pan, Faunus, Inuus, 
and iEgipan. In the Latin poets, as well as in 
works of art, lie always appears as an old man, 
but as cheerful and in love with Pomona. The 
sacrifices offered to him consisted of grapes, 
corn-ears, milk, meat, wine, and pigs. 

Silvium (Silvinus), a town of the Peucetii in 
Apulia, on the borders of Lucania, twenty miles 
southeast of Venusia. 

Silvius, the son of Ascanius, is said to have 
been so called because he was born in a wood. 
All the succeeding kings of Alba bore the cog- 
nomen Silvius. The series of these mythical 
kings is given somewhat differently by Livy, 
Ovid, and Dionysius, as the following list will 
show : 



Livij. 


Ovid. . 


Dionysius. 


1. jGneas. 


Mneas. 


JKneas. 


2. Ascanius. 


Ascanius. 


Ascanius. 


3. Silvius. 


Silvius. 


Silvius. 


4. iEneas Silvius. 




iEneas Silvius. 


5. Latinus Silvius. 


Latinus. 


Latinus Silvius. 


6. Alba. 


Alba. 


Alba. 


7. Atys. 


E py tus. 


Capetus. 


8. Capys. 


Capys. 


Capys Silvius. 


9. Capetus. 


Capetus. 


Calpetus. 


10. Tiberinus. 


Tiberinus. 


Tiberinus. 


11. Agrippa. 


Kemulus. 


Agrippa. 


12. Romulus Silvius. 


Acrota. 


Alladius. 


13. Aventinus. 


Aventinus 


Aventinus. 


14. Proca. 


Palatinus. 


Procas. 


15. Amulius. 


Amulius. 


Amnlius. 


[Simaristus (Xt/xapioToc), a 


Greek gramma- 






813 



SIMBRIVII LACUS. 



SIMPLICIUS 



nan, author of a work entitled 'Zvvavvfia in at 
least four hooks.] 

[Simbeivii Lacus, called by Tacitus Simbrui- 
na Stagna, three small lakes formed by the 
Anio, in Latium, between Sublaqneum and Tre- 
ba, famed for the coolness and salutary proper- 
ties of their waters. They were used by Clau- 
dius to increase the volume of the Aqua Clau- 
dia (vid. Roma, p. 754, a), and by Nero to irrigate 
and beautify his Sublaquean villa.] 

Simmias CSifj/tLac). 1. Of Thebes, first the 
disciple of the Pythagorean philosopher Philo- 
latts, and afterward the friend and disciple, of 
Socrates, at -whose death he was present, hav- 
ing come from Thebes with his brother Cebes. 
The two brothers are the principal speakers, 
besides Socrates himself, in the Phadon. Sim- 
mias wrote twenty-three dialogues on philo- 
sophical subjects, all of which are lost. — 2. Of 
Rhodes, a poet and grammarian of the Alexan- 
drean school, flourished about B.C. 300. The 
Greek Anthology contains six epigrams ascribed 
to Simmias, besides three short poems of that 
fantastic species called griphi or carmina figu- 
rata, that is, pieces in which the lines are so 
arranged as to make the whole poem resemble 
the form of some object ; those of Simmias are 
entitled, from their forms, the Wings (ivrepvye;), 
the Egg (i)6v), and the Halchet (ire^eavQ). 

[Simmias (ti/u/iiac), a Macedonian, son of An- 
dromenes, phalanx-leader in the army of Alex- 
ander the Great at the battle of Arbela. He 
was charged, along with his brothers Amyntas, 
Polemon, and Attalus, with being concerned in 
the conspiracy of Philotas, but was acquitted.] 

Simois. Vid. Troas. As a mythological per- 
sonage, the river-god Simois is the son of Ocea- 
nus and Tethys, and the father of Astyochus 
and Hieromneme. 

[Simoisius CZiuoeiciog), a Trojan warrior, son 
of Anthemion, slain in battle by Ajax, son of 
Telamon. He was called Simoisius because he 
was born on the banks of the Simois.] 

Simon (Siftuv). 1. One of the disciples of 
Socrates, and by trade a leather-cutter. Soc- 
rates was accustomed to visit his shop, and 
converse with him on various subjects. These 
Conversations Simon afterward committed to 
writing, in thirty-three dialogues, all of which 
are lost. — 2. Of ^Egina, a celebrated statuary in 
bronze, who flourished about B.C. 475. 

Simonides (StfjuviSnc). 1. Of Amorgos, was 
the second, both in time and in reputation, of 
the three principal iambic poets of the early pe- 
riod of Greek literature, namely, Archilochus, 
Simonides, and Hipponax. He was a native 
of Samos, whence he led a colony to the neigh- 
boring island of Amorgos, where he founded 
three cities, Minoa, iEgialus, and Arcesine, in 
the first of which he fixed his own abode. He 
flourished about B.C. 664. Simonides was most 
celebrated for his iambic poems, which were of 
two species, gnomic and satirical. The most 
important of his extant fragments is a satire 
upon women, in which he derives the various, 
though generally bid qualities of women from 
the variety of their origin ; thus the uncleanly 
woman is formed from the swine ; the cunning 
woman, from the fox ; the talkative woman, 
from the dog, and so on. The nest separate 
edition of the fragments of Simonides of Amor- 
814 



gos is by Welcker, Bonn, 1835 —2. Of Ceos, 
one of the most celebrated lyric poets of Greece, 
was the perfecter of the Elegy and Epigram, 
and the rival of Lasus and Pindar in the Dithy- 
ramb and the Epinician Ode. He was born at 
Iulis, in Ceos, B.C. 556, and was the son of 
Leoprepes. He appears to have been brought 
up to music and poetry as a profession. From 
his native island he proceeded to Athens, prob- 
ably on the invitation of Hipparchus, who at- 
tached him to his society by great rewards. 
After remaining at Athens some time, probably 
even after the expulsion of Hippias, he went to 
Thessaly, where he lived under the patronage 
of the Aleuads and Scopads. He afterward re- 
turned to Athens, and soon had the noblest op- 
portunity of employing his poetic powers in the 
celebration of the great events of the Persian 
wars. In 489 he conquered iEschylus in the 
contest for the prize which the Athenians of- 
fered for an elegy on those who fell at Mara- 
thon. Ten years later he composed the epi- 
grams which were inscribed upon the tomb of 
the Spartans who fell at Thermopyte, as well 
as an encomium on the same heroes ; and ho 
also celebrated the battles of Artemisium and 
Salamis, and the great men who commanded in 
them. He had completed his eightieth year, 
when his long poetical career at Athens was 
crowned by the victory which he gained with 
the dithyrambic chorus (477), being the fifty- 
sixth prize which he had carried off. Shortly 
after this he was invited to Syracuse by Hiero, 
at whose court he lived till his death in 467. 
Simorrides was a great favorite with Hiero, and 
was treated by the tyrant with the greatest mu- 
nificence. He still continued, when at Syra- 
cuse, to employ his muse occasionally in the 
service of other Grecian states. Simonides is 
said to have been the inventor of the mnemonic 
art, and of the long vowels and double letters in 
the Greek alphabet. He made literature a pro- 
fession, and is said to have been the first who 
took money for his poems ; and the reproach 
of avarice is too often brought against him by 
his contemporary and rival,. Pindar, as well as 
by subsequent writers, to be altogether discred- 
ited. The chief characteristics of the poetry 
of Simonides were sweetness (whence his sur- 
name of Mcliccrtcs) and elaborate finish, com- 
bined with the truest poetic conception and per- 
fect power of expression, though in originality 
and fervor he was far inferior, not only to the 
early lyric poets, such as Sappho and Alcasus, 
but also to his contemporary Pindar. He was 
probably both the most prolific and the most 
generally popular of all the Grecian lyric poets. 
The general character of his dialect is the Epic, 
mingled with Doric and /Eolic forms. The best 
edition of his fragments in a separate form is 
by Schneidewin, Bruns., 1835. — [3. An Athe- 
nian general, who seized upon Eion, in Thrace, 
in the course of the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 
425, but held it for a short time, since he was 
soon expelled with loss by the Chalcidians and 
Bottia?ans.] 

Simplicios CZiuvXiKio^), one of the last phi- 
losophers of the Neo-Platonic school, was a na- 
tive of Cilicia, and a disciple of Ammonius and 
Datnascius. In consequence of the persecu- 
tions to which the pagan philosophers were e\- 



SIMYRA. 



SINON. 



posed in the reign of Justinian, Simplieius was 
one of the seven philosophers who took refuge 
dt the court of the Persian king Chosrogs. 
These philosophers returned home about A.D. 
533, in consequence of a treaty of peace con- 
cluded between Chosroes and Justinian, in 
which the former had stipulated that the phi- 
losophers should be allowed to return without 
risk, and to practice the rites of their paternal 
faith. Of the subsequent fortunes of the seven 
philosophers we learn nothing, nor do we know 
where Simplieius lived and taught. Simplieius 
wrote commentaries on several of Aristotle's 
works. His commentaries on the Categories, 
on the De Ccelo, on the Physica Auscultalio, 
and on the De Anima, are extant. In explain- 
ing Aristotle, Simplieius endeavors to show that 
Aristotle agrees with Plato even on those points 
which the former controverts ; but, though he 
attaches himself too much to the Neo-Plato- 
nists, his commentaries are marked by sound 
s'-.nse and real learning. He also wrote a com- 
mentary on the Enchiridion of Epictetus, which 
is likewise extant, [and published in Schweig- 
haeuser's Epictelem Philosophic^ Monumenta,xo\. 
iv. ; and in Didot's Scriptores Ethici Greed, Par- 
is, 1840.] 

Simyra (ru 'Slftvpa : now Zamura or Sumore), 
a fortress on the coast of Phoenice, between Or- 
thosias and the mouth of the Eleutherus, of no 
importance except as being the point from which 
the northern part of Lebanon was usually ap- 
proached. 

Sinje (ZIvcil), the easternmost people of Asia, 
of whom nothing but the name was known to 
the western nations till about the time of Ptol- 
emy, who describes their country as bounded on 
the north by Serica, and on the south and west 
by India extra Gangem. It corresponded to the 
southern part of China and the eastern part of 
the Burmese peninsula. The detailed descrip- 
tion of the knowledge of the ancient geographers 
concerning it does not fall within the province 
of this work. 

Sinai or Sin a (LXX. "Ziva : now Jebel-et-Tur), 
a ciuster of dark, lofty, rocky mountains in the 
southern angle of the triangular peninsula in- 
closed between the two heads of the Red Sea, 
and bounded on the north by the deserts on the 
borders of Egypt and Palestine. The name, 
which signifies a region of broken and cleft rocks, 
is used in a wider sense for the whole penin- 
sula, which formed a part of Arabia Petraaa, and 
was peopled, at the time of the Exodus, by the 
Amalekites and Midianites, and afterward by 
the Nabathaean Arabs. On the other hand, the 
name is applied, in a narrower sense, to one 
particular ridge in the Sina'itie group of mount- 
ains running north and south, and terminated by 
two summits, of which the one on the north is 
called Horeb, and the one on the south Sina'i or 
Jebel Musa, i. e., Moses 7 Mount. From the lat- 
ter name, assigned by tradition, it has usually, 
but too hastily, been inferred that the southern 
summit was that on which God gave the law to 
Moses. The fact seems, however, to be that 
Sina'i and Horeb in the Old Testament are both 
general names for the whole group, the former 
being used in the first four books of Moses, and 
the latter in Deuteronomy ; and that the sum- 
mil on whbh the law was given was probably 



that on the north, or the one usually called 
Horeb. 

Sinda (Zivda : 2ivdsvc, Sindensis). 1. A city 
of Pisidia, north of Cibyra, near the River Oau- 
laris.— 2, 3. Vid. Sindi. 

Sindi CSivdoi). 1. A people of Asiatic Sar- 
matia, on the eastern coast of the Euxine, and 
at the foot of the Caucasus. They probably 
dwelt in and about the peninsula of Taman (be- 
tween the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea), and 
to the south of the River Hypanis (now Kou- 
ban). They had a capital called Sinda (now 
Anapa?), with a harbor (2a'<5i/c6j- ?u/iijv). Their 
country is called ~Zlv6ikti. They are also men- 
tioned by the names of Sindones and Sindiani. 
— 2. A people on the eastern coast of India ex- 
tra Gangem (in Cochin China), also called Sind^e 
(Zlv&ai), and with a capital city, Sinda. 

Sindice. Vid. Sindi. 

Sindomana (now Sehwun ?), a city of India, 
on the lower course of the Indus, near the isl- 
and of Pattalene. 

Sindus (SiVtSof), a town in the Macedonian 
district of Mygdonia, on the Thermaic Gulf, and 
at the mouth of the Echedorus. 

Singara (ra %'iyyapa : now Sinjarl), a strong- 
ly fortified city and Roman eolony in the inte- 
rior of Mesopotamia, eighty-four Roman miles 
south of Nisibis. It lay in a dry plain, at the 
foot of Mount Singaras (now Smjar), an east- 
ern prolongation of Mount Masius. It was the 
scene of the defeat of Constantius by Sapor, 
through which the place was lost to the Ro- 
mans. 

Sinoidunum (now Belgrad), a town in Mcesis 
Superior, at the confluence of the Savus and the 
Danube, was a strong fortress, and the head- 
quarters of a legion. 

[Singili or Singilis, a town of Hispania Bss- 
tica, on a river of the same name, the ruins of 
which are found at Castillon.'] 

Singiticus Sinus. Vid. Singus. 

Singus (llyyoc : 'Ziyyaloc), a town in Mace- 
donia, on the eastern coast of the peninsula Si- 
thonia, which gave its name to the Sinus Sin- 
giticus. 

Sinis or Sinnis (St'vtf or StVwf), son of Poly- 
pemon, Pemon or Neptune (Poseidon) by Sylea, 
the daughter of Corinthus. He was a robber, 
who frequented the isthmus of Corinth, and 
killed the travellers whom he captured by fast- 
ening them to the top of a fir-tree, which he 
curbed, and then let spring up again. He him- 
self was killed in this manner by Theseus. The 
name is connected with mvojiat. 

Sinon (Zivuv), son of JDsimus, or, according 
to Virgil {/En., ii., 79), of Sisyphus, and grand- 
son of Autolicus, was a relation of Ulysses, 
whom he accompanied to Troy. After the 
Greeks had constructed the wooden horse, Si- 
non mutilated his person in order to make the 
Trojans believe that he had been maltreated by 
the Greeks, and then allowed himself to be 
taken prisoner by the Trojans. He informed 
the Trojans that the wooden horse had been 
constructed as an atonement for the Palladium, 
which had been carried off by the Greeks, and 
that if they would drag it into their own city, 
Asia would gain the supremacy over Greece., 
The Trojans believed the deceiver, and dragged 
the horse into the city; whereupon Sinon, in 

815 



SINOPE. 

the dead of night, let the Greeks out of the horse, 
who thus took Troy. 

Sinope (2ivu7r?7 : Sivunevc, Sinopensis : ruins 
at Sinopc, Sinoub), the most important of all the 
Greek colonies on the shores of the Euxine, 
stood on the northern coast of Asia Minor, on 
the western headland of the great hay of which 
the delta of the River Halys forms the eastern 
headland, and a little east of the northernmost 
promontory of Asia Minor. Thus placed, and 
built on a peninsula, the neck of which formed 
two Cne harbors, it had every advantage for be- 
coming a great maritime city. Its foundation 
was referred mythically to the Argonaut Auto- 
lycus, who was worshipped in the city as a 
hero, and had an oracle ; but it appears in his- 
tory as a very early colony of the Milesians. 
Having been destroyed in the invasion of Asia 
by the Cimmerians, it was restored by a new 
colony from Miletus, B.C. 632, and soon became 
the greatest commercial city on the Euxine. 
Several colonies were established by the Sino- 
pians on the adjacent coasts, the chief of which 
were Cotyora, Trapezus, and Cerasus. Its ter- 
ritory, called Sinopis (Sivum'c, also Zivuxitis), 
extended to the banks of the Halys. It remain- 
ed an independent state till it was taken by 
Pharnaces I., king of Pontus. It was the birth- 
place and residence of Mithradates the Great, 
who enlarged and beautified it. After an ob- 
stinate resistance to the Romans under Lucul- 
lus, it was taken and plundered, and proclaimed 
a free city. Shortly before the murder of Julius 
Caesar, it was colonized by the name of Julia 
Ccesarea Felix Sinope, and remained a flourish- 
ing city, though it never recovered its former 
importance. At the time of Constantine, it had 
declined so much as to be ranked second to 
Amasia. In addition to its commerce, Sinope 
was greatly enriched by its fisheries. It was 
the native city of the renowned cynic philoso- 
pher Diogenes, of the comic poet Diphilus, and 
of the historian Baton. 

Sintica, a district in Macedonia, inhabited by 
the Thracian people Sinti, extended east of 
Crestonia and north of Bisaltia as far as the 
Strymon and the Lake Prasias. Its chief town 
was Heraclea Sintica. The Sinti were spread 
over other parts of ancient Thrace, and are 
identified by Strabo with the Sintians (Zivriec) 
of Homer, the ancient inhabitants of Lemnos. 

Sinuessa (Sinuessanus : now Rocca di Man- 
dragone), the last city of Latium on the confines 
of Campania, to which it originally belonged, 
was situated on the sea-coast and on the Via 
Appia, in the midst of a fertile country. It was 
colonized by the Romans, together with the 
neighboring town of Minturnae, B.C. 296. It 
possessed a good harbor, and was a place of 
considerable commercial importance. In its 
neighborhood were celebrated warm baths, called 

AQUvE SlNUESSAN-ffi. 

Sion. Vid. Jerusalem. 

[Siph.® (2i0ai) or Tiph.*:, a port town of Bce- 
otia, on the Mare Alcyonium, in the neighbor- 
hood of Thisbe and the port Eutretus, where, 
according to Pausanias, was a temple of Her- 
cules, at which yearly games were celebrated. 
It was famed, also, as the birth-place of Tiphys, 
the pilot of the Argo j Miiller and Kiepert iden- 
tify it with the modern Aliki.'] 
S16 



SIRBONIS LAC US. 

Siphnds (2('<4i<of : 2ifvwg : now Siphno). an 
island in the iEgean Sea, forming one of tli3 
Cyclades, southeast of Seriphus. It is of aD 
oblong form, and about forty miles in circum- \ 
ference. Its original name was Merope ; and 
it was colonized by lonians from Athens. In 
consequence of their gold and silver mines, of 
which the remains are still visible, the Siphnians , 
attained great prosperity, and were regarded in | 
the time of Herodotus as the wealthiest of the 
islanders. Their treasury at Delphi, in which 
they deposited the tenth of the produce of theii 
mines, was equal in wealth to that of any othei 
Greek state. Their riches, however, exposed 
them to pillage ; and a party of Samian exiles 
in the time of Polycrates invaded the island, 
and compelled them to pay one hundred talents 
Siphnus was one of the few islands which re 
fused tribute to Xerxes ; and one of its ships 
fought on the side of the Greeks at Salamis. 
At a later time the mines were less productive ; 
and Pausanias relates that in consequence of ' 
the Siphnians neglecting to send the tithe of 
their treasure to Delphi, the god destroyed their 
mines by an inundation of the sea. The moral 
character of the Siphnians stood low, and hence 
to act like a Siphnian (2,i<l>vi6.&iv) became a 
term of reproach. 

Sipontum or Sipuntum (Sipontinus : now Si- 
ponto), called by the Greeks Sipus CZittov^, -ovv 
rof), an ancient town in Apulia, in the district 
of Daunia, on the southern slope of Mount Gar- 
ganus, and on the coast. It is said to have been 
founded by Diomedes, and was of Greek origin. 
It was colonized by the Romans, under whom i 
it became a place of some commercial import- 
ance. The inhabitants were removed from the 
town by King Manfred in the thirteenth century, 
in consequence of the unhealthy nature of the 
locality, and were settled in the neighboring 
town of Manfredonia, founded by this monarch. 

SiPYLus(2£7ri>Aof : now Sipuli-Bagh), a mount- 
ain of Lydia, in Asia Minor, of volcanic forma- 
tion, and rent and splintered by frequent earth- 
quakes. It is a branch of the Tmolus, from the 
main chain of which it proceeds northwest along 
the course of the River Hermus as far as Mag- 
nesia and Sipylum. It is mentioned by Homer. \ 
The ancient capital of Meeonia was said to have 
been situated in the heart of the mountain chain, 
and to have been called by the same name ; but 
it was early swallowed up by an earthquake, 
and its site became a little lake called Sale 01 
Saloe, near which was a tumulus, supposed to 
be the grave of Tantalus. The mountain was 
rich in metals, and many mines were worked 
in it. 

Siracene (Zipannvv). 1. A district of Hyr- 
cania. — 2. A district of Armenia Major. — 3. Vid. 
Siraceni. 

SlRACENI, SlRACI, SlRACES (lipaKTJVoi, "ZipaKOL, 

Si'pa/cef), a powerful people of Sarmatia Asiatica, 
dwelt in the district of Siracene, east of the 
Palus Maeotis, as far as the River Rha (now 
Volga). The Romans were engaged in a war 
with them in A.D. 50. 

Sirbonis Lacus (ZtpGuvtdog Xijivr], afterward 
Xip6uvlg Tiipv?) and lipGuv : now Sabakat Bar- 
dowal), a large and deep lake on the coast of 
Lower Egypt, east of Mount Casius. Its circuit 
was one thousand stadia. It was strongly im- : 



SIRENES. 



SISYGAMBIS. 



pregnated with asphaltus. A connection (called 
to eKpeyfia) existed between the lake and the 
Mediterranean ; but this being stopped up, the 
lake grew continually smaller by evaporation, 
and it is now nearly dry. 

Sirenes (Jiupfjves), sea-nymphs who had the 
power of charming by their songs all who heard 
them. When Ulysses came near the island on 
the beach of which the Sirens were sitting, and 
endeavoring to allure him and his companions, 
he stuffed the ears of his companions with wax, 
and tied himself to the mast of his vessel, until 
he was so far off that he could no longer hear 
their song. According to Homer, the island 
of the Sirens was situated between ^Eaea and 
the rock of Scylla, near the southwestern coast 
of Italy ; but the Roman poets place them on 
the Campanian coast. Homer says nothing of 
their number, but later writers mention both 
their names and number ; some state that they 
were two, Aglaopheme and Thelxiepia ; and 
others that there were three, Pisinoe, Aglaope, 
and Thelxiepia, or Parthenope, Ligia, and Leu- 
cosia. They are called daughters of Phorcus, 
of Achelous and Sterope, of Terpsichore, of 
Melpomene, of Calliope, or of Gaea. The Sirens 
are also connected with the legends of the Ar- 
gonauts and the rape of Proserpina (Perseph- 
one). When the Argonauts sailed by the Si- 
rens, the latter began to sing, but in vain, for 
Orpheus surpassed them ; and as it had been 
decreed that they should live only till some one 
hearing their song should pass by unmoved, they 
threw themselves into the sea, and were meta- 
morphosed into rocks. Later poets represent 
them as provided with wings, which they are 
said to have received at their own request, in 
order to be able to search after Proserpina (Per- 
sephone), or as a punishment from Ceres (De- 
meter) for not having assisted Proserpina (Per- 
sephone), or from Venus (Aphrodite), because 
they wished to remain virgins. Once, how- 
ever, they allowed themselves to be prevailed 
upon by Juno (Hera) to enter into a contest with 
the Muses, and, being defeated, were deprived 
of their wings. 

Sirenusjh, called by Virgil {JEn., v., 864) Si- 
renum scopuli, three small uninhabited and 
rocky islands near the southern side of the 
Promontorium Misenum, off the coast of Cam- 
pania, which were, according to tradition, the 
abode of the Sirens. 

[Siricius (2ipiKio$), of Neapolis in Palestine, 
a sophist of the fourth century A.D., a pupil of 
Andromachus, lived and taught a considerable 
time at Athens, and wrote a work entitled Pro- 
gymnasmata.~\ 

Siris. 1. (Now Sinno), a river in Lucania, 
flowing into the Tarentine Gulf, memorable for 
the victory which Pyrrhus gained on its banks 
over the Romans. — 2. (Now Torre di Senna), an 
ancient Greek town in Lucania, at the mouth 
of the preceding river. Its locality was un- 
healthy ; and after the foundation of the neigh- 
boring town of Heraclea by the Tarentines, the 
inhabitants of Siris were removed to the new 
town, of which Siris now became the harbor. 

SirmTo (now Sirmione), a beautiful promon- 
tory on the southern shore of the Lacus Bena- 
ous (now Lago di Garda), on which Catullus 
had an estate. 

52 



Sirmium (now Mit.rovitz), an important city in 
Pannonia Inferior, was situated on the left bank 
of the Savus. It was founded by the Taurisci, 
and under the Romans became the capital of 
Pannonia, and the head-quarters of all their 
operations in their wars against the Dacians 
and the neighboring barbarians. It contained 
a large manufactory of arms, a spacious forum, 
an imperial palace, etc. It was the residence 
of the admiral of the first Flavian fleet on the 
Danube, and the birth-place of the Emperor 
Probus. 

[Sisamnes {iLau/ivnc), a Persian judge under 
Cambyses, who caused him to be put to death 
for allowing himself to be bribed to an unjust 
decision, and then had his skin stripped off and 
fastened on the judicial bench where he had sat 
in judgment. To this bench he appointed his 
son Otanes, enjoining upon him to keep his 
father's fate ever in mind.] 

Sisapon (now Almaden in the Sierra Morena), 
an important town in Hispania Beetica, north 
of Corduba, between the Baetis and Anas, cele- 
brated for its silver mines and Cinnabar. 

[Siscennius Iacchus, an early Roman gram- 
marian, who taught in Gallia Togata.] 

Siscia (now Sissek), called Segesta by Ap 
pian, an important town in Pannonia Superior, 
situated upon an island formed by the rivers 
Savus, Colapis, and Odra, and on the road from 
jEmona to Sirmium. It was a strongly-fortified 
place, and was conquered by Tiberius in the 
reign of Augustus, from which time it became 
the most important town in all Pannonia. It 
was probably made a colony by Tiberius, and 
was colonized anew by Septimius Severus. At 
a later time its importance declined, and Sir- 
mium became the chief town in Pannonia. 

Sisenna, L. Cornelius, a Roman annalist, 
was praetor in the year when Sulla died (B.C. 
78), and probably obtained Sicily for his prov- 
ince in 77. From the local knowledge thus ac- 
quired he was enabled to render good service 
to Verres, whose cause he espoused. During 
the piratical war (67) he acted as the legate of 
Pompey, and having been dispatched to Crete 
in command of an army, died in that island at 
the age of about fifty-two. His great work, en- 
titled Historic, which contained the history of 
his own time, extended to at least fourteen or 
nineteen books, [though the number is uncer- 
tain], Cicero pronounces Sisenna superior as 
an historian to any of his predecessors. In ad- 
dition to his Historic, Sisenna translated the 
Milesian fables of Aristides, and he also com- 
posed a commentary upon Plautus. [The frag- 
ments of his Historic are collected by Krause 
in his Historicorum Romanorum Fragments,, p. 
303-315.] 

Sisygambis (HwvyapSic), mother of Darius 
Codomannus, the last king of Persia, fell into 
the hands of Alexander after the battle of Issus, 
B.C. 333, together with the wife and daughters 
of Darius. Alexander treated these captives 
with the greatest generosity and kindness, and 
displayed toward Sisygambis, in particular, a 
reverence and delicacy of conduct, which is one 
of the brightest ornaments of his character. 
On her part, Sisygambis became so strongly at- 
tached to her conqueror, that she felt his death 
as a blow not less severe than that of her own 

817 



SISYPHIDES. 



SMERDIS. 



son ; and, overcome by this long succession of 
misfortunes, she put an end to her own life by- 
voluntary starvation. 

[Sisyphides. Vid. Sisyphus.] 

Sisyphus (St'au^oc), son of iEolus and Ena- 
rete, whence he is called JEolides. He was 
married to Merope, a daughter of Atlas or a 
Pleiad, and became by her the father of Glaucus, 
Ornytion (or Porphyrion), Thersander, and Hal- 
mus. In later accounts he is also called a son 
of Autolycus, and the father of Ulysses by An- 
ticlea {vid. Anticlea), whence we find Ulysses 
sometimes called Sisyphides. He is said to have 
built the town of Ephyra, afterward Corinth. 
As king of Corinth he promoted navigation and 
commerce, but he was fraudulent, avaricious, 
and deceitful. His wickedness during life was 
severely punished in the lower world, where he 
had to roll up hill a huge marble block, which, 
as soon as it reached the top, always rolled down 
again. The special reasons for this punishment 
are not the same in all authors ; some relate 
that it was because he had betrayed the designs 
of the gods ; others, because he attacked trav- 
ellers, and killed them with a huge block of 
stone ; and others, again, because he had be- 
trayed to Asopus that Jupiter (Zeus) had car- 
ried off ./Egina, the daughter of the latter. The 
more usual tradition related that Sisyphus re- 
quested his wife not to bury him, and that, when 
she complied with his request, Sisyphus in the 
lower world complained of this seeming neg- 
lect, and obtained from Pluto (Hades) or Proser- 
pina (Persephone) permission to return to the 
upper world to punish his wife. He then re- 
fused to return to the lower world, until Mer- 
cury (Hermes) carried him off by force ; and 
this piece of treachery is said to have been the 
cause of his punishment. 

Sitace or Sittace (Stra/c;?, 'SiTTaKr; : ruins at 
Eski- Bagdad), a great and populous city of 
Babylonia, near but not on the Tigris, and eight 
parasangs within the Median wall. Its prob- 
able site is marked by a ruin called the Tower 
of Nimrod. It gave the name of Sittaccne 
to the district on the lower course of the Ti- 
gris east of Babylonia and northwest of Susi- 
ana. 

Sitalces {2irdlK7ic), king of the Thracian 
tribe of the Odrysians, was a son of Teres, 
whom he succeeded on the throne. He increas- 
ed his dominions by successful wars, so that 
they ultimately comprised the whole territory 
from Abdera to the mouths of the Danube, and 
from Byzantium to the sources of the Strymon. 
At the commencement of the Peloponnesian 
war he entered into an alliance with the Athe- 
nians, and in 429 he invaded Macedonia with a 
vast army, but was obliged to retire through 
failure of provisions. 

[Sithon (2(0uv), king of Thrace, and father 
of Pallene. Vid. Sithonia.] 

Sithonia (Stduvia), the central one of the 
three peninsulas running out from Chalcidice in 
Macedonia, between the Toronaic and Singitic 
Gulfs. The Thracians originally extended over 
the greater part of Macedonia ; and the ancients 
derived the name of Sithonia from a Thracian 
king Sithon. We also find mention of a Thra- 
cian people, Sithonii, on the shores of the Pon- 
lusEuxinus; and the poets frequently use Si- 
818 



thonis and Sithonius in the general sense o* 
Thracian. 

Sitipi (2m(iio : ruins at Setif), an inland citv 
of Mauretania Ceesariensis, on the borders of 
Numidia, stood upon a hill, in an extensive and 
beautiful plain. It first became an important 
place under the Romans, who made it a colony; 
and, upon the subdivision of Mauretania Ca> 
sariensis into two provinces, it was made the 
capital of the eastern province, which was call- 
ed after it Mauretania Sitifensis. 

[Sitius. Vid. Sittius.] 

Sitones, a German tribe in Scandinavia, be- 
longing to the race of the Suevi. 

Sittace, Sittacene. Vid. Sitace. 

Sittius or Sitius, P., of Nuceria in Campa- 
nia, was connected with Catiline, and went to 
Spain in B.C. 64, from which country he cross- 
ed over into Mauretania in the following year. 
It was said that P. Sulla had sent him into 
Spain to excite an insurrection against the Ro- 
man government; and Cicero accordingly, when 
he defended Sulla in 62, was obliged to deny 
the truth of the charges that had been brought 
against Sittius. Sittius did not return to Rome. 
His property in Italy was sold to pay his debts, 
and he continued in Africa, where he fought in 
the wars of the kings of the country. He join- 
ed Cassar when the latter came to Africa, in 46, 
to prosecute the war against the Pompeian 
party. He was of great service to Ceesar in 
this war, and at its conclusion was rewarded 
by Csesar with the western part of Numidia, 
where he settled down, distributing the land 
among his soldiers. After the death of Ca;sar, 
Arabio, the son of Masinissa, returned to Af- 
rica, and killed Sittius by stratagem. 

Siuph (liovf), a city of Lower Egypt, in the 
Saitic nome, only mentioned by Herodotus (ii., 
172). 

Smaragdus Mons ("Zjiapaydoc opoc : now Jehcl 
Zaburah), a mountain of Upper Egypt, near the 
coast of the Red Sea, north of Berenice. The 
extensive emerald mines, from which it obtain- 
ed its name, were worked under the ancient 
kings of Egypt, under the Ptolemies, and under 
the Romans. They seem to have been ex- 
hausted, as only very few emeralds are now and 
then found in the neighborhood. 

[Smenus (2firjvoc, now River of Passava), a 
small stream of Laconia, rising in Mount Tay- 
getus, flowing by Las, and emptying into the 
Sinus Laconicus near Gytheum.] 

Smerdis (2 i ue7»<'<?). the son of Cyrus, was mur- 
dered by order of his brother Cambyses. The 
death of Smerdis was kepta profound secret; and 
accordingly, when the Persians became weary 
of the tyranny of Cambyses, one of the Magians, 
named Patizlthes, who had been left by Cam- 
byses in charge of his palace and treasures, 
availed himself of the likeness of his brother to 
the deceased Smerdis to proclaim this brother 
as king, representing him as the younger son 
of Cyrus. Cambyses heard of the revolt in 
Syria, but he died of an accidental wound in the 
thigh as he was mounting his horse to march 
against the usurper. The false Smerdis was ac- 
knowledged as king by the Persians, and reign- 
ed for seven months wilhout opposition. The 
leading Persian nobles, however, were not quite 
free from suspicion ; and this suspicion was in- 



SMERDOMENES. 



SMYRNA. 



creased by the king never inviting any of them 
to the palace, and never appearing in public. 
Among the nobles who entertained these suspi- 
cions was Otanes, whose daughterPha?dima had 
been one of the wives of Cambyses, and had been 
transferred to his successor. The new king ! 
had some years before been deprived of his ears i 
by Cyrus for some offence ; and Otanes per- j 
suaded his daughter to ascertain whether her 
master had really lost his ears. Phaedima found 
out that such was the fact, and communicated 
the decisive information to her father. Otanes 
thereupon formed a conspiracy, and, in conjunc- 
tion with six other noble Persians, succeeded 
in forcing his way into the palace, where they 
slew the false Smerdis and his brother Pati- 
zithes in the. eighth month of their reign, B.C. 
521. The usurpation of the 'false Smerdis was 
an attempt on the part of the Medes, to whom 
the Magians belonged, to obtain the supremacy, 
of which they had been deprived by Cyrus. The 
assassination of the false Smerdis and the ac- 
cession of Darius Hystaspis again gave the as- 
cendency to the Persians ; and the anniversary 
of the day on which the Magians were massa- 
cred was commemorated among the Persians 
by a solemn festival, called Magophonia, on 
which no Magian was allowed to show himself 
in public. The real nature of the transaction 
is also shown by the revolt of the Medes which 
followed the accession of Darius. 

[Smerdomenes (Xu£p<hfi£vri<;), son of Otanes, 
was one of the generals who had the supreme 
command of the land forces of Xerxes in his in- 
vasion of Greece.] 

[Smilax, a beautiful nymph enamoured of 
Crocus : she was changed by the gods into a 
flower. Vid. Crocus.] 

Smius (S/ziAif), son of Euclides, of ^Egina, 
a sculptor of the legendary period, whose name 
appears to be derived from afiiXy, a knife for 
carving wood, and afterward a sculptor's chisel. 
Smilis is the legendary head of the JEginetan 
school of sculpture, just as Daedalus is the le- 
gendary head of the Attic and Cretan schools. 

Smintheus CZ/iivdevc), a surname of Apollo, 
which is derived by some from e/iivOnc, a mouse, 
and by others from the town of Sminthe in 
Troas. The mouse was regarded by the an- 
cients as inspired by the vapors arising from 
the earth, and as the symbol of prophetic power. 
In the temple of Apollo at Chryse there was a 
statue of the god by Scopas, with a mouse under 
its foot, and on coins Apollo is represented car- 
rying a mouse in his hands. Temples of Apol- 
lo Smintheus and festivals (Sminthla) existed 
in several parts of Greece. 

Smyrna (Zjiipva) or Myrrha. For details, 
ltd. Adonis. 

Smyrna, and in many MSS. Zmyrna {Xfivpva : 
Ion. 2/ivpvn : 'Z/xvpvaloc, Smyrnaeus : now Smyr- 
na, Turk. Izmir), one of the most ancient and 
flourishing cities of Asia Minor, and the only 
one of the great cities on its western coast 
which has survived to this day, stood in a po- 
sition alike remarkable for its beauty and for 
other natural advantages. Lying just about the 
centre of the western coast of Asia Minor ; on 
the banks of the little River Meles, at the bot- 
tom of a deep bay, the Sinus Hermaeus or Smyr- 
naeus (now Gulf of Smyrna), which formed a 



safe and immense harbor for the largest ships 
up to the very walls of the city ; at the foot of 
the rich slopes of Tmolus and at the entrance 
to the great and fertile valley of the Hermus, in 
which lay the great and wealthy city of Sardis ; 
and in the midst of the Greek colonies on the 
eastern shore of the JEgean ; it was marked out 
by nature as one of the greatest emporiums for 
the trade between Europe and Asia, and has 
preserved that character to the present day. 
There are various accounts of its origin. The 
most probable is that which represents it as an 
^Eolian colony from Cyme. At an early period 
it fell, by a stratagem, into the hands of the Io- 
nians of Colophon, and remained an Ionian city 
from that time forth : this appears to have hap- 
pened before 01. 23 (B.C. 688). As to the time 
when it became a member of the Panionic con- 
federacy, we have only a very untrustworthy 
account, which refers its admission to the reign 
of Attalus, king of Pergamus. Its early history 
is also very obscure. There is an account in 
Strabo that it was destroyed by the Lydian 
king Sadyattes, and that its inhabitants were 
compelled to live in scattered villages until after 
the Macedonian conquest, when the city was 
rebuilt, twenty stadia from its former site, by 
Antigonus'; but this is inconsistent with Pin- 
dar's mention of Smyrna as a beautiful city. 
Thus much is clear, however, that at some pe- 
riod the old city of Smyrna, which stood on the 
northeastern side of the Hermaean Gulf, was 
abandoned, and that it was succeeded by a new 
city, on the southeastern side of the same gulf 
(the present site), which is said to have been 
built by Antigonus, and which was enlarged and 
beautified by Lysimachus. This new city stood 
partly on the sea-shore and partly on a hill called 
Mastusia. It had a magnificent harbor, with 
such a depth of water that the largest ships 
could lie alongside the quays. The streets were 
paved with stone, and crossed one another at 
right angles. The city soon became one of the 
greatest and most prosperous in the world. It 
was especially favored by the Romans on ac- 
count of the aid it rendered them in the Syrian 
and Mithradatic wars. It was the seat of a con- 
ventus juridicus. In the Civil Wars it was 
taken and partly destroyed by Dolabella, but it 
soon recovered. It occupies a distinguished 
place in the early history of Christianity, as one 
of the only two among the seven churches of 
Asia which St. John addresses in the Apoca- 
lypse without any admixture of rebuke, and as 
the scene of the labors and martyrdom of Poly- 
carp. In the years A.D. 178-180, a succession 
of earthquakes, to which the city has always 
been much exposed, reduced it almost to ruins ; 
but it was restored by the Emperor M. Antoni- 
nus. In the successive wars under the Eastern 
empire it was frequently much injured, but al- 
ways recovered ; and, under the Turks, it has 
survived repeated attacks of earthquake, fire, 
and plague, and still remains the great commer- 
cial city of the Levant. There are but few 
ruins of the ancient city. In addition to all her 
other sources of renown, Smyrna stood at the 
head of the cities which claimed the birth of 
Homer. The poet was worshipped as a Hero 
in a magnificent building called the Homereum 
('Ouripeiov). Near the sea-shore there stood a 

81-1 



SMYRNA TRACHEA. 



SOCRATES. 



magnificent temple of Cybele, whose head ap- 
pears on the coins of the city. The other di- 
vinities chiefly worshipped here were Nemesis 
and the nymph Smyrna, the heroine eponymus 
of the place, who had a shrine on the banks of 
the River Meles. 

Smyrna Trachea. Vid. Ephesus. 

Smyrn^eus Sinus CUfivpvaluv KOAnog, ~Zfivp- 
va'iicoc koXttoc : now Gulf of Ismir or Smyrna), 
the g(;eat gulf on the western coast of Asia 
Minor, at the bottom of which Smyrna stands. 
Its entrance lies between Promontorium Me- 
lffina (now Cape Kara Burnu) on the west, and 
Phocaea (now Fokia) on the east. Its depth was 
reckoned at three hundred and fifty stadia. It 
received the River Hermus, whence it was 
called Hermeus Sinus ("Y.pfitioc /cd?.7rof). It is 
sometimes also called MeAyrov koaitoc, from the 
little river Meles, on which Old Smyrna stood. 

Soanes (Sdavef), a powerful people of the 
Caucasus, governed by a king who could bring 
two hundred thousand soldiers into the field. 
The mountain streams of the country contained 
gold, which was separated by collecting the 
water in sheep-skins, whence the matter-of-fact 
interpreters derived the legend of the golden 
fleece. According to Strabo, the habits of the 
people were such that they stood in remarkable 
need of other " washings." They are also called 
Suani and Suanocolchi CZovavoi, "ZovavoicoX- 
X«l), and their land Suania (Zovavia). 

[Soatra (Jidarpa, "Zavarpa), a small town of 
Lycaonia, in the neighborhood of Apamea Ci- 
botus, very scantily supplied with water. Ac- 
cording to Texier, its site corresponds to the 
modern village Su Vermess, which means, " here 
is no water to be found."] 

Socrates (SuKpunjf). 1. The celebrated 
Athenian philosopher, was born in the demus 
Alopece, in the immediate neighborhood of 
Athens, B.C. 469. His father Sophroniscus 
was a statuary ; his mother Phaenarete was a 
midwife. In his youth he followed the profes- 
sion of his father, and attained sufficient pro- 
ficiency to have executed the group of clothed 
Graces which was preserved in the Acropolis, 
and was shown as his work down to the time 
of Pausanias. The personal qualities of Soc- 
rates were marked and striking. His physical 
constitution was healthy, robust, and enduring 
to an extraordinary degree. He was capable 
of bearing fatigue or hardship, and indifferent 
to heat or cold, in a measure which astonished 
all his companions. He went barefoot in all 
seasons of the year, even during the winter 
campaign at Potidaea, under the severe frosts 
of Thrace ; and the same homely clothing suf- 
ficed for him in winter as well as in summer. 
His ugly physiognomy excited the jests both of 
his friends and enemies, who inform us that he 
had a flat nose, thick lips, and prominent eyes 
like a satyr or Silenus. Of the circumstances 
of his life we are almost wholly ignorant : he 
served as an hoplite at Potidaea, Delium, and 
Amphipolis with great credit to himself. He 
seems never to have filled any political office 
until 406, in which year he was a member of 
the senate of Five Hundred, and one of the Pry- 
tanes, when he refused, on the occasion of the 
trial of .the six generals, to put an unconstitu- 
tional question to the vote, in spite of all per- 
820 



sonal hazard. He displayed the same moia! 
courage in refusing to obey the order of the 
Thirty Tyrants for the apprehension of Leon 
the Salaminian. At what time Socrates re- 
linquished his profession as a statuary we do 
not know ; but it is certain that all the middle 
and later part of his life at least was devoted 
exclusively- to the self-imposed task of teach- 
ing; excluding all other business, public o> 
private, and to the neglect of all means of for- 
tune. But he never opened a school, nor did 
he, like the sophists of his time, deliver publii 
lectures. Every where, in the market-place, 
in the gymnasia, and in the work-shops, he 
sought and found opportunities for awakening 
and guiding, in boys, youth, and men, moral 
consciousness and the impulse after self-knowl- 
edge respecting the end and value of our ac- 
tions. His object, however, was only to aid 
them in developing the germs of knowledge 
which were already present in them, not to com- 
municate to them ready-made knowledge ; and 
he therefore professed to practice a kind of 
mental midwifery, just as his mother Phaenarete 
exercised the corresponding corporeal art. . Un- 
weariedly and inexorably did he fight against 
all false appearance and conceit of knowledge, 
in order to pave the way for correct knowledge. 
Consequently to the mentally proud and the 
mentally idle he appeared an intolerable bore, 
and often experienced their bitter hatred and 
calumny. This was probably the reason why 
he was selected by Aristophanes, and the other 
comic writers, to be attacked as a general rep- 
resentative of philosophical and rhetorical teach- 
ing ; the more so, as his marked and repulsive 
physiognomy admitted so well of being imitated 
in the mask which the actor wore. The audi- 
ence at the theatre would more readily recog- 
nize the peculiar figure which they were ac- 
customed to see every day in the market-place, 
than if Prodicus or Protagoras, whom most of 
them did not know by sight, had been brought 
on the stage ; nor was it of much importance 
either to them or to Aristophanes whether Soc- 
rates was represented as teaching what he did 
really teach, or something utterly different. At- 
tached to none of the prevailing parties, Socra- 
tes found in each of them his friends and his 
enemies. Hated and persecuted by Critias, 
Charicles, and others among the Thirty Tyrants, 
who had a special reference to him in the de- 
cree which they issued, forbidding the teaching 
of the art of oratory, he was impeached after 
their banishment and by their opponents. An 
orator named Lycon, and a poet (a friend of 
Thrasybulus) named Meletus, had united in the 
impeachment with the powerful demagogue 
Anytus, an embittered antagonist of the soph- 
ists and their system, and one of the leaders 
of the band which, setting out from Phyle, forced 
their way into the Piraeus, and drove out the 
Thirty Tyrants. The judges also are described 
as persons who had been banished, and who had 
returned with Thrasybulus. The chief articles 
of impeachment were, that Socrates was guilty 
of corrupting the youth, and of despising the 
tutelary deities of the state, putting in theii 
place other new divinities. At the same time 
it had been made a matter of accusation against 
him, that Critias, the most ruthless of the Ty- 



SOCRATES. 



SOCRATES. 



rants, had come forth from his school. Some 
expressions of his, in which he had found fault 
with the democratical mode of electing by lot, 
had also been brought up against him ; and there 
can be little doubt that use was made of his 
friendly relations with Theramenes, one of the 
most influential of the Thirty, with Plato's uncle 
Charmides, who fell by the side of Critias in 
the struggle with the popular party, and with 
other aristocrats, in order to irritate against him 
the party which at that time was dominant. 
The substance of the speech which Socrates 
delivered in his defence is probably preserved 
by Plato in the piece which goes under the name 
of the " Apology of Socrates." Being con- 
demned by a majority of only six votes, he ex- 
presses the conviction that he deserved tp be 
maintained at the public cost in the Prytaneurn, 
and refuses to acquiesce in the adjudication of 
imprisonment, or a large fine, or banishment. 
He will assent to nothing more than a fine of 
sixty minae, on the security of Plato, Crito, and 
other friends. Condemned to death by the 
judges, who were incensed by this speech, by a 
majority of eighty votes, he departs from them 
with the protestation that he would rather die 
after such a defence than live after one in which 
he should have endeavored to excite their pity. 
The sentence of death could not be carried into 
execution until after the return of the vessel 
which had been sent to Delos on the periodical 
Theoric mission. The thirty days which inter- 
vened between its return and the condemnation 
of Socrates were devoted by him to poetic at- 
tempts (the first he had ever made), and to his us- 
ual conversation with his friends. One of these 
conversations, on the duty of obedience to the 
laws, Plato has reported in the Crilo, so called 
after the faithful follower of Socrates, who had 
endeavored without success to persuade him to 
make his escape. In another, imitated or work- 
ed up by Plato in the Phcedo, Socrates, immedi- 
ately before he drank the cup of hemlock, de- 
veloped the grounds of his immovable convic- 
tion of the immortality of the soul. He died 
with composure and cheerfulness in his seven- 
tieth year, B.C. 399. Three peculiarities dis- 
tinguished Socrates : 1. His long life, passed in 
contented poverty and in public dialectics, of 
which we have already spoken. 2. His persua- 
sion of a special religious mission. He had 
been accustomed constantly to hear, even from 
his ehildhood, a divine voice — interfering, at 
moments when he was about to act, in the way 
of restraint, but never in the way of instiga- 
tion. Such prohibitory warning was wont to 
come upon him very frequently, not merely on 
great, hut even on small occasions, intercepting 
what he was about to do or to say. Though 
later writers speak of this as the Daemon or Ge- 
nius of Socrates, he himself does not personify 
it, but treats it merely as a " divine sign, a pro- 
phetic or supernatural voice." He was accus- 
tomed not only to obey it implicitly, but to speak 
of it publicly and familiarly to others, so that 
the fact was well known both to his friends and 
to his enemies. 3. His great intellectual orig- 
inality, both of subject and of method, and his 
power of stirring and forcing the germ of in- 
quiry and ratiocination in others. He was the 
first who turned his thoughts and discussions 



i distinctly to the subject of ethics, and was the 

I first to proclaim that " the proper study of man- 
kind is man." With the philosophers w : ho pre- 

I ceded him, the subject of examination had been 
Nature, or the Kosmos as one undistinguishable 
whole, blending together cosmogony, astrono- 
my, geometry, physics, metaphysics, &c. In 
discussing ethical subjects, Socrates employed 
the dialectic method, and thus laid the founda- 
tion of formal logic, which was afterward ex- 
panded by Plato, and systematized by Aristotle. 
The originality of Socrates is shown by the re- 
sults he achieved. Out of his intellectual school 
sprang, not merely Plato, himself a host, but all 
the other leaders of Grecian speculation for the 
next half century, and all those who continued 
the great line of speculative philosophy down 
to later times. Euclid and the Megaric school 
of philosophers — Aristippus and the Cyrenaic 
Antisthenes and Diogenes, the first of those 
called the Cynics— all emanated more or less 
directly from the stimulus imparted by Socrates, 
though each followed a different vein of thought. 
Ethics continued to be what Socrates had first 
made them, a distinct branch of philosophy, 
alongside of which politics, rhetoric, logic, and 
other speculations relating to man and society, 
gradually arranged themselves ; all of them more 
popular, as well as more keenly controverted, 
than physics, which at that time presented com- 

j paratively little charm, and still less of attain- 
able certainty. There can be no doubt that the 
individual influence of Socrates permanently 
enlarged the horizon, improved the method, and 
multipled the ascendant minds of the Grecian 
speculative world in a manner never since par- 
alleled. Subsequent philosophers may have had 
a more elaborate doctrine, and a larger number 
of disciples who imbibed their ideas ; but none 
of them applied the same stimulating method 
with the same efficacy, and none of them struck 
out of other minds that fire which sets light to 
original thought. (A great part of this article 
is taken from Mr. Grote's account of Socrates 
in his History of Greece.) — [2. An Athenian, son 
of Antigenes, was one of the three commanders 
sent out with a fleet in B.C. 431 to ravage the 
coasts of the Peloponnesus. They did not effect 
much, being foiled in an attack on Methone by 
the opportune arrival of Brasidas. — 3. An Ach- 
aean, one of the commanders of the Greek mer- 
cenaries of Cyrus the younger, joined that prince 
at Sardis with five hundred heavy-armed men. 
He was one of the generals who accompanied 
Clearchus to the tent of Tissaphernes, when 
they were all treacherously seized by that sa- 
trap, and subsequently put to death by order 
of Artaxerxes himself] — 4. The ecclesiastical 
historian, was born at Constantinople about A. D. 
379. He was a pupil of Ammonius and Hel- 
ladius, and followed the profession of an advo- 
cate in his native city, whence he is surnamed 
Scholasticus. The Ecclesiastical History of Soc- 
rates extends from the reign of Constantine the 
Great, 306, to that of the younger Theodosius, 
439. He appears to have been a man of less 
bigotry than most of his contemporaries, and 
the very difficulty of determining from internal 
evidence some points of his religious belief 
may be considered as arguing his comparative 
liberality. His history is divided into seven 

821 



SODOMA. 



SOLINUS. 



twoks His work is included in the editions of 
the ancient Greek ecclesiastical historians by 
Valesius, Paris, 1668 ; reprinted at Mentz, 1677 ; 
by Reading, Camb., 1720. 

SonoMA, gen. -orum and -ae, also -um, gen. -i, 
and -i, gen. -orum (rd 26So/xa : ZodofiirTjc:, So- 
rlomita), a very ancient city of Canaan, in the 
beautiful valley of Siddim (77 Zodofilric), closely 
connected with Gomorrha, over which, and the 
other three " cities of the plain," the King of 
Sodom seems to have had a sort of supremacy. 
In the book of Genesis we find these cities as 
subject, in the time of Abraham, to the King of 
Elam and his allies (an indication of the early 
supremacy in Western Asia of the masters of 
the Tigris and Euphrates valley), and their at- 
tempt to cast off the yoke was the occasion of 
the first war on record. (Gen.,xiv.) Soon aft- 
erward, the abominable sins of these cities call- 
ed down the divine vengeance, and they were 
all destroyed by fire from heaven, except Zoar, 
which was spared at the intercession of Lot. 
The beautiful valley in which they stood was 
overwhelmed by the Jordan and converted into 
the Dead Sea, whose bituminous waters still 
bear witness to the existence of the springs of 
asphallus ("slime-pits" in our version) of which 
the valley of Siddim was full. It used to be 
assumed that, before the destruction of the cities 
of the plain, the Jordan flowed on into the Red 
Sea ; [and this opinion is supported by recent ob- 
servations on the nature of the country around 
the southern extremity of the Dead Sea ; while 
others maintain that] there was probably al- 
ways a lake which received the waters both of 
the Jordan and the river which still flows into 
the southern end of the Dead Sea; and [that] 
the nature of the change seems to have con- 
sisted in the enlargement of this lake by a great 
depression of the whole valley. The site of 
Sodom was probably near the southern extrem- 
ity of the lake. 

Scejiis or Soa:MiAs, Julia, daughter of Julia 
MsBsa, and mother of Elagabalus, either by her 
husband Sextus Varius Marcellus, or, according 
to the report industriously circulated with her 
own consent, by Caracalla. After the acces- 
sion of her son, she became his chosen coun- 
sellor, and seems to have encouraged and shared 
his follies and enormities. She took a place in 
the senate, which then, for the first time, wit- 
nessed the intrusion of a woman, and was her- 
self the president of a sort of female parliament, 
which held its sittings in the Quirinal, and pub- 
lished edicts for the regulation of all matters 
connected with the morals, dress, etiquette, and 
equipage of the matrons. She was slain by the 
prsetorians, in the arms of her son, on the 11th 
of March, A.D. 222. 

Sogdian a (i? "Sioydiavrj or "Zovy&iavfi : Old Per- 
sian, Sughda : 'ZoySioi, Soydiavol, 'Zovydiavoi : 
parts of Turkestan and Bokhara, including the 
district still called Sogd), the northeastern prov- 
ince of the ancient Persian empire, separated 
on the south from Bactriana and Margiana by 
the upper course of the Oxus (now Jihoun); on 
the east and north from Scythia by the Sogdii 
Cornedarum and Oxii Mountains (now Kara- 
Dagh, Alatan and Ak Tagh), and by the upper 
course of the Jaxartes (now Sihoun), and bound- 
ed on the northwest by the great deserts east 
822 



j of the Sea of Aral. The southern part of the 
I country was fertile and populous. It was con- 
| quered by Cyrus, and afterward by Alexander, 
I botii of whom marked the extreme limits of 
I their advance by cities on the Jaxartes, Cyres- 
chata and Alexandreschata. After the Mace- 
donian conquest it was subject to the kings, 
first of Syria and then of Bactria, till it was 
overrun by the barbarians. The natives of the 
country were a wild, warlike people of the great 
I Arian race, resembling the Bactrians in their 
character and customs. 

Sogdianus (SoydWof), was one of the ille- 
I gitimate sons of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus. 
The latter, on his death in B.C. 425, was suc- 
ceeded by his legitimate son Xerxes II., but this 
monarch, after a reign of only two months, was 
murdered by Sogdianus, who now became king. 
Sogdianus, however, was murdered in his turn, 
after a reign of seven months, by his brother 
Ochus. Ochus reigned under the name of Da- 
rius II. 

Sogdii Montes. Via". Sogmana. 
Sol. Vid. Helios. 

Soli or Soloe (SdAo;)- 1. (Ethnic, 2o}.evc, 
Solensis : ruins at Mczetlu), a city on the coast 
of Cilicia, between the rivers Lamus and Cyd- 
nus, said to have been colonized by Argives and 
Lydians from Rhodes. It was a flourishing city 
in the time of Alexander, who fined its people 
two hundred talents for their adhesion to the 
Persians. The city was destroyed by Tigranes, 
who probably transplanted the inhabitants to Ti- 
granocerta. Pompey restored the city after his 
war with the pirates, and peopled it with the 
survivors of the defeated bands ; and from this 
time forth it was called Pompeiopolis {Ylofinrji- 
ovkoXic). It was celebrated in literary history 
as the birth-place of the Stoic philosopher Chry- 
sippus, of the comic poet Philemon, and of the 
astronomer and poet Aratus. Its name has been 
curiously perpetuated in the grammatical word 
solecism (solcecismus), which is said to have 
been first applied to the corrupt dialect of Greek 
spoken by the inhabitants of this city, or, as 
some say, of Soli in Cyprus. — 2. (Ethnic, 2d- 
Xioe : ruins at Aligora, in the valley of Solea), a 
considerable sea-port town in the western part 
of the northern coast of Cyprus, on a little riv- 
er. According to some, it was a colony of the 
Athenians, while others ascribed its erection to 
a native prince [Philocyprus] acting under the 
advice of Solon, and others to Solon himself: 
the last account is doubtless an error. It had 
temples of Isis and Venus Aphrodite), and there 
were mines in its vicinity. 

Solicinium, a town in Roman Germany (the 
Agri Decumates), on the mountain Pirus, where 
Valentinian gained a victory over the Alemanni 
in A.D. 369, probably in the neighborhood of the 
modern Heidelberg. 

Solinus, C. Julius, the author of a geo- 
graphical compendium, divided into fifty-seven 
chapters, containing a brief sketch of the world 
as known to the ancients, diversified by histor- 
ical notices, remarks on the origin, habits, re- 
ligious rites, and social condition of various na- 
tions enumerated. The arrangement, and fre- 
quently the very words, are derived from the 
Natural History of Pliny, but little knowledge, 
care, or judgment is displayed in the selection. 



SOUS AQUA. 



SOLON. 



We know nothing of Solinus himself, but he 
must havj lived after the reign of Alexander 
Severus and before that of Constantine. He 
may, perhaps, be placed about A.D. 238. We 
learn from the first of two prefatory addresses, 
that an edition of the work had already passed 
into circulation, in an imperfect state, without 
the consent or knowledge of the author, under 
the appellation Collectanea Rcrum Mcmorabil- 
iam, while on the second, revised, corrected, 
and published by himself, he bestowed the more 
ambitious title of Polyhistor ; and hence we find 
the treatise designated in several MSS. as C. 
Julii Solini Grammalici Polyhistor ab ipso editus 
et recognittis. The most notable edition is that 
of Salmasius, published at Utrecht in 1689, pre- 
fixed to his " Plinianae Exercitationes," the 
whole forming two large folio volumes. 

[Solis Aqua ('H/U'ou vSup), a fountain and 
stream of the island Panchaea, off the coast of 
Arabia Felix ] 

Sous Pons. Vid. Oasis, No. 3. 

Sous Lacus Qiifivri 'He/U'oio), a lake in the 
far East, from which, in the old mythical sys- 
tem of the world, the sun rose to make his daily 
course through heaven. Some of the matter- 
of-fact expositors identified it with the Caspian 
Sea. Another lake of the same name was im- 
agined by some of the poets in the far West, 
into which the sun sank at night. 

So lis Mons. Vid. Solois. 

Sous Puomontorium (uKpa 'HXiov icpa : now 
Ras Anfir), a promontory of Arabia Felix, near 
the middle of the Persian Gulf. 

[Solmissus (SoX/uoodc), a mountain of Ionia, 
in the neighborhood of Ephesus.] 

Soloe. Vid. Soli. 

Solois (ZoXoeic : now Cape Cantin, Arab. Ras 
el Houdik), a promontory running far out into 
the sea, in the southern part of the western 
coast of Mauretania. Herodotus believed it 
to be the westernmost headland of all Libya. 
Upon it was a Phoenician temple of Neptune 
(Poseidon). The later geographers under the 
Romans mention a Mons Solis ('H/U'ov opoc), 
which appears to be the same spot, its name 
being probably a corruption of the Greek name. 

Solon (Sd/Uiv), the celebrated Athenian leg- 
islator, was born about B.C. 638. His father 
Execestides was a descendant of Codrus, and 
his mother was a cousin of the mother of Pisis- 
tratus. Execestides had seriously crippled his 
resources by a too prodigal expenditure ; and 
Solon consequently found it either necessary 
or convenient in his youth to betake himself to 
the life of a foreign trader. It is likely enough 
that while necessity compelled him to seek a 
livelihood in some mode or other, his active and 
inquiring spirit led him to select that pursuit 
which would furnish the amplest means for its 
gratification. Solon early distinguished himself 
by his poetical abilities. His first effusions 
were in a somewhat light and amatory strain, 
which afterward gave way to the more digni- 
fied and earnest purpose of inculcating profound 
reflections or sage advice. So widely, indeed, 
did his reputation spread, that he was ranked 
as one of the seven sages, and his name ap- 
pears in all the lists of the seven. The occa- 
sion which rirst^rought Solon prominently for- 
ward as an actor on the political stage was the 



contest between Atliens and Megara respecting 
the possession of Salamis. The ill success of 
the attempts of the Athenians to make them- 
selves masters of the island, had led to the en- 
actment of a law forbidding the writing or say- 
ing any thing to urge the Athenians to renew 
the contest. Solon, indignant at this dishonor- 
able renunciation of their claims, hit upon the 
device of feigning to be mad; and, causing a 
report of his condition to be spread over the 
city, he rushed into the agora, and there recited 
a short elegiac poem of one hundred lines, in 
which he called upon the Athenians to retrieve 
their disgrace and reconquer the lovely island. 
Pisistratus (who, however, must have been ex 
tremely young at the time) came to the sup- 
port of his kinsman ; the pusillanimous law was 
rescinded, war was declared, and Solon himself 
appointed to conduct it. The Megarians were 
driven out of the island, but a tedious war en- 
sued, which was finally settled by the arbitra- 
tion of Sparta. Both parties appealed, in sup- 
port of their claim, to the authority of Homer ; 
and it was currently believed in antiquity that 
Solon had surreptitiously inserted the line (7/., 
ii., 558) which speaks of Ajax as ranging his 
ships with the Athenians. The Spartans de- 
cided in favor of the Athenians about B.C. 596. 
Solon himself, probably, was one of those who 
received grants of land in Salamis, and this may 
account for his being termed a Salaminian 
Soon after these events (about 595) Solon took 
a leading part in promoting hostilities on behalf 
of Delphi against Cirrha, and was the mover of 
the decree of the Amphictyons bv which was 
was declared. It does not appear, however, 
what active part he took in the war. Accord- 
ing to a common story, which, however, rests 
only on the authority of a late writer, Solon 
hastened the surrender of the town by causing 
the waters of the Plistus to be poisoned. It 
was about the time of the outbreak of this war. 
that, in consequence of the distracted state of 
Attica, which was rent by civil commotions, 
Solon was called upon by all parties to mediate 
between them, and alleviate the miseries that 
prevailed. He was chosen archon 594, and un- 
der that legal title was invested with unlimited 
power for adopting such measures as the ex- 
igencies of the state demanded. In fulfillment 
of the task intrusted to him, Solon addressed 
himself to the relief of the existing distress. 
This he effected with the greatest discretion 
and success by his celebrated disburdening or- 
dinance (aeiauxdeia), a measure consisting of 
various distinct provisions, calculated to re- 
lieve the debtors with as little infringement as 
possible on the claims of the wealthy creditors. 
The details of this measure, however, are in- 
volved in considerable uncertainty. We know 
that he depreciated the coinage, making the 
mina to contain one hundred drachmas instead 
of seventy-three ; that is to say, seventy -three 
of the old drachmae produced one hundred of 
the new coinage, in which obligations were to 
be discharged, so that the debtor saved rather 
more than a fourth in every payment. The 
success of the Seisachtheia procured for Solon 
such confidence and popularity that he was fur- 
ther charged with the task of entirely remod- 
elling the constitution. Asa preliminary step, 

823 



SOLON. 



SOLYGIA. 



he repealed all the laws of Draco except those 
relating to bloodshed. Our limits only allow us 
to glance at the principal features of the constitu- 
tion established by Solon. This constitution was 
based upon the timocratic principle, that is, the 
title of citizens to the honors and offices of the 
state was regulated by their wealth. All the cit- 
izens were distributed into four classes. The 
first class consisted of those who had an an- 
nual income of at least five hundred medirnni of 
dry or liquid produce (equal to five hundred drach- 
mae, a medimnus being reckoned at a drachma), 
and were called Pentacosiomedimni. The second 
class consisted of those whose incomes ranged 
between three hundred and five hundred medirn- 
ni or drachmae, and were called Hippeis ('foxetc, 
'In-nijc), from their being able to keep a horse, 
and bound to perform military service as cav- 
alry. The third class consisted of those whose 
incomes varied between two hundred and three 
hundred medirnni or drachmae, and were termed 
Zcugita (Zevylrai). The fourth class included 
all whose property fell short of two hundred 
medirnni or drachmae, and bore the name of 
Thetcs. The first three classes were liable to 
direct taxation, in the form of a graduated in- 
come tax. A direct tax, however, was an ex- 
traordinary, and not an annual payment. The 
fourth class were exempt from direct taxes, but 
of course they, as well as the rest, were liable 
to indirect taxes. To Solon was ascribed the 
institution of the Boule (/?oi>Aij), or deliberative 
assembly of Four Hundred, one hundred mem- 
bers being elected from each of the four tribes. 
He greatly enlarged the functions of the Eccle- 
sia (knK\rioia), which no doubt existed before 
his time, though it probably possessed scarcely 
more power than the assemblies which we find 
described in the Homeric poems. He gave it 
the right of electing the archons and other mag- 
istrates, and, what was even more important, 
made the archons and magistrates accountable 
directly to it when their year of office was ex- 
pired. He also gave it what was equivalent to 
a veto upon any proposed measure of" the Boule, 
though it could not itself originate any measure. 
Besides the arrangement of the general political 
relations of the people, Solon was the author of 
a great variety of special laws, which do not 
seem to have been arranged in any systematic 
manner. Those relating to debtors and credit- 
ors have been already referred to. Several had 
for their object the encouragement of trade and 
manufactures. Foreign settlers were not to be 
naturalized as citizens unless they carried on 
some industrious pursuit. If a father did not 
teach his son some trade or profession, the son 
was not liable to maintain his father in his old 
age. The council of Areopagus had a general 
power to punish idleness. Solon forbade the 
exportation of all produce of the Attic soil ex- 
cept olive oil. He was the first who gave to 
those who died childless the power of disposing 
of their property by will. He enacted several 
laws relating to marriage, especially with re- 
gard to heiresses. The rewards which he ap- 
pointed to be given to victors at the Olympic 
and Isthmian games are for that age unusually 
large (five hundred drachmae to the former and 
one hundred to the latter). One of the most 
curious of his regulations was that which de- 
824- 



nounced atimia against any citizen who, on the 
outbreak of a sedition, remained neutral. The 
laws of Solon were- inscribed on wooden rollers 
(ufovff)and triangular tablets (nvpfieic), and were 
set up at first in the Acropolis, afterward in the 
Prytaneum. The Athenians were also indebt- 
ed to Solon for some rectification of the calen- 
dar. It is said that Solon exacted from the 
people a solemn oath, that they would observe 
his laws without alteration for a certain space 
— ten years according to Herodotus — one hund- 
red years according to other accounts. It is re- 
lated that he was himself aware that he had 
been compelled to leave many imperfections in 
his system and code. He is said to have spoken 
of his laws as being not the best, but the best 
which the Athenians would have received. 
After he had completed his task, being, we are 
told, greatly annoyed and troubled by those who 
came to him with all kinds of complaints, sug- 
gestions, or criticisms about his laws, in order 
that he might not himself have to propose any 
change, he absented himself from Athens for 
ten years, after he had obtained the oath above 
referred to. He first visited Egypt, and from 
thence proceeded to Cyprus, where he was re- 
ceived with great distinction by Philocyprus, 
king of the little town of JEpea. Solon per- 
suaded the king to remove from the old site, 
and build a new town on the plain. The new 
settlement was called Soli, in honor of the illus- 
trious visitor. He is further said to have visit- 
ed Lydia ; and his interview with Crcesus was 
one of the most celebrated stories in antiquity. 
Vid. Crcesus. During the absence of Solon the 
old dissensions were renewed, and shortly after 
his arrival at Athens, the supreme power was 
seized by Pisistratus. The tyrant, after his 
usurpation, is said to have paid considerable 
court to Solon, and on various occasions to have 
solicited his advice, which Solon did not with- 
hold. Solon probably died about 558, two years 
after the overthrow of the constitution, at the 
age of eighty. There was a story current in 
antiquity that, by his own directions, his ashes 
were collected and scattered round the island 
of Salamis. Of the poems of Solon several 
fragments remain. They do not indicate any 
great degree of imaginative power, but their 
style is vigorous and simple. Those that were 
called forth by special emergencies appear to 
have been marked by no small degree of energy. 
The fragments of these poems are incorporated 
in the collections of the Greek gnomic poets ; 
and there is also a separate edition of them by 
Bach, Lugd. Bat., 1825. 

[Solonius Campus, a tract of the Lanuvian 
district in Latium. Dionysius of Halicarnassus 
speaks of an Etruscan city named Solonium, 
from which Romulus received aid in his war 
with the Sabines ] 

[Solokius Mons, a mountain range of Hispa- 
nia, commencing at the sources of the Baetis, 
and stretching in a southern direction. It form- 
ed in a part of its course the boundary between 
Tarraconensis and Baetica.] 

Solus (SoAoif, -ovvroc, contraction of 'ZoXbeic : 
ZoXevTLi'Oc), called Soluntum (Solentinus) bythe 
Romans, an ancient town on the northern coast 
of Sicily, between Panormus and Thermae. 

[Solvgia (SoAi'y£ia, now Galataki), a small 



SOLFMA. 



SOPHOCLES. 



place in the Corinthian territory on lohvyeioc 
Aoyoc, twelve stadia from the coast of the Bay 
of Cenchreas : Nicias here defeated a body of 
Corinthian troops in the Peloponnesian war.] 

Solyma (ret Sofa^a). 1. (Now Taktalu-Dagh) 
the mountain range which runs parallel to the 
eastern coast of Lycia, and is a southern con- 
tinuation of Mount Climax. Sometimes the 
whole range is called Climax, and the name of 
Solyma is given to its highest peak. — 2. Another 
name of Jerusalem. 

I Solymi. Vid. Lycia 

Somnus (tiiryof), the personification and god 
of Sleep, is described as a brother of Death 
(fldvarof, mors), and as a son of Night. In 
works of art, Sleep and Death are represented 
alike as two youths, sleeping or holding invert- 
ed torches in their hands. Vid. Mors. 

Sontius (now Isonzo), a river in Venetia, in 

j the north of Italy, rising in the Carnic Alps, and 
falling into the Sinus Tergestinus east of Aqui- 

| leia. 

[Sonus (SeOvoe;, now Son, Sona, or Soned), a 
large tributary of the Ganges, on the right side ; 
at the junction of this river with the Ganges, 
Palibothra was situated.] 
[Sopater (SuTrarpoc). I. One of the generals 

I elected by the Syracusans on the murder of 
Hieronymus in B.C. 215. — 2. A general of Phil- 
ip V. of Macedonia, crossed over to Africa in 
B.C. 203 with a body of four thousand troops to 
assist the Carthaginians. He was taken pris- 
oner by the Romans with many of his soldiers. 
3. An Aearnanian, the commander of Philip's 

j garrison at Chalcis, was slain with most of his 
troops in B.C. 200. — 4. Oce of the generals of 
Perseus, slain in battle with the Romans in 
B.C. 171. — 5. A native of Halicya? in Sicily, a 

. man «f wealth and consideration, condemned 
by Verres. — 6. Chief magistrate (proagorus) of 
Tyndaris in Sicily, a witness against Verres, 
who had treated him with indignity.] 

Sopater (Suzrarpof). 1. Of Paphos, a writer 
of parody and burlesque (<j>2.vapoypu(j>oc), who 
flourished from B.C. 323 to 283.-2. Of Apamea, 
a distinguished sophist, the head for some time 
of the school of Plotinus, was a disciple of Iam- 
bliehus, after whose death (before A.D. 330) he 
went to Constantinople. Here he enjoyed the 
favor and personal friendship of Constantine, 
who afterward, however, put him to death (be- 
tween A.D. 330 and 337), from the motive, as 
was alleged, of giving a proof of the sincerity of 
his own conversion to Christianity. There are 
several grammatical and rhetorical works ex- 
tant under the name of Sopater, but the best 
critics ascribe these to a younger Sopater, men- 
tioned below. — 3. The younger sophist, of Apa- 
mea or of Alexandrea, is supposed to have lived 
about two hundred years later than the former. 
Besides his extant works already alluded to, 

! Photius has preserved an extract of a work en- 
titled the Historical Extracts (e/eAoy^), which con- 
tained a vast variety of facts and figments, col- 
lected from a great number of authors. The 
remains of his rhetorical works are contained 
in Walz's Rhetores Grtzci. 

[Soph^enetus (So0atcerof), a native of Stym- 
phalus in Arcadia, who joined Cyrus the youn- 
ger in his expedition against Artaxerxes with 

' one thousand heavy-armed men. He is called 



by Xenophon one of the oldest of the generals, 
and was deputed to meet Ariasus and the Per 
sians after the treacherous seizure of Clearchua 
and his companions. On the arrival of the 
Greeks at Cotyora, Sophsenetus was fined for 
his negligence in allowing part of the cargoes 
of the vessels, which brought the old men, 
women, and children from Trapezus, to be pil- 
fered. In Stephanus of Byzantium, Sophajnetus 
is quoted four times as author of a Kvpov ' Avd- 
6aaic, and Muller supposes him to be the same 
with the general of Cyrus. 'Vid. Muller, Hist. 
Grtrc. Fragm., vol. ii., p. 74.] 

[Sophanes CSu<j>dvT]g), an Athenian, of the 
deme Decelea, slew in single combat Euryba- 
tes, the leader of the thousand Argives sent to 
aid the ^Eginetans against the Athenians in 
B.C. 491 At the battle of Plataeae, he distin- 
guished himself by his valor above all his coun- 
trymen. He was slain ra battle, while engaged 
in an unsuccessful attempt to colonize Amphi- 
polis in B.C. 465.] 

Sophene (Zotyrjvrj, later lu^avrivij), a district 
of Armenia Major, lying between the ranges of 
Antitaurus and Masius ; separated from Meli- 
tene in Armenia Minor by the Euphrates, from 
Mesopotamia by the Antitaurus, and from the 
eastern part of Armenia Major by the River 
Nymphius. In the time of the Greek kings of 
Syria, it formed, together with the adjacent dis- 
trict of Acilisene, an independent western Ar- 
menian kingdom, which was subdued and united 
to the rest of Armenia by Tigranes. 

Sophilus (Su^tAof), a comic poet of the mid- 
dle comedy, was a native of Sicyon or of Thebes, 
and flourished about B.C. 348. [A few frag- 
ments remain of his plays, collected inMeineke's 
Comic. Grac. Fragm., vol. ii., p. 794-6, edit, min.] 

[Sophilus. Vid. Sophocles.] 

Sophocles (2o0okA)?c). 1. The celebrated 
tragic poet, was born at Colonus, a village little 
more than a mile to the northwest of Athens, 
B.C. 495. He was thirty years younger than 
^Eschylus, and fifteen years older than Euripi- 
des. His father's name was Sophilus or Sophil- 
lus, of whose condition in life we know nothing 
for certain ; but it is clear that Sophocles re- 
ceived an education not inferior to that of the 
sons of the most distinguished citizens of 
Athens. To both of the two leading branches 
of Greek education, music and gymnastics, he 
was carefully trained, and in both he gained the, 
prize of a garland. Of the skill which he had 
attained in music and dancing in his sixteenth 
year, and of the perfection of his bodily form, 
we have conclusive evidence in the fact that, 
when the Athenians were assembled in solemn 
festival around the trophy which they had set 
up in Salamis to celebrate their victory over the 
fleet of Xerxes, Sophocles was chosen to lead, 
naked and with lyre in hand, the chorus which 
danced about the trophy, and sang the songs of 
triumph, 480. His first appearance as a dram- 
atist took place in 468, under peculiarly inter- 
esting circumstances ; not only from the fact 
that Sophocles, at the age of twenty-seven, 
came forward as the rival of the veteran yEschy 
lus, whose supremacy had been maintained dur 
ing an entire generation, but also from the char- 
acter of the judges. The solemnities of the 
Great Dionysia were rendered more imposing 

S25 



SOPHOCLES. 



SOPHOCLES. 



by the occasion of the return of Cimon from his 
expedition to Scyros, bringing with him the 
bones of Theseus. Public expectation was so 
excited respecting the approaching dramatic 
contest, and party feeling ran so high, that Ap- 
sephion, the archon eponymus, whose duty it 
was to appoint the judges, had not yet ventured 
to proceed to the final act of drawing the lots 
for their election, when Cimon, with his nine 
colleagues in the command, having entered the 
theatre, the archon detained them at the altar, 
and administered to them the oath appointed 
for the judges in the dramatic contests. Their 
decision was in favor of Sophocles, who re- 
ceived the first prize ; the second only being 
awarded to JSschylus, who was so mortified at 
his defeat that he left Athens and retired to 
Sicily. From this epoch Sophocles held the 
supremacy of the Athenian stage, until a formi- 
dable rival arose in Euripides, who gained the 
first prize for the first time in 441. The year 
4<a0 is a most important era in the poet's life. 
In tire spring of that year he brought out the 
earliest of his extant dramas, the Antigone, a 
play which gave the Athenians such satisfaction, 
especially on account of the political wisdom it 
displayed, that they appointed him one of the 
ten strategi, of whom Pericles was the chief, in 
the war against Samos. It would seem that in 
this war Sophocles neither obtained nor sought 
for any military reputation : he is represented 
as good-humoredly repeating the judgment of 
Pericles concerning him, that he understood 
the making of poetry, but not the commanding 
of an army. The family dissensions which 
troubled his last years are connected with a 
well-known and beautiful story. His family 
consisted of two sons, Iophon, the offspring of 
Nicostrate, who was a free Athenian woman, 
and Ariston, his son by Theoris of Sicyon ; and 
Ariston had a son named Sophocles, for whom 
his grandfather showed the greatest affection. 
Iophon, who was by the laws of Athens his 
father's rightful heir, jealous of his love for the 
young Sophocles, and apprehending that Sopho- 
cles purposed to bestow upon his grandson a 
large proportion of his property, is said to have 
summoned his father before the Phratores, who 
seem to have had a sort of jurisdiction in family 
affairs, on the charge that his mind was affect- 
ed by old age. As his only reply, Sophocles 
exclaimed, " If I am Sophocles, I am not beside 
myself; and if I am beside myself, I am not 
Sophocles ;" and then he read from his (Edipus 
at Colonus, which was lately written, but not yet 
brought out; the magnificent parodos, beginning, 

Eti(7T7rou, &ve, rdcde ^<5paf, 

whereupon the judges at once dismissed the 
case, and rebuked Iophon for his undutiful con- 
duct. Sophocles forgave his son, and it is prob- 
able that the reconciliation was referred to in 
the lines of the (Edipus at Colonus, where Antig- 
one pleads with her father to forgive Polyni- 
ces, as other fathers had been induced to for- 
give their bad children (v. 1192, foil.). Sopho- 
cles died soon afterward in 406, in his ninetieth 
year. All the various accounts of his death 
and funeral are of a fictitious and poetical com- 
plexion. According to some writers, he was 
choked by a grape ; another writer related that 
826 



in a puDlr- recitation of the Antigone he sustain- 
ed his voice so long without" a pause ,that, 
through the weakness of extreme age, he lost 
his breath and his life together; while others 
ascribed his death to excessive joy at obtaining 
a victory. By the universal consent of the best 
critics, both of ancient and of modrrn times, the 
tragedies of Sophocles are the perfection of the 
Greek drama. The subjects and style of Sopho- 
cles are human, while those of ^Eschylus are 
essentially heroic. The latter excite terror, 
pity, and admiration, as we view them at a dis- 
tance ; the former bring those same feelings 
home to the heart, with the addition of sympa- 
thy and self-application. No individual human 
being can imagine himself in the positior of j 
Prometheus, or derive a personal warning from 
the crimes and fate of Clytemnestra ; bu f every j 
one can, in feeling, share the self-devotion of 
Antigone in giving up her life at the call ot 
fraternal piety, and the calmness whicn come 
over the spirit of QCdipus when he is reconcile); j 
to the gods. In ^Eschylus, the sufferers are the 
victims of an inexorable destiny ; but Sophocles I 
brings more prominently into view those faults 
of their own, which form one element of the j 
destiny of which they are the victims, and is 
more intent upon inculcating, as the lesson 
taught by their woes, that wise calmness and 
moderation, in desires and actions, in prosperity i 
and adversity, which the Greek poets and phi- i 
losophers celebrate under the name of ooxppoovv?). 
On the other hand, he never descends to that '■ 
level to which Euripides brought down the art, ) 
the exhibition of human passion and suffering , 
for the mere purpose of exciting emotion in the 
spectators, apart from a moral end. The dif- 
ference between the two poets is illustrated by 
the saying of Sophocles, that " he himself rep- j 
resented men as they ought to be, but Euripides j 
exhibited them as they are." The number of 
plays ascribed to Sophocles was one hundred 
and thirty. He contended not only with Ms- 1 
chylus and Euripides, but also with Chcerilus, 
Aristias, Agathon, and other poets, among whom , 
was his own son Iophon ; and he carried off the ! 
first prize twenty or twenty-four times, frequent 
ly the second, and never the third. It is re- J 
markable, as proving his growing activity and ! 
success, that of his one hundred and thirteen j 
dramas, eighty-one were brought out after his 
fifty-fourth year, and also that all his extant 
dramas, which of course, in the judgment of the j 
grammarians, were his best, belong to this lattei I 
period of his life. The seven extant tragedies I 
were probably brought out in the following ] 
chronological order : Antigone, Electra, Trachin- 
ia, (Edipus Tyrannus, Ajax, Philoctctes, (Edipus 
at Colonus : the last of these was brought out, ; 
after the death of the poet, by his grandson. I 
Of the numerous editions of Sophocles, the 
most useful one for the ordinary student is that , 
byWunder, Goths et Erfurdt, 1831-1846, 2 vols 
8vo. [Four parts have reached a second edi- 1 
tion, begun 1839 ; and the other three a third. 
A useful edition, comprising most of Wunder's 1 
notes in English, was published by Mitchell, I 
London, 1841-4, 2 vols. 8vo : a full and learn- \ 
ed commentary on Sophocles is contained in j 
Ellendt's Lexicon Sophoclcum, Konigsberg, 1835, j. 
2 vols. 8vo."l— 2. Son of Ariston and grandson 'j 



SOPHONISBA. 

)f the elder Sophocles, was also an Athenian 
tragic poet. The love of his grandfather toward 
him has been already mentioned. In 401 he 
brought out the CEdipus at Colonus of his grand- 
father ; but he did not begin to exhibit his own 
dramas till 396. — [3. An Athenian orator, whose 
oration for Euctemon is quoted by Aristotle. 
Ruhnken supposes that he is the same as the 
Sophocles mentioned by Xenophon as one of 
the Thirty Tyrants.] 

Sophonisba, daughter of the Carthaginian 
general Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco. She had 
been betrothed by her father, at a very early 
age, to the Numidian prince Masinissa ; but, at 
a subsequent period, Hasdrubal being desirous 
to gain over Syphax, the rival monarch of Nu- 
midia, to the Carthaginian alliance, offered him 
the hand of his daughter in marriage. The 
beauty and accomplishments of Sophonisba pre- 
vailed over the influence of Scipio : Syphax 
married her, and became the zealous supporter 
and ally of Carthage. Sophonisba, on her part, 
was assiduous in her endeavors to secure his 
adherence to the cause of her countrymen. 
After the defeat of Syphax, and the capture of 
his capital city of Cirta by Masinissa, Sophonis- 
ba fell into the hands of the conqueror, upon 
whom, however, her beauty exercised so pow- 
erful an influence that he determined to marry 
her himself. Their nuptials were accordingly 
celebrated without delay, hut Scipio (who was 
apprehensive lest she should exercise the same 
influence over Masinissa which she had pre- 
viously done over Syphax) refused to ratify this 
arrangement, and, upbraiding Masinissa with 
his weakness, insisted on the immediate sur- 
render of the princess. Unable to resist this 
command, the Numidian king spared her the 
humiliation of captivity by sending her a bowl 
of poison, which she drank without hesitation, 
and thus put an end to her own" life. 

Sophron (Su^pof), of Syracuse, was the prin- 
cipal writer of that species of composition call- 
ed the Mime (/it^oc), which was one of the nu- 
merous varieties of the Dorian Comedy. He 
flourished about B.C. 460-420. When Sophron 
is called the inventor of mimes, the meaning is, 
that he reduced to the form of a literary com- 
position a species of amusement which the 
Greeks of Sicily, who were pre-eminent for 
broad humor and merriment, had practiced from 
time immemorial at their public festivals, and 
the nature of which was very similar to the 
Spartan Deicclesta. Such mimetic perform- 
ances prevailed throughout the Dorian states 
under various names. One feature of the Mimes 
of Sophron, which formed a marked distinction 
between them and comic poetry, was the na- 
ture of their rhythm. There is, however, some 
difficulty in determining whether they were in 
mere prose, or in mingled poetry and prose, or 
in prose with a peculiar rhythmical movement, 
but no metrical arrangement. With regard to 
the substance of these compositions, their char- 
acter, so far as it can be ascertained, appears 
to have been ethical; that is, the scenes repre- 
sented were those of ordinary life, and the lan- 
guage employed was intended to bring out more 
clearly the characters of the persons exhibited 
in those scenes, not only for the amusement, 
but also for the instruction of the spectators. 



SORDICE. 

Plato was a great admirer of Sophron, and the 
philosopher is said to have been the first who 
made the Mimes known at Athens. The se- 
rious purpose which was aimed at in the works 
of Sophron was always, as in the Attic Com- 
edy, clothed under a sportive form ; and it can 
easily be imagined that sometimes the lattei 
element prevailed, even to the extent of ob- 
scenity, as the extant fragments and the paral- 
lel of the Attic Comedy combine to prove. The 
best collection of the fragments of Sophron is 
by Ahrens, De Graces Lingua Dialectis. 

Sophroniscus. Vid. Socrates. 

[Sophrosyne (SuippoGvvT]), daughter of Dio- 
nysius the elder and of Aristomache, the sister 
of Dion, was married to her half-brother, the 
younger Dionysius.] 

Sophus, P. Sempronius, tribune of the plebs 
B.C. 310, and consul 304, is mentioned as one 
of the earliest jurists, and is said to have owed 
his name of Sophus or Wise to his great merits. 

■ SopiANiE (now Funfkirchen), a town in Pan- 
nonia Inferior, on the road from Mursa to Vin- 
dobona, the birth-place of the Emperor Max- 
iminus. 

[Sopoi.is (lunoXic). 1. Son of Hermodorus, 
commanded the Amphipolitan cavalry in the 
army of Alexander, in the battle against the 
Triballians, on the banks of the Lyginus, in B.C. 
335 ; he also commanded a troop of horse at 
the battle of Arbela in 331. — 2. A distinguished 
painter, flourished at Rome in the middle of the 
first century B.C., and is said by Cicero to have 
been the head of a school of painters.] 

Soba. 1. (Soranus : now Sora), a town in. 
Latium, on the right bank of the River Liris, 
and north of Arpinum, with a strongly-fortified 
citadel. It was the most northerly town of the 
Volsci in Latium, and afterward joined the Sam- 
nites ; but it was conquered by the Romans, 
and was twice colonized by them, since the in- 
habitants had destroyed the first body of col- 
onists. There are still remains of the polyg- 
onal walls of the ancient town. — 2. A town in 
Paphlagonia of uncertain site. 

Soracte (now Monte di S. Oreste), a celebra- 
ted mountain in Etruria, in the territory of the 
Falisci, near the Tiber, about twenty-four miles 
from Rome, but the summit of which, frequent- 
ly covered with snow, was clearly visible from 
the city. (Vides ut alia stet nive candidum So- 
racte, Hor., Carm , i., 9.) The whole mountain 
was sacred to Apollo, and on its summit was a 
temple of this god. At the festival of Apollo, 
celebrated on this mountain, the worshippers 
passed over burning embers without receiving 
any injury. (Virg., JEn., xi., 785, seq.) 

Soranus. 1. A Sabine divinity, usually iden- ' 
tified with Apollo, worshipped on Mount So- 
racte. Vid. Soracte. — 2. The name of several 
physicians, of whom the most celebrated seems 
to have been a native of Ephesus, and to have 
practiced his profession first at Alexandrea, and 
afterward at Rome, in the reigns of Trajan and 
Hadrian, A.D. 98-138. There are several med- 
ical works still extant under the name of Sora- 
nus, but whether they were written by the na- 
tive of Ephesus can not be determined. 

Sordice (now Etang de Leucate), a lake in 
Gallia Narbonensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees, 
formed by the River Sordis. 

827 



SORDONES. 



SOTION. 



Sordones or Sordi, a small people in Gallia 
Narbonensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees, whose 
chief town was Ruscino. 

[Sosia Galla, a favorite of Agrippina, the 
widow of Germanicus, was involved in the 
charge of treason against her husband C. Silius, 
and sent into exile by Tiberius.] 

Sosi3ius (Sojji'diof), a distinguished Lacedae- 
monian grammarian, who flourished in the reign 
of Ptol emy Philadelphus (about B.C. 251), and 
was contemporary with Callimachus. 

[Sosicles (2u<Tt/cA^f), a Corinthian deputy to 
the congress which had in consideration the 
restoration of Hippias to the tyranny of Athens. 
His earnest opposition to that measure induced 
the allies to abandon the project.] 

Sosigbntss (Zaoiyevric), the peripatetic phi- 
losopher, was the astronomer employed by Ju- 
lius Caesar to superintend the correction of the 
calendar (B.C. 46). He is called an Egyptian, 
but may be supposed to have been an Alexan- 
drean Greek. Vid. Diet, of Antiq., art. Calen- 
darium. 

Sosiphanes (2ucri0avj?f), the son of Sosicles 
of Syracuse, was one of the seven tragedians 
who were called the Tragic Pleiad. He was 
born at the end of the reign of Philip, and flour- 
ished B.C. 284. [A few fragments remain, col- 
lected in Wagner's Tragic. Grczc. Fragm., p. 
157-8.] 

[Sosis (2u<jif), a Syracusan, who joined Cy- 
rus the younger with three hundred Greek mer- 
cenaries.] 

Sositheus {'Zaaideac), of Syracuse or Athens, 
or Alexandrea in the Troad, was a distinguished 
tragic poet, one of the Tragic Pleiad, and the 
antagonist of the tragic poet Homer. He flour- 
ished about B.C. 284. [The fragments of his 
tragedies are collected in Wagner's Tragic. 
Grate. Fragm., p. 149-152.] 

, Sosius. 1. C, quaestor B.C. 66, and praetor 
49. He was afterward one of Antony's princi- 
pal lieutenants in the East. He was appointed 
by Antony, in 38, governor of Syria and Cilicia 
in the place of Ventidius. Like his predeces- 
sor in the government, he carried on the mil- 
itary operations in his province with great suc- 
cess. In 37 he advanced against Jerusalem 
along with Herod, and after hard fighting be- 
came master of the city, and placed Herod upon 
the throne. In return lor these services, An- 
tony obtained for Sosius the honor of a triumph 
in 34, and the consulship in 32. Sosius com- 
manded the left wing of Antony's fleet at the 
battle of Actium. He was afterward pardoned 
by Octavianus, at the intercession of L. Arrun- 
tius.— 2. The name of two brothers (Sosii), 
'booksellers at Rome in the time of Horace. 
They were probably freedmen, perhaps of the 
Sosius mentioned above. 

Sospita, that is, the " saving goddess," was 
a surname of Juno at Lanuvium and at Rome, 
in both of which places she had a temple. Her 
worship was very ancient in Latium, and was 
transplanted from Lanuvium to Rome. 

Sosthenes (Socdcvric), a Macedonian officer 
of noble birth, who obtained the supreme di- 
rection of affairs during the period of confusion 
which followed the invasion of the Gauls. He 
defeated the Gauls in 280. He is included by 
the chronologers among the kings of Macedo- 
828 



nia, but it is very doubtful whether he ever as- 
sumed the royal title. 

SostrItus (Suarparof), the name of at least 
four, if not five, Grecian artists, who have been 
frequently confounded with one another. 1. A 
statuary in bronze, the sister's son of Pythago- 
ras of Rhegium, and his disciple, flourished 
about B.C. 424.-2. Of Chios, the instructor of 
Pantias, flourisned about B.C. 400. — 3. A stat 
uary in bronze, whom Pliny mentions as a con- 
temporary of Lysippus, at 01. 114, B.C. ,323, the 
date of Alexander's death. It is probable, how 
ever, that he was identical with the following. 
— 4. The son of Dexiphanes, of Cnidus, was one 
of the great architects who flourished during 
and after the life of Alexander the Great. He 
built for Ptolemy I., the son of Lagus, the cel- 
ebrated Pharos of Alexandrea. He also em- 
bellished his native city, Cnidus, with a work 
which was one of the wonders of ancient archi- 
tecture, namely, a portico, or colonnade, sup- 
porting a terrace, which served as a promenade. 
— 5. An engraver of precious stones, whose 
name appears on several very beautiful cameos 
and intaglios. 

Sosus (Scjo-of), of Pergamus, a worker in mo- 
saic, and, according to Pliny, the most cele- 
brated of all who practiced that art. 

Sotades (2<jra<J?7f). 1. An Athenian comic 
poet of the Middle Comedy, who must not be 
confounded with the more celebrated poet of 
Maronea. — 2. A native of Maronea in Thrace, 
flourished at Alexandrea about B.C. 280. He 
wrote lascivious poems (called (pivanec or nivai- 
6oi) in the Ionian dialect, whence they were 
also called 'luvmol Myoi. They were also call- 
ed Sotadean poems ^Zuradeia pa/Mira). It would 
seem that Sotades carried his lascivious and 
abusive satire to the utmost lengths ; and the 
freedoms which he took at last brought him 
into trouble. According to Plutarch, he made 
a vehement and gross attack on Ptolemy Phil- 
adelphus, on the occasion of his marriage with 
his sister ArsinoC, and the king threw him into 
prison, where he remained for a long time. Ac- 
cording to Athenaeus, the poet attacked both 
Lysimachus and Ptolemy, and, having fled from 
Alexandrea, he was overtaken at Caunus by 
Ptolemy's general Patroclus, who shut him up 
in a leaden chest and cast him into the sea. 

Soter (Zuttip), i. e., " the Saviour" (Lat. Ser- 
vator or Sospes), occurs as the surname of sev- 
eral divinities, especially of Zeus (Jupiter). It 
was also a surname of Ptolemaeus I., king of 
Egypt, as well as of several of the other later 
Greek kings. 

[Soterichus (Surf/pt-xoc), of the Oasis, an epic 
poet and historian of the time of the Emperor 
Diocletian. To him are ascribed an Encomium 
on Diocletian, a poem entitled Hacaapitia ?/rot 
AiovvcaaKu., one on Pantheia of Babylon, anoth- 
er on Ariadne, a life of Apollonius of Tyana, 
a poetical history of the capture of Thebes by 
Alexander the Great, entitled Xlvdav f) 'AleSjav- 
Spiauov, and others.] 

[Sotericus Marcius, a freedman, from whom 
L. Crassus purchased his Tusculan villa.] 

Sotion (Sur/uv). 1. A philosopher, and a 
native of Alexandrea, who flourished at the close 
of the third century B.C. He is chiefly re- 
markable as the author of a work (entitled Aia 



SOTTIATES. 

'j tio;(a.t) on the successive teachers in f.ie differ- 
ent philosophical schools. — 2. A philosopher, 
and also a native of Alexandrea, who lived in 
I the age of Tiberius. He was the instructor of 
1 Seneca, who derived from him his admiration 
of Pythagoras. It was perhaps this Sotion who 
was the author of a treatise on anger, quoted 
by Stobaeus. — 3. A Peripatetic philosopher, men- 
tioned by A. Gellius, is probably a different per- 
son from either of the preceding. 

Sottiates or Sotiates, a powerful and war- 
like people in Gallia Aquitanica, on the frontiers 
of Gallia Narbonensis, were subdued by P. Cras- 
sus, Caesar's legate, after a hard-fought battle. 
The modern Sds probably represents the an- 
cient town of this people. 

[Sous (Sdof), one of the earliest kings of 
Sparta, son of Procles, whom he succeeded on 
the throne, and father of Eurypon, from whom 
the Proclid kings were called Eurypontidae.] 

Sozomenus (Xu^ofisvog), usually called Sozo- 
men in English, was a Greek ecclesiastical his- 
torian of the fifth century. He was probably a 
native of Bethelia or Bethel, a village near Gaza 
in Palestine. His parents were Christians. He 
practiced as an advocate at Constantinople, 
whence he is surnamed Scholasticus ; and he 
was still engaged in his profession when he 
wrote his history. His ecclesiastical history, 
which is extant, is in nine books, and is dedi- 
cated to the Emperor Theodosius II. It com- 
mences with the reign of Constantine, and 
comes down a little later than the death of Ho- 
norius, A D. 423. The work is incomplete, and 
breaks off in the middle of a chapter. The au- 
thor, we know, had proposed to bring it down 
to 439, the year in which the history of Socra- 
tes ends. Sozomen excels Socrates in style, 
but is inferior to the latter in soundness of judg- 
ment. The history of Sozomen is printed along 
with the other Greek ecclesiastical historians. 
Vid. Socrates. 

Sozopous, afterward Susupolis (SwCd-n-oAif, 
2ufoi)7roA(f : ruins at Susu), a considerable city 
of Pisidia, in a plain surrounded by mountains, 
north of Termessus. 

Sparta (2irdpT7i, Dor. "Znapra : 'ZnapriaTrig, 
Spartiates, Spartanus), also called Laced/bmon 
(AaKedai/iaiv : Aaicedat/ioviog, Lacedasmonius), the 
capital of Laconia and the chief city of Pelo- 
ponnesus, was situated on the right bank of the 
Eurotas (now hi), about twenty miles from the 
sea. It stood on a plain which contained within 
it several rising grounds and hills. It was 
bounded on the east by the Eurotas, on the 
northwest by the small river (Enus (now Kele- 
sina), and on the southeast by the small river 
Tiasa (now Magida), both of which streams fell 
into the Eurotas. The plain in which Sparta 
stood was shut in on the east by Mount Mene- 
laium, and on the west by Mount Taygetus ; 
whence the city is called by Homer " the hollow 
Lacedaemon.' It was of a circular form, about 
six miles in circumference, and consisted of 
several distinct quarters, which were originally 
separate villages, and which were never united 
into one regular town. Its site is occupied by 
the modern villages of Magul/i and Psykhiko ; 
and the principal modern town in the neighbor- 
hood is Mistra, which lies about two miles to 
the west, on the slopes of Mount Taygetus 



SPARTA. 

During the flourishing times of Greek independ- 
ence, Sparta was never surrounded by walls, 
since the bravery of its citizens, and the diffi- 
culty of access to it, were supposed to render 
such defences needless. It was first fortified 
by the tyrant Nabis ; but it did not possess reg- 
ular walls till the time of the Romans. Sparta, 
unlike most Greek cities, had no proper Acropo- 
lis, but this name was only given to one of the 
steepest hills of the town, on the summit of 
which stood the temp e of Athena Poliuchos 
or Chalcicecus. Five distinct quarters of the 
city are mentioned : 1. Pilane (tliravri : Ethnic 
IliTavaTjjg), which appears to have been the 
most important part of the city, and in which 
was situated the Agora, containing the council- 
house of the senate, and the offices of the pub- 
lic magistrates. It was also surrounded by va- 
rious temples and other public buildings. Of 
these the most splendid was the Persian Stoa 
or portico, originally built of the spoils taken in 
the Persian war, and enlarged and adorned at 
later times. A part of the Agora was called the 
Chorus or dancing place, in which the Spartan 
youths performed dances in honor of Apollo. 
2. Limruz (At/ivai), a suburb of the city, on the 
banks of the Eurotas, northeast of Pitane, was 
originally a hollow spot covered with water. 3. 
Mesoa or Mcssoa (Meaoa, TsUacoa : Eth. Mscao- 
drrig), also by the side of the Eurotas, southeast 
of the preceding, containing the Dromus and 
the Platanistas, which was a spot nearly sur- 
rounded with water, and so called from the plane- 
trees growing there. 4. Cynosura {Kwo^ovpa • 
KwogovpEvc), in the southwest of the city, and 
south of Pitane. 5. Mglia. (Aiyeldai), in the 
northwest of the city, and west of Pitane. The 
two principal streets of Sparta ran from the 
Agora to the extreme end of the city : these 
were, 1. Aphetce or Aphetais ('A^erai, 'A^era'ts, 
sc. dr56f), extending in a southeasterly direction 
past the temple of Dictynna and the tombs of 
the Eurypontidae ; and, 2. Skias (2/eiaf), run- 
ning nearly parallel to the preceding one, but 
further to the east, and which derived its name 
from an ancient place of assembly, of a circular 
form, called Skias. The most important re- 
mains of ancient §parta are the ruins of the 
theatre, which was near the Agora. Sparta is 
said to have been founded by Lacedaemon, a son 
of Zeus and Taygete, who married Sparta, the 
daughter of Eurotas, and called the city after 
the name of his wife. His son Amyclas is said 
to have been the founder of Amyclae, wnich 
was for a long time a more important town than 
Sparta itself. In the mythical period, Argos 
was the chief city in Peloponnesus, and Sparta 
is represented as subject to it. Here reigned 
Menelaus, the younger brother of Agamemnon ; 
and by the marriage of Orestes, the son of Aga- 
memnon, with Hermione, the daughter of Mene- 
laus, the two kingdoms of Argos and Sparta be- 
came united. The Dorian conquest of Pelo- 
ponnesus, which, according to tradition, took 
place eighty years after the Trojan war, made 
Sparta the capital of the country. Laconia fell 
to the share of the two sons of Aristodemus, 
Eurysthenes and Procles, who took up their 
residence at Spaita, and ruled over the kingdom 
conjointly. The old inhabitants of the country 
maintaine themselves at Amyclae, which was 

829 



SPARTA. 



SPARTACUS. 



not conquered for a long time. After the com- 
plete subjugation of the country we find three 
distinct classes in the population : the Dorian 
conquerors, who resided in the capital, and who 
were called Spartiatee or Spartans ; the Peri- 
oeci or old Achaean inhabitants, who became 
tributary to the Spartans, and possessed no po- 
litical rights ; and the Helots, who were also a 
portion of the old Achaean inhabitants, but were 
reduced to a state of slavery. From various 
causes the Spartans became distracted by intes- 
tine quarrels, till at length Lycurgus, who be- 
longed to the royal family, was selected by all 
parties to give a new constitution to the state. 
The date of Lycurgus is uncertain ; but it is 
impossible to place it later than B.C. 825. The 
constitution of Lycurgus, which is described in 
a separate article (vid. Lycurgus), laid the foun- 
dation of Sparta's greatness. She soon became 
aggressive, and gradually extended her sway 
over the greater part of Peloponnesus. In B.C. 
743 the Spartans attacked Messenia, and after 
a war of twenty years subdued this country, 
723. In 685 the Messenians again took up 
arms, but at the end of seventeen years were 
again completely subdued, and their country 
from this time forward became an integral por- 
tion of Laconia. For details, vid. Messenia. 
After the close of the second Messenian war 
the Spartans continued their conquests in Pelo- 
ponnesus. They defeated the Tegeans, and 
wrested the district of Thyreae from the Ar- 
gives. At the time of the Persian invasion, 
they were confessedly the first people in Greece ; 
and to them was granted by unanimous consent 
the chief command in the war. But after the 
final defeat of the Persians, the haughtiness of 
Pausanias disgusted most of the Greek states, 
particularly the Ionians, and led them to trans- 
fer the supremacy to Athens (477). From this 
time the power of Athens steadily increased, 
and Sparta possessed little influence outside of 
the Peloponnesus. The Spartans, however, 
made several attempts to check the rising great- 
ness of Athens, and their jealousy of the latter 
led at length to the Peloponnesian war (431). 
This war ended in the overthrow of Athens, 
and the restoration of the supremacy of Sparta 
over the rest of Greece (404). But the Spar- 
tans did not retain this supremacy more than 
thirty years. Their decisive defeat by the The- 
bans under Epaminondas at the battle of Leuc- 
tra (371) gave the Spartan power a shock from 
which it never recovered ; and the restoration 
of the Messenians to their country two years 
afterward completed the humiliation of Sparta. 
Thrice was the Spartan territory invaded by 
the Thebans, and the Spartan women saw for 
the first time the watch-fires of an enemy's 
camp. The Spartans now finally lost their su- 
premacy over Greece, but no other Greek state 
succeeded to their power ; and about thirty 
years afterward the greater part of Greece was 
obliged to yield to Philip of Macedon. The 
Spartans, however, kept haughtily aloof from 
the Macedonian conqueror, and refused to take 
part in the Asiatic expedition of his son Alex- 
ander the Great. Under the later Macedonian 
monarchs the power of Sparta still further de- 
clined ; the institutions of Lycurgus were neg- 
lected, luxury crept into the state, the number 
830 



of citizens diminished, and the landed property 
became vested in a few families. Agis endeav- 
ored to restore the ancient institutions of Ly- 
curgus, but he perished in the attempt (240). 
Cleomenes III., who began to reign 236, was i 
more successful. He succeeded in putting the 
ephors to death, and overthrowing the existing j 
government (225); and he then made a redis- 
j tribution of the landed property, and augmented | 
j the number of the Spartan citizens by admit- | 
j ting some of the Perioeci to this honor. His 
| reforms infused new blood into the state, and 
j for a short time he carried on war with success 
; against the Achaeans. But Aratus, the general 
| of the Achaeans, called in the assistance of An- 
tigonus Doson, the king of Macedonia, who de- 
feated Cleomenes at the decisive battle of Sel- i 
lasia (221), and followed up his success by the 
capture of Sparta. Sparta now sank into insig- 
nificance, and was ruled by a succession of na- 
tive tyrants, till at length it was compelled to 
abolish its peculiar institutions, and to join the 
Achaean league. Shortly afterward it fell, with | 
the rest of Greece, under the Roman power. 

Spartacus, the name of several kings of the j 
Cimmerian Bosporus. 1. Succeeded the dynasty 
of the Archeanactidae in B.C. 438, and reigned 
until 431. He was succeeded by his son Seleu- 
cus. — 2. Began to reign in 427, and reigned 
twenty years. He was succeeded in 407 by his 
son Satyrus. — 3. Succeeded his father Leucon 
in 353, and died, leaving his kingdom to his son 
Parysades in 348. — 4. Son of Eumelus, began 
to reign in 304, and reigned twenty years. 

Spartacus, by birth a Thracian, was success- 
ively a shepherd, a soldier, and a chief of ban- 
ditti. On one of his predatory expeditions he 1 
was taken prisoner, and sold to a trainer of glad- !; 
iators. In 73 he was a member of the company 
of Lentulus, and was detained in his school at 
Capua, in readiness for the games at Rome. 
He persuaded his fellow-prisoners to make an 
attempt to gain their freedom. About seventy 
of them broke out of the school of Lentulus, and 
took refuge in the crater of Vesuvius. Sparta- 
cus was chosen leader, and was soon joined by 
a number of runaway slaves: They were block- 
aded by C. Claudius Pulcher at the head of three 
thousand men, but Spartacus attacked the be- 
siegers and put them to flight. His numbers 
rapidly increased, and for two years (B.C. 73- 
71) he defeated one Roman army after another, 
and laid waste Italy, from the foot of the Alps 
to the southernmost corner of the peninsula. 
After both the consuls of 72 had been defeated 
by Spartacus, M. Licinius Crassus, the praetor, 
was appointed to the command of the war. 
Crassus carried on the contest with vigor and 
success, and, after gaining several advantages 
over the enemy, at length defeated them on the 
River Silarus in a decisive battle, in which Spar- 
tacus was slain. The character of Spartacus 
has been maligned by the Roman writers. Cic- 
ero compares the vilest of his contemporaries 
to him : Horace speaks of him as a common 
robber ; none recognize his greatness, but the 
terror of Ids name survived to a late period of 
the empire. Accident made Spartacus a shep- 
herd, a freebooter, and a gladiator ; nature form- 
ed him ti hero. The excesses of his followers 
he could not always repress, and his efforts tc 



SPARTAR1US. 



SPITHRIDATES. 



restrain them often cost him his popularity. But 
ne was in himself not less mild and just than 
he was able and valiant. 

Spartarius Campus. Vid. Carthago Nova. 

Sparti (STraproi, from antipu), the Sown-Men, 
is the name given to the armed men who sprang 
from the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus, and 
who were believed to be the ancestors of the 
five oldest families at Thebes. 

Spartianus, -■Elius, one of the Scriptores His- 
toric Augusta, lived in the time of Diocletian 
and Constantine, and wrote the biographies of, 
1. Hadrianus and ^Elius Verus ; 2. Didius Juli- j 
anus ; 3. Severus ; 4. Pescennius Niger ; 5. Car- 
acalla ; 6. Geta. For the editions of Spartia- j 
nus, vid. Capitolinus. 

SpARTor.us (27r«pru/loc), a town in the Mace- 
donian peninsula of Chalcidice, north of Olyn- 
thus. 

Spauta (Inavra : now Lake of Urmi), a large 
salt-lake in the west of Media, whose waters 
v. ere singularly bitter and acrid. It was also 
called Matiana (Manavri Xifivq) from the name j 
of the people who dwelt around it. 

Spkrcheus CSwepxetoc : now Elladha), a river i 
in the south of Thessaly, which rises in Mount 
Tymphrestus, runs in an easterly direction 
through the territory of the ^Enianes, and 
through the district Malis, and falls into the in- 
nermost corner of the Sinus Maliacus. As a 
river-god Spercheus is a son of Oceanus and 
Terra (Ge), and the father of Menesthius by 
Polydora, the daughter of Peleus. To this god 
Peleus dedicated the hair of his son Achilles, 
in order that he might return-in safety from the 
Trojan war. 

Spes, the personification of Hope, was wor- 
shipped at Rome, where she had several tem- 
ples, the most ancient of which had been built 
in B.C. 354, by the consul Atilius Calatinus, 
near the Porta Carmentalis. The Greeks also 
worshipped the personification of Hope, Elpis, 
and they relate the beautiful allegory, that when 
Epimstheus opened the vessel brought to him 
by Pandora, from which all manner of evils 
were scattered over the earth, Hope alone re- 
mained behind. Hope was represented in 
works of art as a youthful figure, lightly walk- 
ing in full attire, holding in her right hand a 
flower, and with the left lifting up her garment. 

Speusippus ( S7r£u(Ti7r7rof ), the philosopher, 
was a native of Athens, and the son of Eury- 
medon and Potone, a sister of Plato. He ac- 
companied his uncle Plato on his third journey 
to Syracuse, where he displayed considerable 
ability and prudence. He succeeded Plato as 
president of the Academy, but was at the head 
of the school for only eight years (B.C. 347- 
339). He died, as it appears, of a lingering 
paralytic illness. He wrote several works, all 
of which are lost, in which he developed the 
doctrines of his great master. 
Sphacteria. Vid. Pylos, No. 3. 
SpiiiERi a (Xtjiaipia : now Poros), an island off 
the coast of Trcezen in Argolis, and between it 
and the island of Calauria, with the latter of 
which it was connected by means of a sand- 
bank. Here Sphaerus, the charioteer of Pelops, 
is said to have been buried. 

[Sph/erus (20aipof). Vid. Sph^eria.] 
Spiiverus (2<£<upof), a Stoic philosopher, stud- 



ied first under Zeno of Citium, and afterward 
under Cleanthes. He lived at Alexandrea dur- 
ing the reigns of the first two Ptolemies. He 
also taught at Lacedaemon, and was believed to 
have had considerable influence in moulding the 
character of Cleomenes. He was in repute 
among the Stoics for the accuracy of his defini- 
tions. He was the author of several works, all 
of which are lost. 

Sphendale CE<t>cv6d?ir; : ^<f>evda?^evc), a demus 
of Attica belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, 
on the frontiers of Bceotia, between Tanagra and 
Decelea. 

Sphettus (S0??rrdf : S^rnof), a demus in 
the south of Attica, near the silver mines of 
Sunium, belonging to the tribe Acamantis. 

[Sphodrias {Ifodpiag), Spartan harmost at 
Thespiae B.C. 378, attempted in a time of peace 
to seize upon the Piraeus. Having failed in the 
undertaking, he was tried by the Spartan ephors, 
but acquitted through the influence of Agesilaus. 
He was slain at the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371.] 

Sphinx (S^j'yf, gen. 2<piyy6c), a she-monster, 
daughter of Orthus and Chimsera, born in the 
country of the Arimi, or of Typhon and Echidna, 
or lastly of Typhon and Chimasra. She is said 
to have proposed a riddle to the Thebans, and 
to have murdered all who were unable to guess 
it. CEdipus solved it, whereupon the Sphinx 
slew herself. (For details, vid. CEdipus.) The 
legend appears to have come from Egypt, but 
the figure of the Sphinx is represented some 
what differently in Greek mythology and art. 
The Egyptian Sphinx is the figure of a lion 
without wings in a lying attitude, the upper part 
of the body being that of a human being. The 
Sphinxes appear in Egypt to have been set up 
in avenues forming the approaches to temples. 
The common idea of a Greek Sphinx, on the 
other hand, is that of a winged body of a lion, 
the breast and upper part being the figure of a 
woman. Greek Sphinxes, moreover, are not 
always represented in a lying attitude, but ap- 
pear in different positions, as it might suit the 
fancy of the sculptor or poet. Thus they appear 
with the face of a maiden, the breast, feet, and 
claws of a lion, the tail of a serpent, and the 
wings of a bird. Sphinxes were frequently in 
troduced by Greek artists as ornaments of ar- 
chitectural works. 

Spina. 1. (Now Spinazzino), a town in Gal- 
lia Cispadana, in the territory of the Lingones, 
on the most southerly of the mouths of the Po, 
which was called after it Ostium Spineticum. 
It was a very ancient town, said to have been 
founded by the Greeks, but in the time of Strabo 
had ceased to be a place of any importance.— 
2. (Now Spino), a town in Gallia Transpadana, 
on the River Addua. 

[Spino, a small stream in or near Rome, 
which, Cicero says, together with the Almo, 
Nodinus, Tiberinus, and other flowing waters; 
was invoked in the prayers of the augurs.] 

Spintharus (Inivdapos), of Heraclea on the 
Pontus, a tragic poet, contemporary with Aris- 
tophanes, who designates him as a barbarian 
and a Phrygian. He was also ridiculed by the 
other comic poets. 

[Spithridates (S7r^p£(5ar7?f), a Persian com- 
mander sent by Pharnabazus to oppose the pas- 
sage of the ten thousand through Bithynia 

831 



i 



SPOLATUM. 



STATIUS. 



B C. 400. He afterward revolted from the Per- 
sians, and joined Agesilaus. — 2. Satrap of Lydia 
and Ionia under Darius Codomannus, was one 
of the Persian commanders at the battle of the 
Granicus in B.C. 334, in which battle, while Al- 
exander was engaged with Rhcesaces, Spithri- 
dates attacked him from behind, and had raised 
his sword to strike, when Clitus, anticipating the 
blow, cut off his arm. (Compare Rhcesaces).] 

Spolatum. Vid. Salona. 

SpoletIum or Spoletum (Spoletinus : now 
Spolcto), a town in Umbria, on the Via Flaminia, 
colonized by the Romans B.C. 242. It suffered 
severely in the civil wars between Sulla and 
Mariirs. At a later time it was taken by Toti- 
las ; but its walls, which had been destroyed by 
the Goths, were restored by Narses. 

Sporades (27ropct(5£f, sc. vrjaoi, from ane'ipu), 
a group of scattered islands in the ^Egean Sea, 
off the island of Crete and the western coast of 
Asia Minor, so called in opposition to the Cyc- 
lades, which lay in a circle around Delos. The 
division, however, between these two groups 
of islands was not well defined ; and we find 
some of the islands at one time described as 
belonging to the Sporades, and at another time 
as belonging to the Cyclades. 

Spurinna, Vestritius. 1. The haruspex who 
warned Caesar to beware of the Ides of March. 
It is related that, as Caesar was going to the 
senate-house on the fatal day, he said to Spu- 
rinna in jest, " Well, the Ides of March are 
come," upon which the seer replied, " Yes, they 
are come, but they are not past." — 2. A Roman 
general, who fought on the side of Otho against 
the Vitellian troops in the north of Italy. In 
the reign of Trajan he gained a victory over the 
Bructeri. Spurinna lived on terms of the closest 
friendship with the younger Pliny, from whom 
we learn that Spurinna composed lyric poems. 
There are extant four odes, or rather fragments 
of odes, in choriambic measure, ascribed to Spu- 
rinna, and which were first published by Bar- 
thius in 1613. Their genuineness, however, is 
very doubtful. 

Spurinus, Q. Petillius, praetor urbanus in 
B.C. 181, in which year the books of King Nu- 
ma Pompilius are said to have been discovered 
upon the estate of one L. Petillius. Spurinus 
obtained possession of the books, and upon his 
representation to the senate that they ought not 
to be read and preserved, the senate ordered 
them to be burned. Vid. Numa. Spurinus 
was consul in 176, and fell in battle against the 
Ligurians. 

StabLe (Stabianus : now Castell a Mare di 
Siabia), an ancient town in Campania, between 
Pompeii and Surrentum, which was destroyed 
by Sulla in the Social War, but which continued 
to exist as a small place down to the great erup- 
tion of Vesuvius in A.D. 79, when it was over- 
whelmed along with Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
It was at Stabiae that the elder Pliny perished. 

Stagirus, subsequently Stagira (Srayctpof, 
rd 2 T&yeipa, rj 'Zraycipa: 2 Tayeipirrig : now&au- 
ro), a town of Macedonia in Chalcidice, on the 
Strymonic Gulf, and a little north of the isthmus 
which unites the promontory of Athos to Chal- 
cidice. It was a colony of Andros, was found- 
ed B.C. 656, and was originally called Orthago- 
ria. It is celebrated as the birth-place of Aris- 
832 



totle, and was in consequence restored by Phil- 
ip, by whom it had been destroyed. 

Staphylus (2ra0v/oc), son of Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus) and Ariadne, or of Theseus and Ariadne, 
and was one of the Argonauts. By Chrysothe- 
mis he became the father of three daughters, 
Molpadia, Rhceo, and Parthenos. 

[Staseas, of Neapolis, a peripatetic philoso- 
pher, who lived many years at Rome with M. j 
Piso, and was also on friendly terms with Ci- j 
cero.] 

Sta sinus (Sraotvoc), of Cyprus, an epic poet, j 
to whom some of the ancient writers attributed , 
the poem of the Epic Cycle, entitled Cypria ; 
(Kvwpia). In the earliest historical period of | 
Greek literature the Cypria was accepted with- | 
out question as a work of Homer ; and it is not 
till we come down to the times of Athenaeus 
and the grammarians that we find any mention 
of Stasinus. Stasinus was said to be the son- 
in-law of Homer, who, according to one story, ' 
composed the Cypria, and gave it to Stasinus as 
his daughter's marriage portion ; manifestly an 
attempt to reconcile the two different accounts, I 
which ascribed it to Homer and Stasinus. The | 
Cypria was the first, in the order of the events 
contained in it, of the poems of the Epic Cycle i 
relating to the Trojan war. It embraced the 
period antecedent to the beginning of the Iliad, 
to which it was designed to form an introduc- 
tion. 

Statielli, Statiellates, or Statiellenses, i 
a small tribe in Liguria, south of the Po, whose 
chief town was Statiellae Aquae (now Acqui), on 
the road from Genua to Placentia. 

Statilia Messalina. Vid. Messalina 

Statilius Taurus. Vid. Taurus. 

[Statilius, L., a man of equestrian rank, was 
one of Catiline's conspirators, and was put to 
death with Lentulus and the others in the Tul- J 
lianum] 

Statira (Sro'mpa). 1. Wife of Artaxerxes 
II., king of Persia, was poisoned by Parysatis, \ 
the mother «tf the king, who was a deadly ene- ; 
my of Statira. — 2. Sister and wife of Darius III., [ 
celebrated as the most beautiful woman of her u 
time. She was taken prisoner by Alexander, I 
together with her mother-in-law Sisygambis and 
her daughters, after the battle of Issus, B.C. 333. i 
They were all treated with the utmost respect I 
by the conqueror, but Statira died shortly be- 
fore the battle of Arbela, 331.— 3. Also called 
Barsine, elder daughter of Darius III. Vid. ; 
Barsine. 

StatYus Murcus. Vid. Murcus. 

[Statius. 1. A literary slave of Q. Cicero, | 
whom he subsequently manumitted, had given 
offence to M. Cicero, as appears from the lat- 
ter's letters. — 2. Gellius, a general of the Sam- 
nites, was defeated by the Romans and taken 
prisoner in B.C. 305.] 

Statius, P. PapinYus, was born at Neapolis 
about A.D. 61, and was the son of a distinguish- 
ed grammarian. He accompanied his father to 
Rome, where the latter acted as the preceptor 
of Domitian, who held him in high honor. Un- 
der the skillful tuition of his father, the young 
Statius speedily rose to fame, and became pecu- 
liarly renowned for the brilliancy of his extem- 
poraneous effusions, so that he gained the prize 
three times in the Alban contests ; but having, 



STATONIA. 



STESICHORUS. 



after a long career of popularity, been vanquish- 
cd in the quinquennial games, he retired to Ne- 
apolis, the place of his nativity, along with his 
wife Claudia, whose virtues he frequently com- 
memorates. He died about A D. 96. It has 
been inferred from a passage in Juvenal (vii., 
82), that Statius, in his earlier years at least, 
was forced to struggle with poverty ; hut he 
appears to have profited by the patronage of 
Domitian (Silv., iv., 2), whom he addresses in 
strains of the most fulsome adulation. The ex- 
tant works of Statius are : 1. Silvarum Libri V., 
a collection of thirty-two occasional poems, 
many of them of considerable length, divided 
into five books. To each book is prefixed a 
dedication in prose, addressed to some friend. 
The metre chiefly employed is the heroic hex- 
ameter, but four of the pieces (i., 6 ; ii., 7 ; iv., 
3, 9) are in Phalaecian hendecasyllabics, one 
(iv., 5) in the Alcaic, and one (iv., 7) in the 
Sapphic stanza. 2. Thebotidos Libri XII., an 
heroic poem in twelve books, embodying the 
ancient legends with regard to the expedition 
of the Seven against Thebes. 3. Achilleidos 
Libri II, an heroic poem breaking off abruptly. 
According to the original plan, it would have 
comprised a complete history of the exploits of 
Achilles, but was probably never finished. Sta- 
tius may justly claim the praise of standing in 
the foremost rank among the heroic poets of the 
Silver Age. He is in a great measure free from 
extravagance and pompous pretensions; but, on 
the other hand, in no portion of his works do we 
find the impress of high natural talent and im- 
posing power. The pieces which form the Sil- 
vae, although evidently thrown off in haste, pro- 
duce a much more pleasing effect than the am- 
bitious poems of the Thebaid or the Achilleid. 
The best editions of the Silvce are by Markland, 
Lond., 1728, and by Sillig, Dresd., 1827. The 
best edition of the complete works of Statius is 
by Lemaire, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1825-1830. 

StatonIa (Statoniensis), a town in Etruria, 
and a Roman praefectura, on the River Albinia, 
and on the Lacus Statoniensis, in the neighbor- 
hood of which were stone quarries, and excel- 
lent wine was grown. 

Stator, a Roman surname of Jupiter, describ- 
ing him as staying the Romans in their flight 
from an enemy, and generally as preserving the 
existing order of things. 

Stectorium {'ZrenrdpLov : now Afioum Kara- 
Hisar ?), a city of Great Phrygia, between Pel- 
ts and Synnadia. 

Stentor (ZrevTup), a herald of the Greeks in 
the Trojan war, whose voice was as loud as 
that of fifty other men together. His name has 
become proverbial for any one shouting with an 
unusually loud voice. 

Stentoris Lacus. Vid. Hebrus. 

Stenyclerus (SrevikA^pof, Dor. JiTevvula- 
pog : 2 revvK A^ptof), a town in the north of Mes- 
senia, which was the residence of the Dorian 
kings of the country. After the time of the 
third Messenian war the town is no longer men- 
tioned ; but its name continued to be given to 
an extensive plain in the north of Messenia. 

Stephane or -is (Zrequvri, Zreipavie : now Ste- 
fanio), a sea-port town of Paphlagonia, on the 
coast of the Mariandyni. 

Stephanus {Zrefavos). 1- An Athenian com- 
53 



ic poet of the New Comedy, was probably the 
son of Antiphanes, some of whose plays he is 
said to have exhibited. — 2. Of Byzantium, the 
author of the geographical lexicon entitled Eth- 
nica ('Edvaca), of which, unfortunately, we pos- 
sess only an epitome. Stephanus was a gram- 
marian at Constantinople, and lived after the 
time of Arcadius and Honorius, and before that 
of Justinian II. His work was reduced to an 
epitome by a certain Hermolaus, who dedica- 
ted his abridgment to the Emperor Justinian 
II. According to the title, the chief object o( 
the work was to specify the gentile names de- 
rived from the several names of places and 
countries in the ancient world. But, while this 
is done in every article, the amount of informa- 
tion given went far beyond this. Nearly every 
article in the epitome contains a reference to 
some ancient writer, as an authority for the 
name of the place ; but in the original, as we 
see from the extant fragments, there were con- 
siderable quotations from the ancient authors, 
besides a number of very interesting particu 
lars, topographical, historical, mythological, and 
others. Thus the work was not merely what 
it professed to be, a lexicon of a special branch 
of technical grammar, but a valuable dictionary 
of geography. How great would have been its 
value to us, if it had come down to us unmuti- 
lated, may be seen by any one who compares 
the extant fragments of the original with the 
corresponding articles in the epitome. These 
fragments, however, are unfortunately very 
scanty. The best editions of the Epitome of 
Stephanus are by Dindorf, Lips., 1825, &c, 4 
vols.; by Westermann, Lips., 1839, 8vo ; and 
by Meineke, Berlin, 1849, vol. i. 

Sterculius, Stercutius, or SterquIlInus, j 
surname of Saturnus, derived from Stercus, 
manure, because he had promoted agriculture 
by teaching the people the use of manure. This 
seems to have been the original meaning, though 
some Romans state that Sterculius was a sur- 
name of Picumnus, the son of Faunus, to whom 
likewise improvements in agriculture are as- 
cribed. 

Sterope (ZrepoKTi), one of the Pleiads, wife 
of GEnomaus, and daughter of HippodamTa. 

Steropes. Vid. Cyclopes. 

[Steetinius, a Stoic philosopher, whom Hor- 
ace (Sat., ii., 3, 296), in derision, calls the eighth 
of the wise men : the scholiast says that he 
wrote two hundred and thirty books on the 
Stoic philosophy in the Latin language.] 

Stesichorus {'ZTTjaixopog), of Himera in Sic- 
ily, a celebrated Greek poet, contemporary with 
Sappho, Alcaeus, Pittacus, and Phalaris, is said 
to have been born B.C. 632, to have flourished 
about 608, and to have died in 552, at the age 
of eighty. Of the events of his life we have 
only a few obscure accounts. Like other great 
poets, his birth is fabled to have been attended 
by an omen ; a nightingale sat upon the babe's 
lips, and sung a sweet strain. He is said to 
have been carefully educated at Catana, and 
afterward to have enjoyed the friendship of 
Phalaris, the tyrant of Agrigentum. Many writ- 
ers relate the fable of his being miraculously 
struck with blindness after writing an attacl 
upon Helen, and recovering his sight when he 
had composed a Palinodia. He is said to have 



STESICLES. 



STILPC 



been buried at Catana by a gate of the city, 
which was called after him the Stesichorean 
gate. Stesichorus was one of the nine chiefs 
of lyric poetry recognized by the ancients. He 
stands, with Alcman, at the head of one branch 
of the lyric art, the choral poetry of the Do- 
rians. He was the first to break the monotony 
of the strophe and antistrophe by the introduc- 
tion of the epode, and his metres were much 
more varied, and the structure of his strophes 
more elaborate, than those of Alcman. His 
odes contained all the essential elements of the 
perfect choral poetry of Pindar and the trage- 
dians. The subjects of his poems were chiefly 
heroic ; he transferred the subjects of the old 
epic poetry to the lyric form, dropping, of course, 
the continuous narrative, and dwelling on iso- 
lated adventures of his heroes. He also com- 
posed poems on other subjects. His extant re- 
mains may be classified under the following 
heads : 1. Mythical Poems. 2. Hymns, Enco- 
mia, Epithalamia, Paeans. 3. Erotic Poems, 
and Scholia. 4. A pastoral poem, entitled Daph- 
nis. 5. Fables. 6. Elegies. The dialect of Ste- 
sichorus was Dorian, with an intermixture of 
the epic. The best edition of his fragments is 
by Kleine, Berol., 1828. 

[Stesicles (S-tfCTi/cA^f, called by Diodorus 
KTrjoiKAijc), was sent by the Athenians with six 
hundred peltasta? to aid the Corcyreans against 
the Lacedaemonians under Mnasippus, B.C. 373. 
He was successful, and caused the withdrawal 
of the Lacedaemonians from Corcyra.] 

Stesimbrotus {"Lrr]ciji6poToc:), of Thasos, a 
rhapsodist and historian in the time of Cimon 
and Pericles, who is mentioned with praise by 
Plato and Xenophon, and who wrote a work 
upon Homer, the title of which is not known. 
He also wrote some historical works. 

Sthenebct:a (ZBeveSoia), called Antea by 
many writers, was a daughter of the Lycian 
king Iobates, and the wife of Prostus. Respect- 
ing her love for Bellerophon, vid. Bellero- 

PHONTES. 

[SthenelaTdas CZdeveXa'iSac), a Spartan ephor, 
who strongly urged the declaration of war against 
Athens in the assembly of the Spartans and 
their allies before the Peloponnesian war, and 
contributed greatly to that determination on the 
part of the assembly.] 

Sthenelus (20f?veAoc). 1- Son of Perseus and 
Andromeda, king of Mycenae, and husband of 
Nicippe, by whom he became the father of Al- 
cinoe, Medusa, and Eurystheus. The latter, as 
the great enemy of Hercules (vid. Hercules), 
is called by Ovid Sthenchius hostis. — 2. Son of 
Androgeos and grandson of Minos. He accom- 
panied Hercules from Paros on his expedition 
against the Amazons, and, together with his 
brother Alcaeus, he was appointed by Hercules 
ruler of Thasos. — 3. Son of Actor, likewise a 
companion of Hercules in his expedition against 
the Amazons ; but he died, and was buried in 
Paphlagonia, where he afterward appeared to 
the Argonauts. — 4. Son of Capaneusand Evadne, 
belonged to the family of the Anaxagoridas in 
Argos, and was the father of Cylarabes ; but, 
according to others, his son's name wasCome- 
tes. He was one of the Epigoni, by whom 
Thebes was taken, and he commanded the Ar- 
gives under Diomedes in the Trojan war, being 
834 



the faithful friend and companion of Diomedes 
He was one of the Greeks concealed in the 
wooden horse, and at the distribution of the 
booty, he was said to have received an image 

; of a three-eyed Jupiter (Zeus), which was in 
after times shown at Argos. His own statue 

i and tomb also were believed to exist at Argos. 

i — 5. Father of Cycnus, who was metamorph- 

• osed into a swan. Hence we find the swan 
called by Ovid Stheneleis volucris and Sthtneleia 
proles. — 6. A tragic poet, contemporary with 
Aristophanes, who attacked him in the Wasps. 
Stheno. Vid. Gorgones. 
[Stichius (ZHxCog), a leader of the Athe- 
nian forces in the Trojan war, was slain by Hec- 
tor.] 

Stilicho, son of a Vandal captain under the 
Emperor Valens, became one of the most dis- 
tinguished generals of Theodosius t. On the 
death of Theodosius, A.D. 395, Stilicho became 
| the real ruler of the West u nder the Emperor Ho- 
[ norius ; and his power was strengthened by the 
I death of his rival Rufinus (vid. Rufinus;, and by 
j the marriage of his daughter Maria to Honorius. 
His military abilities saved the Western em- 
pire ; and after gaining several victories over 
the barbarians, he defeated Alaric at the deci- 
sive battle of Pollentia, 403, and compelled him 
to retire from Italy. In 405 he gained another 
great victory over Radagaisus, who had invad- 
ed Italy at the head of a formidable host of bar- 
barians. These victories raised the ambition 
of Stilicho to so high a pitch that he aspired 
to make himself master of the Roman empire ; 
but he was apprehended and put to death at 
Ravenna in 408. 

Stilo, L. iEuus Pr^coninus, a celebrated 
Roman grammarian, one of the teachers of 
Varro and Cicero. He received the surname 
of Praeconinus because his father had been a 
praeco, and that of Stilo on account of his com- 
positions. He belonged to the aristocratical 
party, and accompanied Q. Metellus Numidicus 
into exile in B.C. 100. He wrote Commenta- 
ries on the Songs of the Salii and on the Twelve 
Tables, a work De Pnloguiis, &c. He and his 
son-in-law, Ser. Claudius, may be regarded as 
the founders of the study of grammar at Rome. 
Some modern writers suppose that the work on 
Rhetoric ad C. Herennium, which is printed in 
the editions of Cicero, is the work of this ^Elius. 
but this is mere conjecture. 

Stilpo (SriAn-ov), a celebrated philosopher, 
was a native of Megara, and taught philosophy 
in his native town. According to one account, 
he engaged in dialectic encounters with Diodo- 
rus Cronus at the court of Ptolemeeus Soter ; 
while, according to another, he did not comply 
with the invitation of the king to visit Alexan- 
drea. He acquired a great reputation ; and so 
high was the esteem in which he was held, that 
Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, spared his 
house at the capture of Megara. He is said to 
have surpassed his contemporaries in inventive 
power and dialectic art, and to have inspired 
almost all Greece with a devotion to the Mega- 
rian philosophy. He seems to have made the 
idea of virtue the especial object of his consid- 
eration. He maintained that the wise man 
ought not only to overcome every evil, but not 
I even to be affected by any. 



STIMO. 



STRABO 



[Stimo, a village of Thessaly, near Gomphi, 
mentioned by Livy.] 

Stimut.a, the name of Semele, according to 
some critics, among the Romans. 

Stiria CEreipia : "Zreipuvg : rains on the bay 
Porto Rafli), a dermis in Attica, southeast of 
Brauron, belonging to the tribe Pandionis, to 
which there was a road from Athens called 
T.-EipLo.KTi aS6c. It was the birth-place of The- 
ramenes and Thrasybulus. 

Stob^us, Joannes {'laavvrjc 6 Srofiatoc), de- 
rived his surname apparently from being a na- 
tive of Stobi in Macedonia. Of his personal 
history we know nothing. Even the age in 
which he lived can not be fixed with accuracy, 
but he must have been later than Hierocles of 
Alexandrea, whom he quotes. Probably he did 
not live very long after him, as he quotes no 
writer of a later date. We are indebted to Sto- 
basus for a very valuable collection of extracts 
from earlier Greek writers. Stobasus was a 
man of extensive reading, in the course of which 
he noted down the most interesting passages. 
The materials which he had collected in this 
way he arranged, in the order of subjects, for_ 
the use of his son Septimius. This collection 
of extracts has come down to us, divided into 
two distinct works, of which one bears the title 
of 'E/cAoyat tyvaiKai SiaAeicriKal Kal r/diical (Ec- 
logcz Physical, etc.), and the other the title of 
' kvdoXoyiov (Florilegium or Sermones). The Ec- 
logce consist for the most part of extracts con- 
veying the views of earlier poets and prose writ- 
ers on points of physics, dialectics, and ethics. 
The Florilegium, or Sermones, is devoted to sub- 
jects of a moral, political, and economical kind, 
and maxims of practical wisdom. - Each chap- 
ter of the Eclogee and Sermones is headed by 
a title describing its matter. The extracts quot- 
ed in illustration begin usually with passages 
from the poets, after whom come historians, 
orators, philosophers, and physicians. To Sto- 
basus we are indebted for a large proportion of 
the fragments that remain of the lost works of 
poets. Euripides seems to have been an espe- 
cial favorite with him. He has quoted above 
five hundred passages from him in the Ser- 
mones, one hundred and fifty from Sophocles, 
and above two hundred from Menander. In ex- 
tracting from prose writers, Stobaaus sometimes 
quotes verbatim, sometimes gives only an epit- 
ome of the passage. The best editions of the 
Eclogas are by Heeren, Gotling., 1792-1801, 4 
vols. 8vo, [and by Gaisford, Oxford, 1850, 2 
vols. 8vo], and of the Florilegium by Gaisford, 
Oxon., 1822, 4 vols. 8vo. 

Stobi (Zrdfioi : SrodaToc), a town of Macedo- 
nia, and the most important place in the dis- 
trict Pasonia, was probably situated on the River 
Erigon, north of Thessalonica and northeast of 
Heraclea. It was made a Roman colony and a 
municipium, and under the later emperors was 
the capital of the province Macedonia II. or 
Salutaris. It was destroyed at the end of the 
fourth century by the Goths ; but it is still men- 
tioned by the Byzantine writers as a fortress 
under the name of Stypeum (Srvneiov). Its site 
is unknown ; for the modern Istib, which is 
nsually supposed to stand upon the site of Stobi, 
lies too far to the northeast. 

Stcechades Insul/e (now Isle d'Hieres), a 



group of five small islands in the Mediterra- 
nean, off the coast of Gallia Narbonensis and 
east of Massilia, on which the Massiliotes kept 
an armed force to protect their trade against 
pirates. The three larger islands were called 
Prote, Mese or Pomponiana, and Hypaea, the 
modern Porquerolle, Port Croz, and Isle de Le- 
vant or in Titan ; the two smaller ones are prob- 
ably the modern Ratoneau and Promegne. 

Stceni, a Ligurian people in the Maritime 
Alps, conquered by Q. Marcius Rex B.C. 118, 
before he founded the colony of Narbo Martius. 

Strabo, a cognomen in many Roman gentes, 
signified a person who squinted, and is accord- 
ingly classed with Pcetus, though the latter word 
did not indicate such a complete distortion of 
vision as Strabo. 

Strabo, the geographer, was a native of Ama- 
sia in Pontus. The date of his birth is un 
known, but may perhaps be placed about B.C. 
54. He lived during the whole of the reign of 
Augustus, and during the early part, at least, 
of the reign of Tiberius. He is supposed to 
have died about A.D. 24. He received a care- 
ful education. He studied grammar under Aris- 
todemus atNysa in Caria, and philosophy under 
Xenarchus of Seleucia in Cilicia and Boethus 
of Sidon. He lived some years at Rome, and 
also travelled much in various countries. We 
learn from his own work that he was with his 
friend /Elius Gallus in Egypt in B.C. 24. He 
wrote an historical work {'la-Topma "YiroiivTjfiaTa) 
in forty-three books, which is lost. It began 
where the history of Polybius ended, and was 
probably continued to the battle of Actium. He 
also wrote a work on Geography (PeuypaipiKa,), 
in seventeen books, which has come down to 
us entire, with the exception of the seventh, 
of which we have only a meagre epitome. Stra- 
bo's work, according to his own expression, 
was not intended for the use of all persons. It 
was designed for all who had had a good edu- 
cation, and particularly for those who were en- 
gaged in the higher departments of adminis- 
tration. Consistently with this view, his plan 
does not comprehend minute description, except 
when the place or the object is of great interest 
or importance ; nor is his description limited to 
the physical characteristics of each country ; it 
comprehends the important political events of 
which each country has been the theatre, a no- 
tice of the chief cities and the great men who 
have illustrated them ; in short, whatever was 
most characteristic and interesting in every 
country. His work fof'ms a striking contrast 
with the geography of Ptolemy, and the dry list 
of names, occasionally relieved by something 
added to them, in the geographical portion of 
the Natural History of Pliny. It is, in short, a 
book intended for reading, and it may be read ; 
a kind of historical geography. Strabo's lan- 
guage is generally clear, except in those pas- 
sages where the text has been corrupted ; it is 
appropriate to the matter, simple and without 
affectation. The first two books of Strabo are 
an introduction to his Geography, and contain 
his views on the form and magnitude of the 
earth, and other subjects connected with math- 
ematical geography. In the third book he be- 
gins his description : he devotes eight books to 
Europe ; six to Asia ; and the seventeenth and 

835 



STRABO. 

last to Egypt and Libya. The best editions of 
Strabo are by Casaubon, Geneva, 1587, and 
Paris, 1620, fol. — reprinted by Almeloveen, Am- 
sterdam, 1707, and by Falconer, Oxford, 1807, 
2 vols. fol. — by Siebenkees, and Tzschueke, 
Lips., 1811, 7 vols. 8vo; by Coraes, Paris, 1815, 
seq., 4 vols. 8vo ; and by Kramer, Berlin, 1844, 
seq., of which only two volumes have yet ap- 
peared. This last is by far the best critical edi- 
tion. 

Strabo, Fannius. 1. C, consul B.C. 161 
with M. Valerius Messala. In their consulship 
the rhetoricians were expelled from Rome. — 2. 
C, son of the preceding, consul 122. He owed 
his election to the consulship chiefly to the in- 
fluence of C. Gracchus, who was anxious to pre- 
vent his eremy Opimius from obtaining the of- 
fice. But in his consulship Fannius supported 
the aristocracy, and took an active part in op- 
posing the measures of Gracchus. He spoke 
against the proposal of Gracchus, who wished 
to give the Roman franchise to the Latins, in 
a speech which was regarded as a master-piece 
in the time of Cicero.— 3. C, son-in-law of Lae- 
lius, and frequently confounded with No. 2. He 
served in Africa, under Scipio Africanus, in 146, 
and in Spain, under Fabius Maximus, in 142. 
He is introduced by Cicero as one of the speak- 
ers both in his work Be Republica and in his 
treatise De Amicitia. He owed his celebrity in 
literature to his History, which was written in 
Latin, and of which Brutus made an abridg- 
ment. 

Strabo, Seius. Vid. Sejanus. 

Stratocles (Srparo/cA^f), an Athenian orator, 
and a friend of the orator Lycurgus. He was 
a virulent opponent of Demosthenes, whom he 
charged with having accepted bribes from Har- 
palus. Stratocles especially distinguished him- 
self by his extravagant flattery of Demetrius. 

Straton (Srpurov). 1. Son of Arcesilaus of 
Lampsacus, was a distinguished peripatetic phi- 
losopher, and the tutor of Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus. He succeeded Theophrastus as head of 
the school in B.C. 288, and, after presiding over 
it eighteen years, was succeeded by Lycon. He 
devoted himself especially to the study of nat- 
ural science, whence he . obtained the appella- 
tion of Physicus. Cicero, while speaking high- 
ly of his talents, blames him for neglecting the 
most necessary part of philosophy, that which 
has respect to virtue and morals, and giving 
himself up to the investigation of nature. Stra- 
ton appears to have held a pantheistic system, 
the specific character of which can not, how- 
ever, be determined. He seems to have denied 
the existence of any god out of the material uni- 
verse, and to have held that every particle of 
matter has a plastic and seminal power, but 
without sensation or intelligence ; and that life, 
sensation, and intellect are but forms, accidents, 
and affections of matter. Some modern writ- 
ers have regarded Straton as a forerunner of 
Spinoza, while others see in his system an an- 
ticipation of the hypothesis of monads. — 2. Of 
Sardis, an epigrammatic poet, and the compiler 
of a Greek Anthology, devoted to licentious 
subjects. Vid. Planudes. — 3. A physician of 
Berytus in Phoenicia, one of whose medical 
formula? is quoted by Galen. — 4. Also a phy- 
sician, and a pupil of Erasistratus in the third 
836 



STRATUS. 

century B.C., who appears to have lived on 
very intimate terms with his tutor. 

Stratonice (2,Tpa.TovtK.Ti). 1. Wife of Antigo- » 
nus, king of Asia, by whom she became the 
| mother of Demetrius Poliorcetes. — 2. Daughtei 
of Demetrius Poliorcetes and Phila, the daugh- 
ter of Antipater. In 300, at which time she 
could not have been more than seventeen years 
of age, she was married to Seleucus, king of 
Syria. Notwithstanding the disparity xjf their ' 
ages, she lived in harmony with the old king for 
some years, when it was discovered that her 
step-son Antiochus was deeply enamored of 
her, and Seleucus, in order to save the life of 
his son, which was endangered by the vio- 
lence of his passion, gave up Stratonice in mar- 
riage to the young prince. She bore three chil- 
dren to Antiochus : 1. Antiochus II., surnamed 
Theos ; 2. Apama, married to Magas, king of 
Cyrene ; and, 3. Stratonice. — 3. Daughter of the -| 
preceding and of Antiochus I., was married to i 
Demetrius II., king of Macedonia. She quitted 
Demetrius in disgust on account of his second 
marriage with Phthia, the daughter of Olym- 
pias, and retired to Syria. Here she was put ' 
to death by her nephew Seleucus II., against 
whom she had attempted to raise a revolt. — 4. 
Daughter of Antiochus II., king of Syria, mar- 
ried to Ariarathes III , king of Cappadocia. — 5. 
One of the favorite wives of Mithradates ths 
Great. 

Strat5nicea (ZrpaTov'iKtia, Srparow'/o? : Srpa- 
tovlksvc, Stratoniceus, Stratonicensis : now ru- 
ins at Eski-Hisar), one of the chief inland cities 
ofCaria, built by Antiochus I. Soter, who forti- 
fied it strongly, and named it in honor of his 
wife Stratonice. It stood east of Mylasa, and 
south of Alabanda, near the River Marsyas, a 
southern tributary of the Meeander. Under the i 
Romans it was a free city, and it was improved 
by Hadrian. Near it stood the great temple of 
Jupiter (Zeus) Chrysaoreus; the centre of the 
national worship of the Carians. There is some 
reason to believe that Stratonicea stood on the 
site of a former city, called Idrias, and, still ear- 
lier, Chrysaoris. 

[StratonIcus CSvpardviKoc), of Athens, a dis- 
tinguished musician of the time of Alexander 
the Great, famed for his wit, and the large num- 
ber of pupils attending his musical instructions. 
He is said to have visited Nicocles in Cyprus, 
and there to have met his death by his too great 
independence.] 

Stratonis Turris. Vid. C«:sarea, No. 3. 

Strattis (Srpamf or Srpdrif), an Athenian ] 
poet of the Old Comedy, flourished from B.C. 
412 to 380. [His fragments are collected in 
Meineke's Comic. Grac. Fragm., vol. i., p. 428- 
441, edit, minor.] 

Stratus (Srpurof). 1. (Srpdnoc : ruins near 
Lepenu or Lcpanon), the chief town in Acarna- 
nia, ten stadia west of the Achelous. Its terri- 
tory was called Stratice. It was a strongly- 
fortified town, and commanded the ford of the 
Achelous on the high road from /Etolia to Acar- 
nania. Hence it was a place of military im- 
portance, and was at an early period taken pos- 
session of by the iEtolians. — 2. A town in Ach- ! 
aia, afterward called Dvme. — 3. A town in the 
west of Arcadia, in the territory of Thelpusa, 
perhaps the same as the Homeric Stratia. 



STRONGYLE. 



SUCCABAR. 



feTRONGYLE. Vid. NaxOS. 

Strongylion {~Zrpoy)v\iuv), a distinguished 
Greek statuary, flourished during the last thirty 
or forty years of the fifth century B.C. 

Strophades Insula (2rpo0ur5if), formerly 
called Plot^e (UAurat : now Strofadia and 
Stnvali), tvVo islands in the Ionian Sea, off the 
coast of Messenia and south of Zacynthus. 
The Harpies were pursued to these islands by 
the sons of Boreas ; and it was from the cir- 
cumstance of the latter returning from these 
islands after the pursuit that they are supposed 
to have obtained the name of Strophades. 

Strophius C£-p6<j>ioc) 1. King of Phocis, son 
of Crissus and Antiphatia,and husband of Cydra- 
gora, Anaxibia, or Astyochia, by whom he be- 
came the father of Astydamia and Pylades. Vid. 
Orestes. — [2. Father of Scamandrius, mention- 
ed in the Iliad (v., 49).] 

StruchItes (Srpoi^arff), a Median people, 
mentioned only by Herodotus (i., 101). 

[Stryme C^rpv/irj : Zrpvfirjvoc, "LrpvpTjaLoc, and 
2rpv/tiaiuc), on the Lissus, a city of the Thasii 
in Thrace : also claimed as their own by the 
Maronitae, who contended with the Thasians 
for its possession.] 

Str ymon (now Struma, by the Turks Karasu), 
an important river in Macedonia, forming the 
boundary between that country and Thrace 
down to the time of Philip. It rose in Mount 
Scomius, flowed first south and then southeast, 
passed through the Lake Prasias, and, imme- 
diately south of Amphipolis, fell into a bay of 
the /Egean Sea, called after it Strymonicus Si- 
nus. The numerous cranes on its banks are 
frequently mentioned by ancient writers. 

Strymonii {ZrpvfiovioL), the old name, accord- 
ing to Herodotus, of the Bithyqians, who mi- 
grated into Asia Minor from the banks of the 
River Strymon. Bithynia was sometimes call- 
ed Strymonis. 

Stubera, a town of Macedonia, in the district 
Paeonia, probably on the River Erigon. 

StymphalIdes. Vid. Stymphalbs. 

Stymphalis (Xrv/upaTi'ic). 1. A lake in Arca- 
dia. Vid. Stymphalus.— 2. A district in Mace- 
donia, between Atintania and Elimiotis. 

Stymphalus (Zrvfitya'Aoc, 2Tv/x(j>ri2.oc : Xtv/i- 
<pa?iCoc), a town in the northeast of Arcadia, the 
territory of which was bounded on the north by 
Achaia, on the east by Sicyonia and Phliasia, on 
the south by the territory of Mantinea, and on 
the west by that of Orchomenus and Pheneus. 
The district was one of military importance, 
since it commanded one of the chief roads | 
from Arcadia to Argolis. Its name is said to 
have been derived from Stymphalus, a son of 
Elatus and grandson of Areas. The town it- 
self was situated on a mountain of the same 
name, and on the northern side of the Lake 
Stymphalis (Sny^aAt'f : now Zaraka), on which 
dwelt, according to tradition, the celebrated 
birds called StymphalIdes (Sm/^aAt'def), de- 
stroyed by Hercules. (For details, vid. p. 357, 
b.) From this lake issued the River Stympha- 
lus, which, after a short course, disappeared un- 
der ground, and was supposed to appear again 
as the River Erasinus in Argolis. 

Styra (ret Irvpa : Zrvpevc : now Stura), a 
town in Euboea, on the southwestern coast, not 
far from Carystus, and nearly opposite Mara- 



j thon in Attica. The inhabitants were originally 
Dryopes, though they subsequently denied their 
! descent from this people. They took an active 
part in the Persian war, and fought at Artemis- 
ium, Salamis, and PJataeas. They afterward be- 
came subject to the Athenians, and paid a year- 
ly tribute of twelve hundred drachma?. The 
town was destroyed in the Lamian war by the 
Athenian general Phaedrus, and its territory was 
annexed to Eretria. 

Styx (2ri)f), connected with the verb crvyeo), 
to hate or abhor, is the name of the principal 
river in the nether world, around which it flows 
seven times. Styx is described as a daughter 
of Oceanus and Tethys. As a nymph she dwelt 
at the entrance of Hades, in a lofty grotto which 
was supported by silver columns. As a river, 
Styx is described as a branch of Oceanus, flow- 
ing from its tenth source ; and the River Co- 
cytus, again, is a branch of the Styx. By Pallas 
Styx became the mother of Zelus (zeal), Nice 
(victory), Bia (strength), and Cratos (power). 
She was the first of all the immortals who took 
her children to Jupiter (Zeus) to assist him 
against the Titans ; and, in return for this, her 
children were allowed forever to live with Ju- 
piter (Zeus), and Styx herself became the di- 
vinity by whom the most solemn oaths were 
sworn. "When one of the gods had to take an 
oath by Styx, Iris fetched a cup full of water 
from the Styx, and the god, while taking the 
oath, poured out the water. 

Styx (Sriif : now Mavra-neria), a river in the 
north of Arcadia, near Nonacris, descending 
from a high rock, and falling into the Crathis. 
The ancients believed that the water of this 
river was poisonous ; and, according to one tale, 
Alexander the Great was poisoned by it. It 
was said, also, to break all vessels made of glass, 
stone, metal, and any other material except of 
the hoof of a horse or a mule. 

Suada, the Roman personification of persua- 
sion, the Greek Pltho (HetOu), also called by the 
diminutive Suadela. 

Suagela (SoudyeAa), an ancient city of Caria, 
near Myndus, was the burial-place of the old 
kings of the country. 

Suasa (Suasanus : now S. Lorenzo), a mu- 
nicipium in Umbria, on the Sena. 
Suastus. Vid. Choaspes, No. 2. 
Subertum or Sudertum (Sudertanus : now 
Sovrelto), a town in the interior of Etruria. 

Sublaqueum (Sublacensis : now Svliaco), a 
small town of the ^Equi in Latium, on the Anio, 
near its source. Near it stood the celebrated 
villa of Claudius and Nero (Villa Sublacensis) ; 
and from it was derived the name of the Via 
Sublacensis, which was a branch of the Via Ti- 
burtina. 

Sublicius Pons. Vid. Roma, p. 748, a. 
Subur. 1. A town of the Laeetani in Hispa- 
nia Tarraconensis, east of Tarraco, described by 
some as a town of the Cosetani, and by others, 
again, as a town of the Ilergetes.— 2. (Now 
Subu or Cubu), a river in Mauretania Tingitana, 
flowing past the colony Banasa into the At- 
lantic Ocean. 

Subura or Suburra. Vid. Roma, p. 748, b. 
Subzupara (now Zarvi), a town in Thrace, on 
the road from Philippopolis to Hadrianopolis. 
Succabar (2ovxu6appt, Ptol. : now Mazunal), 

837 



SUCCI. 

an inland city of Mauretania Caesariensi j, south- 
east of the mouth of the Chinalaph. It was a 
colonia, and is mentioned by Ammianus Mar- 
cellinus under the name ofoppidum Sugar-ba- 
ritanum. 

Succi or Succorum Angusti^e. Vid. H/emus. 

Sucko. 1. (Now Xucar), a river in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, rising in a southern branch of 
Mount Idubeda, in the territory of the Celtiberi, 
and falling south of Valentia into a gulf of the 
Mediterranean called after it Sinus Sucronensis 
(now Gulf of Valencia). — 2. (Now Cullera), a 
town of the Edetani in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
on the preceding river, and between the Iberus 
and Carthago Nova. 

SuDERTUM. Vid. SuBERTUM. 

Sudeti Montesj a range of mountains in the 
southeast of Germany, in which the Albis takes 
its rise. 

Suel (now Fuengirola), a town in Hispania 
Baetica, on the road from Malaca to Gades. 

Suessa Aurunca (Suessanus : now Sessa), a 
town of the Aurunci in Latium, east of the Via 
Appia, between Minturnae and Teanum, on the 
western slope of Mons Massicus. It was situ- 
ated in a beautiful district called Vescinus ager, 
whence it has been supposed that the town 
itself was at one time called Vescia. It was 
made a Roman colony in the Samnite wars, but 
must have been afterward colonized afresh, 
since we find it called in inscriptions Col. Julia 
Felix. It was the birth-place of the poet Lucil- 
ius. 

Suessa Pometia (Suessanus), also called Po- 
metia simply, an ancient and important town of 
the Volsci in Latium, south of Forum Appii, 
conquered by the Romans under Tarquinius 
Priscus, and taken a second time and sacked 
by the consul Servilius. It was one of the 
twenty- three cities situated in the plain after- 
ward covered by the Pomptine Marshes, which 
are said indeed to have derived their name from 
this town. 

Suesseta.ni, a people in Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, mentioned in connection with the Sedetani. 

Suessiones or Suessones, a powerful people 
in Gallia Belgica, who were reckoned the bravest 
of all the Belgic Gauls after the Bellovaci, and 
who could bring fifty thousand men into the field 
in Caesar's time. Their King Divitiacus, shortly 
before Caesar's arrival in the country, was reck- 
oned the most powerful chief in all Gaul, and 
had extended his sovereignty even over Britain. 
The Suessiones dwelt in an extensive and fer- 
tile country east of the Bellovaci, south of the 
Veromandui, and west of the Remi. They pos- 
sessed twelve towns, of which the capital was 
Noviodunum, subsequently Augusta Suessonum 
or Suessones (now Soissons). 

Suessula (Suessulanus : now Torre di Scs- 
sola), a town in Samnium, on the southern slope 
of Mount Tifata. 

Suetonius PaulInus. Vid. Paulinus. 

Suetonius Tranquillus, C, the Roman his- 
torian, was born about the beginning of the 
reign of Vespasian. His father was Suetonius 
Lenis, who was a tribune of the thirteenth le- 
gion in the battle of Bedriacum, in which Otho 
was defeated. Suetonius practiced as an advo- 
cate at Rome in the reign of Trajan. He lived 
on intimate terms with the younger Pliny, many 
838 



SUE"VI. 

of whose letters are addressed to him. At the 
request of Pliny, Trajan granted to Suetonius 
the jus trium liberorum ; for, though he was mar- 
ried, he had not three children, which number 
was necessary to relieve him from various legal 
disabilities. Suetonius was afterward appoint- 
ed private secretary (Magister Epistolarum) to 
Hadrian, but was deprived of this office by the 
emperor, along with Septicius Clarus, the Prae- J 
feet of the Praitorians, on the ground of asso- ! 
ciating with Sabina, the emperor's wife, without i 
his permission. Suetonius wrote many works, 
of which the only ones extant are, Vila Duo 
decim Ccesarum, or the twelve emperors, of 
whom the first is C. Julius Caesar, and the last 
is Domitian ; Liber de illustribus Grammaticis ; 
Liber de Claris Rhetoribus ; Vita Terentii, Hora- 
tii, Pcrsii, Lucani, Juvcnalis, Plinii Majoris. His 
chief work is his Lives of the Caesars. Sueto- 
nius does not follow the chronological order in 
his Lives, but he groups together many things 
of the same kind. His language is very brief 
and precise, sometimes obscure, without any 
affectation of ornament. He certainly tells a 
prodigious number of scandalous anecdotes I 
about the Caesars, but there was plenty to tell 
about them ; and if he did not choose to sup- } 
press those anecdotes which he believed to be 
true, that is no imputation on his veracity. As 
a great collection of facts of all kinds, the work 
on the Caesars is invaluable for the historian | 
of this period. His judgment and his honesty | 
have both been attacked by some modern critics ; 
but we are of opinion that, on both grounds, a ■ 
careful study of his work will justify him. The 
friendship of the younger Pliny is evidence in 
favor of his integrity. The treatise De illustri- 
bus Grammaticis and that De claris Rhetoribus 
are probably only parts of a larger work. They \ 
contain a few biographical and other notices, 
that are occasionally useful. It has been con- 
jectured that the few scanty lives of the Latin 
poets, already enumerated, belonged to a larger 
work De Poetis. If this conjecture be true, j 
the short notice of the elder Pliny may not be 
by Suetonius. A work entitled De Viris Illus-, j 
tribus, which has been attributed both to Sue- 
tonius and the younger Plinius, is now unani- 
mously assigned to Aurelius Victor. The best 
editions of Suetonius are by P. Burmann, Am- | 
sterdam, 1736, 2 vols. 4to, and by Baumgarten- 
Crusius, Lips., 1816, 3 vols. 8vo. 

Suevi, one of the greatest and most powerful 
races of Germany, or, more properly speak- 
ing, the collective name of a great number of 
German tribes, who were grouped together on 
account of their migratory mode of life, and j 
spoken of in opposition to the more settled 
tribes, who went under the general name of In- 
gaevones. The Suevi are described by all the 
^ancient writers as occupying the greater half 
of all Germany ; but the accounts vary respect- 
ing the part of the country which they inhabit- 
ed. Caesar represents them as dwelling east 
of the Ubii and Sygambri, and west of the Che- 
rusci, and their country as divided into one 
hundred cantons. Strabo makes them extend 
in an easterly direction beyond the Albis, and 
in a southerly as far as the sources of the Dan- 
ube. Tacitus gives the name of Suevia to the j 
whole of the east of Germany from the Danube 



SUFENAS, M. NONIUS 



SULLA, CORNELIUS. 



to the Baltic. At a later time the collective 
name of the Suevi gradually disappeared ; and 
the different tribes of the Suevic race were each 
called by their distinctive names. In the sec- 
ond half of the third century, however, we again 
find a people called Suevi, dwelling between 
the mouth of the Main and the Black Forest, 
whose namo is still preserved in the modern 
Suabia ; but this people was only a body of bold 
adventurers from various German tribes, who 
assumed the celebrated name of the Suevi in 
consequence of their not possessing any distin- 
guishing appellation. 

Sufenas, M. Nonius, tribune of the plebs in 
B.C. 56, fought on Pompey's side at the battle 
of Pharsalia. 

Sufes (now Sbiba), a city of Northern Africa, 
in the Carthaginian territory (Byzacena). 

Sufetula (now Sfaitla), a city of Byzacena, 
south of Sufes, of which its name is a diminu- 
tive. It became, however, a much more im- 
portant place, as a chief centre of the roads in 
the interior of the province of Africa. Its ruins 
are magnificent. 

Suidas (Soiudaf), a Greek lexicographer, of 
whom nothing is known. No certain conclu- 
sions as to the age of the compiler can be de- 
rived from passages in the work, since it may 
have received numerous interpolations and ad- 
ditions. Eustathius, who lived about the end 
of the twelfth century of the Christian era, 
quotes the Lexicon of Suidas ; and there are 
passages in the Lexicon referring to Michael 
Psellus, who lived at the close of the eleventh 
century. The Lexicon of Suidas is a dictionary 
of words arranged in alphabetical order, with 
some few peculiarities of arrangement ; but it 
contains both words which are found in diction- 
aries of languages, and also names of persons 
and places, with extracts from ancient Greek 
writers, grammarians, scholiasts, and lexicog- 
raphers, and some extracts from later Greek 
writers. The names of persons comprehend 
both persons who are mentioned in sacred and 
in profane history, which shows that if the work 
is by one hand, it is by a Christian. No well- 
conceived plan has been the basis of this work ; 
it is incomplete as to the number of articles, 
and exceedingly irregular and unequal in the 
execution. Some articles are pretty complete, 
others contain no information at all. As to the 
biographical notices, it has been conjectured 
that Suidas or the compiler got them all from 
one source, which, it is further supposed, may 
be the Onomatologos or Pinax of Hesychius of 
Miletus. The Lexicon, though without merit 
as to its execution, is valuable both for the liter- 
ary history of antiquity, for the explanation of 
words, and for the citations from many ancient 
writers. The best editions of the Lexicon are 
Kiister, Cambridge, 1705, 3 vols. fol. ; by 
Gaisford, Oxford, 1834, 3 vols. fol. ; and by Bern- 
nardy, 4to, Halle, 1834-50 (not yet complete). 

Suiones, the general name of all the German 
tribes inhabiting Scandinavia. 

SuismoxtTum, a mountain in Liguria. 

Sulci (Sulcitanus : now Sulci), an ancient 
town in Sardinia, founded by the Carthaginians, 
and a place of considerable maritime and com- 
mercial importance. It was situated on a prom- 
ontory on the southwestern corner of the island. 



Sulgas (now Sorgue), a river in Gaul, de- 
scending from the Alps, and flowing into the 
Rhone near Vindalum. 

Sulla, Cornelius, the name of a patrician 
family. This family was originally called Ru 
finus {vid. Rufinus), and the first member of it 
who obtained the name of Sulla was P. Come 
lius Sulla, mentioned below (No. 1). The origin 
of the name is uncertain. Most modern writers 
suppose that it is a word of the same significa- 
tion as Rufus or Rufinus, and refers simply to 
the red color of the hair or the complexion ; but 
it has been conjectured with greater probability 
that it is a diminutive of Sura, which was a cog- 
nomen in several Roman gentes. It would be 
formed from Sura on the same analogy as puclla 
from puera, and tenellus from lener. There is 
no authority for writing the word Sylla, as is 
done by many modern writers. On coins and 
inscriptions we always find Sula or Sulla, never 
Sylla. 1. P., great-grandfather of the dictator 
Sulla, and grandson of P. Cornelius Rufinus, 
who was twice consul in the Samnite wars. 
Vid. Rufinus, Cornelius. His father is not 
mentioned. He was flamen dialis, and likewise 
praetor urbanus and peregrinus in B.C. 212, 
when he presided over the first celebration of 
the Ludi Apollinares. — 2. P., son of No. 1, and 
grandfather of the dictator Sulla, was praetor in 
186. — 3. L., son of No. 2, and father of the dic- 
tator Sulla, lived in obscurity, and left his son 
only a slender fortune. — 4. L. surnamed Felix, 
the dictator, was horn in 138. Although his 
father left him only a small property, his means 
were sufficient to secure for him a good educa- 
tion. He studied the Greek and Roman litera- 
ture with diligence and success, and appears 
early to have imbibed that love for literature 
and art by which he was distinguished through- 
out life. At the same time he prosecuted pleas- 
ure with equal ardor, and his youth, as well as 
his manhood, was disgraced by the most sensual 
vices. Still his love of pleasure did not absorb 
all his time, nor did it emasculate his mind ; for 
no Roman during the latter days of the repub- 
lic, with the exception of Julius Caesar, had a 
clearer judgment, a keener discrimination of 
character, or a firmer will. The slender prop- 
erty of Sulla was increased by the liberality of 
his step-mother and of a courtesan named Ni- 
copolis, both of whom left him all their fortune. 
His means, though still scanty for a Roman no- 
ble, now enabled him to aspire to the honors of 
the state. He was quaestor in 107, when he 
served under Marius in Africa. Hitherto he 
had only been known for his profligacy ; but he 
displayed both zeal and ability in the discharge 
of his duties, and soon gained the approbation 
of his commander, and the affections of the sol- 
diers. It was to Sulla that Jugurtha was de- 
livered by Bocchus ; and the quaestor thus 
shared with the consul the glory of bringing 
this war to a conclusion. Sulla himself was so 
proud of his share in the success, that he had a 
seal ring engraved, representing the surrender 
of Jugurtha, which he continued to wear till the 
day of his death. Sulla continued to serve un- 
der Marius with great distinction in the cam- 
paigns against the Cimbri and Teutones ; but 
Marius becoming jealous of the rising fame of 
his officer, Sulla left Marius in 102, and took a 

?39 



SULLA, CORNELIUS. 

command under the colleague of Marius, Q. 
Catulus, who intrusted the chief management 
of the war to Sulla. Sulla now returned to 
Home, where he appears to have lived quietly 
for some years. He was praetor in 93, and in 
the following year (92) was sent as propraetor 
into Cilicia, with special orders from the senate 
to restore Ariobarzanes to his kingdom of Oap- 
padocia, from which he had been expelled by 
Mithradates. Sulla met with complete success. 
He defeated Gordius, the general of Mithrada- 
tes, in Cappadocia, and placed Ariobarzanes on 
the throne. The enmity between Marius and 
Sulla now assumed a more deadly form. Sul- 
la's ability and increasing reputation had already 
led the aristocratical party to look up to him as 
one of their leaders ; and thus political animos- j 
ity was added to private hatred. In addition j 
to this, Marius and Sulla were both anxious to i 
obtain the command of the impending war 
against Mithradates ; and the success which 
attended Sulla's recent operations in the East 
had increased his popularity, and pointed him 
out as the most suitable person for this import- 
ant command. About this time Bocchus erect- 
ed in the Capitol gilded figures, representing the 
surrender of Jugurtha to Sulla, at which Marius 
was so enraged that he could scarcely be pre- 
vented from removing them by force. The ex- 
asperation of both parties became so violent that 
they nearly had recourse to arms against each 
other ; but the breaking out of the Social war 
hushed all private quarrels for the time. Mari- i 
us and Sulla both took an active part in the war 
against the common foe. But Marius was now j 
advanced in years ; and he had the deep morti- j 
fication of finding that his achievements were 
thrown into the shade by the superior energy j 
of his rival. Sulla gained some brilliant vie- ' 
tories over the enemy, and took Bovianum, the ! 
chief town of the Samnites. He was elected 
consul for 88, and received from the senate the 
command of the Mithradatic war. The events \ 
which followed — his expulsion from Rome by j 
Marius, his return to the city at the head of his j 
legions, and the proscription of Marius and his 
leading adherents — are related in the life of Ma- 
rius. Sulla remained at Rome till the end of the 
year, and set out for Greece at the beginning of 
87, in order to carry on the war against Mithra- 
dates. He landed at Dyrrhachium, and forth- 
with marched against Athens, which had be- 
come the head-quarters of the Mithradatic cause 
in Greece. After a long and obstinate siege, 
Athens was taken by storm on the 1st of March 
in 86, and was given up to rapine and plunder. 
Sulla then marched against Archelaus, the gen- 
eral of Mithradates, whom he defeated in the 
neighborhood of Chaeronea in Boeotia ; and in 
the following year he again gained a decisive 
victory over the same general near Orchome- 
nus. But while Sulla was carrying on the war 
with such success in Greece, his enemies had 
obtained the upper hand in Italy. The consul 
Cinna, who had been driven out of Rome by his 
colleague Octavius, soon after Sulla's departure 
from Italy, had entered it again with Marius at 
the close of the year. Both Cinna and Marius 
were appointed consuls 86, and all the regula- 
tions of Sulla were swept away. Sulla, how- 
ever, would not return to Italy till he had brought 
840 



SULLA, CORNELIUS. 

the war against Mithradates to a conclusion. 
After driving the generals of Mithradates out 
of Greece, Sulla crossed the Hellespont and 
early in 84 concluded a peace with the king of 
Pontus. He now turned his arms against Fim- 
bria, who had been appointed by the Marian 
party as his successor in the command. But 
the troops of Fimbria deserted their general, 
who put an end to bis own life. Sulla now pre- 
pared to return to Italy. After leaving his le- 
gate, L. Licinius Murena, in command of the 
province of Asia, with two legions, he set sail 
with his own army to Athens. While prepar- 
ing for his deadly struggle in Italy, he did not 
lose his interest in literature. He carried with 
him from Athens to Rome the valuable library 
of Apellicon of Tens, which contained most of 
the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus. Vid. 
Apellicon. He landed at Brundisium in the 
spring of 83. The Marian party far outnum- 
bered him in troops, and had every prospect of 
victory. By bribery and promises, however, 
Sulla gained over a large number of the Marian 
soldiers, and he persuaded many of the Italian 
towns to espouse his cause. In the field his 
efforts w-ere crowned by equal success ; and he 
was ably supported by several of the Roman 
nobles, who espoused his cause in different 
parts of Italy. Of these one of the most dis- 
tinguished was the young Cn. Pompey, who 
was at the time only twenty-three years of age. 
Vid. Poiipeius, No. 10. In the following year 
(82) the struggle was brought to a close by the 
decisive battle gained by Sulla over the Sam- 
nites and Lucanians under Pontius Telesinus 
before the Colline gate of Rome. This victory 
was followed by the surrender of Praneste and 
the death of the younger Marius, who had taken 
refuge in this town. Sulla was now master of 
Rome and Italy ; and he resolved to take the 
most ample vengeance upon his enemies, and 
to extirpate the popular party. One of his first 
acts was to draw up a list of his enemies who 
were to be put to death, called a Proscripiio. It 
was the first instance of the kind in Roman 
history. All persons in this list were outlaws 
who might be killed by any one with impunity, 
even by slaves ; their property was confiscated 
to the state, and was to be sold by public auc- 
tion ; their children and grandchildren lost theii 
votes in the comitia, and were excluded from 
all public offices. Further, all who killed a pro- 
scribed person received two talents as a re- 
ward, and whoever sheltered such a person was 
punished with death. Terror now reigned, not 
only at Rome, but throughout Italy. Fresh lists 
of the proscribed constantly appeared. No one 
was safe ; for Sulla gratified his friends by plac- 
ing in the fatal lists their personal enemies, oi 
persons whose property was coveted by his ad- 
herents. The confiscated property, it is true, 
belonged to the state, and had to be sold by pub- 
lic auction, but the friends and dependents of 
Sulla purchased it at a nominal price, as no one 
dared to bid against them. The number of per- 
sons who perished by the proscriptions is stated 
differently, but it appears to have amounted to 
many thousands. At the commencement of 
these horrors Sulla had been appointed dictator 
for as long a time as he judged to be necessary. 
This was toward the close of 81. Sulla's chiet 



SULLA, CORNELIUS. 



SULMO. 



object in being invested with the dictatorship 
was to carry into execution, in a legal manner, 
the great reforms which he meditated in the 
constitution and the administration of justice. 
He had no intention of abolishing the republic, 
and, consequently, he caused consuls to be elect- 
ed for the following year, and was elected to the 
office himself in 80, while he continued to hold 
the dictatorship. The general object of Sulla's 
reforms was to restore, as far as possible, the 
ancient Roman constitution, and to give back 
to the senate and the aristocracy the power 

I which they had lost. Thus he deprived the 
tribunes of the plebs of all real power, and abol- 
ished altogether the legislative and judicial func- 
tions of the comitia tributa. At the beginning 

! of 81, he celebrated a splendid triumph on ac- 
count of his victory over Mithradates. In a 
speech which he delivered to the people at the 
close of the ceremony, he claimed for himself 
the surname of Felix, as he attributed his suc- 
cess in life to the favor of the gods. In order 
to strengthen his power, Sulla established mili- 
tary colonies throughout Italy. The inhabit- 
ants of the Italian towns, which had fought 
against Sulla, were deprived of the full Roman 
franchise, and were only allowed to retain the 

i commercium : their land was confiscated and 

j given to the soldiers who had fought under him. 
Twenty-three legions, or, according to another 
statement, forty-seven legions, received grants . 
of land in various parts of Italy. A great num- 
ber of these colonies was settled in Etruria, the 
population of which was thus almost entirely 
changed. These colonies had the strongest in- 
terest in upholding the institutions of Sulla, 
since any attempt to invalidate the latter would 
have endangered their newly-acquired posses- 
sions. Sulla likewise created at Rome a kind 
of body-guard for his protection by giving the 
citizenship to a great number of slaves who had 
belonged to persons proscribed by him. The 
slaves thus rewarded are said to have been as 
many as ten thousand, and were called Cornelii 
after him as their patron. After holding the 
dictatorship till the beginning of 79, Sulla re- 
signed this office, to the surprise of all classes. 
He retired to his estate at Puteoli, and there, 
surrounded by the beauties of nature and art, 
he passed the remainder of his life in those lit- 
erary and sensual enjoyments in which he had 
always taken so much pleasure. His dissolute 
mode of life hastened his death. The imme- 
diate cause of his death was the rupture of a 
blood-vessel, but some time before he had been 
suffering from the disgusting disease, which is 
known in modern times by the name of Morbus 
Pediculosus, orPhthiriasis. He died in 78, in the 
sixtieth year of his age. He was honored with 
a public funeral, and a monument was erected 
to him in the Campus Martius, the inscription 
on which had been composed by himself. It 
stated that none of his friends ever did him- a 
kifidness, and none of his enemies a wrong, 
without being fully repaid. Sulla was married 
five times : 1. To Ilia or Julia, who bore him a 
daughter, married to Q. Pompeius Rufus, the 
son of Sulla's colleague in the consulship in 88 ; 
2. To ^Elia ; 3. To Coelia ; 4. To Caecilia Me- 
tella, who bore him a son, who died before Sulla, 
and likewise twins, a son and a daughter ; 5. 



Valeria, who bore him a daughter after his 
death. Sulla wrote a history of his own life 
and times, called Memoirs ('YnofivrjfiaTa). It 
was dedicated to L. Lucullus, and extended to 
twenty-two books, the last of which was finish- 
ed by Sulla a few days before his death. He 
also wrote Fabulas Atellanae, and the Greek 
Anthology contains a short epigram which is 
ascribed to him. — 5. Faustus, son of the dic- 
tator by his fourtli wife Caecilia Metella, and a 
twin brother of Fausta, was born not long be- 
fore 88, the year in which his father obtained 
the first consulship. He and his sister received 
the names of Faustus and Fausta respectively 
on account of the good fortune of their father. 
At the death of his father in 78, Faustus and 
his sister were left under the guardianship: of 
L. Lucullus. Faustus accompanied Pompey 
into Asia, and was the first who mounted the 
walls of the temple of Jerusalem in 63. In 60 
he exhibited the gladiatorial games which his 
father in his last will had enjoined upon him. 
In 54 he was quaestor. In 52 he received from 
the senate the commission to rebuild the Curia 
Hostilia, which had been burned down in the 
tumults following the murder of Clodius, and 
which was henceforward to be called the Curia 
Cornelia, in honor of Faustus and his father. 
He married Pompey's daughter, and sided with 
his father-in-law in the civil war. He was 
present at the battle of Pharsalia, and subse- 
quently joined the leaders of his party in Africa. 
After the battle of Thapsus in 46, he attempted 
to escape into Mau*etania, but was taken pris- 
oner by P. Sittius, and carried to Caesar. Upon 
his arrival in Caesar's camp he was murdered 
by the soldiers in a tumult. Faustus seems 
only to have resembled his father in his extrava- 
gance. We know from Cicero that he was 
overwhelmed with debt at the breaking out of 
the civil war. — 6. P., nephew of the dictator, 
was elected consul along with P. Autronius 
Paetus for the year 65, but neither he nor his 
colleague entered upon the office, as they were 
accused of bribery by L. Torquatus the younger, 
and were condemned. It was currently be- 
lieved that Sulla was privy to both of Catiline's 
conspiracies, and he was accordingly accused 
of this crime by his former accuser, L. Torqua- 
tus, and by C. Cornelius. He was defended by 
Hortensius and Cicero, and the speech of the 
latter on his behalf is still extant. He was ac- 
quitted ; but, independent of the testimony of 
Sallust (Cat., 17), his guilt may almost be in- 
ferred from the embarrassment of his advocate. 
In the civil war Sulla espoused Caesar's cause. 
He served under him as legate in Greece, and 
commanded along with Caesar himself the right 
wing at the battle of Pharsalia (48). He died 
in 45. — 7. Serv., brother of No. 6, took part in 
both of Catiline's conspiracies. His guilt was 
so evident that no one was willing to defend 
him ; but we do not read that he was put to 
death along with the other conspirators. 

Sulmo (Sulmonensis). 1. (Now Sulmona), a 
town of the Peligni, in the country of the Sa- 
bines, seven miles south of Corfinium, on the 
road to Capua, and situated on two small mount- 
ain streams, the water of which was exceed- 
ingly cold : hence we find the town called by 
the poets gelidus Sulmo. It is celebrated as the 

841 



SULPICIA. 



SUR1US. 



birth-place ot Ovid. It was dastroyed by Sulla, 
but was afteiward restored, and is mentioned 
as a Roman colony. — 2. (Now Sermoneta), an 
ancient town of the Volsci in Latium, on the 
Ufens, which had disappeared in Pliny's time. 

SulpicIa, a Roman poetess, who flourished 
toward the close of the first century, celebrated 
for sundry amatory effusions, addressed to her | 
husband Calenus. Their general character may- 
be, gathered from the expressions of Martial, 
Ausonius, and Sidonius Apollinaris, by all of 
whom they are noticed. There is extant a sa- 
tirical poem, in seventy hexameters, on the 
edict of Domitian, by which philosophers were 
banished from Rome and from Italy, which is 
ascribed to Sulpicia by many modern critics. 
It is generally appended to the editions of Ju- 
venal and Persius. 

Sulpicia Gens, was one of the most ancient 
Roman gentes, and produced a succession of 
distinguished men, from the foundation of the 
republic to the imperial period. The chief fam- 
ilies of the Sulpicii during the republican period 
bore the names of Camerinus, Galba ( Gallus, 
Rufus (given below), Saverrio. 

Sulpicius Apollinaris, a contemporary of 
A. Gellius, was a learned grammarian. There 
are two poems in the Latin Anthology purport- 
ing to be written by Sulpicius of Carthage, 
whom some identify with the above-named Sul- 
picius Apollinaris. One of these poems con- 
sists of seventy-two lines, giving the argument 
"f the twelve books of Virgil's J3neid, six lines 
being devoted to each book. 

StfLPicius Rufus. 1. P., one of the most dis- 
tinguished orators of his time, was born B.C. 
124. He commenced public life as a supporter 
of the aristocratical party, and acquired great 
influence in the state by his splendid talents 
while he was still young. In 93 he was quaes- 
tor, and in 89 he served as legate of the consul 
Cn. Pompeius Strabo in the Marsic war. In 
88 he was elected to the tribunate ; but he de- 
serted the aristocratical party, and joined Ma- 
rius. The causes of this sudden change are 
not expressly stated ; but we are told that he 
was overwhelmed with debt ; and there can be 
little doubt that he was bought by Marius. Sul- 
picius brought forward a law :n <avor of Marius 
and his party, of which an account is given un- 
der Maki\js. When Sulla marched upon Rome 
at the iiEad of his army, Marius and Sulpicius 
took to flight. Marius succeeded in making his 
escape to Africa, but Sulpicius was discovered 
in a villa and put So death. — .2. P., probably sou 
or grandson of ths last, was one of Caesar'a le- 
gates in Gaul and in the civil war. He was 
praetor in 48. Cicero addresses him in 45 as 
imperator. It appears that he was at that time 
in Illyricum, along with Vatinius. — 3. Serv., 
with the surname Lemonia, indicating the tribe 
to which he belonged, was a contemporary and 
friend of Cicero, and of about the same age. 
He first devoted himself to oratory, and he 
studied this art with Cicero in his youth. He 
afterward studied law ; and he became one of 
the best jurists as well as most eloquent orators 
of his age. He was quaestor of the district of 
Ostia in 74 ; curule asdile 69; praetor 65 ; and 
consul £1 with M. Claudius Marcellus. He ap- 
oears to have espoused Caesar's side in the civil 
343 



war, and was appointed by Caesar proconsul ol 
Achaia (46 or 45). He died in 43 in the camp 
of M. Antony, having been sent by the senate 
on a mission to Antony, who was besieging Dec. 
Brutus in Mutina. Sulpicius wrote a great num- 
ber of legal works. He is often cited by the 
jurists whose writings are excerpted in the Di- 
j gest ; but there is no excerpt directly from him 
in the Digest. He had numerous pupils, the 
most distinguished of whom were A. Ofihus and 
Alfenus Varus. There are extant in the collec- 
tion of Cicero's Epistles (ad Fam., iv.) two let- 
ters from Sulpicius to Cicero, one of which is 
the well-known letter of consolation on the 
death of Tullia, the daughter of the orator. The 
same book contains several letters from Cicero 
to Sulpicius. He is also said to have written 
some erotic poetry. Sulpicius left a son Ser- 
vius, who is frequently mentioned in Cicero's 
correspondence. 

[Sumetia (lovfiriTLa), an ancient city in the 
eastern part of Arcadia, in the district Maena- 
lia, said to have derived its name from Suma- 
teus, a son of Lycaon : after the founding of 
Megalopolis, it fell into decay.] 

Summanus, a derivative from summus, the 
highest, an ancient Roman or Etruscan divin- 
ity, who was equal or even of higher rank than 
Jupiter. In fact, he may be regarded as the Ju- 
piter of the night ; for, as Jupiter was the god 
of heaven in the bright day, so Summanus was 
the god of the nocturnal heaven, and hurled his 
thunderbolts during the night. Summanus had 
a temple at Rome near the Circus Maximus, and 
there was a representation of him in the pedi- 
ment of the Capitoline temple. 

Sunium (Zovvlov : 'Zovi'itvt; : now Cape Co- 
lonni), a celebrated promontory forming the 
southern extremity of Attica, with a town of 
the same name upon it. Here was a splendid 
temple of Minerva (Athena), elevated three 
hundred feet above the sea, the columns of 
which are still extant, and have given the mod- 
ern name to the promontory. It was fortified 
by the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war, 
and remains of the ancient walls, with the tem- 
ple of Minerva (Athena), are still extant. 

Sunonensis Lacus (now Lake Sabanjah), a 
lake in Bithynia, between the Ascania Palus 
and the River Sangarius, near Nicomedia. 
Superbus, Tarquinius. Vid. Tarquinius. 
[Supervm, Mare. Vid. Adria.] 
Sura, Lentulus. Vid. Lentulus, No. 9. 
Sura, L. LicinTus, an intimate friend of Tra- 
jan, end three times consul, in A.D. 98, 102, and 
107. On the death of Sura, Trajan honored him 
with a public funeral, and erected baths to per- 
petuate his memory. Two of Pliny's letters 
are addressed to him. 

Sura (SoSpa : now Surie), a town of Syria, 
in the district Chalybonitis, on the Euphrates, 
a little west of Thapsacus. 

Surani or Suarni CLovpavoi), a people of Sar- 
matia Asiatica, near the Portae Caucasiae and 
the River Rha. Their country contained many 
gold mines. 

Surenas, the general of the Parthians who 
defeated Crassus in B.C. 54. Vid. Crassus. 

Surius (SoOpiof), a tributary of the Phasis in 
Colchis, the water of which had the power of 
forming petrifactions. At its confluence with 



SURRENTINI COLLES. 



SYBAR1S. 



J the Phasis stood a town named Surium (Sou- ; 

pwv). The plain through which it flows is still 
i| called Suram. 

SURRENTINI COLLES. Vid. SlJRRENTUM. 

Surrentum (SuiTentinus : now Sorrento), an ■ 
ancient town of Campania, opposite Capreae, i 
and situated on the promontory (Promontorium 
Minerva, now Punta della Campanclla) sepa- 
rating the Sinus Paestanus from the Sinus Pu- i 
teolanus. It was subsequently a Roman col- 
ony, and on the hills (Surrentini Colles) in its ! 
neighborhood was grown one of the best wines J 
j in Italy, which was strongly recommended to 
convalescents on account of its thinness and 
wholesomeness. 

Susa, gen. -orum (ja lovaa : in the Old Test- 
ament, Shushan : 'Zovatoc, Susianus : ruins at 
Shus), the winter residence of the Persian kings, 
stood in the district Cissia of the province Su- 
siana, on the eastern bank of the River Cho- 
aspes. Its name in old Persian signifies Lily, 
and that flower is said to abound in the plain in 
which the city stood. It was of a quadrangular 
form, one hundred and twenty (or, according to 
others, two hundred) stadia in circuit, and with- 
out fortifications ; but it had a strongly-fortified 
citadel, containing the palace and treasury of 
the Persian kings. The Greek name of this 
citadel, Memnonice or Memnonium, is perhaps 
a corruption of the Aramaic Maaninon, a fort- 
ress ; and this easy confusion of terms gave rise 
to the fable that the city was founded by Titho- 
nus, the father of Memnon. A historical tra- 
dition ascribes its erection to Darius, the son of 
Hystaspes, but it existed already in the time of 
Daniel. (Dan., viii., 2.) (There is, however, a 
difficulty as to the identification of the Shushan 
of Daniel with the Susa of the Greeks, and as 
to ttie true position of the River Ulai or Eu- 
lajus, which can not be discussed within the 
"imits of this article.) The climate of Susa was 
very hot, and hence the choice of it for the win- 
ter palace. It was here that Alexander and his 
generals celebrated their nuptials with the Per- 
sian princesses, B.C. 325. The site of Susa is 
now marked by extensive mounds, on which 
are found fragments of bricks and broken pot- 
tery, with cuneiform inscriptions. 

Susarion (Eovoapiav), to whom the origin of 
the Attic Comedy is ascribed, was a native of 
Megara, whence he removed into Attica, to the 
village of Icaria, a place celebrated as a seat of 
the worship of Bacchus (Dionysus). This ac- 
count agrees with the claim which the Mega- 
rians asserted to the invention of comedy, and 
which was generally admitted. Before the time 
of Susarion, there was, no doubt, practiced at 
Icaria and the other Attic villages, that extem- 
pore jesting and buffoonery which formed a 
marked feature of the festivals of Bacchus (Dio- 
nysus) ; but Susarion was the first who so reg- 
ulated this species of amusement as to lay the 
foundation of Comedy, properly so called. The 
Megaric comedy appears to have flourished, in 
its full development, about B.C. 600 and on- 
ward ; and it was introduced by Susarion into 
Attica between 580-564. 

[Susia (Souata : now Susen or Suscni), a city 
of Aria, on the borders of Parthia, probably iden- 
tical with the Suphtha of Ptolemy, and assigned 
by him to Parthia.] 



Susiana, -e, or Susis 0i "Zovaavfi, rj Novate: 
nearly corresponding to Khuzistan), one of the 
chief provinces of the ancient Persian empire, 
lay between Babylonia and Persis, and between 
Mount Parachoatras and the head of the Per- 
sian Gulf. In this last direction, its coast ex- 
tended from the junction of the Euphrates with 
the Tigris to about the mouth of the River 
Oroatis (now Tab). It was divided from Per- 
sis on the southeast and east by a mountainous 
tract, inhabited by independent tribes, who made 
even the kings of Persia pay them for a safe 
passage. The chief pass through these mount- 
ains was called Susides or Persides Portae (Sow- 
aiiec irvTidL, ai nvXaL ai Xlepai&sc;, 'S,ovaia6ec ire- 
Tpat) : its position is uncertain ; perhaps it was 
the pass of Kelahi Sefid, in the upper valley of 
the Tab. On the north it was separated from 
Great Media by Mount Charbanus, an eastern 
branch of Mount Zagros, which contained the 
sources of the chief rivers of Susiana, the Cho- 
aspes, the Coprates, and the Eul^eus (the Pa- 
sitigris came from the mountains on the east). 
On the west it was divided from Assyria by an 
imaginary line drawn south from near the Me- 
dian pass in Mount Zagros to the Tigris, and 
from Babylonia by the Tigris itself. The coun- 
try was mountainous and cool in the north, and 
low and very hot in the south, and the coast 
along the Persian Gulfwas marshy. The mount- 
ains were inhabited by various wild and inde- 
pendent tribes, and the plains by a quiet agri- 
cultural people, of the Semitic race, called Su- 
sii or Susiani. 

Sutrium (Sutrlnus : now Sutri), an ancient 
town of Etruria, on the eastern side of the Sal- 
tus Ciminius, and on the road from Vulsinii to 
Rome. It was taken by the Romans at an early 
period ; and in B.C. 383, or seven years after 
the capture of Rome by the Gauls, it was made 
a Roman colony. It was celebrated for its fidel- 
ity to Rome, and was, in consequence, besieged 
several times by the Etruscans. On one occa- 
sion it was obliged to surrender to the Etrus- 
cans, but was retaken by Camillus in the same 
day, whence arose the proverb ire Sutrium. 
There are still remains of the walls and tombs 
of the ancient town. 

S yager (Siaypof) 1. One of the alleged ante- 
Homeric poets, is said to have flourished after 
Orpheus and Musaeus, and to have been the first 
who sang the Trojan war. — [2. A Lacedaemo- 
nian, deputy from Sparta when the Greeks sent 
to Gelon of Syracuse to ask his aid against 
Xerxes, rejected, on behalf of his state, Gelon's 
demand to have the supreme command of the 
expedition.] . 

Syagrus (Zvaypoc a/cpa), the greatest promon- 
tory of Arabia, is described differently by differ- 
ent ancient writers, but is most probably to be 
identified with the easternmost headland of the 
whole peninsula, Ras-el-Had. 

Sybaris (Zv&apic). 1. (Now Coscile or Siba- 
ri), a river in Lucania, flowing by the city of 
the same name, and falling into the Crathis. 
It derived its name from the fountain Sybaris, 
near Bura, in Achaia. — 2. (IvBaplrnc, Sybarita), 
a celebrated Greek town in Lucari'ia, was sit- 
uated between the rivers Sybaris and Crathis, 
at a short distance from the Tarentine Gulf, and 
near the confines of Bruttium. It was founded 

843 



SYBOTA. 

B.C. 720 by Achaeans and Trcezenians, and soon 
attained an extraordinary degree of prosperity 
and wealth. It carried on an extensive com- 
merce with Asia Minor and other countries on 
the Mediterranean, and its inhabitants became 
so notorious for their love of luxury and pleas- 
ure, that their name was employed to indicate 
arty voluptuary. At the time of their highest 
prosperity their city was fifty stadia, or upward 
of six miles in circumference, and they exer- 
cised dominion over twenty-five towns, so that 
we are told they were able to bring into the 
field three hundred thousand men, a number, 
however, which appears incredible. But their 
prosperity was of short duration. The Achaeans 
having expelled the Troezenian part of the pop- 
ulation, the latter took refuge at the neighbor- 
ing city of Croton, the inhabitants of which es- 
poused their cause. In the war which ensued 
between the two states, the Sybarites were com- 
pletely conquered by the Crotoniats, who fol- 
lowed up their victory by the capture of Syba- 
ris, which they destroyed by turning the waters 
of the River Crathis against the town, B.C. 510. 
The greater number of the surviving Sybarites 
took refuge in other Greek cities in Italy ; but 
a few remained near their ancient town, and 
their descendants formed part of the p9pulation 
of Thurif, which was funded in 443 near Syba- 
ris. Vid. Thurii. 

Sybota (to. Xv6ora : "Zv66tio<; : now Syvota), 
a number of small islands off the coast of Epi- 
rus, and opposite the promontory Leucimne in 
Corcyra, with a harbor of the same name on 
the main land. It was here that a naval battle 
was fought between the Corcyraeans and Co- 
rinthians, B.C. 432, just before the commence- 
ment of the Peloponnesian war. 

Sych^us or SichjEus, also called Acerbas. 
Vid. Acerbas. 

Sychar, Sychem. Vid. Neapolis, No. 5. 

[Syccrium, according to Livy, a place in Thes- 
salian Pelasgiotis, at the base of Mount Ossa.] 

[Syedra (in Strabo ~Zv5pri), a town on the 
coast of Cilicia Aspera, between Coracesium 
and Selinws.] 

Syene (Zvrjvn : Suiyvir^f and Sn^r^f, Sy- 
enites : ruins at Assouan), a city of Upper Egypt, 
on the eastern bank of the Nile, just below the 
First Cataract. It has been in all ages the 
southern frontier city of Egypt toward ^Ethio- 
pia, and under the Romans it was kept by a 
garrison of three cohorts. From its neighbor- 
hood was obtained the fine red granite called 
Syenites lapis. It was also an important point 
in the astronomy and geography of the ancients, 
as it lay just under the tropic of Cancer, and 
was therefore chosen as the place through which 
they drew their chief parallel of latitude. Of 
course the sun was vertical to Syene at the 
time of the summer solstice, and a well was 
shown in which the reflection of the sun was 
then seen at noon ; or, as the rhetorician Aris- 
tides expresses it, the disc of the sun covered 
the well as a vessel is covered by its lid. 

Syennesis (2u£W£(Tif), a common name of 
the kings of Cilicia. Of these the most import- 
ant are, 1. A king of Cilicia, who joined with 
Labynetus (Nebuchadnezzar) in mediating be- 
tween Cyaxares and Alyattes, the kings re- 
spectively of Media and Lydia, probably in B.C. 
844 



SYMMACHUS, Q. AUREL1US. 

610. —2. Contemporary with Darius Hystaspis 
to whom he was tributary. His daughter was 
married to Pixodarus. — 3. Contemporary with 
Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon), ruled over Cilicia, 
when the younger Cyrus marched through his 
country in his expedition against his brother 
Artaxerxes. [Vid. Epyaxa.] '; 

Sygambri, Sugambri, Sigambri, Sycambri or i* 
Sicambri, one of the most powerful tribes of 
Germany at an early time, belonged to the Is 
taevones, and dwelt originally north of the Ubii 
on the Rhine, whence they spread toward the 
north as far as the Lippe. The Sygambri are 
mentioned by Caesar, who invaded their terri- 
tory. They were conquered by Tiberius in the 
reign of Augustus, and a large number of them 
were transplanted to Gaul, where they received 
settlements between the Maas and the Rhine 
as Roman subjects. The portion of the Sy- I 
gambri who remained in Germany withdrew 
further south, probably to the mountainous 
country in the neighborhood of the Taunus. 
Shortly afterward they disappear from history, 
and are not mentioned again till the time of 
Ptolemy, who places them much further north, 
close to the Bructeri and the Langobardi, some- 
where between the Vecht and the Yssel. At a 
still later period we find them forming an im- 
portant part of the confederacy known under 
the name of Franci. 

Sylla. Vid. Sulla. 

Syllium (Sii/Uiov: probably ruins near Boh [ 
kassku, north of Legelakkoi), a strongly- fortifie.. 
town of Pamphylia, on a mountain forty stadia 
(four geographical miles) from the coast, be- 
tween Side and Aspendus. 

[Syi.oson (SuAocrov), son of iEaces, younger 
brother of Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos. 
Banished by his brother, he went to Egypt, and 
thence to Persia, after the accession of Darius, 
who rewarded him for some previous favor with 
the tyranny of the island of Samos. Syloson 
ruled Samos till his death, and was succeeded 
in the sovereignty by his son ^Eaces.] 

Sylvands. Vid. SlLVANUS. 
Sylvius. Vid. Silvius. 

Sym^ithus (Zvfiaidoe : now Giaretta), a river ! 
on the eastern coast of Sicily and at the foot of : 
Mount .(Etna, forming the boundary between 
Leontini and Catana, on which stood the town 
of Centuripae. 

Syme (Zvfir] : 'Svfialoc, 'Sv/isi's '■ now Symi), a 
small island off the southwestern coast of Caria, 
lay in the mouth of the Sinus Doridis, to the 
west of the promontory of Cynossema. It was 
one of the early Dorian states, that existed in 
the southwest of Asia Minor before the time of 
Homer. Its connection both with Cnidus and 
with Rhodes, between which it lay, is indicated 
by the tradition that it was peopled by a colony i 
from Cnidus led by Chthonius, the son of Nep 
tune (Poseidon) and of Syme, the daughter oi 
Ialysus. Some time after the Trojan war, the 
Carians are said to have obtained possession of 
the island, but to have deserted it again in con- 
sequence of a severe drought. Its final settle- 
ment by the Dorians is ascribed to the time of 
their great migration. The island was reckon- 
ed at thirty-five miles in circuit. It had eight 
harbors and a town, which was also called Syme. 
Symmachus, Q. AurelIus, a distinguished 



SiTMPLEGADES. 



SYRACUSE. 



scholar, statesman, and orator in the latter half 
of the fourth century of the Christian era. By 
his example and authority, he inspired for a time 
new life and vigor into the literature of his 
country. He was educated in Gaul ; and, hav- 
ing discharged the functions of quaestor and 
praetor, he was afterward appointed (A.D. 365) 
Corrector of Lucania and the Bruttii ; and in 
373 he was proconsul of Africa. His zeal for 
the ancient religion of Rome checked for a 
while the prosperous current of his fortunes, 
and involved him in danger and disgrace. Hav- 
ing been chosen by the senate to remonstrate 
with Gratianon the removal of the altar of Vic- 
tory (382) from their council hall, and on the 
curtailment of the sums annually allowed for 
the maintenance of the Vestal Virgins, and for 
the public celebration of sacred rites, he was 
ordered by the indignant emperor to quit his 
presence, and to withdraw himself to a distance 
of one hundred miles from Rome. Nothing 
daunted by this repulse, when appointed prasfect 
of the city (384) after the death of his perse- 
cutor, he addressed an elaborate epistle to Va- 
lentinianus, again urging the restoration of the 
pagan deities to their former honors. This ap- 
plication was resisted by St. Ambrose, and was 
again unsuccessful. Symmachus afterward es- 
poused the cause of the usurper Maximus (387) ; 
but he was pardoned by Theodosius, and raised 
to the consulship in 391. His personal charac- 
ter seems to have been unimpeachable, as he 
performed the duties of the high offices which 
he filled in succession with a degree of mild- 
ness, firmness, and integrity seldom found 
among statesmen in that corrupt age. The ex- 
tant works of Symmachus are, 1. Epislolarum 
Libri X, published after his death by his son. 
The last book contains his official correspond- 
ence, and is chiefly composed of the letters pre- 
sented by him when preefect of the city to the 
emperors under whom he served. The remain- 
ing books comprise a multitude of epistles, ad- 
dressed to a wide circle of relations, friends, 
and acquaintances. 2. Novem Orationum Frag- 
menta, published for the first time by Mai from 
a palimpsest in the Ambrosian library, Mediolan. , 
1815. The best editions of the epistles are by 
Juretus, Paris, 1604, and by Scioppius, Mogunt, 
1608. 

[Symplegades (HvfiTrXriyaSec). Vid. Cyane^e 
Insulje.] 

SynesIits CZwicwc), one of the most elegant 
of the ancient Christian writers, was a native 
of Cyrene, and devoted himself to the study of 
Greek literature, first in his own city, and after- 
ward at Alexandrea, where he heard Hypatia. 
He became celebrated for his skill in eloquence 
and poetry, as well as in philosophy, in which 
he was a follower of Plato. About A.D. 397, 
he was sent by his fellow-citizens of Cyrene on 
an embassy to Constantinople, to present the 
Emperor Arcadius with a crown of gold, on 
which occasion he delivered an oration on the 
government of a kingdom (Trepl paaAduc) 
which is still extant. Soon after this he em- 
braced Christianity, and in 410 was ordained 
bishop of Ptolema'is, the chief city of the Libyan | 
Pentapolis. He presided over his diocese with i 
energy and success for about twenty years, and 
died about 430. His writings have been objects | 



1 of admiration both to ancient and modern schol- 
ars, and have obtained for him the surname 
of Philosopher. The best edition of his works 
is by Morel, Paris, 1612; much improved and 
enlarged, Paris, 1633 ; reprinted, 1640. [His 
'Yfivoi (Hymns), ten in number, are contained 
in Boissonade's Lyrici Grceci, Paris, 1825, 18mo.] 

Synnada, also Synnas (rd "SiivvaSa : 2vvva- 
devc, Synnadensis: now probably ruins at Afiorn- 
Kara-Hisar), a city in the north of Phrygia Sal- 
utaris, at first inconsiderable, but afterward a 
place of much importance, and, from the time 
of Constantine, the capital of Phrygia Salutaris. 
It stood in a fruitful plain, planted with olives, 
near a mountain from which was quarried the 
very celebrated Synnadic marble? which was of 
a beautiful white, with red veins and spots (2vv- 
vafiinbc XiOoc, Synnadicus lapis, called also Do- 
cimiticus, from a still nearer place, Docimia). 

Syphax (2u0af), king of the Massassylians, 
the westernmost tribe of the Numidians. His 
history is related in the life of his contemporary 
and rival, Masinissa. Syphax was taken pris- 
oner by Masinissa B.C. 203, and was sent by 
Scipio, under the charge of Laelius, to Rome. 
Polybius states that he was one of the captives 
who adorned the triumph of Scipio, and that he 
died in confinement shortly after. Livy, on the 
contrary, asserts that he was saved from that 
ignominy by a timely death at Tibur, whither 
he had been transferred from Alba. 

Syraco. Vid. Syracuse. 

Syracuse CZvpunovoai or HvpuKoaaat, Ion. 
"ZvpriKovaai, also HvpaKovaaL, SvpaKovarj : Svpa- 
kovoloc, SvpaKOGLoc, Syracusanus ; now Siracu- 
sa in Italian, Syracuse in English), the wealth- 
iest and most populous town in Sicily, was sit- 
uated on the southern part of the eastern coast, 
four hundred stadia north of the promontory 
Plemmyrium, and ten stadia northeast of the 
mouth of the River Anapus, near the lake or 
marsh called Syraco (Supaxo), from which it 
derived its name. It was founded B.C. 734, 
one year after the foundation of Naxos, by a 
colony of Corinthians and other Dorians, led 
by Archias the Corinthian. The town was orig- 
inally confined to the island Ortygia lying im- 
mediately off the coast ; but it afterward spread 
over the neighboring main land, and at the 
time of its greatest extension under the elder 
Dionysius it consisted of five distinct towns, 
each surrounded by separate walls. Some writ- 
ers, indeed, describe Syracuse as consisting of 
four towns, but this simply arises from the 
fact that Epipolee was frequently not reckoned 
a portion of the city. These five towns were, 
1. Ortygia ('Oprvyia), frequently called simply 
the Island (Nuctoc or NV/crof), an island of an 
oblong shape, about two miles in circumfer- 
ence, lying between the Great Harbor on the 
west and the Little Harbor on the east. It 
was, as has been already remarked, the por- 
tion of the city first built, and it contained the 
citadel or Acropolis, surrounded by double walls, 
which Timoleon caused to be destroyed. In 
this island also was the celebrated fountain of 
Arethusa. It was originally separated from the 
main land by a narrow channel, which was sub- 
sequently filled up by a causeway ; but this 
causeway must at a still later time have been 
swept away since we find in the Roman period 

845 



SYRACUSE. 



SYRIA. 



tnat the island vi as connected with the main land 
by means of a bridge. — 2. Achradina ('Axpa- 
iUvii), occupied originally the high ground of the 
peninsula north of Ortygia, and was surrounded 
on the north and east by the sea. The lower 
ground between Achradina and Ortygia was at 
first not included in the fortifications of either, 
but was employed partly for religious proces- 
sions and partly for the burial of the dead. At 
the time of the siege of Syracuse by the Athe- 
nians in the Peloponnesian war (415), the city 
consisted only of the two parts already men- 
tioned, Ortygia forming the inner and Achra- 
dina the outer city, but separated, as explained 
above, by the low ground between the two. — 
3. Tyche (Tj^), named after the temple of 
Tyche or Fortune, was situated northwest of 
Achradina, in the direction of the port called 
Trogilus. At the time of the Athenian siege 
of Syracuse it was only an unfortified suburb, 
but it afterward became the most populous part 
of the city. In this quarter stood the Gymna- 
sium. — 4. Neapolis (Nea 7rdAjf), nearly south- 
west of Achradina, was also, at the time of the 
Athenian siege of Syracuse, merely a suburb, 
and called Temenites, from having within it 
the statue and consecrated ground of Apollo 
Temenites. Neapolis contained the chief the- 
atre of Syracuse, which was the largest in all 
Sicily, and many temples. — 5. Epipol^e (ai 'Ettl- 
no?ial), a space of ground rising above the three 
quarters of Achradina, Tyche, and Neapolis, 
which gradually diminished in breadth as it 
rose higher, until it ended in a small conical 
mound. This rising ground was surrounded 
with strong walls by the elder Dionysius, and 
was thus included in Syracuse, which now be- 
came one of the most strongly fortified cities of 
the ancient world. The highest point of Epi- 
polae was called Euryelus (Eiipvrjlog), on which 
stood the fort Labdcdum (A6.66a2.ov). After Epi- 
polae had been added to the city, the circumfer- 
ence of Syracuse was one hundred and eighty 
stadia, or upward of twenty-two English miles ; 
and the entire population of the city is supposed 
to have amounted to five hundred 'thousand 
souls at the time of its greatest prosperity. Syr- 
acuse had two harbors. The Great Harbor, 
still called Porto Maggiore, is a splendid bay 
about five miles in circumference, formed by the 
island Ortygia and the promontory Plemmy- 
rium. The Small Harbor, also called Laccius 
(A<k/aof), lying between Ortygia and Achradi- 
na, was capacious enough to receive a large 
fleet of ships of war. There were several stone 
quarries (lautumice) in Syracuse, which are fre- 
quently mentioned by ancient writers, and in 
which the unfortunate Athenian prisoners were 
confined. These quarries were partly in Achra- 
dina, on the descent from the higher ground to 
the lower level toward Ortygia, and partly in 
Neapolis, under the southern cliff of Epipola?. 
From them was taken the stone of which the 
city was built. On one side of these quarries 
is the remarkable excavation, called the Ear of 
Dionysius, in which it is said that this tyrant 
confined the persons whom he suspected, and 
that he was able from a little apartment above 
to overhear the conversation of his captives. 
This tale, however, is clearly an invention. 
The city was supplied with water from an aque- 
846 



duct, which was constructed by Gelon and nn 
proved by Hieron. It was brought through 
Epipola? and Neapolis to Achradina and Ortygia. 
The modern city of Syracuse is confined to the 
island. The remaining quarters of the ancient 
city are now uninhabited, and their position 
marked only by a few ruins. Of these the most 
important are the remains of the great theatre, 
and of an amphitheatre of the Roman period. 
The government of Syracuse was originally an 
aristocracy ; and the political power was in the 
hands of the landed proprietors, called Geomori 
or Gamori. In course of time the people, having 
increased in numbers and wealth, expelled the 
Geomori and established a democracy. But 
this form of government did not last long. Ge- 
lon espoused the cause of the aristocratical 
party, and proceeded to restore them by force 
of arms ; but on his approach the people opened 
the gates to him, and he was acknowledged 
without opposition tyrant or sovereign of Syr- 
acuse, B.C. 485. Under his rule and that of 
his brother Hieron, Syracuse was raised to an 
unexampled degree of wealth and prosperity, 
Hieron died in 467, and was succeeded by his 
brother Thrasybulus ; but the rapacity and cru- 
elty of the latter soon provoked a revolt among 
his subjects, which led to his deposition and the 
establishment of a democratical form of govern- 
ment. The next most important event in the 
history of Syracuse was the siege of the city by 
the Athenians, which ended in the total de- 
struction of the great Athenian armament in 
413. The democracy continued to exist in Syr- 
acuse till 406, when the elder Dionysius made 
himself tyrant of the city. After a long and 
prosperous reign, he was succeeded in 367 
by his son, the younger Dionysius, who was 
finally expelled by Timoleon in 343. A repub- 
lican form of government was again establish- 
ed; but it did not last long; and in 317 Syra- 
cuse fell under the sway of Agathocles. This 
tyrant died in 289 ; and the city being distract- 
ed by factions, the Syracusans voluntarily con- 
ferred the supreme power upon Hieron II., with 
the title of king, in 270. Hieron cultivated 
friendly relations with the Romans ; but on his 
death in 216, at the advanced age of ninety-two, 
his grandson Hieronymus, who succeeded him, 
espoused the side of the Carthaginians. A Ro- 
man army under Marcellus was sent against 
Syracuse ; and after a siege of two years, during 
which Archimedes assisted his fellow-citizens 
by the construction of various engines of war 
(vid. Archimedes), the city was taken by Mar- 
cellus in 212. From this time Syracuse became 
a town of the Roman province of Sicily. 

[Syracusanus Portus CZvpaKoaiog liixijv, now 
Porto Vecchio), a harbor on the eastern coast of 
Corsica, where the Syracusans had probably es- 
tablished a factory for their trade : according to 
Diodorus, it was the best harbor in the island.] 

Syrgis (Siipyif), according to Herodotus, a 
great river of European Sarmatia, rising in the 
country of the Thyssagetas, and flowing through 
the land of the Maeotas into the Palus Mseotis. 
It has not been identified with certainty. 

Syria Dea (Zvpiri tfeoc), "the Syrian god- 
dess," a name by which the Syrian Astarte or 
Aphrodite is sometimes designated. This As- 
tarte was a Syrian divinity, resembling in many 



I 



SYRIA. 

points the Greek Aphrodite. It is not improb- 1 
I able that the latter was originally the Syrian 
Astarte ; for there can be no doubt that the 
worship of Aphrodite came from the East to 
Cyprus, and thence was carried into the south I 
of Greece. 

Syria (7 2vp<a, in Aramaean Surja : Zvpoc, 
Syrus, and sometimes Ivpioc, Syrius : now So- 
rislan, Arab. Esh-Sliam, i. e., the land on the left, 
Syria), a country of Western Asia, lying along 
the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, be- 
tween Asia Minor and Egypt. In a wider sense 
the word was used for the whole tract of coun- 
try bounded by the Tigris on the east, the 
i mountains of Armenia and Cilicia on the north, 
the Mediterranean on the west, and the Arabian 
Desert on the south ; the whole of which was 
peopled by the Aramaean branch of the great 
I Semitic (or Syro- Arabian) race, and is included 
in the Old Testament under the name of Aram. 
This region may be well described physically 
s# the great triangular depression of Western 
Asia encircled on the north and northeast by 
the Taurus and its prolongation to the south- 
east, or, in other words, by the highlands of 
Cilicia, Cappadocia, Armenia, and Aria ; and 
subsiding on the south and west into the Med- 
iterranean and the Great Desert of Arabia, 
j . Even a wider extent than this is often given to 
Syria, so as to include the eastern part of Asia 
Minor, as far as the River Halys and the Euxine. 
The people were of the same races, and those 
of the north of the Taurus in Cappadocia and 
Pontus are called White Syrians {via 1 ,. Leuco- 
syri), in contradistinction to the people of darker 
complexion in Syria Proper, who are sometimes 
even called Black Syrians (Zvpoc /ueXaves). 
Even when the name of Syria is used in its or- 
dinary narrower sense, it is often confounded 
with Assyria, which only differs from Syria by 
having the definite article prefixed. Again, in 
the narrower sense of the name, Syria still in- 
cludes two districts which are often considered 
as not belonging to it, namely, Phcenice and 
Palestine, and a third which is likewise often 
considered separate, namely, Ccelesyria ; but 
this last is generally reckoned a part of Syria. 
In this narrower sense, then, Syria was bound- 
ed on the west (beginning from the south) by 
Mount Hermon, at the southern end of Antilib- 
anus, which separated it from Palestine, by the 
range of Libanus, dividing it from Phcenice, 
by the Mediterranean, and by Mount Amanus, 
which divided it from Cilicia ; on the north 
(where it bordered on Cappadocia) by the main 
chain of Mount Taurus, almost exactly along 
the parallel of thirty-eight degrees of north lat- 
itude, and striking the Euphrates just below 
Juliopolis, and considerably above Samosata : 
hence the Euphrates forms the eastern bound- 
ary, dividing Syria first from a very small por- 
tion ol Armenia, and then from Mesopotamia, 
to about or beyond the thirty-sixth parallel of 
north latitude, whence the southeastern and 
southern boundaries, toward Babylonia and Ara- 
bia, in the Great Desert, are exceedingly indefi- 
nite. (Compare Arabia.) The western part of 
the southern boundary ran just below Damas- 
cus, being formed by the highlands of Trachon- 
itis. The western part of the country was in- 
tersected by a series of mountains, running 



SVRIA. 

south from the Taurus, under the names of 
Amanus, Pieria, Casius, Bargylus, and Liba- 
nus, and Antii.ibanus ; and the northern part, 
between the Amanus and the Euphrates, was 
also mountainous. The chief river of Syria 
was the Orontes, and the smaller rivers Cha- 
lus and Chrysorrhoas were also of importance 
The valleys among the mountains were fertile, 
especially in the northern part : even the east, 
which is now merged in the great desert of 
Arabia, appears to have had more numerous 
and more extensive spaces capable of cultiva- 
tion, and supported great cities, the ruins of 
which now stand in the midst of sandy wastes. 
In the earliest historical period, Syria contained 
a number of independent kingdoms, of which 
Damascus was the most powerful. These were 
subdued by David, but became again independ- 
ent at the end of Solomon's reign ; from which 
time we find the kings of Damascus sometimes 
at war with the kings of Israel, and sometimes 
in alliance with them against the kings of Judah, 
till the reign of Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, 
who, having been invited by Ahaz, king of Ju- 
dah, to assist him against the united forces of 
Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, 
took Damascus, and probably conquered all Syr- 
ia, about B.C. 740. Having been a part suc- 
cessively of the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, 
and Macedonian empires, it fell, after the battle 
of Ipsus (B.C. 301), to the share of Seleucus 
Nicator, and formed a part of the great king- 
dom of the Seleucidee, whose history is given in 
the articles Seleucus, Antiochus, Demetrius, 
&c. In this partition, however, Ccelesyria and 
Palestine went, not to Syria, but to Egypt, and 
the possession of those provinces became the 
great source of contention between the Ptole- 
mies and the Seleucids. By the irruptions of 
the Parthians on the east, and the unsuccessful 
war of Antiochus the Great with the Romans 
on the west, the Greek-Syrian kingdom was re- 
duced to the limits of Syria itself, and became 
weaker and weaker, until it was overthrown by 
Tigranes, king of Armenia, B.C. 79. Soon 
afterward, when the Romans had conquered 
Tigranes as well as Mithradates, Syria was 
quietly added by Pompey to the empire of the 
republic, and was constituted a province B.C. 
54 ; but its northern district, Commagene, was 
not included in this arrangement. As the east- 
ern province of the Roman empire, and with its 
great desert frontier, Syria was constantly ex- 
posed to the irruptions of the Parthians, and, 
after them, of the Persians ; but it long re- 
mained one of the most flourishing of the prov- 
inces. The attempt of Zenobia to make it the 
seat of empire is noticed under Palmyra and 
Zenobia. While the Roman emperors defend- 
ed this precious possession against the attacks 
of the Persian kings with various success, a 
new danger arose, as early as the fourth centu- 
ry, from the Arabians of the Desert, who began 
to be known under the name of Saracens ; and, 
when the rise of Mohammed had given to the 
Arabs that great religious impulse which revo- 
lutionized the Eastern world, Syria was the first 
great conquest that they made from the Eastern 
empire, A D. 632-638. In the time immediate- 
ly succeeding the Macedonian conquest, Syria 
was regarded as cons;sting of two parts ; the 

847 



SYRI/E PORT.E. 

north, including the whole country down to the 
beginning of the Lebanon range, and the south, 
consisting of Ccelesyria in its more extended 
sense. The former, which was called Syria 
Proper, or Upper Syria (j? uvu "Zvpia, Syria Su- 
perior), was divided into four districts or tetrar- 
chies, which were named after their respective 
capitals, Seleucis, Antiochene, Laodicene, and 
Apamene. Under the Romans it was divided 
into ten districts, named (mostly after their cap- 
ital cities) Commagene, Cyrrhestlce, Pieria, Se- 
ieucis, Chalcidice, Chalybonltis, Palmyrene, Ap- 
amene, Cassiotis, and Laodicene ; but the last 
is sometimes included under Cassiotis. (Vid. 
the several articles.) Constantine the Great 
separated from Syria the two northern districts, 
namely, Commagene and Cyrrhestice, and erect- 
ed them into a distinct province, called Euphra- 
tensis or Euphratesia ; and the rest of Syria 
was afterward divided by Theodosius II. into 
the two provinces of Syria Prima, including the 
sea-coast and the country north of Antioch, and 
having that city for its capital ; and Syria Se- 
cunda, the district along the Orontes, with Ap- 
amea for its capital : the eastern districts no 
longer formed a part of Syria, but had fallen un- 
der the power of the Persians. 

SyrLe Port^e {at 2vplai ■Kvlat : now Pass of 
Beilan), a most important pass between Cilicia 
and Syria, lying between the shore of the Gulf 
of Issus on the west, and Mount Amanus on 
the east. Xenophon, who called the pass (or, 
rather, its fortifications) the Gates of Cilicia and 
of Syria, describes it as three stadia in length 
and very narrow, with walls built from the 
mountains to the sea at both ends (the Cilician 
and the Syrian), and gates in the walls (Anab., 
i., 4). These walls and gates are not mention- 
ed by the historians of Alexander. 

Syrianus (Zvpiavoc), a Greek philosopher of 
the Neo-Platonic school, was a native of Alex- 
andrea, and studied at Athens under Plutarchus, 
whom he succeeded as head of the Neo-Platonic 
school in the early part of the fifth century. 
The most distinguished of his disciples was 
Proclus, who regarded him with the greatest 
veneration, and gave directions that at his death 
he should be buried in the same tomb with Syr- 
ianus. Syrianus wrote several works, some of 
which are extant. Of these the most valuable 
are the commentaries on the Metaphysics of 
Aristotle. 

Syrinx, an Arcadian nymph, who, being pur- 
sued by Pan, fled into the River Ladon, and at 
her own request was metamorphosed into a 
reed, of which Pan then made his flute. 

Syrinx (ZvpiyZ), a great and strongly-fortified 
city of Hyrcania, and the capital of the province 
under the Greek kings of Syria. Perhaps it is 
only the Greek name of the city called, in the 
native language, Zadrakarta. 

[Syro, an Epicurean philosopher at Rome, 
on friendly terms with Cicero ; Baehr thinks he 
is the same as the Syro who instructed Virgil 
in the Epicurean philosophy.] 

Syros or Syrus (Zvpoc, called Hvphj by Ho- 
mer, and 2vpa by a few writers : Zvpwc : now 
Syra), an island in the ^Egean Sea, and one of I 
the Cyclades, lying between Rhenea and Cyth- 
nus. It is described by the ancients as twenty 
Roman miles in circumference, and as rich in | 
848 



SYRTIS. 

1 1 

I pastures, wine, and corn. It contained two 
towns, one on the eastern side, and one on the 
western side of the island ; of the latter there 
are still remains near the modern harbor of Ma- 
ria dclla Gr^zia. The philosopher Pherecydes 1 
was a native of Syros. 

Syrtis, gen. -idos (Zvprtc, gen. -tdoc and -euc, ' 
Ion. -wc), the Greek name for each of the two 
great gulfs in the eastern, half of the northern j 
coast of Africa, is derived by ancient writers ' 
from ovpu, to drau; with reference to the quick- j 
sands by which, in the Greater Syrtis at least, 
ships were liable to be swallowed up ; but S 
modern scholars generally prefer the derivation 
from the Arabic serl=a sandy desert, which is 
at the present day applied to the country along 
this coast, the Regio Syrtica of the ancients. 
Both were proverbially dangerous, the Greater 
Syrtis from its sand-banks and quicksands, and 
its unbroken exposure to the northern winds, 
the Lesser from its shelving rocky shores, its 
exposure to the northeastern winds, and the 
consequent variableness of the tides in it. 1. | 
Syrtis Major (t) fieyuTiv ~Zvpric : now Gulf of 
Sidra), the eastern of the two. is a wide and 
deep gulf on the shores of Tripolita and Cyre- 
naica, exactly opposite to the Ionic Sea, or 
mouth of the Adriatic, between Sicily and Pelo- 
ponnesus. Its greatest depth, from north to- 
south, is about one hundred and ten geograph- 
ical miles ; its width is about two hundred and 
thirty geographical miles, between Cephalae t 
Promontorium (now Ras Kharra) on the west, 
and Boreum Promontorium (now Ras Teyojias) 
on the east. (Strabo gives its width as fifteen 
hundred stadia, its depth fifteen hundred to 
eighteen hundred, and its circuit four thousand 
to five thousand). The Great Desert comes 
down close to its shores, forming a sandy coast. 
Vid. Syrtica Regio. The terror of being driven 
on shore in it is referred to in the narrative of 
Saint Paul's voyage to Italy (Acts, xxvii., 17, 
" fearing lest they should fall into the Syrtis") ; 
and the dangers of a march through the loose 
sand on its shores, sometimes of a burning heat, 
and sometimes saturated with sea-water, were 
scarcely less formidable. — Syrtis Minor (tj 
[iiKpii tvpric : now Gulf of Khabs), lies in the 
southwestern angle of the great bend formed by 
the northern coast of Africa as it drops down 
to the south from the neighborhood of Car- 
thage, and then bears again to the east ; in 
other words, in the angle between the eastern 
coast of Zeugitana and Byzacena (now Tunis) ,- 
and the northern coast of Tripolitana (now 
Tripoli). Its mouth faces the east, between 
Caput Vada or Brachodes Promontorium (now 
Ras Kapoudiah) on the north, and the island j 
called Meninx or Lotophagitis (now Jcrbah) on p 
the south. In its mouth, near the northern ex- 
tremity, lie the islands of Cercina and Cercini- 
tis, which were often regarded as its northern 
extremity. Its dimensions are differently given, 
partly, perhaps,on account of the different points 
from which they were reckoned. The Greek 1 
geographers give the width as six hundred 
stadia (sixty geographical miles), and the cir- 
cuit sixteen hundred stadia : the Romans give 
one hundred Roman miles for the width, and 
three hundred for the circuit. The true width 
(between Ras Kapoudiah and the eastern point 



SYRTICA REGIO. 



TACITUS. 



j of Jerbah) is about eighty geographical miles, 
and the greatest depth, measured westward 
from the line joining those points, is about 
sixty-five geographical miles. In Herodotus, 
the word Syrtis occurs in a few passages, with- 
out any distinction between the Greater and the 
Less. It seems most probable that he means 
to denote by this term the Greater Syrtis, and 
that he included the Lesser in the Lake Tri- 
tonis. 

Svrtica Regio {fj IvpTiicri : now the western 
part of Tripoli), the special name of that part of 

| the northern coast of Africa which lay between 
the two Syrtes, from the River Triton, at the 
bottom of the Syrtis Minor, on the west, to the 
Philaenorum Arse, at the bottom of the Syrtis 
Major, on the east. It was, for the most part, a 
very narrow strip of sand, interspersed with 
salt marshes, between the sea and a range of 
mountains forming the edge of the Great Desert 
(now Sahara), with only here and there a few 
spots capable of cultivation, especially about the 
River Cinyps. It was peopled by Libyan tribes, 

j the chief of whom were the Lotophagi, Macae, 
Psylli, and Nasamones ; and several Egyptian 
and Phoenician colonies were settled on the 
coast at an early period. The Greeks of Cy- 

I rene disputed with the Carthaginians the pos- 
session of this district until it was secured to 
Carthage by the self-devotion of the Phil^eni. 
Under the Romans it formed a part of the prov- 
ince of Africa. It was often called Tripolita- 
na, from its three chief cities, Abrotonum, (Ea, 
and Leptis Magna ; and this became its usual 
name under the later empire, and has been 
handed down to our own time in the modern 
name of the Regency of Tripoli. 

Syrus, a slave brought to Rome some years 
before the downfall of the republic, and desig- 
nated, according to the usual practice, from the 
country of his birth. He attracted attention, 
while yet a youth, by his accomplishments and 
wit, was manumitted by his master, who prob- 
ably belonged to the Clodia gens, assumed the 
name of Publius, from his patron, and soon be- 
came highly celebrated as a mimographer. He 
may be said to have flourished B.C. 45. His 
mimes were committed to writing, and exten- 
sively circulated at an early period ; and a col- 
lection of pithy moral sayings, extracted from 
his works, appears to have been used as a 
school-book in the boyhood of St. Jerome. A 
compilation of this description, extending to up- 
ward of one thousand lines in iambic and tro- 
chaic measures, every apophthegm being com- 
prised in a single line, and the whole arranged 
alphabetically, according to the initial letter of 
the first word in each, is now extant under the 
title Publii Syri Scnlcnticc. These proverbs have 
been drawn from various sources, and are evi- 
dently the work of many different hands ; but 
a considerable number may be ascribed to Sy- 
rus and his contemporaries. The best editions 
of the Sententiee are by Havercamp, Lugd. Bat., 
1708,1727; by Orelli, Lips., 1822 ; and by Bothe, 
in his Poetarum Latin. Scenicorum Fragmcnta, 
Lips., 1834. 

Sythas (Zvdas), a river on the frontiers of 
Achaia and Sicyonia. 
54 



T. 

Tabm (Tdfiat : .Ta6?/v6c). 1. Now Tarn), a 
small inland town of Sicily. — 2. (Now Dawas), 
a city of Caria, on the borders if Phrygia. — 3. 
! A city of Persis, in the district of Paraetacene, 
on the road from Ecbatana to Persepolis. 

Tabern^e. Vid. Tres Tabern^e. 

[Tabraca. Vid. Thabraca.] 

Taburnus (now Tabumo), a mountain belong- 
ing half to Campania and half to Samnium. Its 
southern side was very fertile, and was cele- 
brated for its olive grounds. It shut in the 
Caudine Pass on its southern side. 

Tacape (TaKaTTTj : now large ruins at Khabs), 
a city of Northern Africa, in the R.egio Syrtica, 
at the innermost angle of the Syrtis Minor, to 
which the modern town gives its name. Under 
the Romans, it at first belonged to Byzacena, 
but it was afterward raised to a colony and 
made the western town of Tripolitana. It had 
an indifferent harbor. A little to the west was 
the bathing place, called, from its warm min- 
eral springs, Aquae Tacapitanae (now ElHammat- 
el-Khabs). 

Tacfarinas, a Numidian in the reign of Ti- 
berius, had originally served among the auxil- 
iary troops in the Roman army, but he desert- 
ed ; and, having collected a body of freeboot- 
ers, he became at length the acknowledged 
leader of the Musulamii, a powerful people in 
the interior of Numidia, bordering on Maureta- 
nia. For some years he defied the Roman arms, 
but was at length defeated and slain in battle 
by Dolabella, A.D. 24. 

Tachompso (Taxoftipa, also Tacompsos, Plin., 
and MeraKOfitbu, Ptol.), afterward Contrapsel- 
cis, a city in the Dodecaschcenus, that is, the 
part of ^Ethiopia immediately above Egypt, 
built on an island (now Derar V) near the east- 
ern bank of the river, a little above Pselcis, 
which stood on the opposite bank. Vid. Pselcis. 

Tachos (Tu^tif), king of Egypt, succeeded 
Acoris, and maintained the independence of his 
country for a short time during the latter end 
of the reign of Artaxerxes II. He invited Cha- 
brias, the Athenian, to take the command of his 
fleet, and Agesilaus to undertake the supreme 
command of all his forces. Both Chabrias and 
Agesilaus came to Egypt ; but the latter was 
much aggrieved in having only the command 
of the mercenaries intrusted to him. Accord- 
ingly, when Nectanabis laid claim to the Egyp- 
tian crown, Agesilaus deserted Tachos, and es- 
poused the cause of Nectanabis, who thus be- 
came King of Egypt B.C. 361. 

Tacitus. 1. C. Cornelius, the historian. 
The time and place of his birth are unknown. 
He was a little older than the younger Pliny, 
who was bern A.D. 61. His father was prob- 
ably Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman eques, who is 
mentioned as a procurator in Gallia Belgica, 
and who died in 79. Tacitus was first promo- 
led by the Emperor Vespasian, and he received 
other favors from his sons Titus and Domitian. 
In 78 he married the daughter of C. Julius Agric- 
ola, to whom he had been betrothed in the pre- 
ceding year, while Agricola was consul. In the 
reign of Domitian, and in A.D 88, Tacitus was 
praetor, and he assisted as one of the quindecem- 

849 



TACITUS. 



TACITUS. 



viri at the solemnity of the Ludi Seculares 
which were celebrated in that year. Agricola 
died at Rome in 93, but neither Tacitus nor the 
daughter of Agricola was then with him. It is 
not known where Tacitus was during the last 
illness of Agricola. In the reign of Nerva, 97, 
Tacitus was appointed consul sufFectus, in the 
place of T. Virginius Rums, who had died in 
that year, and whose funeral oration he deliv- 
ered. We know that Tacitus had attained ora- 
torical distinction when the younger Pliny was 
commencing his career. He and Tacitus were 
appointed in the reign of Nerva (99) to conduct 
the prosecution of Marius, proconsul of Africa. 
Tacitus and Pliny were most intimate friends. 
In the. collection of the letters of Pliny there 
are eleven letters addressed to Tacitus. The 
time of the death of Tacitus is unknown, but 
he appears to have survived Trajan, who died 
117. Nothing is recorded of any children of 
his, though the Emperor Tacitus claimed a de- 
scent from the historian, and ordered his works 
to be placed in all (public) libraries. The fol- 
lowing are the extant works of Tacitus: 1. Vita 
Agricola., the life of Agricola, which was writ- 
ten after the death of Domitian, 96, as we may 
probably conclude from the introduction, which 
was certainly written after Trajan's accession. 
This life is justly admired as a specimen of bi- 
ography. It is a monument to the memory of 
a good man, and an able commander and ad- 
ministrator, by an affectionate son-in-law, who 
has portrayed, in his peculiar manner and with 
many masterly touches, the virtues of one of 
the most illustrious of the Romans. 2. Histo- 
ries, which were written after the death of Ner- 
va, 98, and before the Annales. They compre- 
hended the period from the second consulship 
of Galba, 68, to the death of Domitian, 96, and 
the author designed to add the reigns of Nerva 
and Trajan. TRe first four books alone are ex- 
tant in a complete form, and they comprehend 
only the events of about one year. The fifth 
book is imperfect, and goes no further than the 
commencement of the siege of Jerusalem by Ti- 
tus, and the war of Civilis in Germany. It is 
not known how many books of the Histories 
there were, but it must have been a large work 
if it was all written on the same scale as the 
first five books. 3. Annales, which commence 
with the death of Augustus, 14, and comprise 
the period to the death of Nero, 68, a space of 
fifty-four years. The greater part of the fifth 
book is lost, and also the seventh, eighth, ninth, 
tenth, the beginning of the eleventh, and the 
end of the sixteenth, which is the last book. 
These lost parts comprised the whole of Calig- 
ula's reign, the first five years of Claudius, and 
the last two of Nero. 4. De Moribus et Populis 
Germanics, a treatise describing the Germanic 
nations. It is of no value as a geographical 
description ; the first few chapters contain as 
much of the geography of Germany as Tacitus 
knew. The main matter is the description of 
the political institutions, the religion, and the 
habits of the various tribes included under the 
denomination of Germani. The value of the 
information contained in this treatise has often 
been discussed, and its credibility attacked ; but 
we may estimate its true character by observ- 
ing the precision of the writer as to those Ger- 
850 



mans who were best known to the Romans 
from being near the Rhine. That the hearsay 
accounts of more remote tribes must partake 
of the defects of all such evidence, is obvious ; 
and we can not easily tell whether Tacitus em- 
bellished that which he heard obscurely told. 
But to consider the Germany as a fiction is one 
of those absurdities which need only be record- 
ed, not refuted. 5. Dialogus de Oratoribus. If 
this dialogue is the work of Tacitus, and it prob 
ably is, it must be his earliest work, for it was 
written in the sixth year of Vespasian (c. 17). 
The style is more easy than that of the Annals, 
more diffuse, less condensed ; but there is no 
obvious difference between the style of this 
Dialogue and the Histories, nothing so striking 
as to make us contend for a different author- 
ship. Besides this, it is nothing unusual for 
works of the same author, which are written at 
different times, to vary greatly in style, espe- 
cially if they treat of different matters. The 
old MSS. attribute this Dialogue to Tacitus. 
The Annals of Tacitus, the work of a mature 
age, contain the chief events of the period 
which they embrace, arranged under their sev- 
eral years. There seems no peculiar propriety 
in giving the name of Annales to this work, 
simply because the events are arranged in the 
order of time. The work of Livy may just as 
well be called Annals. In the Annals of Tac- 
itus, the Princeps or Emperor is the centre about 
which events are grouped. Yet the most im- 
portant public events, both in Italy and the prov- 
inces, are not omitted, though every thing is 
treated as subordinate to the exhibition of im- 
perial power. The Histories, which were writ- 
ten before the Annals, are in a more diffuse 
style, and the treatment of the extant part is , 
different from that of thei Annals. Tacitus E 
wrote the Histories as a contemporary ; the I 
Annals as not a contemporary. They are two 
distinct works, not parts of one, which is clear- 
ly shown by the very different proportions of 
the two works : the first four books of the His- 
tories comprise about a year, and the first four 
books of the Annals comprise fourteen years. 
The moral dignity of Tacitus is impressed 
upon his works ; the consciousness of a love 
of truth, of the integrity of his purpose. His 
great power is in the knowledge of the human i 
mind, his insight into the motives of human j 
conduct ; and he found materials for this study 
in the history of the emperors, and particular- 
ly Tiberius, the arch-hypocrite, and perhaps halt i 
madman. His Annals are filled with dramatic j 
scenes and striking catastrophes. He labor- \ 
ed to produce effect by the exhibition of great t 
personages on the stage ; but as to the mass 
of the people we learn little from Tacitus. The I 
style of Tacitus is peculiar, though it bears I 
some resemblance to Sallust. In the Annals it j, 
is concise, vigorous, and pregnant with mean- 
ing; labored, but elaborated with art, and strip- , 
ped of every superfluity. A single word some- 
times gives effect to a sentence, and if the 1 
meaning of the word is missed, the sense of 
the writer is not reached. Such a work is prob- 
ably the result of many transcriptions by the 1 
author. In the Annals Tacitus is generally 
brief and rapid in his sketches ; but he is some- jy 
times minute, and almost tedious, when he ■ 



T^ENARUM. 



TAMARA. 



| comes to work out a dramatic scene. Nor does 
he altogether neglect his rhetorical art when he 
has an opportunity for displaying it. The con- 
densed style of Tacitus sometimes makes him 
obscure, but it is a kind of obscurity that is dis- 
pelled by careful reading. Yet a man must read 
carefully and often in order to understand him ; 
and we can not suppose that Tacitus was ever 
a popular writer. His real admirers will per- 
haps always be few; his readers fewer still. 
The best editions of the complete works of 
Tacitus are by Oberlin, Lips., 1801, 2 vols. 8vo; 
by Bekker, Lips., 1831, 2 vols. 8vo ; by Orelli, 
i Zurich, 1846 and 1848, 2 vols. 8vo ; [and by 
Ritter, Cambridge, 1848, 4 vols. 8vo].— 2. M. 
Claudius, Roman emperor from the 25th of 
September, A.D. 275, until April, A.D. 276. He 
was elected emperor by the senate after the 
death of Aurelian, the army having requested 
the senate to nominate a successor to the im- 
perial throne. Tacitus was at the time seventy 
years of age, and was with difficulty persuaded 
to accept the purple. The high character which 
he had borne before his elevation to the throne, 
he amply sustained during his brief reign. He 
endeavored to repress the luxury and licentious- 
ness of the age by various sumptuary laws, and 
j he himself set an example to all around by the 
abstemiousness, simplicity, and frugality of his 
own habits. The only military achievement of 
this reign was the defeat and expulsion from 
Asia Minor of a party of Goths, who had car- 
ried their devastation across the peninsula to 
the confines of Cilicia. He died either at Tar- 
sus or at Tyana, about the 9th of April, 276. 

T^enarum (Taivapov : now Cape Matapan), a 
promontory in Laconia, forming the southerly 
point of the Peloponnesus, on which stood a 
celebrated temple of Neptune (Poseidon), pos- 
sessing an inviolable asylum. A little to the 
north of the temple and the harbor of Achilleus 
was a town also called Tjenarum or T^narus, 
and at a later time Cjenepolis. It was situa- 
ted forty stadia from the extreme point of the 
promontory, and was said to have been built by 
Ta?narus, a son of Jupiter (Zeus), or Icarius, or 
Elatus. On this promontory was a cave, through 
which Hercules is said to have dragged Cerbe- 
rus to the upper world. Here also was a stat- 
ue of Arion seated on a dolphin, since he is 
said to have landed at this spot after his mirac- 
ulous preservation by a dolphin. In the time 
of the Romans there were celebrated marble 
quarries on the promontory. 

Tag^e (Tayat : now Dameghan ?), a city men- 
tioned by Polybi.us as in Parthia, on the border 
toward Hyrcania, apparently the same place 
which Strabo calls Tape (Tutd?), and reckons to 
Hyrcania. 

Tagaste (ruins at Tagilt), an inland town 
of Numidia, on a tributary of the Bagradas, re- 
markable as the birth-place of St. Augustine. 

Tages, a mysterious Etruscan being, who is 
described as a boy with the wisdom of an old 
man. Once when an Etruscan, of the name of 
Tarchon, was ploughing in the neighborhood 
of Tarquinii, there suddenly rose out of the 
ground Tages, the son of a Genius Jovialis, and 
grandson of Jupiter. When Tages addressed 
Tarchon, the latter shrieked with fear, where- 
upon other Etruscans hastened to him, and in 



a short time all the people of Etruria were as- 
sembled around him. Tages now instructed 
them in the art of the haruspices, and died im- 
mediately after. The Etruscans, who ha™ lis- 
tened attentively to his instructions, afterward 
wrote down all he had said, and thus arose the 
books of Tages, which, according to some, were 
twelve in number. 

[Tagrus (now Yuntoin the chain of Sierra de 
Allardos), a mountain of Lusitania, in the neigh- 
borhood of Olisippo.] 

Tagus (Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tejo, En- 
glish Tagus), one of the chief rivers in Spain, 
rising in the land of the Celtiberians, between 
the mountains Orospeda and Idubeda, and, aft^r 
flowing in a westerly direction, falling into the 
Atlantic. The whole course of the Tagus ex- 
ceeds five hundred and fifty English miles. At 
its mouth stood Olisippo (now Lisbon). The 
ancient writers relate that much gold sand and 
precious stones were found in the Tagus. 

Talabriga, a town in Lusitania, between 
^Eminium and Lagobriga. 

Talassius or Talasses. Vid. Thalassius. 

Talaura (tu Td?.avpa : now Turkhal ?), a for- 
tress in Pontus, used by Mithradates the Great 
as a residence, and supposed by some to be 
identical with Gaziura. 

Tai.aus (Tu?.aoc), son of Bias and Pero, and 
king of Argos. He was married to Lysimache 
(Eurynome or Lysianassa), and was father of 
Adrastus, Parthenopaeus, Pronax, Mecisteus, 
Aristomachus, and Eriphyle. He occurs among 
the Argonauts, and his tomb was shown at Ar- 
gos. The patronymic Talaionides (TaTia'iovidric) 
is given to his sons, Adrastus and Mecisteus. 

Talmis (ruins at El-Kalabsheh), a city of the 
Dodecasehcenus, that is, the district of ^Ethiopia 
immediately above Egypt, stood on the western 
bank of the Nile, south of Taphis, and north of 
Tutzis. Its ruins consist of an ancient rock- 
hewn temple, with splendid sculptures, and of 
a later temple of the Roman period, in the midst 
of which stands the modern village. There 
was a place on the opposite bank called Contra 
Talmis. 

Talna, Juventius. Vid. Thalna. 

Talos (TdAwf). 1. Son of Perdix, the sistei 
of Daedalus. For details, vid. Perdix. — 2. A 
man of brass, the work of Vulcan (Hephaestus) 
This wonderful being was given to Minos by Ju- 
piter (Zeus) or Vulcan (Hephaestus), and watch- 
ed the island of Crete by walking round the 
island thrice every day. Whenever he saw- 
strangers approaching, he made himself red hot 
in fire, and then embraced the strangers when 
they landed. 

[Tat.thybiadjE, a family in Sparta, deducing 
their origin from Talthybius, holding the office 
of herald as an hereditary honor.] 

Talthybius (TaX6v6ioc), the herald of Aga- 
memnon at Troy. He was worshipped as a 
hero at Sparta and Argos, where sacrifices also 
were offered to him. 

[Talus, a companion of iEneas, slain by Tur- 
nus in Italy.] 

Tamara. 1. Or Tamaris (now Tambrc), a 
small river in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the 
coast of Gallaecia, falling into the Atlantic be- 
tween the Minius and the Promontorium Ne- 
rium. — 2. (Now Tamerton, near Plymouth), a 

851 



TAMARICI. 

town of the Damnonii in the south of Britain, 
at the mouth of the Tamarus. 

IjlmarIch, a people in Gallsecia, on the River 
Tamara. 

TamXris. Vid. Tamara. 

Tamarus (now Tamar), a river in the south 
nf Britain. 

Tamassus or Tamasus (Tapacooc, Tduaaoe : 
'YapaaLrijc, Tapuaioc), probably the same as the 
Homeric Temese (Tepian), a town in the middle 
of Cyprus, northwest of Olympus, and twenty- 
nine miles southeast of Soloe, on the road from 
the latter place to Tremithus, was situated in 
a fertile country and in the neighborhood of ex- 
tensive copper mines. Near it was a celebrated 
plain {ager Tamaseus), sacred to Venus. (Ov., 
Met, x., 644.) 

Tambrax (Tdpdpalj), a great city of Hyrcania, 
on the northern side of Mount Coronus, men- 
tioned by Polybius. It is perhaps the same 
place which Strabo calls Ta?.a6poKTj. 

Tamesis or Tamesa (now Thames), a river in 
Britain, flowing into the sea on the eastern 
coast, on which stood Londinium. Caesar cross- 
ed the Thames at the distance of eighty Roman 
miles from the sea, probably at Cowey Stakes, 
near Oatlands and the confluence of the Wey. 
There have been found in modern times in the 
ford of the river at this spot large stakes, which 
are supposed to have been the same as were 
fixed in the water by Cassivellaunus when he 
attempted to prevent Caesar from crossing the 
river. 

Tamna (Tafiva), a very great city in the south- 
west of Arabia Felix, the capital of the Cataba- 
ni. It maintained a caravan traffic, in spices 
and other products of Arabia, with Gaza, from 
which its distance was reckoned one thousand 
four hundred and thirty-six Roman miles. 

Tamos (Tapuc), a native of Memphis in Egypt, 
was lieutenant governor of Ionia under Tissa- 
phernes. He afterward attached himself to the 
service of the younger Cyrus ; upon whose 
death he sailed to Egypt, where he hoped to 
find refuge with Psammetichus, on whom he 
had conferred an obligation. Psammetichus, 
however, put him to death, in order to possess 
himself of his money and ships. 

Tamphilus or Tampilus, B^ebius. 1. Cn., 
tribune of the plebs B.C. 204 ; praetor 199, 
when he was defeated by the Insubrians ; and 
consul 182, when he fought against the Liguri- 
ans with success. — 2. M., brother of the last, 
was praetor 192, and served in Greece both in 
this year and the following, in the war against 
Antiochus. In 181 he was consul, when he 
defeated the Ligurians. 

Tamyn.5: (Tapvvai), a town in Eubcea, on 
Mount Cotylaeum, in the territory of Eretria, 
with a temple of Apollo, said to have been built 
by Admetus. Here the Athenians under Pho- 
cion gained a celebrated victory over Callias of 
Chalcis, B.C. 354. 

Tamyraca (Tafivp&KTi), a town and promon- 
tory of European Sarmatia, at the innermost 
corner of the Sinus Carcinites, which was also 
called from this town Sinus Tamyraces {Tap- 
vpaKjjq KoTiTTog). 

Tamyras or Damuras {Tapvpac, Aapovpac : 
now Damur, or Nahr-el-Kadi), a little river of 
Phoenicia, rising on Mount Libar.us, and falling 
852 



TANIS. I 

into the Mediterranean about half way between 
Sidon and Berytus. 

Tanager (now Negro), a river of Lucania, L 
rising in the Apennines, which, after flowing in I 
a northeasterly direction, loses itself under the ; 
earth near Polla for a space of about two miles, 
and finally falls into the Silarus near Forum 
Popilii. I' 

Tanagra (Tavaypa : Tavaypaioc : now Gri- \ 
madha or Grimala), a celebrated town of Bceo- ", 
tia, situated on a steep ascent on the left banK ; 
of the Asopus, thirteen stadia from Oropus, and 
two hundred stadia from Platseae, in the district 1 
Tanagraea, which was also called Pcemandris. 
Tanagra was supposed to be the same town as ' 
the Homeric Graea. The most ancient inhab- ; 
itants are said to have been the Gephyrsei, who [ 
came with Cadmus from Phcenicia ; but it was ! 
afterward taken possession of by the ^Eolian 
Boeotians. It was a place of considerable com- 
mercial importance, and was celebrated, among 
other things, for its breed of fighting cocks, f 
At a later time it belonged to the Boeotian con- ' 
federacy. Being near the frontiers of Attica, ( 
it was frequently exposed to the attacks of the ! 
Athenians ; and near it the Athenians sustain- 
ed a celebrated defeat, B.C. 457. 

Tanai's {Tdvacc). 1. (Now Don, i. e., Water), ' 
a great river, which rises in the north of Sar- 
matia Europaea (about the centre of Russia), and j 
flows to the southeast till it comes near the 
Volga, when it turns to the southwest, and falls » 
into the northeastern angle of the Palus Maeotis [ 
(now Sea of Azov) by two principal mouths and f 
several smaller ones. It was usually consider- f 
ed the boundary between Europe and Asia. Its 
chief tributary was the Hyrgis or Syrgis (now 
probably Donets). — 2. (Ruins near Kassatchei), 
a city of Sarmatia Asiatica, on the northern side 1 
of the southern mouth of the Tana'is, at a little f 
distance from the sea. It was founded by a 
colony from Miletus, and became a very flour- f 
ishing emporium. It reduced to subjection sev- p 
eral of the neighboring tribes, but in its turn it y 
became subject to the kings of Bosporus. It 
was destroyed by Polemon on account of an at 
tempted revolt, and, though afterward restored, 
it never regained its former prosperity. 

[Tanai's. 1. A Rutulian warrior under Tur- | 
mis, slain by ..-Eneas. — 2. A freedman of Maece- 
nas, or, as some say, of L. Munatius Plancus, 1 
mentioned by Horace {Sat., i , 1, 105).] 

Tanaquil. Vid. Tarquinius. 

[Tanarus, (now Tanaro), a river of Liguria, j 
which flows down from the Alpes Maritima;, and [ 
after receiving the Stura, Fevos, and Urbis, falls 
into the Padus (now Po).] 

Tanetbm (Tanetanus : now Taneto), a town j 
of the Boii in Gallia Cispadana, between Mutina 
and Parma. 

Tims {Tuvic : in the Old Testament, Zoan : 
TaviTyc: ruins at San), a very ancient city of 
Lower Egypt, in the eastern part of the Delta, on j 
the right bank of the arm of the Nile, which was y 
called after it the Tanitic, and on the southwest- \ 
em side of the great lake between this and the j 
Pelusiac branch of the Nile, which was also 
called, after the city, Tanis (now Lake of Men- I 
zaleh). It was one of the capitals of Lower 
Egypt under the early kings, and was said by j 
tradition to have been the residence of the court 



TANTALIDES. 



TAPURI. 



;| n the time of Moses. It was the chief city of 
the Tanites Nomos. « 

^Tantalides. Vid. Tantalus, No. 1, ail fin.] 
Tantalus (TdvraAwf). 1. Son of Jupiter 
(Zeus; and Pluto. His wife is called hy some 
Euryanassa, by others Tayg°te or Dione, and 
by others Clytia or Eupryto. He was the father 
of Pelops, Broteas, and Niobe. All traditions 
agree in stating that he was a wealthy king ; but • 
while some call him King of Lydia, others de- 
scribe him as King of Argos or Corinth. Tan- 
talus is particularly celebrated in ancient story 
for the terrible punishment inflicted upon him 
after his death in the lower world, the causes 
of which are differently stated by the ancient 
authors. According to the common account, 
Jupiter (Zeus) invited him to his table, and com- 
municated his divine counsels to him. Tanta- 
lus divulged the secrets thus intrusted to him ; 
and he was punished in the lower world by be- 
ing afflicted with a raging thirst, and at the 
same time placed in the midst of a lake, the 
waters of which always receded from him as 
soon as he attempted to drink them. Over his 
head, moreover, hung branches of fruit, which 
receded in like manner when he stretched out 
his hand to reach them. In addition to all this, 
there was suspended over his head a huge rock, 
ever threatening to crush him. Another tradi- 
tion relates that, wishing to test the gods, he 
cut his son Pelops in pieces, boiled them, and 
set them before the gods at a repast. A third 
account states that Tantalus stole nectar and 
ambrosia from the table of the gods and. gave 
them to his friends ; and a fourth, lastly, relates 
the following story. Rhea caused the infant 
Jupiter (Zeus) and his nurse to he guarded in 
Crete by a golden dog, whom Jupiter (Zeus) 
afterward appointed guardian of his temple in 
Crete. Pandareus stole this dog, and, carrying 
him to Mount Sipylus in Lydia, gave him to 
Tantalus to take care of. But when Pandareus 
demanded the dog back, Tantalus took an oath 
that he had never received it. Jupiter (Zeus) 
thereupon changed Pandareus into a stone, and 
threw Tantalus down from Mount Sipylus. 
Others, again, relate that Mercury (Hermes) de- 
manded the dog of Tantalus, and that the per- 
jury was committed before Mercury (Hermes). 
Jupiter (Zeus) buried Tantalu€ under Mount 
Sipylus as a punishment ; and there his tomb 
was shown in later times. The punishment of 
Tantalus was proverbial in ancient times, and 
from it the English language has borrowed the 
verb "to tantalize," that is, to hold out hopes 
or prospects which can not be realized. The 
patronymic Ta7Ualid.es is frequently given to the 
descendants of Tantalus. Hence we find not 
only his son Pelops, but also Atreus, Thyestes, 
Agamemnon, Menelaus, and Orestes called by 
this name. — 2. Son of Thyestes, who was killed 
by Atreus. Others call him a son of Broteas. 
He was married to Clytaamnestra before Aga- 
memnon, and is said by some to have been killed 
by Agamemnon. — 3. Son of Amphion and Niobe. 

Tanus or Tanaus (Tdvof or Tavaa<; : now Ka- 
ni), a river in the district of Thyreatis, on the 
eastern coast of Peloponnesus, rising in Mount 
Parnon, and falling into the Thyreatic Gulf 
after forming the boundary between Argolis 
and Cynuria 



Taoce (Taoicri : now Bunder- Reigkt), a city ob 
the coast of Persis, near the mouth of the River 
Gram's, used occasionally as a royal residence. 
1 The surrounding district was called TaoKnvrj. 

Taochi (Tuo^ot), a people of Pontus, on the 
borders of Armenia, frequently mentioned by 
Xenophon in the Anabasis. 

Tape. Vid. Tag^e. 

Taphis Insula, a number of small islands 
in the Ionian Sea, lying between the coasts of 
Leucadia and Acarnania. They were also call- 
ed the islands of the Telebose, and their inhab- 
itants were in like manner named Taphii (Td- 
ipioi) or Telebose (Yrjledoai). The largest of 
these islands is called Taphus (Td^of) by Ho- 
mer, but Taphius (Tatpwvr) or Taphiusa (Taijii- 
ovaa) by later writers. They are mentioned in 
Homer as the haunts of notorious pirates, and 
are celebrated in mythology on account of the 
war carried on between them and Electryon, 
king of Mycenae. 

Taphiassus (TaQtao-coc : now Macrivoro and 
Rigani), a mountain in /Etolia and Locris, prop- 
erly only a southwestern continuation of Mounts 
GEta and Corax. 

Taphis (ruins at Tapa), a city of the Dode- 
caschcenus, that is, the district of ^Ethiopia im- 
mediately above Egypt, stood on the western 
bank of the Nile, south of Tzitzis, and north of 
Talmis. It is also called Tadig and Hants. 
There was a town on the opposite bank called. 
Contra Taphis. 

TaphrjE or Taphros (Tu<ppai or Td^/jof : Td- 
fpws), a town on the isthmus of the Chersone- 
sus Tauiica, so called because a trench or ditch 
was cut across the isthmus at this point. 

Taphus. Vid. Taphis. 

Taposiris (Tanoaeipic, Tanoatpcc, Tafbctpic, 
i. e., the tomb of Osiris : ruins at Abousir), a city 
of Lower Egypt, on the northwestern frontier, 
in the Libya Nomos, near the base of the long 
tongue of land on which Alexandrea stood, cel- 
ebrated for its claim to be considered the burial- 
place of Osiris. Mention is also made of a Less- 
er Taposiris (ji (iiupa TanoaeipLc) near it. 

Taprobane {Ta-n-poBuvn : now Ceylon), a great 
island of the Indian Ocean, opposite to the south- 
ern extremity of India intra Gangem. The 
Greeks first became acquainted with it through 
the researches of Onesicritus in the time of 
Alexander, and through information obtained 
by residents in India ; and the Roman geogra- 
phers acquired additional knowledge respecting 
the island through an embassy which was sent 
from it to Rome in the reign of Claudius. Of 
the accounts given of it by the ancients, it is 
only necessary here to state that Ptolemy makes 
it very much too large, while, on the other hand, 
he gives much too small a southward extension 
to the peninsula of India. 

Tapuri (Taitovpoi or Tanovpoi), a powerful 
people, apparently of Scythian origin, who dwelt 
in Media, on the borders of Parthia, south of 
Mount Coronus. They also extended into Mar- 
giana, and probably further north on the east- 
ern side of the Caspian, where their original 
abodes seem to have been in the mountains 
called by their name. The men wore black 
clothes and long hair, and the women white 
clothes and hair cut close. They were much 
1 addicted to drunkenness. 

853 



TAPURI MONTES. 

Tapuri Montes (ra Tu-rrovpa oprj), a range of 
mountains on the east of the Caspian Sea, in- 
habited by the Tapuri. 

Taras. Vid. Takenthm. 

Taebelli, one of the most important people 
in Gallia Aquitanica, between the ocean (hence 
called Tarbellicum aquor and Tarbellus Occanvs) 
and the Pyrenees (hence called Tarbella Py- 
vene). Their country was sandy and unpro- 
ductive, but contained gold and mineral springs. 
Their chief town was Aqvje Tarbelt.icje: or 
Augusts, on the Aturus (now Dacqs on the 
Adour). 

Tarchon, son of Tyrrhenus, who is said to 
have built the town of Tarquinii. (Vid. Tar- 
quinii.) Virgil represents him as coming to the 
assistance of . •Eneas against Turnus. 

Tarentinus Sinus (Tapevrlvoc koIttoc : now 
Gulf of Tarentum), a great gulf in the south of 
Italy, between Bruttium, Lucania, and Calabria, 
beginning west near the Promontorium Lacini- 
um, and ending east near the Promontorium 
Iapygium, and named after the town of Taren- 
tum. According to Strabo, it is one thousand 
nine hundred and twenty stadia in circuit, and 
the entrance to it is seven hundred stadia wide. 

Tarentum, called Taras by the Greeks (Tu- 
pag, -avroQ : Tapevrlvoc, Tarentinus : now Ta- 
ranto), an important Greek city in Italy, situa- 
ted on the western coast of the peninsula of 
Calabria, and on a bay of the sea, about one 
hundred stadia in circuit, forming an excellent 
harbor, and being a portion of the great Gulf of 
Tarentum. The city stood in the midst of a 
beautiful and fertile country, south of Mount 
Aulon and west of the mouth of the Galesus. 
It was originally built by the Iapygians, who are 
said to have been joined by some Cretan colo- 
nists from the neighboring town of Una, and it 
derived its name from the mythical Taras, a son 
of Poseidon. The greatness of Tarentum, how- 
ever, dates from B.C. 708, when the original 
inhabitants were expelled, and the town was 
taken possession of by a strong body of Lace- 
daemonian Partheniae under the guidance of 
Phalanthus. Vid. Phalanthus. It soon be- 
came the most powerful and flourishing city in 
the whole of Magna Graecia, and exercised a 
kind of supremacy over the other Greek cities 
in Italy. It carried on an extensive commerce, 
possessed a considerable fleet of ships of war, 
and was able to bring into the field, with the 
assistance of its allies, an army of thirty thou- 
sand foot and three thousand horse. The city 
itself, in its most flourishing period, contained 
twenty-two thousand men capable of bearing 
arms The government of Tarentum was dif- 
ferent at various periods. In the time of Dar 
rius Hystaspis, Herodotus speaks of a king (z. c, 
a tyrant) of Tarentum ; but at a later period the 
government was a democracy. Archytas, who 
was born at Tarentum, and who lived about 
B.C. 400, drew up a code of laws for his native 
city. With the increase of wealth the citizens 
became luxurious and effeminate, and being 
hard pressed by the Lucanians and other bar- 
barians in the neighborhood, they were obliged 
to apply for aid to the mother country. Archi- 
damus, son of Agesilaus, was the first who came 
to their assistance in B.C. 338 j and he fell in 
battle fighting on their behalf. The next prince 
854 



whom they invited to succor them was Alex 
ander, king of Epirus. and uncle to Alexander the 
Great. At first he met with considerable suc- 
cess, but was eventually defeated and slain by 
the Bruttii, in 32G, near Pandosia, on the banks 
of the Acheron. Shortly afterward the Taren- 
tines had to encounter a still more formidable 
enemy. Having attacked some Roman ships, i 
and then grossly insulted the Roman ambassa- | 
dors who had been sent to demand reparation, 
war was declared against the city by the pow- 
erful republic. The Tarentines were saved for 
a time by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who came to 
their help in 280 ; but two years after the de- 
feat of this monarch and his withdrawal from 
Italy, the city was taken by the Romans (272). 
In the second Punic war Tarentum revolted 
from Rome to Hannibal (212) ; but it was re- 
taken by the Romans in 207, and was treated 
by them with great severity. From this time 
Tarentum declined in prosperity and wealth. 
It was subsequently made a Roman colony, and 
it still continued to be a place of considerable 
importance in the time of Augustus. Its in- 
habitants retained their love of luxury and ease ; 
and it is described by Horace as mollc Tarentum 
and imbcllc Tarentum. Even after the downfall 
of the Western Empire the Greek language was 
still spoken at Tarentum ; and it was long one 
of the chief strongholds of the Byzantine empire 
in the south of Italy. The town of Tarentum 1 
consisted of two parts, viz., of a peninsula or 
island at the entrance of the harbor, and of a 
town on the main land, which was connected , 
with the island by means of a bridge. On the 
northwest corner of the island, close to the en- | 
trance of the harbor, was the citadel ; the prin- 
cipal part of the town was situated southwest 
of the isthmus. The modern town is confined 
to the island or peninsula on which the citadel ]' 
stood. The neighborhood of Tarentum pro- 
duced the best wool in all Italy, and was also 
celebrated for its excellent wine, figs, pears, and ' } 
other fruits. Its purple dye was also much 
valued in antiquity. 

Tarichea, or -em, or jeje (Tapixeia, -ecu, alai : j 
ruins at El-Kerch), a town of Galilee, at the 
southern end of the Lake of Tiberias, strongly ; 
fortified, and with a turbulent population; who 
gave the Romans much trouble during the Jew- 
ish war. It obtained its name from the quanti- 
ties of the fish of the neighboring lakes which ■ 
were salted here. 

Tarne (Tupv-n), a city of Lydia, on Mount 
Tmolus, mentioned by Homer. Pliny mentions 
simply a fountain of the name. 

Tarpa, Sp. MiEcius, was engaged by Pom- 
peius to select the plays that were acted at his 
games exhibited in B.C. 55. Tarpa was like- 
wise employed by Augustus as a dramatic cen- 
sor. 

Tarpeia, daughter of Sp. Tarpeius, the gov- 
ernor of the Roman citadel on the Saturnian 
Hill, afterward called the Capitoline, was tempt- 
ed by the gold on the Sabine bracelets and col- 
lars to open a gate of the fortress to T. Tatius 
and his Sabines. As they entered, they threw 
upon her their shields, and thus crushed her to 
death. She was huried on the hill, and her 
memory was preserved by the name of the Tar- 
peian Rock, which was given to a part of the 



TARPHE. 



TARQUINIUS. 



Capitoline. A -egend still exists at Rome, 
which relates that the fair Tarpeia ever sits in 
the heart of the hill, covered with gold and jew- 
els, and bound by a spell. 

Tarphe (Tap07?), a town in Locris, on Mount 
CEta, mentioned by Homer, and subsequently 
called Pharygae. 

TarquinIa. Vid. Tarquinius. 

Tarquinii (Tarquiniensis : now Turchina, 
near Corncto), a city of Etruria, situated on a hill 
and on the River Marta, southeast of Cosa and 
on a road leading from the latter town to Rome. 
It was one of the twelve Etruscan cities, and 
was probably regarded as the metropolis of the 
Confederation. It is said to have been founded 
by Tarchon, the son or brother of Tyrrhenus, 
who was the leader of the Lydian colony from 
Asia to Italy. It was in the neighborhood of 
Tarquinii that the seer Tages appeared, from 
whom the Etruscans learned their civil and re- 
ligious polity. Vid. Tages. According to one 
account, Tarquinii was founded by Thessalians, 
that is, Pelasgians ; but there can be no doubt 
that it was an original Etruscan city, and that 
Tarchon is merely a personification of the race 
of the Tyrrhenians. It was at Tarquinii that 
Demaratus, the father of Tarquinius Priscus, 
settled ; and it was from this city that the Tar- 
quinian family came to Rome. After the ex- 
pulsion of Tarquinius Superbus from Rome, the 
Tarquinienses, in conjunction with the Veien- 
tes, espoused his cause, but they were defeated 
by the Romans. From this time the Tarquin- 
ienses were frequently engaged in war with the 
Romans ; but they were at length obliged to 
submit to Rome about B.C. 310. Tarquinii was 
subsequently made a Roman colony and a mu- 
nicipium ; but it gradually declined in import- 
ance ; and in the eighth or ninth century of the 
Christian era it was deserted by its inhabit- 
ants, who founded Corneto on the opposite hill. 
There are few remains of the ancient city it- 
self; but the cemetery of Tarquinii, consisting 
of a vast number of subterraneous caves in the 
hill on which Corneto stands, is still in a state 
of excellent preservation, and contains numer- 
ous Etruscan paintings : here some of the most 
interesting remains of Etruscan art have been 
discovered in modern times. 

Tarquinius, the name of a family in early 
Roman history, to which the fifth and seventh 
kings of Rome belonged. The legend of the 
Tarquins ran as follows. Demaratus. their an- 
cestor, belonged to the noble family of the Bac- 
chiadas at Corinth, and fled from his native city 
when the power of his order was overthrown 
by Cypselus. He settled at Tarquinii in Etru- 
ria, where he had mercantile connections. He 
married an Etruscan wife, by whom he had two 
sons, Lucumo and Aruns. The latter died in 
the lifetime of his father, leaving his wife preg- 
nant ; but as Demaratus was ignorant of this 
circumstance, he bequeathed all his property to 
Lucumo, and died himself shortly afterward. 
But, although Lucumo was thus one of the most 
wealthy persons at Tarquinii, and had married 
Tanaquil, who belonged to a family of the high- 
est rank, he was excluded, as a stranger, from 
all power and influence in the state. Discon- 
tented with this inferior position, and urged on 
by his wife, he resolved to leave Tarquinii and 



remove to Rome. He accordingly set out fot 
Rome, riding in a chariot with his wife, and ac- 
companied by a large train of followers. When 
they had reached the Janiculus, an eagle seized 
his cap, and, after carrying it away to a great 
height, placed it again upon his head. Tana- 
quil, who was skilled in the Etruscan science 
of -"igury, bade her husband hope for the high- 
est nonor from this omen. Her predictions 
were soon verified. The stranger was receiv- 
ed with welcome, and he and his followers were 
admitted to the rights of Roman citizens. He 
took the name of L. Tarquinius, to which Livy 
adds Priscus. His wealth, his courage, and 
his wisdom gained him the love both of Ancus 
Marcius and of the people. The former ap- 
pointed him guardian of his children ; and, when 
he died, the senate and the people unanimously 
elected Tarquinius to the vacant throne. The 
reign of Tarquinius was distinguished by great 
exploits in war and by great works in peace. 
He defeated the Latins and Sabines ; and the 
latter people ceded to him the town of Collatia, 
where he placed a garrison under the command 
of Egerius, the son of his deceased brother 
Aruns, who took the surname of Collatinus. 
Some traditions'relate that Tarquinius defeated 
the Etruscans likewise. Among the important 
works which Tarquinius executed in peace, the 
most celebrated are the vast sewers by which 
the lower parts of the city were drained, and 
which still remain, with not a stone displaced, 
to bear witness to his power and wealth. He 
is also said in some traditions to have laid out 
the Circus Maximus in the valley which had 
been redeemed from water by the sewers, and 
also to have instituted the Great or Roman 
Games, which were henceforth performed in 
the Circus. The Forum, with its porticoes and 
rows of shops, was also his work, and he like- 
wise began to surround the city with a stone 
wall, a work which was finished by his success- 
or, Servius Tullius. The building of the Cap- 
itoline temple is, moreover, attributed to the 
elder Tarquinius, though most traditions as- 
cribe this work to his son, and only the vow to 
the father. Tarquinius also made some changes 
in the constitution of the state. He added 
one hundred new members to the senate, who 
were called patres minorum gentium, to distin- 
guish them from the old senators, who were 
now called patres majorum gentium. He wished 
to add to the three centuries of equites estab- 
lished by Romulus three new centuries, and to 
call them after himself and two of his friends. 
His plan was opposed by the augur Attus Na- 
vius, who gave a convincing proof that the gods 
were opposed to his purpose. Vid. Navius. Ac- 
cordingly, he gave up his design of establishing 
new centuries, but to each of the former centu- 
ries he associated anotherunder the same name, 
so that henceforth there were the first and sec- 
ond Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. He increased 
the number of Vestal Virgins from four to six. 
Tarquinius was murdered after a reign of thir- 
ty-eight years at the instigation of the sons of 
Ancus Marcius. But the latter did not secure 
the reward of their crime, for Servius Tullius, 
with the assistance of Tanaquil, succeeded to 
the vacant throne. Tarquinius left two sons 
and two daughters. His two sons, L. Tarquin 

855 



TARQUINIUS. 



TARQUINIUS. 



ius and Aruns, were subsequently married to 
the two daughters of Servius Tullius. One of 
his daughters was married to Servius Tuilius, 
and the other to M. Brutus, by whom she be- 
came the mother of the celebrated L. Brutus, 
•the first consul at Rome. Servius Tullius, 
whose life is given under Tullius, was mur- 
dered, after a reign of forty-four years, by his 
son-in-law L. Tarquinius, who ascended the va- 
cant throne. — 2. L. Tarquinius Superbus com- 
menced his reign without any of the forms of 
election. One of the first acts of bis reign was 
to abolish the rights which had been conferred 
upon the plebeians by Servius ; and, at the same 
time, all the senators and patricians whom he 
mistrusted, or whose wealth he coveted, were 
put to death or driven into exile. He surround- 
ed himself by a body-guard, by means of which 
he was enabled to do what he liked. His cru- 
elty and tyranny obtained for him the surname 
of Superbus. But, although a tyrant at home, 
he raised Rome to great influence and power 
among the surrounding nations. He gave his 
daughter in marriage to Octavius Mamilius of 
Tusculum, the most powerful of- the Latin 
chiefs ; and under his sway Rpme became the 
head of the Latin confederacy. He defeated 
the Volscians, and took the wealthy town of 
Suessa Pometia, with the spoils of which he 
commenced the erection of the Capitol which 
his father had vowed. In the vaults of this 
temple he deposited the Sibylline books, which 
the king purchased from a sibyl or prophetess. 
She had offered to sell him nine books for three 
hundred pieces of gold. The king refused the 
offer with scorn. Thereupon she went away 
and burned three, and then demanded the same 
price for the six. The king still refused. She 
again went away and burned three more, and 
still demanded the same price for the remaining 
three. The king now purchased the three books, 
and the sibyl disappeared. He next engaged 
in war with Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which 
refused to enter into the league. Unable to 
take the city by force of arms, Tarquinius had 
recourse to stratagem. His son, Sextus, pre- 
tending to be ill-treated by his father, and cov- 
ered with the bloody marks of stripes, fled to 
Gabii. The infatuated inhabitants intrusted him 
with the command of their troops; whereupon 
he sent a messenger to his father to inquire 
how he should deliver the city into his hands. 
The king, who was walking in his garden when 
the messenger arrived, made no reply, but 
kept striking off the heads of the tallest pop- 
pies with his stick. Sextus took the hint. 
He put to death or banished all the leading 
men of the place, and then had no difficulty 
in compelling it to submit to his father. In 
the midst of his prosperity, Tarquinius fell 
through a shameful outrage committed by one 
of his sons. Tarquinius and his sons were en- 
gaged in besieging Ardea, a city of the Rutu- 
lians. Here, as the king's sons, and their cous- 
in Tarquinius Collatinus, the son of Egerius, 
were feasting together, a dispute arose about 
the virtue of their wives. As nothing was do- 
ing in the field, they mounted their horses to 
visit their homes by surprise. They first went 
to Rome, where they surprised the king's daugh- 
ters at a splendid banquet. They then haslen- 
856 



ed to Collatia, and there, though it was late in 
the night, they found Lucretia, the wife of Col- 
latinus, spinning amid her handmaids. The 
beauty and virtue of Lucretia had fired the evil 
passions of Sextus. A few days afterward he 
returned to Collatia, where he was hospitably 
received by Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. 
In the dead of night he entered the chamber 
with a drawn sword : by threatening to lay a 
slave with his throat cut beside her, whom he 
would pretend to have killed in order to aver.ge 
her husband's honor, he forced her to yield to 
his wishes. As soon as Sextus had departed, 
Lucretia sent for her husband and father. Col- 
latinus came, accompanied by L. Brutus ; Lu- 
cretius, with P. Valerius, who afterward gained 
the surname of Publicola. They found her in 
an agony of sorrow. She told them what had 
happened, enjoined them to avenge her dis- 
honor, and then stabbed herself to death. They 
all swore to avenge her. Brutus threw off his 
assumed stupidity, and placed himself at their 
head. They carried the corpse to Rome. Bru- 
tus, who was tribunus celerum, summoned the 
people, and related the deed of shame. All 
classes were inflamed with the same indigna- 
tion. A decree was passed deposing the king, 
and banishing him and his family from the city. 
The army, encamped before Ardea, likewise re- 
nounced their allegiance to the tyrant. Tar- 
quinius, with his two sons, Titus and Aruns, 
took refuge at Ca;re in Etruria. Sextus re- 
paired to Gabii, his own principality, where be 
was shortly after murdered by the friends of 
those whom he had put to death. Tarquinius 
reigned twenty-four years. He was banished 
B.C. 510. The people of Tarquinii and Veii 
espoused the cause of the exiled tyrant, and 
marched against Rome. The two consuls ad- 
vanced to meet them. A bloody battle was 
fought, in which Brutus and Aruns, the son of 
Tarquinius, slew each other. Tarquinius next 
repaired to Lars Porsena, the powerful king of 
Clusium, who marched against Rome at the 
head of a vast army. The history of this mem- 
orable expedition is related under Porsena. 
After Porsena quitted Rome, Tarquinius took 
refuge with his son-in-law, Mamilius Octavius 
of Tusculum. Under the guidance of the lat- 
ter, the Latin states espoused the cause of the 
exiled king, and declared war against Rome. 
The contest was decided by the celebrated bat- 
tle of the Lake Regillus, in which the Romans 
gained the victory by the help of Castor and 
Pollux. Tarquinius himself was wounded, but 
escaped with his life ; his son Sextus is said to 
have fallen in this battle, though, according to 
another tradition, as we have already seen, he 
was slain by the inhabitants of Gabii. Tarquin- 
ius Superbus had now no other state to whom 
he could apply for assistance. He had already 
survived all his family ; and he now fled to 
Aristobulus at Cumae, where he died a wretch- 
ed and childless old man. Such is the story 
of the Tarquins, according to the ancient writ- 
ers ; but this story must not De received as a 
real history. The narrative contains numer- 
ous inconsistencies and impossibilities. The 
following is only one instance out of many. We 
are told that the younger Tarquinius, who was 
expelled from Rome in mature age, was the son 



TARQUINIUS, L 



TARSUS. 



of the king who ascended the throne one hund- 
red and seven years previously in the vigor of 
life ; and Servius Tullius, who married the 
daughter of Tarquinius Priscus shortly before 
he ascended the throne, is represented imme- 
diately after his accession as the father of two 
daughters whom he marries to the brothers of 
his own wife ! 

[Tarquinius, L., one of those engaged in the 
conspiracy of Catiline, turned informer, and ac- 
cused M. Crassus of being privy to the design.] 

[Tarquinius, Collatinus,. Vid. Collatinus.] 

[Tarquitius, L., of a patrician family, but so 
poor that he had to serve in the army on foot ; 
was appointed by the dictator Cincinnatus his 
master of horse.] 

[Tarquitus, a Latin warrior, son of Faunus 
and Dryope, aided Turnus against JEneas, and 
was slain by the latter.] 

Tarracina (Tarracinensis : now Tcrracina), 
more anciently called Anxur (Anxurates, PL), 
an ancient town of Latium, situated fifty-eight 
miles southeast of Rome, on the Via Appia and 
upon the coast, with a strongly-fortified citadel 
upon a high hill, on which stood the temple of 
Jupiter Anxurus. It was probably a Pelasgian 
town originally ; but it afterward belonged to 
the Volsci, by whom it was called Anxur. It 
was conquered by the Romans, who gave it the 
name of Tarracina, and it was made a Roman 
colony B.C. 329. Three miles west of the town 
stood the grove of Feronia, with a temple of 
this goddess. The ancient walls of the citadel 
of Tarracina are still visible on the slope of 
Montecckio. 

Tarraco (Tarraeonensis : now Tarragona), 
an ancient town on the eastern coast of Spain, 
situated on a rock seven hundred and sixty feet 
high, between the River Iberus and the Pyre- 
nees, on the River Tulcis. It was founded by 
the Jlassilians, and was made the head-quar- 
tets of the two brothers P. and Cn. Scipio, in 
their campaigns against the Carthaginians in 
the second Punic war. It subsequently became 
a populous and flourishing town ; and Augustus, 
who wintered here (B.C. 26) after his Canta- 
brian campaign, made it the capital of one of 
the three Spanish provinces (Hispania Tarra- 
eonensis) and also a Roman colony. Hence 
we find it called Colonia Tarraeonensis, also 
Col. Vietrix Togala and Col. Julia Victrix Tar- 
raeonensis. The modern town of Tarragona is 
built to a great extent with the remains of the 
ancient city ; and Roman inscriptions may fre- 
quently be seen imbedded in the walls of the 
modern houses. The ancient Roman aqueduct, 
having been repaired in modern times, still sup- 
plies the modern city with water ; and at a 
short distance to the northwest of Tarragona, 
along the sea-coast, is a Roman sepulchre call- 
ed the tower of the Scipios, although the real 
place of the burial of the Scipios is quite un- 
known. 

Tarruntenus Paternus. Vid. Pateknus. 

Tarsia (Tapaijj : now Ras Jird or Cape Cer- 
tes), a promontory of Carmania, on the coast of 
the Persian Gulf, near the frontier of Persis. 
The neighboring part of the coast of Carmania 
was called Tarsiana. 

Tarsius (dTdpaiog : now Tarza or Balikesri), 
a river of Mysia, rising in Mount Temnus, and 



flowing northeast, through the Miletopolites I- '.- 
cus, into the Macestus. 

Tarsus, Tarsos (Tapa6c,Tapaoi, 'Yepaoc, Bap- 
go<; : Tapaevc, Tarsensis : ruins at Tersus), the 
chief city of Cilicia, stood near the centre of 
Cilicia Campestris, on the River Cydnus, about 
twelve miles above its mouth, in a very large 
and fertile plain at the foot of Mount Taurus, 
the chief pass through which (Pylae Ciliciae) led 
down to Tarsus. Its position gave it the full 
benefit of the natural advantages of a fertile 
country, and the command of an important high- 
way of commerce. It had also an excellent 
harbor, twelve miles from the city, which is 
filled up with sand. The city was of unknown 
antiquity. Some ascribed its foundation to the 
Assyrian king Sardanapalus ; others tQjPerseus, 
in connection with whose legend tlfflghauie of 
the city is fancifully derived from afoof (rap- 
aoc) which the winged horse Pegasus lost here ; 
and others to the Argive chieftain Triptolemus, 
whose effigy appears on the coins of the city. 
All that can be determined with certainty seems 
to be that it was a very ancient city of the Syr- 
ians, who were the earliest known inhabitants 
of this part of Asia Minor, and that it received 
Greek settlers at an early period. In the time 
of Xenophon, who gives us the first historical 
notice of Tarsus, it was the capital of the Cili- 
cian prince Syennesis, and was taken by Cyrus. 
(Compare Cilicia.) At the time of the Mace- 
donian invasion, it was held by the Persian 
troops, who were about to burn it, when they 
were prevented by Alexander's arrival. After 
playing an important part as a military post in 
the wars of the successors of Alexander, and 
under the Syrian kings, it became, by the peace 
between the Romans and Antiochus the Great, 
the frontier city of the Syrian kingdom on the 
northwest. As the power of the Seleucidae de- 
clined, it suffered much from the oppression of 
its governors, and from the wars between the 
members of the royal family. At the time of 
the Mithradatic war, it suffered, on the one 
hand, from Tigranes, who overran Cilicia, and, 
on the other, from the pirates, who had their 
strongholds in the mountains of Cilicia Aspera, 
and made frequent incursions into the level 
country. From both these enemies it was res- 
cued by Pompey, who made it the capital of the 
new Roman province of Cilicia, B.C. 66. In 
the civil war it took part with Caesar, and as- 
sumed, in his honor, the name of Juliopolis. 
For this the inhabitants were severely punished 
by Cassius, but were recompensed by Antony 
who made Tarsus a free city. Under Augus- 
tus the city obtained immunity from taxes, 
through the influence of the emperor's tutor, 
the Stoic Athenodorus, who was a native of the 
place. It enjoyed the favor, and was called by 
the names, of several of the later emperors. It 
was the scene of important events in the wars 
with the Persians, the Arabs, and the Turks, 
and also in the Crusades. The people of Tar- 
sus were celebrated for (heir mental power, 
their readiness in repartee, and their fondness 
for the study of philosophy. Among the most 
distinguished natives of the place were the Sto- 
ics Antipater, Archedemus, Heraclides, Nestor, 
Zeno, and the two Athenodori ; the Academic 
Nestor ; the F.picureans Dipgenes, celebrated 

857 



TARTARUS. 



TAUROSCYTH-E. 



for his powers of improvising, Lysias, who was 
for a time tyrant of the city, and Plutiades ; the 
tragic poets Dionysides and Bion ; the satiric 
poets Demetrius and Boethes, who was also a 
troublesome demagogue ; the grammarians Ar- 
temidorus, Diodorus, and Hermogenes ; the his- 
torian Hermogenes ; the physicians Herodotus 
and Philo ; and, above all, the apostle Paul, who 
belonged to one of several families of Jews, who 
had settled at Tarsus in considerable numbers 
under the Persian and Syrian kings. 

Tartarus {Tdprapoc), son of -Ether and Terra 
(Ge), and by his mother Terra (Ge) the father 
of the Gigantes Typhoeus and Echidna. In 
the Iliad Tartarus is a place beneath the earth, 
as far below Hades as Heaven is above the 
earth, and closed by iron gates. Later poets 
describeSCartarus as the place in the lower 
world inSR-nich the spirits of wicked men are 
punished for their crimes ; and sometimes they 
use the name as synonymous with Hades, or the 
lower world in general. 

[Tartarus (now Tartaro), a small river of 
Cisalpine Gaul, joining-one of the mouths of the 
Po, and forming marshes {paludes Tartari flu- 
minis, Tacit.).'] 

Tartessus (Taprnaaoc : Taprr/aaioc), an an- 
cient town in Spain, and one of the chief settle- 
ments of the Phoenicians, probably the same as 
the Tarshish of Scripture. The position of this 
town has occasioned much dispute. Most of 
the ancient writers place it at the mouth of the 
River Bsetis, which, they say, was originally 
called Tartessus. Others identify it, with more 
probability, with the city of Carteia on Mount 
Calpe, the Rock of Gibraltar. The whole coun- 
try west of Gibraltar was also called Tartessis. 

Taruscon or Tarascon (Tarusconienses : 
now Tarascon), a town of the Salyes in Gaul, 
on the eastern bank of the Rhone, north of Are- 
late, and east of Nemausus. 

Tartisium (Tarvisanus : now Treviso), a 
town of Venetia, in the north of Italy, on the 
River Silis, which became the seat of a bishop- 
ric, and a place of importance in the Middle 
Ages. 

TatiInus (Tariavdc), a Christian writer of the 
second century, was born in Assyria, and was 
originally a teacher of rhetoric. He was after- 
ward converted to Christianity, according to 
some accounts, by Justin Martyr, with whom, 
at any rate, he was very intimate. After Jus- 
tin's death Tatian quitted Rome, where he had 
resided for some time, and returned into the 
East. There he imbibed and promulgated views 
of a Gnostic character, and gave rise to a new 
sect, called after him Tatiani. Tatian wrote 
numerous works, of which there is still extant 
an Address to the Greeks (Ilpof 'E/.?.nvac), in 
which he points out the superiority of Christi- 
anity to the heathen religion. The best edition 
of this work is by Worth, Oxford, 1700. 

TatIus, T., king of the Sabines. Vid. Rom- 
dlus. 

Tatta (?) Td-ra : now Tuz-Gbl), a great salt 
lake in the centre of Asia Minor, on the Phryg- 
ian table-land, on the confines ofPhrygia, Ga- 
latia, Cappadocia, and Lycaonia. It supplies 
the whole surrounding country with salt, as it 
doubtless did in ancient times. 

Tauchira or Teuchira (Tavxetpa, Tevxetpa : 
858 



ruins at Taiikra), a colony of Cyrene, on the 
northwestern coast of C) renalca, in Northern 
Africa. Under the Ptolemies it was called Ar- 
sinoe, and was one of the five cities of the Lib- 
yan Pentapolis. It became a Roman colony, 

■ and was fortified by Justinian. It was a chief 
! seat of the worship of Cybele, who had here a 

great temple and an annual festival. 

TaulantIi (TavhivTwi), a people of Illyria, in 
the neighborhood of Epidamnus, frequently men- 
tioned by the Greek and Roman writers. One 
of the most powerful kings was Glaucias, a con- 
temporary of Alexander the Great, who fought 
against the latter monarch, and at a later period 
afforded an asylum to the infant Pyrrhus, and 

■ refused to surrender him to Cassander. 

Taunus (now Taunus), a range of mountains 
in Germany, at no great distance from the con- 
fluence of the Mcenus (now Main) and the Rhine. 

Taurasia. Vid. Taurini. 

Taurentum and TauroIs (Tavpoevrtov, Tav 
pouc, -evtoc), a fortress belonging to Massilia, 
and near the latter city, on the southern coast 
! of Gaul. 

Tauri, a wild and savage people in European 
I Sarmatia, who sacrificed all strangers to a god- 
I dess whom the Greeks identified with Artemis. 
An account of this goddess is given elsewhere 
(p. Ill, b). The Tauri dwelt in the peninsula 
which was called after them Chersonesus Tau- 
rica. Vid. Chersonesus, No. 2. 

Taurianum (now Tauretto), a town of Brut- 
| tium, on the Via Popilia, twenty-three miles 
I southeast of Vibo. 

Taurini, a people of Liguria dwelling on the 
upper course of the Po, at the foot of the Alps. 
I Their chief town was Taurasia, afterward col- 
! onized by Augustus, and called Augusta Tauri- 
! norum (now Turin). 

Tauris (now Torcola), a small island off the 
coast of Illyria, between Pharus and Corcvra. 

Taurisci, a Celtic people in Noricum,' and 
probably the old Celtic name of the entire popu- 
lation of the country. They were subsequently 
called Norici by the Romans, after their capital 
Noreia. 

Taurois. Vid. Taurentum. 

Tauromenium {Tavpoueviov : Tavpo/ievlrnc, 
Tauromenitanus : now Taormina), a city on the 
eastern coast of Sicily, situated on Mount Tau- 
rus, from which it derived its name, and founded 
B.C. 358 by Andromachus with the remains of 
the inhabitants of Naxos, whose town had been 
destroyed by Dionysius nearly fifty years before. 
Vid. Naxos, No. 2. Tauromenium soon be- 
came a large and flourishing city ; but, in con- 
sequence of its espousing the side of Sex. Pom- 
pey against Augustus, most of its inhabitants 
were expelled from the city, and their place sup- 
plied by a colony of Roman veterans : hence we 
find the town called Col. Augusta Tauromeniiana. 
From this time Tauromenium became a place 
of secondary importance. The hills in the 
neighborhood produced excellent wine. There 
are still remains of the ancient town, of which 
the most important is a splendid theatre cut out 
of the rock, and capable of holding from thirty 
thousand to forty thousand spectators, from 
which we may form some idea of the populous- 
ness of Tauromen urn. 

Tauroscyth.*. Vid. Scythotauri. 



TAURUNUM. 



TEC'llEUS. 



Taurunum (now Semlin), a strongly-fortified 
town in Pannonia, at the confluence of the Sa- 
vus and the Danube. 

Taurus, Statilius, a distinguished general of 
Octavianus. At the battle of Actium, B.C. 31, '. 
he commanded the land forces of Octavianus, 
which were drawn up on the shore. In 29 he 
defeated the Cantabri, Vaccaei, and Astures. 
He was consul in 26 ; and in 16, when the em- 
peror went to Gaul, the government of the city 
and of Italy was left to Taurus, with the title 
of prafectus urbi. In the fourth consulship 
of Augustus, 30, Taurus built an amphitheatre 
of stone at his own expense. Vid. Roma, p. 
751, a. 

Taueus (o Tavpos, from the Aramaean Tur, a 
high mountain : now Taurus, Ala-Dagh, and 
other special names), a great mountain chain 
of Asia. In its widest extent, the name was 
applied, by the later geographers, to the whole 
of the great chain which runs through Asia 
from west to east, forming the southern margin 
of the great table-land of Central Asia, which it 
divides from the Mediterranean coast of Asia 
Minor, from Syria and the Tigris and Euphrates 
valley, from the low lands on the north shore 
of the Indian Ocean, and from the two great 
peninsulas of India. But this is not a common 
use of the name. In its usual signification, it 
denotes the mountain chain in the south of Asia 
Minor, which begins at the Sacrum or Chelido- 
nium Promontorium at the southeast angle of 
Lycia, surrounds the Gulf of Pamphylia, passing 
through the middle of Pisidia ; then along the 
southern frontier of Lycaonia and Cappadocia, 
which it divides from Cilicia and Commagene ; 
thence, after being broken through by the Eu- 
phrates, it proceeds almost due east through the 
south of Armenia, forming the water-shed be- 
tween the sources of the Tigris on the south, 
and the streams which feed the Upper Euphrates 
and the Araxes on the north ; thus it continues 
as far as the southern margin of the Lake Ar- 
sissa, where it ceases to bear the name of Tau- 
rus, and is continued in the chain which, under 
the names of Niphates, Zagros, &c, forms the 
northeastern margin of the Tigris and Euphra- 
tes valley. This main chain sends ofTbranches 
which are nearly as important as itself. In the 
middle of the frontier between Cilicia and Cap- 
padocia, east of the Cilician Gates, the Anti- 
taurus branches off to the northeast. In the 
east of Cilicia, the Amanus goes off to the south- 
west and south. Immediately east of the Eu- 
phrates, a branch proceeds to the southeast, 
forming, under the name of Masius, the frontier 
between Armenia and Mesopotamia, and di- 
viding the valley of the Upper Tigris from the 
waters which flow through Mesopotamia into 
the Euphrates. The Taurus is of moderate 
height, for the most part steep, and wooded to 
the summit. Its general character greatly re- 
sembles the mountains of Central Germany. 

Tavium (Taoviov, Tavtov : now probably ruins 
at Boghaz Kieui), the capital of the Trocmi, in 
Galatia, stood on the eastern side of the Halys, 
but at some distance from the river, and formed 
the centre of meeting for roads leading to all 
parts of Asia Minor. It was therefore a place 
of considerable commercial importance. It had 
a temple and bronze colossus of Jupiter (Zeus). 



Taxila or Taxiala (to. TdfiAn, Taft'aAa), an 
important city of India intra Gangem, stood in 
a large and fertile j.lain between the Indus and 
the Hydaspes, and was the capital of the Indian 
king Taxiles in the time of Alexander. Its 
position has not been identified. It is not, as 
Major Rennell supposed, Attock; .and there is 
no large city remaining which exactly answers 
to its position. 

Taxiles (Tafi'/lj^). 1. An Indian prince or 
king, who reigned over the tract between the 
Indus and the Hydaspes at the period of the ex- 
pedition of Alexander, B.C. 327. His real name 
was Mophis or Omphis, and the Greeks appear 
to have called him Taxiles or Taxilas, from the 
name of his capital city of Taxila, near the 
modern Attock. On the approach of Alexander 
he hastened to meet him with valuable presents, 
and was in consequence confirmed in his king- 
dom by the Macedonian monarch. — 2. A general 
in the service of Mithradates the Great, and one 
of those in whom he reposed the highest con- 
fidence. 

Taygete (TavyeTT)), daughter of Atlas and 
Pleione, one of the Pleiades, from whom Mount 
Taygetus in Laconia is said to have derived its 
name. By Zeus (Jupiter) she became the moth- 
er of Lacedaemon and of Eurotas. 

Taygetus, or Taygetum, or Taygeta {Tavye- 
rof, Tavyerov, ra Taiysra, pi.), a lofty range of 
mountains of a wild and savage character, sep- 
arating Laconia and Messenia, and extending 
from the frontiers of Arcadia down to the Prom- 
ontorium Taenarum. Its highest points were 
called Taletus and Evoras, about three miles 
south of Sparta. Taygetus is said to have de- 
rived its name from the nymph Taygete. 

Teanum (Teanensis). 1. ApOlum (near Ponte 
Rotto), a town of Apulia, on the River Frento, 
and the confines of the Frentani, eighteen miles 
from Larinum. — 2. Sidicinum (now Teano), an 
important town of Campania, and the capital of 
the Sidicini, situated on the northern slope of 
Mons Massicus and on the Via Praenestina, six 
miles west of Cales. It was made a Roman 
colony by Augustus ; and in its neighborhood 
were some celebrated medicinal springs. 

Tearus (Te'apof : now Team, Deara, or Dere), 
a river of Thrace, the waters of which were 
useful in curing cutaneous diseases. Herodo- 
tus relates that it rises from thirty-eight fount- 
ains, all flowing from the same rock, some warm 
and others cold. It falls into the Contadesdus ; 
this into the Agrianes ; and the latter again into 
the Hebrus. 

Teate (Teatinus : now Chieti), the capital of 
the Marrncini, situated on a steep hill on the 
River Aternus, and on the road from Aternum 
to Corfinium. 

Tecmessa (Tgic/Micaa), the daughter of the 
Phrygian king Teleutas, whose territory was 
ravaged by the Greeks during a predatory ex- 
cursion from Troy. Tecmessa was taken pris- 
oner, and was given to Ajax, the son of Tela- 
mon, by whom she had a son, Eurysaces. 

Tecmon (TiK/xuv), a town of the Molossi in 
Epirus. 

TectjEus and Angelion (Tc/craiof Kat 'Ayye- 
Xiwv), early Greek statuaries, who are always 
mentioned together. They were pupils of Di- 
pcenus and Scyllis, and instructors of Callon of 

859 



TECTfSAGES. 



TELECLIDES. 



.Egina ; and therefore they must have flourish- 
ed about B.C. 548. 

Tectosages (TeKToaayee ). 1. In Gallia. Vid. 
VolcjE. — 2. In Asia Minor. Vid. Galatia. 

Tecum or Tiois (now Tecli), a river in Gallia 
Narbonensis, in the territory of the Sardones, 
called Illiberis by the Greeks, from a town of 
this name upon the river. 

Tedanius, a river in Illyricum, separating Ia- 
pydia and Liburnia. 

Tegea (Teyea). 1. (TeyEaTvc : now Piali), an 
important city of Arcadia, and the capital of the 
district Tegeatis (Teyeartc), which was bound- 
ed on the east by Argolis and Laconia, on the 
south by Laconia, on the west by Maenalia, and 
on the north by the territory of Mantinea. It 
was one of the most ancient towns of Arcadia, 
and is said to have been founded by Tegeates, 
the son of Lycaon. It was formed out of nine 
small townships, which were united into one 
city by Aleus, who was thus regarded as the 
real founder of the city. At a later time we 
find Tegea divided into four tribes, each of 
which possessed a statue of Apollo Agyieus, 
who was especially honored in Tegea. The 
Tegeatae long resisted the supremacy of Sparta ; 
and it was not till the Spartans discovered the 
bones of Orestes that they were enabled to 
conquer this people. The Tegeatae sent three 
thousand men to the battle of Plataeae, in which 
ihey were distinguished for their bravery. They 
remained faithful to Sparta in the Peloponne- 
sian war ; but after the battle of Leuctra they 
joined the rest of the Arcadians in establishing 
their independence. ■ During the wars of 'the 
Achaean league Tegea was taken both by Cle- 
omenes, king of Sparta, and Antigonus Doson, 
king of Macedonia, and the ally of the Achaeans. 
It continued to be a place of importance in the 
time both of Strabo and Pausanias. Its most 
splendid public building was the temple of Mi- 
nerva (Athena), which was the largest and 
most magnificent building in the Peloponnesus. 
It was erected soon after B.C. 394, in place of a 
more ancient temple of this goddess, which was 
burned down in this year. The architect was 
Scopas, and the sculptures in the pediments 
were probably by the hand of Scopas himself. — 
2. A town in Crete, said to have been founded by 
Agamemnon. 

Telamon (TeTlo^v), son of yEacus and En- 
de'is, and brother of Peleus. Having assisted 
Peleus in slaying their half-brother Phocus (vid. 
Peleus), Telamon was expelled from iEgina, 
and came to Salamis. Here he was first mar- 
ried to Glauce, daughter of Cychreus, king of 
the island, on whose death Telamon became 
king of Salamis. He afterward married Peri- 
boea or Eribcea, daughter of Alcathous, by whom 
he became the father of Ajax, who is hence fre- 
quently called Telamoniades and Telamonius he- 
ros. Telamon himself was one of the Calydo- 
nian hunters and one of the Argonauts. He 
was also a great friend of Hercules, whom he 
joined in his expedition against Laomedon of 
Troy, which city he was the first to enter. He 
there erected an altar to Hercules Callinicus or 
Alexicacus. Hercules, in return, gave to him 
Theanira or Hesione, a daughter of Laomedon, 
by whom he became the father of Teucer and 
Trambelus. On this expedition Telamon and 
860 



Hercules also fought against the Meropes in 
Cos, on account of Chalciope, the beautiful 
daughter of Eurypylus, the king of the Meropes, 
and against the giant Alcioneus, on the isth- 
mus of Corinth. Telamon likewise accompa- 
nied Hercules on his expedition against the Am- 
azons, and slew Melanippe. 

Telamon (now Telarnone), a town and harboi 
of Etruria, a few miles south of the River Um- 
bro, said to have been founded by Telamon on 
his return from the Argonautic expedition. In 
its neighborhood a great victory was gained 
over the Gauls in B.C. 225. It was here that 
Marius landed on his return from Africa in 87. 
Telamon was undoubtedly the port of the great 
Etruscan.city recently discovered in its neigh- 
borhood, which is supposed to be the ancient 
Vetulonia. 

[Telamoniades. Vid. Telamon.] 
Telchines (Te^u-'cf), a family or a tribe, 
said to have been descended from Thalassa or 
Poseidon. They are represented in three dif- 
ferent aspects : 1. As cultivators of the soil and 
ministers of the gods. As such they came from 
Crete to Cyprus, and from thence to Rhodes, 
where they founded Camirus, Ialysus, and Lin- 
dus. Rhodes, which was named after them 
Telchinis, was abandoned by them, because 
they foresaw that the island would be inunda- 
ted. They then spread in different directions. 
Lycus went to Lycia, where he built the temple 
of the Lycian Apollo. This god had been wor- 
shipped by them at Lindus, and Juno (Hera) at 
Ialysus and Camirus. Nymphs, also, are called 
after them Telchiniae. Neptune (Poseidon) was 
intrusted to them by Rhea, and they brought 
him up in conjunction with Caphira, a daughter 
of Oceanus. Rhea, Apollo, and Jupiter (Zeus), 
however, are also described as hostile to the 
Telchines. Apollo is said to have assumed the 
shape of a wolf, and to have thus destroyed the 
Telchines, and Jupiter (Zeus) to have over- 
whelmed them by an inundation. 2. As sorcer- 
ers and envious dcemons. Their very eyes and 
aspect are said to have been destructive. They 
had it in their power to bring on hail, rain, and 
snow, and to assume any form they pleased ; 
they further mixed Stygian water with sulphur, 
in order thereby to destroy animals and plants. 
3. As artists, for they are said to have invented 
useful arts and institutions, and to have made 
images of the gods. They worked in brass and 
iron, made the sickle of Saturn (Cronos) and 
the trident of Neptune (Poseidon). This last 
feature in the character of the Telchines seems 
to have been the reason of their being classed 
with the Idaean Dactyls ; and Strabo even states 
that those of the nine Rhodian Telchines who ac- 
companied Rhea to Crete, and there brought up 
the infant Jupiter (Zeus), were called Curetes. 
Telebove. Vid. Taphi^e. 
Teleboas (Tn2.e66ac ), a river of Armenia Ma- 
jor, falling into the Euphrates ; probably iden- 
tical with the Arsanias. 

[Teleboas, a centaur, son of Ixion and Ne- 
phele.] 

Teleclides (Tf/Ac/i/Ui'cJj/f), a distinguished 
Athenian comic poet of the Old Comedy, flour- 
ished about the same time as Crates and Crati- 
nus, and a little earlier than Aristophanes. He 
was an earnest advocate of peace, and a great 



TELECLUS. 



TELLEN^E. 



admirer of the ancient manners of the age of 
Themistocles. [The few fragments remaining 
of his comedies are contained in Meineke's 
Comic. Grac. Fragm., vol. i., p. 130-138, edit, 
minor] 

Teleclus (TV^EfcAof), king of Sparta, eighth 
of the Agids, and son of Archelaus. He was 
slain by the Messenians, in a temple of Diana 
(Artemis) Limnatis, on the borders. His death 
was the immediate occasion of the first Messe- 
nian war, B.C. 743. 

Telegonus (Tr/Myovoc), son of Ulysses and 
Circe. After Ulysses had returned to Ithaca, 
Circe sent out Telegonus in search of his fa- 
ther. A storm cast his ship on the coast of 
Ithaca, and, being pressed by hunger, he began 
to plunder the fields. Ulysses and Telemachus, 
being informed of the ravages caused by the 
stranger, went out to fight against him ; but 
Telegonus ran Ulysses through with a spear 
which he had received from his mother. At 
the command of Minerva (Athena), Telegonus, 
accompanied by Telemachus and Penelope, 
went to Circe in ^Eaja, there buried the body 
of Ulysses, and married Penelope, by whom he 
became the father of Italus. In Italy Telego- 
nus was believed to have been the founder of 
the towns of Tusculum and Praeneste. He left 
a daughter Mamilia, from whom the family of 
the Mamilii traced their descent. 

Telemachus (Tijlifiaxoc), son of Ulysses and 
Penelope. He was still an infant when his fa- 
ther went to Troy ; and when the latter had 
been absent from home nearly twenty years, 
Telemachus went to Pylos and Sparta to gather 
information concerning h.im. He was hospita- 
bly received by Nestor, who sent his own son 
to conduct Telemachus to Sparta. Menelaus 
also received him kindly, and communicated to 
him the prophecy of Proteus concerning Ulys- 
ses. From Sparta Telemachus returned home ; 
and on his arrival there he found his father, 
whom he assisted in slaying the suitors. Ac- 
cording to some accounts, Telemachus became 
the father of Perseptolis either by Polycaste, 
the daughter of Nestor, or by Nausicaa, the 
daughter of Alcinous. Others relate that he 
was induced by Minerva (Athena) to marry 
Circe, and became by her the father of Latinus ; 
or that he married Cassiphone, a daughter of 
Circe, but in a quarrel with his mother-in-law 
slew her, for which he was in his turn killed by 
Cassiphone. One account makes Telemachus 
the founder of Clusium in Etruria. 

Telemus (Tqhefioc), son of Eurymus, and a 
celebrated soothsayer. 

[Teleon (TeAeW), an Athenian, a son of 
Ion, husband of Zeuxippe, and father of the Ar- 
gonaut Butes. From him theTeleontes (TeAe- 
ovtec) derived their name.] 

Telephassa (Tjjlefaacra), wife of Agenor, and 
mother ofEuropa, Cadmus, Phoenix, andCilix. 
She, with her sons, went out in search of Euro- 
pa, who had been carried off by Jupiter (Zeus) ; 
but she died on the expedition, and was buried 
by Cadmus. 

Telephus (T^Ae^of), son of Hercules and 
Auge, the daughter of King Aleus of Tegea. 
As soon as he was born he was exposed by his 
grandfather, but was reared by a hind (t-Aa^of), 
and educated by King Corythus in Arcadia. 



On reaching manhood, he consulted the Delphio 
oracle to learn his parentage, and was ordered 
to go to King Teuthras in Mysia. He there 
found his mother, and succeeded Teuthras on 
the throne of Mysia. He married Laodice or 
Astyoche, a daughter of Priam; and he attempt- 
ed to prevent the Greeks from landing on the 
'coast of Mysia. Bacchus (Dionysus), however, 
caused him to stumble over a vine, whereupon 
he was wounded by Achilles. Being informed 
by an oracle that the wound could only be cured 
by him who had inflicted it, Telephus repaired 
to the Grecian camp ; and as the Greeks hat? 
likewise learned from an oracle that withoui 
the aid of Telephus they could not reach Troy, 
Achilles cured Telephus by means of the rus\ 
of the spear by which he had been wounded. 
Telephus, in return, pointed out to the Greek3 
the road which they had to take. 

Telepte. Vid. Thala. 

TelesIa (Telesinus : now Telcse), a town 1r. 
Samnium, on the road from Allifae to Benevcr. 
turn, taken by Hannibal in the second Punr. 
war, and afterward retaken by the Romans. I; 
was colonized by Augustus with a body of vet' 
erans. It was the birth-place of Pontius, whi: 
fought against Sulla, and who was hence sur- 
named Telesinus. 4 

Telesilla (TeAeutAAa), of Argos, a celebra 
ted lyric poetess and heroine, flourished abour, 
B.C. 510. In the war of Argos against Sparta 
she not only encouraged her countrymen by he' 
lyre and song, but she took up arms at the hear 
of a band of her countrywomen, and greatly 
contributed to the victory which they gained 
over the Spartans. In memory of this exploit, 
her statue was erected in the temple of Venus 
(Aphrodite) at Argos, with the emblems of a 
poetess and a heroine ; Mars (Ares) was wor- 
shipped in that city as a patron deity of wom- 
en ; and the prowess of her female associates 
was commemorated by the annual festival call- 
ed Hybristica. Only two complete verses of 
her poetry are extant, [edited by Bergk, in his 
PoetcB Lyrici Grteci, p. 742-3.] 

Telesinus, Pontius. Vid. Pontius. 

[Telesinus, C.Lucius, consul A D. 66 with 
Suetonius Paulinus. He was banished by Do- 
mitian for his love of philosophy.] 

Telestas or Telestes {Teliarac, Telecrrjc), 
of Selinus, a distinguished poet of the later 
Athenian dithyramb, flourished B.C. 398. A 
few lines of his poetry are preserved by Athe- 
naeus, [edited by Bergk in his Pocta Lyrici Grrz- 
ci, p. 864-6.] 

TelethkIus (TeTisdpLoc)} a mountain in the 
north of Euboea, near Histisea. 

[Telethusa, wife of Ligdus and mother of 
Iphis. Vid. Iphis, No. 4.] 

[Teleutias (Tefcvrcac), a Spartan, was broth- 
er on the mother's side to Agesilaus II., by 
whose influence he was appointed to the com- 
mand of the fleet, in B.C. 393, in the war of the 
Lacedaemonians against Corinth and the other 
states of the hostile league. After various 
successful enterprises in different quarters, he 
was sent as general against the Olynthians 
in B.C. 382; but, while making an assault on 
this city, he was slain in a sally of the inhabit- 
ants.] 

Tellenje, a town in Latium between the 

861 



TELLIAS. 



TENEDOS. 



later Via Ostiensis and the Via Appia, destroyed 
by Ancus Marcius. 

[Tellias (TeXkiac). 1. Of Elis, a distinguish- 
ed seer, was one of the commanders of the Pho- 
cians in a war against the Thessalians a few 
years before the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. 
After the defeat of the Thessalians, his statue 
was erected by the Phocians in the temple at 
Delphi. — 2. One of the generals of the Syracu- 
sans when their city was besieged by the Athe- 
nians during the Peloponnesian war.] 

Tellus. Vid. Gjea. 

Tei.messus or Telmissus (Telfiiicaoc, TekpLia- 
<70f : TeTifnjoaevc, Tekfjaacevc). 1. (Ruins at Mei, 
the port of Maori), a city of Lycia, near the bor- 
ders of Caria, on a gulf called Telmissicus Si- 
nus, and close to the promontory Telmissis. — 
2. A town of Caria, sixty stadia (six geograph- 
ical miles) from Halicarnassus, celebrated for 
the skill of its inhabitants in divination. It is 
often identified with the former place. 

Telo Martius (now Toulon), a port-town of 
Gallia Narbonensis, on the Mediterranean, is 
rarely mentioned by the ancient writers, and 
did not become a place of importance till the 
downfall of the Roman empire. 

Telos (T^Aor: Tjp.tof : now Telos or Pislco- 
} '), a small island of the Carpathian Sea, one 
of the Sporades, lay off the coast of Caria, 
southwest of the mouth of the Sinus Doridis, 
between Rhodes and Nisyrus. It was also 
called Agathussa. 

Telphussa. Vid. Thelpusa. 

Temenio^e. Vid. Temenus. 

Temenites {Tefxevirric), a surname of Apollo, 
derived from his sacred temenus in the neigh- 
borhood of Syracuse. 

Temenus (Trj/xevoc), son of Aristomaehus, was 
one of the Heraclidae who invaded Peloponne- 
sus. After the conquest of the peninsula, he 
received Argos as his share. His descendants, 
the Temenidae, being expelled from Argos, are 
.said to have founded the kingdom of Macedonia, 
whence the kings of Macedonia called them- 
selves Temenidae. 

Temesa or Tempsa (Temesaeus or Tempsa- 
nus : now Torre del Lupi), a town in Bruttium, 
on the Sinus Terinaeus, was one of the most 
ancient Ausonian towns in the south of Italy, 
and is said to have been afterward colonized 
by a body of ^Etolians under Thoas. At a still 
later time it was successively in the possession 
of the Locrians, of the Bruttians, and finally 
of the Romans, who colonized it in B.C. 196. 
Some of the ancients identified this town with 
Temcse, mentionedrby Homer as celebrated for 
its copper mines ; but the Homeric town was 
probably in Cyprus. 

Temnus. 1. (to Tfifivov opoc : now Morad or 
Alt Dagh), a mountain of Mysia, extending 
eastward from Ida to the borders of Phrygia, 
and dividing Mysia into two parts. It contains 
the sources of the Macestus, Mysius, Ca'icus, 
and Evenus. — 2. (Now Menimcn ? or Guzal-Hi- 
sar?), a city of ^Eolis, in the northwest of Lyd- 
ia (some say in Mysia), on the western bank of 
the Hermus, thirty miles south of Cyme. It 
was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in the 
reign of Tiberius, and in that of Titus (Pliny's 
time) it no longer existed. 

Temve (Tefinr), contraction of Te/xwea), a beau- 
862 



tiful and romantic valley in the north of Thes- 
saly, between Mounts Olympus and Ossa, 
through which the Peneus escapes into the 
sea. The lovely scenery of this glen is fre- 
quently described by the ancient poets and de- 
claimers ; and it was also celebrated as one of 
the favorite haunts of Apollo, who had trans- 
planted his laurel from this spot to Delphi. The 
whole valley is rather less than five miles in 
length, and opens gradually to the east into a 
spacious plain. Tempe is also of great import 
ance in history, as it is the only pass through 
which an army can invade Thessaly from the 
north. In some parts the rocks on each side 
of the Peneus approach so close to each other 
as only to leave room between them for the 
stream ; and the road is obliged to be cut out 
of the rock in the narrowest point. Tempe is 
the only channel through which the waters of 
the Thessalian plain descend into the sea; and 
it was the common opinion in antiquity that 
these waters had once covered the country with 
a vast lake, till an outlet was formed for them 
by some great convulsion in nature, which rent 
the rocks of Tempe asunder. So celebrated 
was the scenery of Tempe that its name was 
given to any beautiful valley. Thus we find a 
Tempe in the land of the Sabines near Reate, 
through which the River Velinus flowed; and 
also a Tempe in Sicily, through which the River 
Helorus flowed, hence called by Ovid Tempe 
Heloria. 

[Tempsa. Vid. Temesa.] 

Tempyra, a town in Thrace, at the foot of a 
narrow mountain pass, between Mount Rhodope 
and the coast. 

Tencteri or Tenchteri, a people of Ger- 
many, dwelling on the Rhine, between the Ruhr 
and the Sieg, south of the Usipetes, in conjunc- 
tion with whom their name usually occurs. 
They crossed the Rhine together with the Usip- 
etes, with the intention of settling in Gaul ; but 
they were defeated by Caesar with great slaugh- 
ter, and those who escaped took refuge in the 
territories of their southern neighbors the Sy- 
gambri. The Tencteri afterward belonged to 
the league of the Cherusci, and at a still latei 
period they are mentioned as a portion of tho 
confederacy of the Franks. 

[Tenea (Tev(a : Tevei'iTnc : now Chiliomodi), 
a small town in the interior of Corinthia, said to 
have been colonized by some Trojan captives 
brought from Tenedos by the Greeks. It was 
celebrated as the place where GEdipus was 
brought up by his supposed father Polybus. Its 
inhabitants could likewise boast that the great- 
er part of the colonists who followed Archias 
to Syracuse were their fellow-citizens. Hav 
ing submitted to the Roman power without re- 
sistance, it escaped the destruction that over 
whelmed Corinth.] 

Tenedos oi"Tenedus (Th edoc : Tevefiioc : now 
Tenedos), a small island of the yEgean Sea, off 
the coast of Troas, of an importance very dis- 
proportionate to its size, on account of its posi- 
tion near the mouth of the Hellespont, from 
which it is about twelve miles distant. Its dis- 
tance from the coast of the Troad was forty 
stadia (four geographical miles), and from Les- 
bos fifty-six stadia : its circuit was eighty stadia. 
It was called, in early times, by the names of 



TENES. 



TERENTIUS AFER, P. 



lulydna, Leucophrys, Phcenice, and Lyrnessus. 
"■he mythical derivation of its usual name is 
torn Tenes, son of Cycnus. It had an iEolian 
city of the same name, with two harbors. Its 
name appears in several proverbs, such as Tev- 
c'cSiOf kfmkvc, T. uvdpunoc, T. avATirijc, T. ko.kov. 
It, appears in the legend of the Trojan war as 
the station to which the Greeks withdrew their 
fleet, in order to induce the Trojans to think 
that they had departed, and to receive the wood- 
en horse. In the Persian war it was used by 
Xerxes as a naval station. It afterward be- 
came a tributary ally of Athens, and adhered to 
her during the whole of the Peloponnesian war, 
and down to the peace of Antalcidas, by which 
it was surrendered to the Persians. At the 
Macedonian conquest the Tenedians regained 
their liberty. In the war against Philip III., 
Attalus and theRomans used Tenedos as a naval 
station, and in the Mithradatic war Lucullus 
/ rined a naval victory over Mithradaf.es off the 
island. About this time the Tenedians placed 
themselves under the protection of Alexandrea 
Troas. The island was celebrated for the beau- 
ty of its women. 

Tenes or Tennes (JVevvrjc), son of Cycnus 
and Proclea, and'brother of Hemithea. Cycnus 
was King of Colonae in Troas. His second wife 
was Philonome, who fell in love with her step- 
son ; but as he repulsed her advances, she ac- 
cused him to his father, who threw both his son 
and daughter in a chest into the sea. But the 
chest was driven on the coast of the island of 
Leucophrys, of which the inhabitants elected 
him king, and which he called Tenedos, after 
his own name. Cycnus at length heard of the 
innocence of his son, killed Philonome, and 
went to his children in Tenedos. Here both 
Cycnus and Tenes were slain by Achilles. Te- 
nes was afterward worshipped as a hero in Ten- 
edos. 

Tenos (Tr/voc : Tjjwof '■ now Tino), a small 
island in the iEgean Sea, southeast of Andros 
and north of Delos. It is about fifteen miles 
in length. It was originally called Hydrussa 
("Xdpovooa) because it was well watered, and 
Ophiitssa ('OQiovoca) because it abounded in 
snakes. It possessed a town of the same name 
on the site of the modern S. Nicolo. It had also 
a celebrated temple of Neptune (Poseidon), 
which is mentioned in the time of the Emperor 
Tiberius. The wine of Tenos was celebrated in 
antiquity, and is still valued at the present day. 

Tentyra (to. Tevrvpa : Tevrvptrric, Tentyrl- 
tes : ruins at Denier ali), a city of Upper Egypt, 
on the western bank of the Nile, between Aby- 
dos and Coptos, with celebrated temples of 
Athor (the Egyptian Venus), Isis, and Typhon. 
Its people were distinguished for their hatred 
of the crocodile ; and upon this and the con- 
trary propensities of the people of Ombi, Juve- 
nal founds his fifteenth satire. Vid. Ombi. 
There are still magnificent remains of the tem- 
ples of Athor and of Isis : in the latter was 
found the celebrated Zodiac, which is now pre- 
served at Paris. 

Teo3 (ri Teuf : T^i'of, Teius : now Sighajik), 
one of the Ionian cities on the coast of Asia 
Minor, renowned as the birth-place of Anacreon 
and Hecataeus., It stood on the southern side 
of the isthmus which connects the peninsula of 



Mount Mimas with the main land of Lydia, at 
the bottom of the bay between the promontories 
of Coryceum and Myonnesus. It was a flour- 
ishing sea-port, until, to free themselves from 
the Persian yoke, most of its inhabitants retired 
to Abdera. It was still, however, a place of 
importance in the time of the Roman emperors. 
It had two harbors, and a celebrated temple of 
Bacchus (Dionysus). 

Teredon {TeprjSuv : now probably Dorah), a 
city of Babylonia, on the western side of the 
Tigris, below its junction with the Euphrates, 
and not far from its mouth. It was a great em- 
porium for the traffic with Arabia. It is no 
doubt the Dieidotis (hipidunc) of Arrian. 

Terentia. 1. Wife of M. Cicero, the orator, 
to whom she bore two children, a son and 
daughter. She was a woman of sound sense 
and great resolution ; and her firmness of char- 
acter was of no small service to her weak and 
vacillating husband in some important periods 
of his life. On his banishment in B.C. 58, Te- 
rentia by her letters endeavored to keep up Ci- ' 
cero's fainting spirits, and she vigorously exert- 
ed herself on his behalf among his friends in 
Italy. During the civil war, however, Cicero 
was offended with her conduct, and divorced 
her in 46. Shortly afterward he married Pub- 
lilia, a young girl of whose property he had the 
management. Terentia could not have been 
less than fifty at the time of her divorce, and 
therefore it is not probable that she married 
again. It is related, indeed, by Jerome, that 
she married Sallust the historian, and subse- 
quently Messala Corvinus ; but these marriages 
are not mentioned by any other writer, and may 
therefore be rejected. Terentia is said to have 
attained the age of one hundred and three. — 2. 
Also called Terentilla, the wife of Maecenas, 
and also one of the favorite mistresses of Au- 
gustus. The intrigue between Augustus and 
Terentia is said to have disturbed the good un- 
derstanding which subsisted between the em- 
peror and his minister, and finally to have oc- 
casioned the retirement of the latter. 

Terentianus Maurus, a Roman poet, proba- 
bly lived at the end of the first or the beginning 
of the second century, under Nerva and Trajan, 
and was a native of Africa, as his surname, 
Maurus, indicates. There j s still extant a poem 
of Terentianus, entitled Be Literis, Syllabis, Pc- 
dibus, Metris, which treats of prosody and the 
different kinds of metre with much elegance and 
skill. The work is printed by Santen and Van 
Lennep, Traj. ad Rhen., 1825, and by Lach- 
mann, Berol., 1836. 

Terentius Afer, P., usually called Terence, 
the celebrated comic poet, was born at Carthage 
B.C. 195. By birth or purchase he became the 
slave of P. Terentius Lucanus, a Roman sena- 
tor. A handsome person and promising talents 
recommended Terence to his master, who af- 
forded him the best education of the age, and 
finally manumitted him. On his manumission, 
according to the usual practice,°Terence as- 
sumed his patron's nomen, Terentius, having 
been previously called Publius or Publipor. The 
Andria was the first play offered by Terence for 
representation. The curule aediles referred the- 
piece to Caecilius, then one of the most popular 
play-writers at Rome. Unknown and meanly 

863 



TERENTIUS AFER, P. 



TERIAS. 



clad, .Terence began to read from a low stool 
his opening scene. A few verses showed the 
elder poet that no ordinary writer was before 
him, and the young aspirant, then in his twenty- 
seventh year, was invited to share the couch 
and supper of his judge. This reading of the 
Andria, however, must have preceded its per- 
formance nearly two years, for Caecilius died in 
168, and it was not acted till 166. Meanwhile, 
copies were in circulation, envy was awakened, 
and Luscius Lavinius, a veteran, and nol; very 
successful play-writer, began his unwearied at- 
tacks on the dramatic and personal character 
of the author. The Andria was successful, and, 
aided by the accomplishments and good address 
of Terence himself, was the means of introduc- 
ing him to the most refined and intellectual cir- 
cles of Rome. His chief patrons were Ladius 
and the younger Scipio, both of whom treated 
him as an equal, and are said even to have as- 
sisted him in the composition of his plays. 
After residing some years at' Rome, Terence 
went to Greece, and while there he translated 
one hundred and eight of Menander's comedies. 
He never returned to Italy, and we have vari- 
ous accounts of his death. According to one 
story, after embarking at Brundisium, he was 
never heard of more ; according to others, he 
died at Stymphalus in Arcadia, in Leucadia, or 
at Patrae in Achaia. One of his biographers said 
he was drowned, with all the fruits of his so- 
journ in Greece, on his home-passage. But 
the prevailing report was, that his translations 
of Menander were lost at sea, and that grief for 
their loss caused his death. He died in the 
thirty-sixth year of his age, in 159, or in the 
year following. He left a daughter, but noth- 
ing is known of his family. Six comedies are 
all that remain to us ; and they are probably all 
that Terence produced. His later versions of 
Menander were, in all likelihood, from their 
number and the short time in which they were 
made, merely studies for future dramas of his 
own. His plays were brought forward at the 
following seasons. 1. Andria, "the Woman of 
Andros," so called from the birth-place of Gly- 
cerium, its heroine, was first represented at the 
Megalesian Games, on the fourth of April, 166. 
2. Hecyra, "the Step-Mother," produced at the 
Megalesian Games in 165. 3. Heauton-timorou- 
mcnos, "the Self-Tormentor," performed at the 
Megalesian Games, 163. 4. Eunuchus, "the 
Eunuch," played at the Megalesian Games, 162. 
It was at the time the most popular of Terence's 
comedies. 5. Phormio, was performed in the 
same year with the preceding, at the Roman 
Games on the first of October. 6. Adelphi, " the 
Brothers," was acted for the first time at the 
funeral games of L. vEmilius Paullus, 160. The 
comedies of Terence have been translated into 
most of the languages of modern Europe, and, 
in conjunction with Plautus, were, on the re- 
vival of the drama, the models of the most re- 
fined play- writers. The ancient critics are 
unanimous ih ascribing to Terence immaculate 
purity and elegance of language, and nearly so 
in denying him vis comica. But it should be 
recollected that four of.Terence's six plays are 
more or less sentimental comedies, in which 
vis comica is not a primary element. Moreover, 
Terence is generally contrasted with P autus, 
864 



with whom he had very little in common. 
Granting to the elder poet the highest genius 
for exciting laughter, and a natural force which 
his rival wanted, there will remain to Terence 
greater consistency of plot and character, closer 
observation of generic and individual distinc- 
tions, deeper pathos, subtler wit, more skill and 
variety in metre and in rhythm, and a wider 
command of the middle region between sport 
and earnest. It may be objected that Terence's 
superiority in these points arises from his copy- 
ing his Greek originals more servilely. But no 
servile copy is an animated copy, and we have 
corresponding fragments enough of Menander 
to prove that Terence retouched and sometimes 
improved his model. In summing up his merits 
we ought not to omit the praise which has been 
universally accorded him— that, although a for- 
eigner and a freedman, he divides with Cicero 
and Caesar the palm of pure Latinity. The best 
editions Of Terence are by Bentley, Cantab., 
1726, 4to, Amstel., 1727, 4to, Lips., 1791, 8vo ; 
by Westerhovius, Hags Com., 1727, 2 vols. 
4to ; and by Stallbaum, Lips., 1830, 8vo. 

Terentius Culleo. Vid. Culleo. 

Terentius Varro. Vid. Varro. 

Teres (Tijpnc). 1. King of the Odrysae and 
father of Sitalces, was the founder of the great 
Odrysian monarchy.— 2. King of a portion of 
Thrace in the time of Philip of Macedon. 

Tereus (Tnpevc), son of Mars (Ares), king of 
the Thraeians in Daulis, afterward Phocis. 
Pandion, king of Attica, who had two daughters, 
Philomela and Procne, called in the assistance 
of Tereus against some enemy, and gave him 
his daughter Procne in marriage. Tereus be- 
came py her the father of Itys, and then con- 
cealed her in the country, that he might thus 
marry her sister Philomela, whom he deceived 
by saying that Procne was dead. At the same 
time he deprived Philomela of her tongue. Ovid 
(Met., vi., 565) reverses the story by stating that 
Tereus told Procne that her sister Philomela 
was dead. Philomela, however, soon learned 
the truth, and made it known to her sister by a 
few words which she wove into a peplus. Proc- 
ne thereupon killed her own son Itys, and served 
up the flesh of the child in a dish before Tereus. 
She then fled with her sister. Tereus pursued 
them with an axe, and when the sisters were 
overtaken, they prayed to the gods to change 
them into birds. Procne accordingly became 
a nightingale, Philomela a swallow, and Te- 
reus a hoopoo. According to some, Procne be- 
came a swallow, PniloKiela a nightingale, and 
Tereus a hawk. 

Tergeste (Tergettinus : now Trieste), a town 
of Istria, on a bay in the northeast of the Adri- 
atic, Gulf, called after it Tergestinus Sinus. It 
was at first an insignificant place, with which 
the Romans became acquainted in their wars 
with the Iapydes ; but under the Roman domin- 
ion it became a town of considerable commer- 
cial importance. It was made a Roman colony 
by Vespasian. 

Teria (Tnpeinc opoc ahv, Horn.), a mountain 
of Mysia, probably in the neighborhood of Cyz- 
icus. Some identified it with a hill near Lamp, 
sacus, on which was a temple of Cybele. 

Terias (now Guaralunga), a river in Sicily, 
near Leontini. 



TERIBAZUS. 



TERTULLIANUS. 



[Tbribazus or Tiribazus (T^pi'fiafof, Tif.i(ja- 
fof), a Persian, high in the favor of Artaxerxes 
II., and when he was present, as Xenophon 
says, no one else had the honor of helping the 
monarch mount his horse. At the time of the 
retreat of the Ten Thousand in B.C. 401, Te- 
ribazus was satrap of Western Armenia, and, 
when the Greeks had reached the River Tele- 
boas on the frontier of his territory, he himself 
rode up to their camp and proposed a truce, on 
condition that both parties should abstain from 
molesting each other, the Greeks taking only 
what they needed while in his country. Teri- 
bazus, however, did not intend to keep his word, 
but waited to assail the Greeks in a mountain 
pass, which the latter, on learning his design, 
secured, and having, besides, attacked the camp 
of the satrap, put the barbarians to flight. Sub- 
sequently he aided the Lacedaemonians until 
superseded in B.C. 392, and again after his res- 
toration in B.C. 388. Various charges having 
been brought against him, he was put on his trial 
and triumphantly acquitted. After this Arta- 
xerxes promised him Amastris, and afterward 
Atossa, in marriage, and having each time 
broken his word, Teribazus excited an insurrec- 
tion, but was betrayed, and slain by the king's 
guards.] 

Teridates. Vid. Tiridates. 

Terina (Terinaeus : now St. Eufemia), a town 
on the western coast of Bruttium, from which 
the Sinus Terinaeus derived its name. It was 
a Greek city founded by Croton, and was origi- 
nally a place of some importance ; but it was 
destroyed by Haanibal in the second Punic war. 

[Terinjeus Sinus (now Gulf of St. Eufemia). 
Vid. Terina.] 

Teriolis or Teriola Castra, a fortress in 
Raetia, which has given its name to the coun- 
try of the Tyrol. Its site is still occupied by 
the Castle of Tyrol, lying above Meran, to the 
north of the road. 

Termantia, Termes, or Termesus (Termes- 
tinus or Termesius : now Ermita de nuesira Se- 
nora de Tiermes), a town of the Arevaci in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, originally situated on a 
steep hill, the inhabitants of which frequently 
resisted the Romans, who compelled them, in 
consequence, to abandon the town, and build a 
new one on the plain, B.C. 98. 

Terjiera (rd Tip/tcpa), a Dorian city in Caria, 
on the Promontory Termerium (Tepfiipiov), the 
northwestern headland of the Sinus Ceramicus. 
Under the Romans it was a free city. 

Termessus (TepfiTjoaoi, and other forms: 
ruins probably at Shenet), a city of Pisidia, high 
up on the Taurus, in the pass through which 
the River Catarrhactes flowed. It was almost 
impregnable by nature and art, so that even 
Alexander did not attempt to take it. 

Terminus, a Roman divinity presiding over 
boundaries and frontiers. His worship is said 
to have been instituted by Numa, who ordered 
that every one should mark the boundaries of 
his landed property by stones consecrated to 
Jupiter, and at these boundary-stones every 
year sacrifices should be offered at the festival 
of the Terminalia. The Terminus of the Ro- 
man state originally stood between the fifth and 
sixth mile-stone on the road toward Laurentum, 
near a place called Festi. Another public Ter- 



minus stood in the temple of Jupiter in the Cap 
itol. It is said that when this temple was to b n 
founded, all the gods gave way to Jupiter and 
Juno, with the exception of Terminus and Ju- 
ventas, whose sanctuaries the auguries would 
not allow to be removed. This was taken as 
an omen that the Roman state would remain 
ever undiminished and young, <r <1 the chapels' 
of the two divinities were inclosed within the 
walls of the new temple. It is, however, proba- 
ble that the god Terminus is no other than Ju- 
piter himself, in the capacity of protector of 
boundaries. 

[Termus, a small river of Sardinia, flowing 
into the sea on the western or northern coast.] 

Terpander (Tepnavdpor;), the father of Greek 
music, and through it of lyric poetry. He was 
a native of Antissa in Lesbos, and flourished be- 
tween B.C. 700 and 650. He removed from 
Lesbos to Sparta, and there introduced his new 
system of music, and established the first mu- 
sical school or system that existed in Greece. 
He added three strings to the lyre, which before 
his time had only four strings, thus making it 
seven-stringed. His music produced a power- 
ful effect upon the Spartans, and he was held in 
high honor by them during his life and after his 
death. He was the first who obtained a victory 
in the musical contests at the festival of the 
Carnea (676). We have only three or four frag- 
ments of the remains of his poetry. 

[Terpius, father of the celebrated minstrel 
Phemius, who is hence called by Homer Ter- 
piades (Tcpmddr/r).] 

Terpsichore (Teptpixopa), one of the nine 
Muses, presided over the choral song and dan- 
cing. Vid. Mus.a5. 

Terra. Vid. G&\. 

Terracina, more usually written Tarracina. 
Vid. Tarracina. 

[Terrasidius, T., one of Caesar's officers in 
Gaul, was sent to the Unelli to obtain corn in 
B.C. 57, but detained a prisoner by them.] 

[Tertia, a female actress, and one of the fa- 
vorite mistresses of Verres in Sicily.] 

[Tertia or Tertclla. Vid. Junia, No. 2.] 

Tertulmanus, Q. Septimius Florens, usu 
ally called Tertullian, the most ancient of the 
Latin fathers now extant. Notwithstanding the 
celebrity which he has always enjoyed, our 
knowledge of his personal history is extremely 
limited, and is derived almost exclusively from 
a succinct notice by St. Jerome. From this we 
learn that Tertullian was a native of Carthage, 
the son of a proconsular centurion (an officer 
who appears to have acted as a sort of aid-de- 
camp to provincial governors) ; that he flourish- 
ed chiefly during the reigns of Septimius Seve- 
rus and of Caracalla ; that he became a presby- 
ter, and remained orthodox until he had reachee 
the term of middle life, when, in consequence of 
the envy and ill-treatment which he experienced 
on the part of the Roman clergy, he went over 
to the Montanists, and wrote several books in 
defence of those heretics ; that he lived to a 
great age, and was the author of many works. 
His birth may be placed about A.D. 160, and his 
death about 240. The most interesting of his 
numerous works is his Apologia, or defence of 
Christianity. It was written at Carthage, prob- 
ably during the reign of Severus. The writings 



TESTA. 



TEUTONES. 



of Tertullian st ow that he was a man of varied 
learning ; but his style is rough, abrupt, and ob- 
scure, abounding in far-fetched metaphors and 
extravagant hyperboles. The best editions of 
the complete works of Tertullian are the edit, 
of Venice, 1744, fol., and that by Semler and 
Schutz, 6 vols. 8vo, Hal., 1770. There is a good 
edition of the Apologe/.icus by Havercamp, 8vo, 
Lugd. Bat., 1710, [and of the Apolog. and Ad 
Nationes by Oehler, Halle, 1849.] 

Testa, C. Trebatius, a Roman jurist, and a 
contemporary and friend of Cicero. He was 
recommended by Cicero to Julids Cassar during 
his proconsulship of Gaul, and he followed 
Caesar's party after the civil war broke out. 
Cicero dedicated to Trebatius his book of Top- 
ica, which he wrote to explain to him this book 
of Aristotle. Trebatius enjoyed considerable 
reputation under Augustus as a 1 lawyer. Hor- 
ace addressed to him the first satire of the sec- 
ond book. Trebatius was a pupil of Q. Corne- 
lius Maximus, and master ofLabeo. He wrote 
some books De Jure Chili and De Religionibus. 
He is often cited in the Digest, but there is no 
direct excerpt from his writings. 

Tethvs (TrjQvc), daughter of Coelus (Uranus) 
and Terra (Gaea), and wife of Oceanus, by whom 
she became the mother of the Oceanides and 
of the numerous river-gods. She also educated 
Juno (Hera), who was brought to her by Rhea. 

[Tetrapolis, a union of four cities or states ; 
of these the most important were, 1. The Attic 
Tctrapolis (TeTpano'kic rrjc 'kTTiKTjc), a district 
of Attica lying northward from Athens, com- 
posed of QEnoe, Marathon, Probalinthus, and 
Tricorythus, founded by Xuthus. 2. The Dori- 
an. Vid. Doris. 3. The Syrian (n?c "Zvpiac, or 
2e/Uu/«'f), composed of Antiochia, Apamea, La- 
odicea, and Seleucia.] 

TetrTca, a mountain on the frontiers of Pi- 
cenum and the land of the Sabines, belonging 
to the great chain of the Apennines. 

Tetricus, C. PesuvIus, one of the Thirty Ty- 
rants, and the last of the pretenders who ruled 
Gaul during its separation from the empire un- 
der Gallienus and his successor. He reigned 
in Gaul from A.D. 267 to 274, and was defeat- 
ed by Aurelian in 274 at the battle of Chalons, 
on which occasion he was believed to have be- 
trayed his army to the emperor. It is certain 
that although Tetricus, along with his son, grac- 
ed the triumph of the conqueror, he was imme- 
diately afterward treated with the greatest dis- 
tinction by Aurelian. 

Teucer (Tevicpoc). 1. Son of the river-god 
Scamander by the nymph Idaea, was the first 
king of Troy, whence the Trojans are some- 
times called Teucri. Dardanus of Samothrace 
came to Teucer, received his daughter Batea 
or Arisbe in marriage, and became his success- 
or in the kingdom. According to others, Dar- 
danus was a native prince of Troy, and Scaman- 
der and Teucer immigrated into Troas from 
Crete, bringing with them the worship of Apollo 
Smintheus. — 2. Son of Telamon and Hesione, 
was a step- brother of Ajax, and die best archer 
among the Greeks at Troy. On his return from 
the Trojan war, Telamon refused to receive 
him in Salamis, because he had not avenged the 
death of his brother Ajax. Teucer thereupon 
sailed away in search of a new home, which he 
866 



found in the island of Cyprus, which was given 
to him by Belus, king of Sidon. He there found- 
ed the town of Salamis, and married Eune, the 
daughter of Cyprus, by whom he became the 
father of Asteria. 

Teucri. Vid. Mysia, Troas. 

Teumessus (Vevfirjoooc), a mountain in Boeo- 
tia, near Hypatus, and close to Thebes, on the 
road from the latter place to Chalcis. It was 
from this mountain that Bacchus (Dionysus),, 
enraged with the Thebans, sent the fox which 
committed such devastations in their territory. 

Teuta (TtOra), wife of Agron, king of the 
Illyrians, assumed the sovereign power on the 
death of her husband, B.C. 231. In conse- 
quence of the injuries inflicted by the piratical 
expeditions of her subjects upon the Italian 
merchants, the Romans sent two ambassadors 
to demand satisfaction, but she not only refus- 
ed to comply with their demands, but caused 
i the younger of the two brothers to be assassin- 
ated on his way home. War was now declared 
against her by the Romans. The greater part 
of her territory was soon conquered, and she 
was obliged to sue for peace, which was grant- 
ed to her (B.C. 228) on condition of her giving 
up the greater part of her dominions. 

[Teutamias (Tevrafiiac ), a king of Larissa in 
Thessaly, and father of the Pelasgian Lethus.] 

Teuthrania. Vid. Mysia. 

Teuthras (Tevdpac). 1. An ancient king ol 
Mysia, who married, or, according to other ac- 
counts, adopted as his daughter Auge, the daugh- 
ter of Aleus. He also received with hospitality 
her son Telephus, when the latter came to Asia 
in search of his mother. He was succeeded in 
the kingdom of Mysia by Telephus. Vid. Tel- 
ephus. The fifty daughters of Teuthras, given 
as a reward to Hercules, are called by Ovid 
Teuthrantia turba. — [2. A Greek warrior of Mag- 
nesia, slain by Hector before Troy. — 3. A com- 
panion of vEneas, slain in battle against the 
Rutuli in Italy.] 

Teuthras (Tevdpac : now probably Demirji- 
Dagh), a mountain in the Mysian district of 
Teuthrania, a southwestern branch of Temnus. 
It contains a celebrated pass, called the Iron 
Gates (Demir Kapa), through which all caravans 
between Smyrna and Brusa (the ancient Pru- 
sias) must needs pass. 

Teutoburgiensis Saltus, a range of hills in 
Germany, covered with wood, extending north 
of the Lippe, from Osnabriick to Paderborn, and 
known in the present day by the name of the | 
Teutoburgcr Wald or Lippischc Wald. It is eel- | 
ebrated on account of the defeat and destruc 
tion of Varus and three Roman legions by the j 
Germans under Arminius, A.D. 9. 

[Teutomatus, son of Ollovicon, king of the 
Nitiobriges, joined Vercingetorix with a body j 
of cavalry : being suddenly attacked by Cas- 
sar's soldiers while reposing in his tent, he with 
difficulty escaped half naked from the camp ] 

Teutones or TeutSni, a powerful people in 
Germany, who invaded Gaul and the Roman 
dominions along with the Cimbri at the latter 
end of the second century B.C. The history 
of their invasion is given under Cimbri. The 
name Teutones is not a collective name of 
the whole people of Germany, as some writ- 
ers have supposed, but only of one particulai 



THABOR. 



THAPSACUS. 



tribe, who probably dwelt on the coast of the 
Baltic, near the Cimbri. 

Thador, Tabor, or AtabyrIum ('AraSvpiov, 
LXX. : 'IraSvpiov, Joseph. : now Jebel Tur), an 
isolated mountain at the eastern end of the plain 
of Esdraelon in Galilee, between seventeen 
hundred and eighteen hundred feet high. Its 
summit was occupied by a fortified town under 
the Maccabees and the Romans. This is quite 
enough to prove that it can not be, as a local 
tradition asserts, the lonely mountain on which 
our Saviour was transfigured, although the tra- 
dition has been bolstered up by a variation of the 
modern name of the mountain, which makes it 
Jebel Nur, i. e., the Mountain of Light. 

Thabraca or Tabraca (Ou6puKa, T<16a8pa : 
now Tabarca), a city of Numidia, at the mouth 
of the River Tusca, and on the frontier toward 
Zeugitana. 

Thais (Bate), a celebrated Athenian courte- 
san, who accompanied Alexander the Great on 
his expedition into Asia. Her name is best 
known from the story of her having stimulated 
the conqueror, during a great festival at Per- 
sepolis, to set fire to the palace of the Persian 
kings ; but this anecdote, immortalized as it 
has been by Dryden's famous ode, is in all prob- 
ability a mere fable. After the death of Alex- 
ander, Thai's attached herself to Ptolemy Lagi, 
by whom she became the mother of two sons, 
Leontiscus and Lagus, and of a daughter, Irene. 

Thala (8dAa), a great city of Numidia, men- 
tioned by Sallust and other writers, and prob- 
ably identical with Telepte (TeAe7rr^) or The- 
lepte, a city in the south of Numidia, seventy- 
one Roman miles northwest of Capsa. It was 
the southwestern frontier town toward the 
desert, and was connected by a road with Ta- 
cape on the Syrtis Minor. It is probably to be 
identified with Ferianak, or with the large ruins 
near it called Medinah el Kadima. 

Thalamus (Qakdfiai). I. A fortified town in 
Elis, situated in the mountains above Pylos. — 
2. A town in Messenia, probably a little to the 
east of the River Pamisus. 

Thalassius, Talassius, or Talassio, a Ro- 
man senator of the time of Romulus. At the 
time of the rape of the Sabine women, when a 
maiden of surpassing beauty was carried off for 
Thalassius, the persons conducting her, in order 
to protect her against any assaults from others, 
exclaimed " for Thalassius." Hence, it is said, 
arose the wedding shout with which a bride at 
Rome was conducted to the house of her bride- 
groom. 

Thales (Oa/lijf), the Ionic philosopher, and 
one of the Seven Sages, was born at Miletus 
about B.C. 636, and died about 546, at the age 
of ninety, though the exact date neither of his 
birth nor of his death is known. He is said to 
have predicted the eclipse of the sun, which 
happened in the reign of the Lydian king Alyat- 
tes ; to have diverted the course of the Halys 
in the time of Croesus; and later, in order to 
unite the Ionians when threatened by the Per- 
sians, to have instituted a federal council in 
Teos. In the lists of the Seven Sages his name 
seems to have stood at the head ; and he dis- 
played his wisdom both by political sagacity 
and by prudence in acquiring wealth. He was 
also one of the founders in Greece of the study 



of philosophy and mathematics. In the lattei 
science, however, we find attributed to him only 
proofs of propositions which belong to the first 
elements of geometry, and which could not pos- 
sibly have enabled him to calculate the eclipses 
of the sun and the course of the heavenly 
bodies. He may, however, have obtained his 
knowledge of the higher branches of mathemat- 
ics from Egypt, which country he is said to have 
visited. Thales maintained that water is the 
origin of things, meaning thereby that it is 
water out of which every thing arises and into 
which every thing resolves itself. Thales left 
no works behind him. 

Thales or Thaletas (GaA^f, QaTi^rac), the 
celebrated musician and lyric poet, was a na- 
tive of Gortyna in Crete. On the invitation of 
the Spartans he removed to Sparta, where, by 
the influence of his music, he appeased the 
wrath of Apollo, who had visited the city with 
a plague, and composed the factions of the cit- 
izens, who were at enmity with each other. He 
founded the second of the musical schools which 
flourished at Sparta, the first having been es- 
tablished by Terpander. The date of Thaletas 
is uncertain, but he may probably be placed 
shortly after Terpander. Vid. Terpander. 

Thalia (QaKeia, QaXia). 1. One of the nine 
Muses', and, at least in later times, the Muse of 
Comedy. Vid. Mus^e. — 2. One of the Nereides. 
— 3. One of the Charites or Graces. 

Thallo. Vid. Hor^e. 

Thalna or Talna, M'. Juventius, was trib- 
une of the plebs B.C. 170, praetor 167, and con- 
sul 163, when he subdued the Corsicans. The 
senate voted him a thanksgiving, and he was 
so overcome with joy at the intelligence, which 
he received as he was offering a sacrifice, that 
he dropped down dead on the spot. 

[Thalpius (Q&Xtuoc), son of Eurytus, one of 
the suitors of Helen, and therefore compelled to 
take part in the expedition against Troy ; he led 
the Epei in ten vessels.] 

Thambes (QdfiCijc, Qafifirjc;, Bajir^), a mount- 
ain in the east of Numidia, containing the source 
of the River Rubricatus. 

Thamydeni or Thamydfms {QafivSrivoi, Qapv- 
SiTai), a -people of Arabia Felix, on the coast of 
the Sinus Arabicus, in the neighborhood of The- 
mond. 

Thamyris or Thamyras (Qa/xvpic). 1. An an- 
cient Thracian bard, was a son of Philammon 
and the nymph Argiope. In his presumption he 
challenged the Muses to a trial of skill, and, being 
overcome in the contest, was deprived by them 
of his sight and of the power of singing. He 
was represented with a broken lyre in his hand. 
— [2. A Trojan warrior, companion of iEneas 
after the fall of Troy ; slain by Turnus in Italy.] 

Thanatos. Vid. Mors. 

Thapsa, a city of Northern Africa, probably 
identical with Rusicada. 

Thapsacus (QutpaKoc : in the Old Testament, 
Thiphsach : an Aramean word signifying a ford: 
QaipaKnvoc : ruins at the ford of El-Hamman, 
near Rakkah), a city of Syria, in the province 
of Chalybonitis, on the left bank of the Euphra- 
tes, two thousand stadia south of Zeugma, and 
fifteen parasangs from the mouth of the River 
Chaboras (the Araxes of Xenophon). At this 
place was the usual and, for a long time, the only 

867 



THAPSUS. 



THEBJ3 



ford of the Euphrates, by which a passage was 
made between Upper and Lower Asia. 

Thapsus (Odtjjoc : OdipLoc). 1. A city on the 
eastern coast of Sicily, on a peninsula of the 
same name (now Isola degli Magnisi), founded 
by Dorian colonists from Megara, who soon 
abandoned it in order to found Megara Hybla. 
— 2. (Ruins at Dcmas), a city on the eastern 
coast of Byzacena, in Africa Propria, where 
Cffisar finally defeated the Pompeian army, and 
finished the civil war, B.C. 46. 

Thasos or Thasus (Qdaoc : Qdmoc : now Tha- 
so or Tasso), an island in the north of the ^Egean 
Sea, off the coast of Thrace, and opposite the 
mouth of the^ River Nestus. It was at a very 
early period faken possession of by the Phoeni- 
cians on account of its valuable gold mines. 
According to tradition, the Phoenicians were 
led by Thasus, son of Poseidon or Agenor, who 
came from the East in search of Europa, and 
from whom the island derived its name. Tha- 
sos was afterward colonized by the Parians, B.C. 
708, and among the colonists was the poet Ar- 
ehilochus. Besides the gold mines in Thasos 
itself, the Thasians possessed still more valua- 
ble gold mines at Scapte Hyle, on the opposite 
coast of Thrace. The mines in the island had 
been most extensively worked by the Phoeni- 
cians, but even in the time of Herodotus they 
were still productive. The clear surplus rev- 
enue of the Thasians before the Persian con- 
quest amounted to two hundred, and some- 
times even to three hundred talents (£46,000, 
£66,000), of which sum the mines in Scapte 
Hyle produced eighty talents, and those in the 
island somewhat less. They possessed at this 
time a considerable territory on the coast of 
Thrace, and were one of the richest and most 
powerful tribes in the north ofthe^Egean. They 
were subdued by the Persians under Mardonius, 
and subsequently became part of the Athenian 
maritime empire. They revolted, however, 
from Athens in B.C. 465, and after sustaining a 
siege of three years, were subdued by Cimon in 
463. They were obliged to surrender to the 
Athenians all their possessions in Thrace, to 
destroy their fortifications, to give up their ships, 
and to pay a large tribute for the future. They 
again revolted from Athens in 411, and called 
in the Spartans, but the island was again re- 
stored to the Athenians by Thrasybulus in 407. 
In addition to its gold mines, Thasos was cel- 
ebrated for its marble and its wine. The soil, 
however, is otherwise barren, and merits, even 
at the present day, the description applied to it 
by the poet Archilochus, " an ass's back-bone, 
overspread with wild wood." The principal 
town in the island, also called Thasos, was sit- 
uated on the northern coast upon three emi- 
nences. There are still a few remains of the 
ancient town. 

[Thaumaci (now Dhomoko), a city of Phthio- 
tis, in Thessaly, situated on a lofty and perpen- 
dicular rock, which rendered it a place of great 
strength. The ancients derived its name from 
the singularity of its position, and the astonish- 
ment it caused when first reached (davfjaKoi, 
from dav/ia, " wonder").] 

Thaumas (9av(iac), son of Pontus and Terra 
(Ge), and by the Oceanid Electra, the father 
af Iris and the Harpies. Hence Iris is call- 
868 



| ed Thaumanlias, Thaumantis, and Thaumantin 

virgo. 

The/etetus (Qeat-riroc), an Athenian, the son 
of Euphronius of Sunium, is introduced as one I 
of the speakers in Plato's Thcmtctus and Sophis- 
tcs, in which dialogues he is spoken of as a no- 
ble and well-disposed youth, and ardent in the 
pursuit of knowledge, especially in the study of 
geometry. 

Theagenes (Qeayevqc). 1- Tyrant of Mega- 
ra, obtained his power about B.C. 630, having | 
espoused the part of the commonalty against 
the nobles. He was driven out before bis death, j 
He gave his daughter in marriage to Cylon. 
Vid. Cylon. — 2. A Thasian, the son of Timos- 
thenes, renowned for his extraordinary strength 
and swiftness. He gained numerous victories 
at the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isth- 
mian games, and is said to have won thirteen 
hundred crowns. He flourished B.C. 4S0. 

Theano (Qeavu), daughter of Cisseus, wife 
of Antenor, and priestess of Minerva (Athena) j 
at Ilion. 

Theano {Qeavu), the most celebrated of the j 
female philosophers of the Pythagorean school, 
appears to have been the wife of Pythagoras, 
and the mother by him of Telauges, Mnesarchus, 
Myia, and Arignote ; but the accounts respect- 
ing her were various. Several letters are ex- 
tant under her name ; and, though they are not 
genuine, they are valuable remains of a period 
of considerable antiquity. 

TnEBjE(9//fin(), in the poets sometimesTHEBE 
(Gjjfo;, Dor. Brfia), afterward Diospolis Magna 
(A(dciro/Uc fj.eyu?iT/, i. e., Great City of Jove), in 
Scripture, No or No Ammon, was the capital of ! 
Thebai's or Upper Egypt, and, for a long time, 
of the whole country. It was reputed the old- 
est city of the world. It stood in about the ] 
centre of the Thebai'd, on both banks of the 
Nile, above Coptos, and in the Nomos Coptites. j 
It is said to have been founded by ^Ethiopians ; 
but this is, of course, only a form of the tradi- j 
tion which represents the civilization of Upper 
Egypt as having come down the Nile. Others 
ascribed its foundation to Osiris, who named it 
after his mother, and others to Busiris. It ap- 
pears to have been at the height of its splen- i 
dor, as the capital of Egypt, and as a chief seat 
ofthe worship of Ammon, about B.C. 1600. The 
fame of its grandeur had reached the Greeks as 
early as the time of Homer, who describes it, 
with poetical exaggeration, as having a hund- 
red gates, from each of which it could send out 
two hundred war-chariots fully armed. Homer's 
epithet of" Hundred-Gated" (iKaro/urvloi) is re- 
peatedly applied to the city by later writers. Its 
real extent was calculated by the Greek writers 
at one hundred and forty stadia (fourteen geo- 
graphical miles) in circuit ; and in Strabo's time, | 
when the long transference of the seat of pow- 
er to Lower Egypt had caused it to decline 
greatly, it still had a circuit of eighty stadia. 
That these computations ate not exaggerated, 
is proved by the existing ruins, which extend 
from side to side of the valley of the Nile, here 
about six miles wide ; while the rocks which 
bound the valley are perforated with tombs. 
These ruins, which are, perhaps, the most mag- 
nificent in the world, inclose within their site 
the four modern villages of Camac, Luxor, Me- I 



THEB^E. 



THEBiE. 



dinet Abou, and Gournou ; the two former on the 
eastern, and the two latter on the western side 
of the river. They consist of temples, colossi, 
sphinxes, and obelisks, and, on the western 
side, of tombs, many of which are cut in the 
rock and adorned with paintings, which are still 
as fresh as if just finished. These ruins are re- 
markable alike for their great antiquity and for 
the purity of their style. It is most probable 
that the great buildings were all erected before 
the Persian invasion, when Thebes was taken 
by Cambyses, and the wooden habitations burn- 
ed ; after which time it never regained the rant 
of a capital city ; and thus its architectural mon- 
uments escaped that Greek influence which is 
so marked in the edifices of Lower Egypt. 
Among its chief buildings, the ancient writers 
mention the Memnonium, with the two colossi 
in front of it, the temple of Amnion, in which 
one of the three chief colleges of priests was 
established, and the tombs of the kings. To 
describe the ruins and discuss their identifica- 
tion would far exceed the limits of this article. 

ThebjE, in Europe. 1 . (Bf/fjai, in poetry Qr,6ri, 
Doric Qi]6a : QijGaloc, fern. Qriftatc, Thebanus, 
fem. Thebais: now Thcba, Turkish Stiva), the 
chief city in Bceotia, was situated in a plain 
southeast of the Lake Helice and northeast of 
Platajaa. Its acropolis, which was an oval em- 
inence cf no great height, was called Cadmea 
{Kad/ieta), because it was said to have been 
founded by Cadmus, the leader of a Phoenician 
colony. On each side of this acropolis is a 
small valley, running up from the Theban plain 
into the low ridge of hills by which it is sepa- 
rated from that of Plataeae. Of these valleys, 
the one to the west is watered by the Dirce, 
and the one to the east by the Ismenus ; both 
of which, however, are insignificant streamlets, 
though so celebrated in ancient story. The 
greater part of the city stood in these valleys, 
and was built some time after the acropolis, 
ft is said that the fortifications of the city were 
constructed by Amphion and his brother Zethus ; 
and that, when Amphion played his lyre, the 
stones moved of their own accord and formed 
the wall. The territory of Thebes was called 
Thebais (G^finlf), and extended eastward as far 
as the Eubcean Sea. No city is more celebrated 
in the mythical ages of Greece than Thebes. 
It was here that the use of letters was first in- 
troduced from Phoenicia into Western Europe. 
It was the reputed birth-place of the two great 
divinities, Dionysus and Hercules. It was also 
the native city of the great seer Tiresias, as 
well as of the great musician Amphion. It was 
the scene of the tragic fate of CEdipus, and of 
one of the most celebrated wars in the myth- 
ical annals of Greece. Polynices, who had 
been expelled from Thebes by his brother Eteo- 
cles, induced six other heroes to espouse his 
cause, and marched against the city ; but they 
were all defeated and slain by the Thebans, 
with the exception of Adrastus, Polynices and 
Eteocles falling by each other's hands. This 
is visually called the war of the " Seven against 
Thebes." A few years afterward, " the Epigo- 
ni," or descendants of the seven heroes, march- 
ed against Thebes to revenge their fathers' 
death ; they took the city and razed it to the 
ground. Thebes is not mentioned by Homer 



in the catalogue of the Greek cities which 
fought against Troy, as it was probably sup- 
posed not yet to have recovered from its dev- 
astation by the Epigoni. It appears, however, 
at the earliest historical period as a large and 
flourishing city; and it is represented as pos- 
sessing seven gates, the number assigned to it 
in the ancient legends. Its government, after 
the abolition of monarchy, was an aristocracy, 
or, rather, an oligarchy, which continued to he 
the prevailing form of government for a long 
time, although occasionally exchanged for that 
of a democracy. Toward the end of the Pelo- 
ponnesjan war, however, the oligarchy finally 
disappears, and Thebes appears under a derno- 
cratical form of government from this time till 
it became with the rest of Greece subject to the 
Romans. The Thebans were from an early pe- 
riod inveterate enemies of their neighbors, the 
Athenians. Their hatred of the latter people 
was probably one of the reasons which induced 
them to desert the cause of Grecian liberty in 
the great struggle against the Persian power. 
In the Peloponnesian war the Thebans naturally 
espoused the Spartan side, and contributed not 
a little to the downfall of Athens. But, in com- 
mon with the other Greek states, they soon 
became disgusted with the Spartan supremacy, 
and joined the confederacy formed against Spar- 
ta in B.C. 394. The peace of Antalcidas in 387 
put an end to hostilities in Greece ; but the 
treacherous seizure of the Cadmea by the La- 
cedaemonian general Phrebidas in 382, and its 
recovery by the Theban exiles in 379, led to a 
war between Thebes and Sparta, in which the 
former not only recovered its independence, but 
forever destroyed the Lacedemonian suprem- 
acy. This was the most glorious period in the 
Theban annals ; and the decisive defeat of the 
Spartans at the battle of Leuctra in 371 made 
Thebes the first power in Greece. Her great- 
ness, however, was mainly due to the pre-emi- 
nent abilities of her citizens, Epaminondas and 
Pelopidas ; and with the death of the former at 
the battle of Mantinea in 362, she lost the su- 
premacy which she had so recently gained. 
Soon afterward Philip of Macedon began to ex- 
ercise a paramount influence over the greater 
part of Greece. The Thebans were induced, by 
the eloquence of Demosthenes, to forget their 
old animosities against the Athenians, and to 
join the latter in protecting the liberties of 
Greece ; but their united forces were defeated 
by Philip, at the battle of Chasronea, in 338. 
Soon after the death of Philip and the accession 
of Alexander, the Thebans made a last attempt 
to recover their liberty, but were cruelly pun- 
ished by the young king. The city was taken 
by Alexander in 336, and was entirely destroy- 
ed, with the exception of the temples, and the 
house of the poet Pindar ; six thousand inhab- 
itants were slain, and thirty thousand sold as 
slaves. In 316 the city was rebuilt by Cassan- 
der, with the assistance of the Athenians. In 
290 it was taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and 
again suffered greatly. Dica;archus, who flour- 
ished about this time, has left us an interesting 
account of the city. He describes it as about 
seventy stadia (nearly nine miles) in cireumfer 
ence, in form nearly circular, and in appearance 
somev/hat gloomy. He says that it is plenti- 

869 



THEBAIS. 

fully provided with water, and contains better 
gardens than any other city in Greece ; that it 
is most agreeable in summer, on account of its 
plentiful supply of cool and fresh water, and its 
large gardens ; but that in winter it is very 
unpleasant, being destitute of fuel, exposed to 
floods and cold winds, and frequently visited by 
heavy falls of snow. He further represents the 
people as proud and insolent, and always ready 
to settle disputes by fighting rather than by the 
ordinary course of justice. It is supposed that 
the population of the city at this time may have 
been between fifty thousand and sixty thousand 
souls. After the Macedonian period^Thebes 
rapidly declined in importance ; and it received 
its last blow from Sulla, who gave half of its 
territory to the Delphians. Strabo describes it 
as only a village in his time ; and Pausanias, 
who visited it in the second century of the 
Christian era, says that the Cadmea alone was 
then inhabited. The modern town is also con- 
fined to this spot, and the surrounding country 
is covered with a confused heap of ruins. — 2. 
Surnamed Phthiotic^e (&f/6ai ai QdtoTidec), an 
important city of Thessaly in the district Phthi- 
otis, at a short distance from the coast, and 
with a good harbor. — 3. A town in Lucania, 
rarely mentioned. 

ThebaIs. Vid. ^Egyptus. 

Thebe {Qf]dri Tnon?LaK'i7i), a city of Mysia, on 
the wooded slope of Mount Placus, destroyed 
by Achilles. It was said to have been the birth- 
place of Andromache and Chryse'is. It existed 
in the historical period, but by the time of Stra- 
bo it had fallen into ruin, and by that of Pliny it 
had vanished. Its site was near the head of 
the Gulf of Adramyttium, where a beautiful 
tract of country was named, after it, Thebanus 
campus (to Qfjbrjg nediov). 

[Theches Mons (Qvxvc, a summit of the range 
called Paryadres : now Kop Tagh), a mount- 
ain on the borders of Pontus and Colchis, from 
which the Greek troops of Cyrus under Xeno- 
phon first got a view of the sea (Euxine).] 

Thbcoa or Tekoa (QcKoa, Joseph. : Qeko£, 
LXX. : ruins at Tekua), a city of Judeea, on the 
edge of the desert, six miles south of Bethlehem, 
and twelve miles south of Jerusalem, was the 
birth-place of the prophet Amos. (Vid. also 2 
Chron., xi.) In the time of Jerome it was a 
mere village. 

Thelpusa or Telphussa (QeXizovaa, TiXtyovc- 
ua : Tetovo log : ruins near Vancna), a town in 
Arcadia, on the River Ladon. 

[Thelxiepeia, one of the Sirens. Vid. Sire- 
nes.] 

[Thelxinoe, one of the earlier Muses. Vid. 
Mus^e.] 

Theman, a city of the Edomites, in Arabia 
Petraea, whose people were celebrated for their 
wisdom. 

Themis (8^if), daughter of Ccelus (Uranus) 
and Terra (Ge), was married to Jupiter (Zeus), 
by whom she became the mother of the Horas, 
Eunomia, Dice (Astraea), Irene, and of the Moe- 
rre. In the Homeric poems, Themis is the per- 
sonification of the order of things established 
by law, custom, and equity, whence- she is de- 
6cribed as reigning in the assemblies of men, 
aud as convening, by the command of Jupiter 
(Zeus), the assembly of the gods. She dwells 
870 



THEMISTOCLES. , 

in Olympus, and is on friendly terms with June 1 
(Hera). She is also described as a prophetic 
divinity, and is said to have been in possession < 
of the Delphic oracle as the successor of Terra p 
(Ge), and previous to Apollo. Nymphs believed 
to be daughters of Jupiter (Zeus) and Themis 
lived in a cave on the River Eridanus, and the f 
Hesperides also are called daughters of Jupitei 
(Zeus) and Themis. She is often represented 
on coins resembling the figure of Minerva 
(Athena) with a cornucopia and a pair of scales. | 

Themiscyra (Qefxianvpa), a plain on the coast 
%f Pontus, extending east of the River Iris, be- 
yond the Thermodon, celebrated from very an- 
cient times as the country of the Amazons. It 
was well watered, and rich in pasture. At the 
mouth of the Thermodon was a city of the S3me j 
name, which had been destroyed by the time of 
Augustus. It is doubtful whether the present I 
Thermeh occupies its site. Vid. Thermodon. *| 

Themison (Qeu'louv), a celebrated Greek phy- 1 
sician, and the founder of the medical sect of 
the Methodici, was a native of Laodicea in 
Syria, and lived in the first century B.C. He 
wrote several medical works, but of these only 
the titles and a few fragments remain. The 
physician mentioned by Juvenal was probably a 
contemporary of the poet, and consequently a 
different person from the founder of the Metho- 
dici. 

Themistius (OsLiiarwg), a distinguished phi- 
losopher and rhetorician, was a Paphlagonian, 
and flourished, first at Constantinople and after- 
ward at Rome, in the reigns of Constantius, 
Julian, Jovian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius. ' I 
He enjoyed the favor of all those emperors, and | 
was promoted by them to the highest honors of 
the state. After holding various public offices, 
and being employed on many important em- \ 
bassies, he was made prefect of Constantinople 
by Theodosius, A.D. 384. So great was the 
confidence reposed in him by Theodosius, that, 
though Themistius was a heathen, the emperor 
intrusted his son Arcadius to the tutorship of 
the philosopher 387. The life of Themistius 
probably did not extend beyond 390. Besides 
the emperors, he numbered among his friends 
the chief orators and philosophers of the age, 
Christian as well as heathen. Not only Liba- 
nius, but Gregory of Nazianzus also was his 
friend and correspondent, and the latter, in an 
epistle still extant, calls him the " king of argu- 
ments." The orations (■koIltikoI 16yoi) of The- 
mistius, extant in the time of Photius, were 
thirty-six in number, of which thirty-three have 
come down to us in the original Greek, and one 
in a Latin version. The other two were sup- 
posed to be lost, until one of them was discov- 
ered by Cardinal Maio, in the Ambrosian Libra- 
ry at Milan, in 1816. The best edition of the 
Orations is by Dindorf, Lips., 1832, 8vo. 

[Themisto (Qefuaru), of Cyprus, mother of 
Homer, according to one tradition.] 

Themistocles (QtjXLaTOKlTjg), the celebrated 
Athenian, was the son of Neocles and Abroto- 
non, a Thracian woman, and was born about 
B.C. 514. In bis youth he had an impetuous 
character ; he displayed great intellectual pow- 
er combined with a lofty ambition and desire 
of political distinction. He began his career 
by setting himself in opposition to those who 



THEMISTOCLES. 

had most power, among whom Aristides was 
the chief. The fame which Miltiades acquired 
by his generalship at Marathon made a deep 
impression on Themistocles ; and he said that 
the trophy of Miltiades would not let him sleep. 
His rival Aristides was ostracized in 483, to 
which event Themistocles contributed ; and 
from this time he was the political leader in 
Athens. In 481 he was archon eponymus. It 
was about this time that he persuaded the Athe- 
nians to employ the produce of the silver mines 
of Laurium in building ships, instead of dis- 
tributing it among the Athenian citizens. His 
great object was to draw the Athenians to the 
sea, as he was convinced that it was only by 
their fleet that Athens could repel the Persians 
and obtain the supremacy in Greece. Upon 
the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, Themisto- 
cles was appointed to the command of the Athe- 
nian fleet ; and to his energy, prudence, fore- 
sight, and courage the Greeks mainly owed 
their salvation from the Persian dominion. Upon 
the approach of Xerxes, the Athenians, on 
the advice of Themistocles, deserted their city, 
and removed their women, children, and infirm 
persons to Salamis, vEgina, and Troezen ; but, 
as soon as the Persians took possession of 
Athens, the Peloponnesians were anxious to re- 
tire to the Corinthian isthmus. Themistocles 
used all his influence in inducing the Greeks to 
remain and fight with the Persians at Salamis, 
and with the greatest difficulty persuaded the 
Spartan commander Eurybiades to stay at Sal- 
amis. But as soon as the fleet of Xerxes made 
its appearance, the Peloponnesians were again 
anxious to sail away ; and when Themistocles 
saw that he should be unable to persuade them 
to remain, he sent a faithful slave to the Persian 
commanders, informing them that the Greeks 
intended to make their escape, and that the 
Persians had now the opportunity of accomplish- 
ing a noble enterprise, if they would only cut 
off" the retreat of the Greeks. The Persians 
believed what they were told, and in the night 
their fleet occupied the whole of the channel 
between Salamis and the main land. The 
Greeks were thus compelled to fight ; and the 
result was the great and glorious victory, in 
which the greater part of the fleet of Xerxes 
was destroyed. This victory, which was due 
to Themistocles, established his reputation 
among the Greeks. On his visiting Sparta, he 
was received with extraordinary honors by the 
Spartans, who gave Eurybiades the palm of 
bravery, and to Themistocles the palm of wis- 
dom and skill, with a crown of olive, and the 
best chariot that Sparta possessed. The Athe- 
nians began to restore their ruined city after 
the barbarians had left the country, and The- 
mistocles advised them to rebuild the walls, and 
to make them stronger than before. The Spar- 
tans sent an embassy to Athens to dissuade 
them from fortifying their city, for which we 
can assign no motive except a miserable jeal- 
ousy. Themistocles, however, went on an em- 
bassy to Sparta, where he amused the Spartans 
with lies till the walls were far enough ad- 
vanced to be in a state of defence. It was 
upon his advice, also, that the Athenians forti- 
fied the port of Piraeus. The influence of The- 
mistocles does not appear to have survived the I 



THEMISTOCLES. 

expulsion of the Persians from Greece and the 
fortification of the ports. He was probably just- 
ly accused of enriching himself by unfair means, 
for he had no scruples about the way of accom- 
plishing an end. A story is told that after the 
retreat of the fleet of Xerxes, when the Greek 
fleet was wintering at Pagasae, Themistocles 
told the Athenians in the public assembly that 
he had a scheme to propose which was benefi- 
cial to the state, but could not be expounded to 
the many. Aristides was named to receive 
the secret, and to report upon it. His report 
was that nothing could be more profitable than 
the scheme of Themistocles, but nothing more 
unjust ; and the Athenians abided by the report 
of Aristides. In 471 Themistocles was ostra- 
cized from Athens, and retired to Argos. After 
the discovery of the treasonable correspondence 
of Pausanias with the Persian king, the Lace- 
daemonians sent to Athens to accuse Themisto- 
cles of being privy to the design of Pausanias. 
Thereupon the Athenians sent off persons with 
the Lacedaemonians with instructions to arrest 
Themistocles (466). Themistocles, hearing of 
what was designed against him, first fled from 
Argos to Corcyra, and then to Epirus, where 
he took refuge in the house of Admetus, king 
of the Molossi, who happened to be from home. 
Admetus was no friend to Themistocles, but 
his wife told the fugitive that he would be pro- 
tected if he would take their child in his arms 
and sit on the hearth. The king soon came in, 
and, respecting his suppliant attitude, raised him 
up, and refused to surrender him to the Lace- 
daemonian and Athenian agents. Themistocles 
finally reached the coast of Asia in safety. 
Xerxes was now dead (465), and Artaxerxes 
was on the throne. Themistocles went up to 
visit the king at his royal residence ; and on 
his arrival he sent the king a letter, in which he 
promised to do the king a good service, and 
prayed that he might be allowed to wait a year, 
and then to explain personally what brought 
him there. In a year he made himself master 
of the Persian language and the Persian usages, 
and, being presented to the king, he obtained 
the greatest influence over him, and such as no 
Greek ever before enjoyed ; partly owing to his 
high reputation and the hopes that he gave to 
the king of subjecting the Greeks to the Per- 
sians. The king gave him a handsome allow- 
ance, after the Persian fashion ; Magnesia sup- 
plied him with bread nominally, but paid him an- 
nually fifty talents. Lampsaeus supplied wine, 
and Myus the other provisions. Before he could 
accomplish any thing he died; some say that 
he could not perform his promise to the king. 
A monument was erected to his memory in the 
Agora of Magnesia, which place was within his 
government. It is said that his bones were 
secretly taken to Attica by his relations, and 
privately interred there. Themistocles died in 
449, at the age of sixty-five. Themistocles un- 
doubtedly possessed great talents as a states- 
man, great political sagacity, a ready wit, and 
excellent judgment : but he was not an honest 
man ; and, like many other clever men with 
little morality, he ended his career unhappily 
and ingloriously, an exile and a traitor too. 
Twenty-one letters attributed to Themistocles 
! are spurious. 

871 



THEMISTOGENES. 

Themistogenes (QefUGToyevric), of Syracuse, 
is said by Xenophon (Hell., iii., 1, § 2), to have 
written a work on the Anabasis of Cyrus ; but 
most modern writers, following the statement 
of Plutarch, suppose that Xenophon really re- 
fers to his own work, to which he prefixed the 
name of Themistogenes. 

Theocles (Qeo/cXijc;), son of Hegylus, was a 
Lacedasmonian statuary, and one of the dis- 
ciples of Dipcenus and Scyllis. He therefore 
flourished about B.C. 550. 

Theoclymenus (Qeo/c?iVfievoc), son of Poly- 
phides of Hyperasia, and a descendant of Me- 
iampus, was a soothsayer, and, in consequence 
of a murder, was obliged to take to flight, and 
came to Telemachus when the latter quitted 
Sparta to return to Ithaca. 

Thkocosmos (Qeoxoafioc), of Megara, a statu- 
ary, flourished about B.C. 435-430. 

Theocritus (Qeoicpiroc). 1. Of Chios, an or- 
ator, sophist, and perhaps an historian, in the 
time of Alexander the Great. He was contem- 
porary with Ephorus and Theopompus ; and the 
latter was his fellow-citizen and political oppo- 
nent, Theopompus belonging to the aristocratic 
and Macedonian, and Theocritus to the demo- 
cratic and patriotic party. Theocritus is said 
to have also given deep offence to Alexander by 
the sarcastic wit, which appears to have been 
the chief cause of his celebrity, and which at 
last cost him his life. He was put to death by 
Antigonus, in revenge for a jest upon the king's 
single eye. None of his works are extant with 
the exception of two or three epigrams, among 
which is a very bitter one upon Aristotle. — 
2. The celebrated bucolic poet, was a native of 
Syracuse, and the son of Praxagoras and Phi- 
linna. He visited Alexandrea during the latter 
end of the reign of Ptolemy Soter, where he re- 
ceived the instruction of Philetas and Asclepi- 
ades, and began to distinguish himself as a poet. 
His first efforts obtained for him the patronage 
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who was associated 
in the kingdom with his father, Ptolemy Soter, 
in B.C. 285, and in whose praise, therefore, the 
poet wrote the fourteenth, fifteenth, and seven- 
teenth Idyls. At Alexandrea he became ac- 
quainted with the poet Aratus, to whom he ad- 
dressed his sixth Idyl. Theocritus afterward 
returned to Syracuse, and lived there under 
Hiero II. It appears from the sixteenth Idyl 
that Theocritus was dissatisfied, both with the 
want of liberality on the part of Hiero in reward- 
ing him for his poems, and with the political state 
of his native country. It may therefore be sup- 
posed that he devoted the latter part of his life 
almost entirely to the contemplation of those 
scenes of nature and of country life, on his rep- 
resentations of which his fame chiefly rests. 
Theocritus was the creator of bucolic poetry as 
a branch of Greek, and, through imitators, such 
as Virgil, of Roman literature. The bucolic 
idyls of Theocritus are of a dramatic and mi- 
metic character. They are pictures of the or- 
dinary life of the common people of Sicily ; 
whence their name, ddi], e'rfvXTua. The pasto- 
ral poems and romances of later times are a 
totally different sort of composition from the 
bucolics of Theocritus, who knows nothing of 
the affected sentiment, the pure innocence, and 
he primeval simplicity, which have been as- 
872 



THEODORETTJS. 

cribed to the imaginary shepherds of a fictitious 
Arcadia. He merely exhibits simple and faith- 
ful pictures of the common life of the Sicilian 
people, in a thoroughly objective, although truly 
poetical spirit. Dramatic simplicity and truth i 
are impressed upon the pictures exhibited in his 
poems, into the coloring of which he has thrown 
much of the natural comedy which is always , 
seen in the common life of a free people. The i 
collection, which has come down to us under the 
name of Theocrit-.s, consists of thirty poems, | 
called by the general title of Idyls, a fragment 
of a few lines from a poem entitled Berenice, and 
twenty-two epigrams in the Greek Anthology. 
But these Idyls are not all bucolic, and were ' 
not all written by Theocritus. Those idyls, j 
of which the genuineness is the most doubtful, 
are the twelfth, seventeenth, eighteenth, nine- i 
teenth, twentieth, twenty-sixth, twenty-sev- j 
enth, twenty-ninth, and thirtieth. The dialect i 
of Theocritus is a mixed or eclectic dialect, in i 
which the new or softened Doric predominates. 
The best editions of Theocritus are by Kiess- 
ling, Lips., 1819, by Wiistemann, Golha?, 1830, 
[by Wordsworth, Camb., 1844, and by Ameis ' 
in the Poetce Bueolici ct Didactici, Paris, 1846.] 

Theodectes {Beo&ekttic), of Phaselis, in Pam- 
phylia, was a highly distinguished rhetorician 
and tragic poet in the time of Philip of Mace- 
don. He was the son of Aristander, and a pu- 
pil of Isocrates and Aristotle. The greater part 
of his life was spent at Athens, where he died i 
at the age of forty-one. The people of his na- 
tive city honored the memory of Theodectes 
with a statue in their agora, which Alexander, 
when he stopped at Phaselis on his march to- 
ward Persia, crowned with garlands, to show 
his respect for the memory of a man who had 
been associated with himself by means of Aris- 
totle and philosophy. The passages of Aris- 
totle, in which Theodectes is mentioned, show 
the strong regard and high esteem in which he 
was held by the philosopher. Theodectes de- 
voted himself, during the first part of his life, 
entirely to rhetoric, and afterward he turned his 
attention to tragic poetry. He was a profes- 
sional teacher of rhetoric and composer of ora- 
tions for others, and was in part dependent on 
this profession for his subsistence. None of 
the works of Theodectes have come down to 
us. He wrote fifty tragedies, which were very 
popular among his contemporaries. His treatise 
on rhetoric is repeatedly referred to by the an- 
cient writers. 

Theodoretus (QeodupvToc), an eminent ec- 
clesiastic of the fifth century, was born at An- 
tioch about A.D. 393, and was made bishop of 
Cyrus, or Cyrrhus, a small city near the Eu- 
phrates, in 420 or 423. He was accused of be- 
ing a Nestorian, and was in consequence de- 
posed at the second council of Ephesus in 449 
but he was restored to his diocese at the coun- 
cil of Chalcedon, in 451, upon his anathemati- 
zing Nestorius and his doctrines. He appears 
to have died in 457 or 458. Theodoret was a 
man of learning and of sound judgment. The 
most important of his works are, 1. Commen- 
taries on various books of the Old and New 
Testaments, in which he adopts the method, 
not of a continuous commentary, but of propo- 
sing and solving those difficulties whi;h hw 



THEODORIAS. 



THEODORUS. 



thinks likely to occur to a thoughtful reader. 

2. An Ecclesiastical History, in five books, in- 
tended as a continuation of the History of Eu- 
sebius. It begins with the history of Arianisrn, 
under Constantine the Great, and ends in 429. 

3. An apologetic treatise, intended to exhibit 
the confirmations of the truth of Christianity 
contained in the Gentile philosophy. 4. Ten 
Orations on Providence. The complete edi- 
tions of Theodoret are by Sirmond and Gamier, 
5 vols, fol., Paris, 1642-1684, and by Schulze 
and Noesselt, Halee Sax., 1769-1774, 5 vols, in 
ten parts, 8vo. 

Theodoeias. Vid. Vacca. 

Theodoricus or Theodericus. 1. I. King of 
the Visigoths from A . D. 418 to 451, was the suc- 
cessor of Wallia, but appears to have been the 
son of the great Alaric. He fell fighting on the 
side of Aetius and the Romans at the great 
v battle of Chalons, in which Attila was defeated, 
451.— 2. II. King of the Visigoths A.D. 452- 
466, second son of Theodoric I. He succeeded 
to the throne by the murder of his brother Tho- 
rismond. He ruled over the greater part of 
Gaul and Spain. He was assassinated in 466 
by his brother Euric, who succeeded him on the 
throne. Theodoric II. was a patron of letters 
and learned men. The poet Sidonius Apollina- 
ris resided for some time at his court. — 3. Sur- 
named the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, suc- 
ceeded his father Theodemir in 475. He was 
at first an ally of Zeno, the emperor of Constan- 
tinople, but was afterward involved in hostili- 
ties with the emperor. In order to get rid of 
Theodoric, Zeno gave him permission to invade 
Italy, and expel the usurper Odoacer from the 
country. Theodoric entered Italy in 489, and 
after defeating Odoacer in three great battles, 
Said siege to Ravenna, in which Odoacer took 
refuge. After a siege of three years, Odoacer 
capitulated, on condition that he and Theodoric 
should rule jointly over Italy ; but Odoacer was 
soon afterward murdered by his more fortunate 
rival (493). Theodoric thus became master of 
Italy, which he ruled for thirty-three years, till 
his death in 526. His long reign was prosper- 
ous and beneficent, and under his sway Italy 
recovered from the ravages to which it had been 
exposed for so many years. Theodoric was 
also a patron of literature ; and among his min- 
isters were Cassiodorus and Boethius, the two 
last writers who can claim a place in the litera- 
ture of ancient Rome. But prosperous as had 
been the reign of Theodoric, his last days were 
darkened by disputes with the Catholics, and 
by the condemnation and execution of Boethius 
and Symmachus, whom he accused of a con- 
spiracy to overthrow the Gothic dominion in 
Italy. His death is said to have been hastened 
by remorse. It is related that one evening, 
when a large fish was served on the table, he 
fancied that he beheld the head of Symmachus, 
and was so terrified that he took to his bed, and 
died three days afterward. Theodoric was 
buried at Ravenna, and a monument was erect- 
ed to his memory by his daughter Amalasun- 
tha. His ashes were deposited in a porphyry 
vase, which is still to be seen at Ravenna. 

Theodoridas (BeoSopidac), of Syracuse, a 
lyric and epigrammatic poet, who lived about 
B.C. 235. He had a place in the Garland of 



Meleager. There are eighteen of his epigrams 
in the Greek Anthology. 

Theodorus (Qeodupoc). 1. Of Byzantium, a 
rhetorician, and a contemporary of Plato, who 
speaks of him somewhat contemptuously. Ci- 
cero describes him as excelling rather in the 
theory than the practice of his art. — 2. A philos- 
opher of the Cyrenaic school, to one branch of 
which he gave the name of " Theodorians," 
Qeotiapeioi. He is usually designated by ancient 
writers the Atheist. He was a disciple of the 
younger Aristippus, and was banished from Cy- 
rene, but on what occasion is not stated. He 
then went to Athens, and only escaped being 
cited before the Areopagus by the influence of 
Demetrius Phalereus. He was afterward ban- 
ished from Athens, probably with Demetrius 
(307), and went to Alexandrea, where he was 
employed in the service of Ptolemy, son of La- 
gus, king of the Macedonian dynasty in Egypt ; 
it is not unlikely that he shared the overthrow 
and exile of Demetrius. While in the service 
of Ptolemy, Theodorus was sent on an embassy 
to Lysimachus, whom he offended by the free- 
dom of his remarks. One answer which he 
made to a threat of crucifixion which Lysima- 
chus had used, has been celebrated by many 
ancient writers : " Employ such threats to those 
courtiers of yours ; for it matters not to Theo- 
dorus whether he rots on the ground or in the 
air." He returned at length to Cyrene, where 
he appears to have ended his days. — 3. An 
eminent rhetorician of the age of Augustus, was 
a native of Gadara, in the country east of the 
Jordan. He settled at Rhodes, where Tiberius, 
afterward emperor, during his retirement (B.C. 
6-A.D. 2) to that island, was one of his hearers. 
He also taught at Rome ; but whether his set- 
tlement at Rome preceded that at Rhodes is 
uncertain. Theodorus was the founder of a 
school of rhetoricians, called " Theodorei," as 
distinguished from " Apollodorei," or followers 
of Apollodorus of Pergamus, who had been the 
tutor of Augustus Caesar at Apollonia. Theo- 
dorus wrote many works, all of which are lost. 
— 4. A Greek monk, surnamed Prodromus, who 
lived in the first half of the twelfth century. 
He was held in great repute by his contempo- 
raries as a scholar and philosopher, and wrote 
upon a great variety of subjects. Several of 
his works have come down to us, of which the 
following may be mentioned : 1. A metrical ro- 
mance, in nine books, on the loves of Rhodanthe 
and Dosicles, written in iambic metre, and ex- 
hibiting very little ability. 2. A poem entitled 
Galcomyomachia, in iambic verse, on " the battle 
of the mice and cat," in imitation of the Homeric 
Batrachomyomachia. This piece is often ap- 
pended to the editions of iEsop and Babrius. — 
5. The name of two ancient Samian artists. 
(1.) The son of Rhcecus, and brother of Tele- 
cles, flourished about B.C. 600, and was an ar- 
chitect, a statuary in bronze, and a sculptor in 
wood. He wrote a work on the Heraaum at 
Sarnos, in the erection of which it may there- 
fore be supposed that he was engaged as well 
as his father. Or, considering the time which 
such a building would occupy, the treatise may 
perhaps be ascribed to the younger Theodorus. 
He was also engaged with his father in the 
erection of the labyrinth of Lemnos ; and ha 

873 



THEODOSIOPOLIS. 

prepared the foundation of the temple of Diana 
(Artemis), at Ephesus. In conjunction with his 
brother Telecles, he made the wooden statue of 
Apollo Pythius for the Samians, according to 
the fixed rules of the hieratic style. — (2.) The 
son of Telecles, nephew of the elder Theodorus, 
and grandson of Rhcecus, flourished about 560, 
in the times of Croesus and Polycrates, and ob- 
tained such jenown as a statuary in bronze, that 
the invention of that art was ascribed to him, 
in conjunction with his grandfather. He also 
practiced the arts of engravingmetals(-opfi;r(/«7, 
calatura), and of gem-engraving ; his works in 
those departments being celebrated gold and 
silver craters, and the ring of Polycrates. 

Theodosiopolis ( BeodorjiovivoXic : probably 
Erzcroum), a city of Armenia Major, south of 
the Araxes, and forty-two stadia south of the 
mountain which contains the sources of the Eu- 
phrates : built by Theodosius II. as a mountain 
fortress : enlarged and strengthened by Anas- 
tasius and Justinian. Its position made it a 
place of commercial importance. There were 
other cities of the name, but none of any great 
consequence. 

Theodosius. I. Surnamed the Great, Ro- 
man emperor of the East A.D. 378-395, was 
the son of the general Theodosius who re- 
stored Britain to the empire, and was beheaded 
at Carthage in the reign of Valens, 376. The 
future emperor was born in Spain about 346. 
He received a good education ; and he learned 
the art of war under his own father, whom he 
accompanied in his British campaigns. During 
his father's lifetime he was raised to the rank 
of Duke (dux) of Mcesia, where he defeated the 
Sarmatians (374), and saved the province. On 
the death of his father, he retired, before court 
intrigues, to his native country. He acquired a 
considerable military reputation in the lifetime 
of his father ; and after the death of Valens, 
who fell in battle against the Goths, he was pro- 
claimed Emperor of the East by Gratian, who 
felt himself unable to sustain the burden of the 
empire. The Roman empire in the East was 
then in a critical position ; for the Romans were 
disheartened by the bloody defeat which they 
had sustained, and the Goths were insolent in 
their victory. Theodosius, however, showed 
himself equal to the difficult position in which 
he was placed ; he gained two signal victories 
over the Goths, and concluded a peace with the 
barbarians in 382. In the following year (383) 
Maximus assumed the imperial purple in Brit- 
ain, and invaded Gaul with a powerful army. 
In the war which followed Gratian was slain ; 
and Theodosius, who did not consider it prudent 
to enter into a contest with Maximus, acknowl- 
edged the latter emperor of the countries of 
Spain, Gaul, and Britain, but he secured to Va- 
lentinian, the brother of Gratian, Italy, Africa, 
and Western Illyricum. But when Maximus 
expelled Valentinian from Italy in 387, Theo- 
dosius espoused the cause of the latter, and 
inarched into the West at the head of a pow- 
erful army. After defeating Maximus in Pan- 
nonia, Theodosius pursued him across the Alps 
to Aquileia. Here Maximus was surrendered 
by his own soldiers to Theodosius, and was put 
to death. Theodosius spent the winter at Mi- 
.an, and in the following year (389) he entered 
874 



THEODOSIUS. 

Rome in triumph, accompanied by Valentinian 
and his own son Honorius. Two events in the f 
life of Theodosius, about this time, may be men- 
tioned as evidence of his uncertain character j 
and his savage temper. In 387, a riot took place ' 
at Antioch, in which the statues of the emper- 
or, of his father, and of his wife were thrown 
down; but these idle demonstrations were quick- 
ly suppressed by an armed force. When Theo- 
dosius heard of these riots, he degraded Antioch 
from the rank of a city, stripped it of its pos- 
sessions and privileges, and reduced it to the 
condition of a village dependent on Laodicea. 
But, in consequence of the intercession of Anti- ; 
och and the senate of Constantinople, he par- 
doned the city, and all who had taken part in 
the riot. The other event is an eternal brand ! 
of infamy on the name of Theodosius. In 390, 
while the emperor was at Milan, a serious riot 
broke out at Thessalonica, in which the impe- • 
rial officer and several of his troops were mur- 1 
dered. Theodosius resolved to take the most j 
signal vengeance upon the whole city. An army 
of barbarians was sent to Thessalonica ; the i 
people were invited to the games of the Circus ; 
and as soon as the place was full, the soldiers 
received the signal for a massacre. For three 
hours the spectators were indiscriminately ex- 
posed to the fury of the soldiers, and seven thou- 
sand of them, or, as some accounts say, more 
than twice that number, paid the penalty of the ' 
insurrection. St. Ambrose, the archbishop of 1 
Milan, represented to Theodosius his crime in a 
letter, and told him that penitence alone could 
efface his guilt. Accordingly, when the emper- 
or proceeded to perform his devotions in the 
usual manner in the great church of Milan, the 
archbishop stopped him at the door, and demand 
ed an acknowledgment of his guilt. The con 
science-struck Theodosius humbled himself be- j 
fore the Church, which has recorded his penance 
as one of its greatest victories. He laid aside j 
the insignia of imperial power, and in the pos- 
ture of a suppliant, in the church of Milan, en- 
treated pardon for his great sin before all the ! 
congregation. After eight months, the emperor [ 
was restored to communion with the church. 
Theodosius spent three years in Italy, during | 
which he established Valentinian II. on the i 
throne of the West. He returned to Constan- | 
tinople toward the latter end of 391. Valentin- 
ian was slain in 392 by Arbogastes, who raised 
Eugenius to the empire of the West. This in- 
volved Theodosius in a new war ; but it ended i 
in the defeat and death both of Eugenius and [ 
Arbogastes in 394. Theodosius died at Milan, 
four months after the defeat of Eugenius, on the 
17th of January, 395. His two sons, Arcadius 
and Honorius, had already been elevated to the I 
rank of Augusti, and it was arranged that the i 
empire should be divided between them, Arca- 
dius having the East, and Honorius the West. 
Theodosius was a firm Catholic, and a fierce 
opponent and persecutor of the Arians and all 
heretics. It was in his reign, also, that the ! 
formal destruction of paganism took place ; and 
we stiil possess a large number of the laws of 
Theodosius, prohibiting the exercise of the pa- 1 
gan religion, and forbidding the heathen worship 
under severe penalties, in some cases extending 
to death. — II. Roman emperor of the East, A.D j 



THEODOTA. 



THEOPHANES. 



408-450, was born in 401, and was only seven 
years of age at the death of his father Arcadius, 
whom he succeeded. Theodosius was a weak 
prince ; and his sister Pulcheria, who became 
his guardian in 417, possessed the virtual gov- 
ernment of the empire during the remainder of 
his long reign. The principal external events 
in the reign of Theodosius were the war with 
the Persians, which only lasted a short time 
(421-422), and was terminated by a peace for 
one hundred years, and the war with the Huns, 
who repeatedly defeated the armies of the em- 
peror, and compelled him, at length, to conclude 
a disgraceful peace with them in 447 or 448. 
Theodosius died in 450, and was succeeded by 
his sister Pulcheria, who prudently took for her 
colleague in the empire the senator Marcian, 
and made him her husband. Theodosius had 
been married, in 421, to the accomplished Athe- 
nais, the daughter of the sophist Leontius, who 
received at her baptism the name of Eudocia. 
Their daughter Eudoxia was married toValen- 
tinian III., the emperor of the West. In the 
reign of Theodosius and that of Valentinian III. 
was made the compilation called the Codex Theo- 
dosianus. It was published in 438. It consists 
of sixteen books, which are divided into titles, 
with appropriate rubricae or headings ; and the 
constitutions belonging to each title are ar- 
ranged under it in chronological order. The 
first five books comprise the greater part of the 
constitution which relates to Jus Privatum ; the 
sixth, seventh, and eighth books contain the law 
that relates to the constitution and administra- 
tion ; the ninth book treats of criminal law ; the 
tenth and eleventh treat of the public revenue 
and some matters relating to procedure ; the 
twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth 
nooks treat of the constitution, and the admin- 
istration of towns and other corporations ; and 
the sixteenth contains the law relating to ec- 
clesiastical matters. The best edition of this 
Code, with a commentary, is that of J. Gotho- 
fredus, which was edited after his death by A. 
Marville, Lyon, 1665, six vols. fol. ; and after- 
ward by Ritter, Leipzig, 1736-1745, fol. The 
best edition of the text alone is that by Hanel, 
in the Corpus Juris AnUjustinianeum, Bonn, 
1837.— III. Literary. 1. Of Bithynia, a mathe- 
matician, mentioned by Strabo and by Vitruvi- 
us,' the latter of whom speaks of him as the in- 
ventor of a universal sun-dial. — 2. OfTripolis, 
a mathematician and astronomer of some dis- 
tinction, who appears to have flourished later 
than the reign of Trajan. He wrote several 
works, of which the three following are extant, 
and have been published. 1. 'ZipatpiKd, a treat- 
ise on the properties of the sphere, and of the 
circles described on its surface. 2. Uepl jjjiepuv 

Kal VVKTUV. 3. IlEpi OlKTjOeUIV- 

Theodota (QsoSorri), an Athenian courtesan, 
and one of the most celebrated persons of that 
class in Greece, is introduced as a speaker in 
Xenophon's Memorabilia (iii., 11). She at last 
attached herself to Alcibiades, and, after his 
murder, she performed his funeral rites. 

Theognis (Ge'oyi'jc). 1. Of Megara, an ancient 
elegiac and gnomic poet, is said to have flour- 
ished B.C. 548 or 544. He may have been born 
about 570, and would therefore have been eighty 
at the commencement of the Persian wars, 490, 



at which time we know, from his own writings, 
that he was alive. Theognis belonged to the 
oligarchical party in his native city, and in its 
fates he shared. He was a noble by birth, and 
all his sympathies were with the nobles. They 
are, in his poems, the dyadoi and tadXot, and the 
commons the nanol and deilol, terms which, in 
fact, at that period, were regularly used in this 
political signification, and not in their later eth 
ical meaning. He was banished with the lead- 
ers of the oligarchical party, having previously 
been deprived of all his property ; and most of 
his poems were composed while he was an ex- 
ile. Most of his political verses are addressed 
to a certain Cyrnus, the son of Polypas. The 
other fragments of his poetry are of a social, 
most of them of a festive character. They place 
us in the midst of a circle of friends, who formed 
a kind of convivial society : all the members of 
this society belonged to the class whom the poet 
calls "the good." The collection of gnomic 
poetry, which has come down to us under the 
name of Theognis, contains, however, many 
additions from later poets. The genuine frag- 
ments of Theognis contain much that is highly 
poetical in thought, and elegant as well as for- 
cible in expression. The best editions are by 
Bekke'r, Lips., 1815, and second ed., 1827, 8vo ; 
by Welcker, Francof., 1826, 8vo ; and by Orel- 
lius, Turie., 1840, 4-to. — 2. A tragic poet, con- 
temporary with Aristophanes, by whom he is 
satirized. 

Theon (9e'<ji>). 1. The name of two mathe- 
maticians who are often confounded together. 
The first is Theon the elder, of Smyrna, best 
known as an arithmetician, who lived in the 
time of Hadrian. The second is Theon the 
younger, of Alexandrea, the father of Hypatia, 
best known as an astronomer and geometer, 
who lived in the time of Theodosius the elder. 
Both were heathens, a fact which the date of 
the second makes it desirable to state ; and 
each held the Platonism of his period. Of The- 
on of Smyrna, all that we have left is a portion 
of a work entitled Ttiv Kara ftadrjjiaTiK^v xP r l°<-' 
fiuv E(f rrjv tov IIAdroi/of uvuyvumv. The por- 
tion which now exists is in two books, one on 
arithmetic and one on music : there was a third 
on astronomy, and a fourth, Uepl rrjc Koa/iu dp- 
fioviac. The best edition is by Gelder, Leyden, 
1827. Of Theon of Alexandrea the following 
works have come down to us : 1. Scholia on 
Aratus. 2. Edition of Euclid. 3. Commentary 
on the Almagest of Ptolemy, addressed to his 
son Epiphanius. 4. Commentary on the Tables 
of Ptolemy. — 2. ^Elius Theon, of Alexandrea, a 
sophist and rhetorician of uncertain date, wrote 
several works, of which one, entitled Progym- 
nasmata (JlpoyvfivdafiaTa), is still extant. It is 
a useful treatise on the proper system of prep- 
aration for the profession of an orator, accord- 
ing to the rules laid down by Hermogenes and 
Aphthonius. One of the best editions is by 
Finckh, Stuttgard, 1834. — 3. Of Samos, a paint- 
er, who flourished from the time of Philip on- 
ward to that of the successors of Alexander. 
The peculiar merit of Theon was his prolific 
fancy. 

Theonoe (Qeovor/), daughter of Proteus and 
Psammathe, also called Idothea. Vid. Idothea. 

THEOPHANES (6sO<j)dvT]C). 1. Cn. PoMPEIUi 

875 



THEOPHILUS. 

Theophanes, of Mytilene, in Lesbos, a learned 
Greek, and one of the most intimate friends of 
Pompey. Pompey appears to have made his ac- 
quaintance during the Mithradatic war, and soon 
became so much attached to him that he pre- 
sented to him the Roman franchise in the pres- 
ence of his army, after a speech in which he 
eulogized his merits. This occurred about B.C. 
62 ; and in the course of the same year The- 
ophanes obtained from Pompey the privileges 
of a free state for his native city, although it 
had espoused the cause of Mithradates. The- 
ophanes came to Rome with Pompey ; and on 
the breaking out of the civil war, he accompa- 
nied his patron to Greece. Pompey appointed 
him commander of the Fabri, and chiefly con- 
sulted him and Lucceius on all important mat- 
ters in the war, much to the indignation of the 
Roman nobles. After the battle of Pharsalia, 
Theophanes fled with Pompey from Greece, and 
it was owing to his advice that Pompey went 
to Egypt. After the death of his patron, The- 
ophanes took refuge in Italy, and was pardoned 
by Ceesar. After his death, the Lesbians paid 
divine honors to his memory. Theophanes 
wrote the history of Pompey's campaigns, in 
which he represented the exploits of his patron 
in the most favorable light. — 2. M. Pompeius 
Theophanes, son of the preceding, was sent to 
Asia by Augustus, in the capacity of procurator, 
and was, at the time that Strabo wrote, one of 
the friends of Tiberius. The latter emperor, 
however, put his descendants to death toward 
the end of his reign, A.D. 33, because their an- 
cestor had been one of Pompey's friends, and 
had received after his death divine honors from 
the Lesbians. — 3. A Byzantine historian, flour- 
ished most probably in the latter part of the 
sixth century of our era. He wrote, in ten 
books, the history of the Eastern empire dur- 
ing the Persian war under Justin II., from A.D. 
567 to 581. The work itself is lost, but some 
extracts from it are preserved by Photius. — 4. 
Also a Byzantine historian, lived during the 
second half of the eighth century and the early 
part of the ninth. In consequence of his sup- 
porting the cause of image worship, he was 
banished by Leo the Armenian to the island of 
Samothrace, where he died in 818. Theopha- 
nes wrote a Chronicon, which is still extant, 
beginning at the accession of Diocletian in 277, 
and coming down to 811. It consists, like the 
Chronica of Eusebius and of Syncellus, of two 
parts, a history arranged according to years, 
and a chronological table, of which the former 
is very superior to the latter. It is published 
in the Collections of the Byzantine writers, Par- 
is, 1655, fol., Venet., 1729, fol. 

Theophilus {QeofyiXoc). 1. An Athenian com- 
ic poet, most probably of the Middle Comedy. — 
2. An historian and geographer, quoted by Jo- 
sephus, Plutarch, and Ptolemy. — 3. Bishop of 
Antioch in the latter part of the second century 
of our era, and the author of one of the early 
apologies for Christianity which have come 
down to us. This work is in the form of a let- 
ter to a friend, named Autolycus, who was still 
a heathen, but a man of extensive reading and 
great learning. It was composed A.D. 180, a 
year or two before the death of Theaphilus. 
The best edition is that by Wolf, Hamb , 1724, 
876 



THEOPHRASTUS. 

8vo. — 4. Bishop of Alexandrea in the latter part 
of the fourth and the beginning of the fifth cen- 
turies of our era, and distinguished for his per- 
secutions of the Origenists and for his hostility ;, 
to Chrysostom. He died A.D. 412. A few re- 
mains of his works have come down to us. — 5. 
One of the lawyers of Constantinople who were 
employed by Justinian on his first Code, on the r 
Digest, and on the composition of the Insti- | 
tutes. Vid. Justinianus. Theophilus is the au- i 
thor of the Greek translation or paraphrase of 
the Institutes of Justinian which has come 
down to us. It is entitled 'Ivo-titovto. QeofyiXov \ 
, kvTLKevaupoc, Instituta Theophili Antecensoris. 
It became the text for the Institutes in the 
East, where the Latin language was little : 
known, and entirely displaced the Latin text. 
The best edition is by Reitz, Haag., 1751, 2 vols. 
4to. — 6. Theophilus Protospatharius, the au- 
thor of several Greek medical works, which are 
still extant. Protospatharius was originally ,a 
military title given to the colonel of the body- i 
guards of the Emperor of Constantinople (Spath- 
arii), but afterward became also a high civil dig- | 
nity. Theophilus probably lived in the seventh 
century after Christ. Of his works the two 
most important are, 1. Hepi riji tov 'Avdpunov 
Kara(jicev?)c, Be Corporis Humani Fabrica, an an- 
atomical and physiological treatise in five books. 
The best edition is by Greenhill, Oxon., 1842, 
8vo. 2. Uepl Ovpuv, Be Urinis, of which the 
best edition is by Guidot, Lugd. Bat., 1703 (and 
1731), 8vo. 

Theophrastus (Qeofypaaroc), the Greek phi- 
losopher, was a native of Eresus in Lesbos, and i 
studied philosophy at Athens, first under Plato, I 
and afterward under Aristotle. He became the 
favorite pupil of Aristotle, who is said to have 
changed his original name ofTyrtamus to Theo- 
phrastus (or the Divine Speaker), to indicate the 
fluent and graceful address of his pupil ; but 
this tale is scarcely credible. Aristotle named \ 
Theophrastus his successor in the presidency 
of the Lyceum, and in his will bequeathed to 
him his library and the originals of his own 
writings. Theophrastus was a worthy success- 
or of his great master, and nobly sustained the 
character of the school. He is said to have had | 
two thousand disciples, and among them such 
men as the comic poet Menander. He was 
highly esteemed by the kings Philippus, Cas- i 
sander, and Ptolemy, and was not the less the 
object of the regard of the Athenian people, as 
was decisively shown when he was impeached 
of impiety ; for he was not only acquitted, but i 
his accuser would have fallen a victim to his 
calumny, had not Theophrastus generously in- 
terfered to save him. Nevertheless, when the 
philosophers were banished from Athens in 
B.C. 305, according to the law of Sophocles, j 
Theophrastus also left the city, until Philo, a 
disciple of Aristotle, in the very next year 
brought Sophocles to punishment, and procured 
the repeal of the law. From this time Theo- 
phrastus continued to teach at Athens with- 
out any further molestation till his death. He 
died in 287, having presided over the Lyceum 
about thirty-five years. His age is differently 
stated. According to some accounts, he lived 
eighty-five years ; according to others, one 
hundred and seven years. He is said to have 



THEOPHYLACTCJS. 

closed his life with the complaint respecting 
the short duration of human existence, that it 
ended just when the insight into its problems 
was beginning. The whole population of Ath- 
ens took part in his funeral obsequies. He be- 
queathed his library to Neleus of Scepsis. Theo- 
phrastus exerted himself to carry out the philo- 
sophical system of Aristotle, to throw light upon 
the difficulties contained in his books, and to 
fill up the gaps in them. With this view he 
wrote a great number of works, the great ob- 
ject of which was the development of the Aris- 
totelian philosophy. Unfortunately, most of 
these works have perished. The following are 
alone extant: 1. Characteres (t/8/koi xapaKTijpes), 
in thirty chapters, containing descriptions of vi- 
cious characters. 2. A treatise on sensuous 
perception and its objects (nepi aiodr/aeuc [«at 
aiadr/Tuv]). 3. A fragment of a work on meta- 
physics (tuv perd to. tyvaiKci). 4. On the History 
of Plants (-repi tpvTtiv ioroplac), in ten books, 
one of the earliest works on botany which have 
come down to us. 5. On the Causes of Plants 
(ncpi tj>vruv alriCiv), originally in eight books, of 
which six are still extant. 6. Of Stones (nepl 
liduv). The best editions of the complete works 
of Theophrastus are by Schneider, Lips., 1818- 
21, 5 vols., and by Wimmer, Vratislavia3, 1842, 
of which, however, the first volume has only 
yet appeared. The best separate edition of the 
Characteres is by Ast, Lips., 1816. 

Theoph vlactus (Oeo#vXaicro<; ). 1. Surnamed 
Simocatta, a Byzantine historian, lived at Con- 
stantinople, where he held some public offices 
under Heraclius, about A.D. 610-629. His chief 
work is a history of the reign of the Emperor 
Maurice, in eight books, from the death of Ti- 
berius II. and the accession of Maurice in 582, 
down to the murder of Maurice and his chil- 
dren by Phocas in 602. The best edition of 
this work is by Bekker, Bonn, 1834, 8vo. There 
is also extant another work of Theophylactus, 
entitled Quastiones Physica, of which the best 
edition is by Boissonade, Paris, 1835, 8vo. — 2. 
Archbishop of Bulgaria, flourished about A.D. 
1070 and onward, is celebrated for his com- 
mentaries on the Scriptures, which are founded 
on the commentaries of Chrysostom, and are of 
considerable value. 

Theopompus {Qeokoiittoc). 1. King of Sparta, 
reigned about B.C. 770-720. He is said to have 
established the ephoralty, and to have been 
mainly instrumental in bringing the first Mes- 
senian war to a successful issue. — 2. Of Chios, 
a celebrated Greek historian, was the son of 
Damasistratus and the brother of Caucalus, the 
rhetorician. He was born about B.C. 378. He 
accompanied his father into banishment, when 
the latter was exiled on account of his espous- 
ing the interests of the Lacedaemonians, but he 
was restored to his native country in the forty- 
fifth year of his age (333), in consequence of 
the letters of Alexander the Great, in which he 
exhorted the Chians to recall their exiles. In 
what year Theopompus quitted Chios with his 
father is uncertain ; but we know that before he 
left his native country, he attended the school 
of rhetoric which Isocrates opened at Chios, 
and that he profited so much by the lessons of 
nis great master as to be regarded by the an- 
cients as the most distinguished of all his schol- 



THEOPOMPUS. 

ars. Ephorus the historian was a fellow-slu- 
dent with him, but was of a very different char- 
acter ; and Isocrates used to say of them, that 
Theopompus needed the bit and Ephorus the 
spur. In consequence of the advice of Isocra- 
tes, Theopompus did not devote his oratorical 
powers to the pleading of causes, but gave his 
chief attention to the study and composition of 
history. Like his master Isocrates, however, 
he composed many orations of the kind called 
Epideiclic by the Greeks, that is, speeches on 
set subjects delivered for display, such as eu- 
logiums upon states and individuals. Thus in 
352 he contended at Halicarnassus with Nau- 
crates and his master Isocrates for the prize 
of oratory, given by Artemisia in honor of her 
husband, and gained the victory. On his re- 
turn to Chios in 333, Theopompus, who was a 
man of great wealth as well as learning, nat- 
urally took an important position in the state ; 
but his vehement temper, and his support of 
the aristocratical party, soon raised against 
him a host of enemies. Of these, one of the 
most formidable was the sophist Theocritus. 
As long as Alexander lived, his enemies dared 
not take any open proceedings against Theo- 
pompus ; and even after the death of the Mace- 
donian monarch he appears to have enjoyed for 
some years the protection of the royal house. 
Theopompus was supported by Alexander, and 
after his death by the royal house ; but he 
was eventually expelled from Chios as a dis 
turber of the public peace, and fled to Egypt 
to Ptolemy about 305, being at the time sev- 
enty-five years of age. We are informed that 
Ptolemy not only refused to receive Theo- 
pompus, but would even have put him to death 
as a dangerous busy-body, had not some of hi? 
friends interceded for his life. Of his further 
fate we have no particulars. None of the 
works of Theopompus have come down to us, 
but the following were his chief works : 1. 'EA- 
"kriviKol loropiai or Xvvra^ic 'FMijvtKuv, A His- 
tory of Greece, in twelve books, which was a 
continuation of the history of Thucydides. It 
commenced in B.C. 411, at the point where the 
history of Thucydides breaks off, and embraced 
a period of seventeen years, down to the battle 
of Cnidus in 394. 2. ^i^nrntKa, also called 
'IdTopiai (/car' e&xriv), The History of Phjlip, 
father of Alexander the Great, in fifty-eight 
books, from the commencement of his reign, 360, 
to his death, 336. This work contained numer- 
ous digressions, which in fact formed the great- 
er part of the whole work; so that Philip V., 
king of Macedonia, was able, by omitting them 
and retaining only what belonged to the proper 
subject, to reduce the work from fifty-eight 
books to sixteen. Fifty-three of the fifty-eight 
books of the original work were extant in the 
ninth century of the Christian era, and were 
read by Photius, who has preserved an abstract 
of the twelfth book. 3. Orationes, which were 
chiefly Panegyrics, and what the Greeks called 
"LvjifjovlevTUiol Aoyoi. Of the latter kind, one of 
the most celebrated was addressed to Alexan- 
der on the state of Chios. Theopompus is 
praised by ancient writers for his diligence and 
accuracy, but is at the same time said to have 
taken more pleasure in blaming than in com- 
mending; and many of his judgments respect- 

877 



THEOXENIUS. 



THERICLES. 



ing events and characters were expressed with 
such acrimony and severity that several of the 
ancient writers speak of his malignity, and call 
him a reviler. The style of Theopompus was 
formed on the model of Isocrates, and possess- 
ed the characteristic merits.and defects of his 
master. It was pure, clear, and elegant, but 
deficient in vigor, loaded with ornament, and in 
general too artificial. The best collections of 
the fragments of Theopompus are by Wichers, 
Lugd. Bat., 1829, and by C. and Theod. Miiller, 
in the Fragmenla Historicorum Gracorum, Paris, 
1841. — 3. An Athenian comic poet, of the Old 
and also of the Middle Comedy, was the son of 
Theodectes or Theodorus, or Tisamenus. He 
wrote as late as B.C 380. His extant frag- 
ments contain examples of the declining purity 
of the Attic dialect. 

Theoxenius (Qeo&vloc), a surname of Apollo 
and Mercury (Hermes). Respecting the festi- 
val of the Theoxenia, vid. Diet, of Antiq., s. v. 

Thera (Orjpa : Or/paloc : now Santorin), an isl- 
and in the JSgean Sea, and the chief of the Spo- 
rades, distant from Crete seven hundred stadia, 
and twenty-five Roman miles south of the island 
of Ios. It is described by Strabo as two hund- 
red stadia in circumference, but by modern 
travellers as thirty-six miles, and in figure ex- 
actly like a horse-shoe. Thera is clearly of 
volcanic origin. It is covered at the present 
day with pumice-stone ; and the rocks are burn- 
ed and scorched. It is said to have been form- 
ed by a clod of earth thrown from the ship Argo, 
and to have received the name of Calliste when 
it first emerged from the sea. Therasia, a 
small island to the west, and called at the pres- 
ent day by the same name, was torn away from 
Thera by some volcanic convulsion. Thera is 
said to have been originally inhabited by Phoe- 
nicians, but was afterward colonized by Lace- 
daemonians and Minyans of Lemnos, under the 
guidance of the Spartan Theras, who gave his 
name to the island. In B.C. 631 Battus con- 
ducted a colony from Thera to Africa, where he 
founded the celebrated city of Cyrene. Thera 
remained faithful to the Spartans, and was one 
of the few islands which espoused the Spartan 
cause at the commencement of the Peloponne- 
sian war. 

Therambo (Oepap.6a, also Qpdpdoc), a town of 
Macedonia on the peninsula Pallene. 

Theramenes (Qr/pafievjjc), an Athenian, son 
of Hagnon, was a leading member of the oli- 
garchical government of the Four Hundred at 
Athens in B.C. 411. In this, however, he does 
not appear to have occupied as eminent a sta- 
tion as he had hoped to fill, while, at the same 
time, the declaration of Alcibiades and of the 
army at Samos against the oligarchy made it 
evident to him that its days were numbered. 
Accordingly he withdrew from the more violent 
aristocrats, and began to cabal against them ; 
and he subsequently took not only a prominent 
part in the deposition of the Four Hundred, but 
came forward as the accuser of Antiphon and 
Archeptolemus, who had been his intimate 
friends, but whose death he was now the mean 
and cowardly instrument in procuring. At the 
battle of Arginusa? in 406, Theramenes held a 
subordinate command in the Athenian fleet, and 
he was one of those who, after the victory, were 
878 



commissioned by the generals to repair to the 
scene of action and save as many as possiblo 
of the disabled galleys and their crews. A 
storm, it is said, rendered the execution of the 
order impracticable ; yet, instead of trusting to 
this as his ground of defence, Theramenes 
thought it safer to divert the popular angeT from 
himself to others ; and it appears to have been 
chiefly through his machinations that the six 
generals who had returned to Athens were con- 
demned to death. After the capture of Athens 
by Lysander, Theramenes was chosen one of 
the Thirty Tyrants (404). He endeavored to 
check the tyrannical proceedings of his col- 
leagues, foreseeing that their violence would be 
fatal to the permanence of their power. His 
opposition, however, had no effect in restrain- 
ing them, but only induced the desire to rid 
themselves of so troublesome an associate, 
whose former conduct, moreover, had shown that 
no political party could depend on him, and who 
had earned, by his trimming, the nickname of 
Kodopvoc — a boot which might be worn on either 
foot. He was therefore accused by Critias be- 
fore the council as a traitor, and when his nom- 
inal judges, favorably impressed by his able de- 
fence, exhibited an evident disposition to acquit 
him, Critias introduced into the chamber a num- 
ber of men armed with daggers, and declared 
that, as all who were not included in the priv- 
ileged Three Thousand might be put to death 
by the sole authority of the Thirty, he struck 
the name of Theramenes out of that list, and 
condemned him with the consent of all his col- 
leagues. Theramenes then rushed to the altar, 
which stood in the council-chamber, but was 
dragged from it and carried off to execution. 
When he had drunk the hemlock, he dashed 
out the last drops from the cup, exclaiming, 
"This to the health of the lovely Critias!" 
Both Xenophon and Cicero express their ad- 
miration of the equanimity which he displayed 
in his last hour ; but surely such a feeling is 
sadly out of place when directed to such a man. 

Therapne (Qepaxvai, also Qepdnvri, Dor. &e- 
pdtrva : Qepanvaioc). 1. A town in Laconia, on 
the left bank of the Eurotas, and a little above 
Sparta. It received its name from Therapne, 
daughter of Lelex, and is celebrated in mythol- 
ogy as the birth-place of Castor and Pollux, and 
contained temples of these divinities as well as 
temples of Menelaus and Helen, both of whom 
were said to be buried here. — 2. A town in Boe- 
otia, on the road from Thebes to the Asopus. 

[Therapne (Oepdirvrj). Vid. Therapnve, No 
1] 

Theras. Vid. Thera. 

Therasia. Vid. Thera. 

Thericles {Qr/piK^ijc), a Corinthian potter, 
whose works obtained such celebrity that they 
became known throughout Greece by the name 
of 0>ipiK?i£ta (sc. norripia) or kvXikss QiipWheiai 
(or -q()> and these names were applied not only 
to cups of earthen-ware, but also to those of 
wood, glass, gold, and silver. Some scholars 
make Thericles a contemporary of Aristopha- 
nes ; but others deny the existence of Thericles 
altogether, and contend that the name of these 
vases is a descriptive one, derived from the 
figures of animals (dqpta) with which they were 
adorned. 



THERMA. 



THESEUS. 



Therma {Qepfin '■ Qeppatoc), a town in Mace- 
donia, afterward called Thessalonlca (vid. Thes- 
salonica), situated at the northeastern extrem- 
ity of a great gulf of the ^Egean Sea, lying be- 
tween Thessaly and the peninsula Chalcidice, 
and called Thermaicus or Therm^eus Sinus 
(Qep/xaioe ko^ttoc), from the town at its head. 
This gulf was also called Macedonicus Sinus : 
its modern name is Gulf of Saloniki. 

Thermae (Qep/iat), a town in Sicily, built by 
the inhabitants of Himera after the destruction 
of the latter city by the Carthaginians. For 
details, vid. Himera. 

Thermaicus Sinus. Fid. Therma. 

THERMODON(Oep^t3(5oi' : now Thermeh), a river 
of Pontus, in. the district of Themiscyra, the 
reputed country of the Amazons, rises in a 
mountain called Amazonius Mons (and still 
called Mason Dagh), near Phanaroea, and falls 
into the sea about thirty miles east of the mouth 
of the Iris, after a short course, but with so 
large a body of water, that its breadth, accord- 
ing to Xenophon, was three plethra (above three 
hundred feet), and it was navigable. At its 
mouth was the city of Themiscyra ; and there 
is still, on the western side of the mouth of the 
Therrneh, a place of the same name, Thermeh. 

Thermopylae, often called simply Pyl^s: (Qep- 
uonvXai, IlvXaL), that is, the Hot Gates, or the 
Gates, a celebrated pass leading from Thessaly 
into Locris. It lay between Mount CEta and 
an inaccessible morass, forming the edge of the 
Maliac Gulf. At one end of the pass, close to 
Anthela, the mountain approached so close to 
the morass as to leave room for only a single 
carriage between ;' this narrow entrance formed 
the western gate of Thermopylae. About a 
mile to the east the mountain again approached 
close to the sea, near the Locrian town of Al- 
peni, thus forming the eastern gate of Ther- 
mopylae. The space between these two gates 
was wider and more open, and was distinguish- 
ed by its abundant flow of hot springs, which 
were sacred to Hercules : hence the name of 
the place. Thermopylae was the only pass by 
which an enemy could penetrate from northern 
into Southern Greece, whence its great import- 
ance in Grecian history. It is especially cele- 
brated on account of the heroic defence of Le- 
onidas and the three hundred Spartans against 
the mighty host of Xerxes ; and they only fell 
through the Persians having discovered a path 
over the mountains, and thus being enabled to 
attack the Greeks in the rear. This mountain 
path commenced from the neighborhood of 
Trachis, ascended the gorge of the River Aso- 
pus and the hill called Anopaea, then crossed 
the crest of CEta, and descended in the rear of 
Thermopylae, near the town of Alpeni. 

Thermum or Therma (Qe.pp.ov or ra Q(pfta), 
a town of the ^Etolians, near Stratus, with warm 
mineral springs, was regarded for some time as 
the capital of the country, since it was the place 
of meeting of the Jitolian confederacy. 

Thermus, Minucius. 1. Q., served under 
Scipio as tribunus militum in the war against 
Hannibal in Africa in B.C. 202; was tribune 
of the plebs 201 ; curule aedile 197 ; and praetor 
196, when he carried on war with great success 
in Nearer Spain. He was consul in 193, and 
carried on war against the Ligurians in this and 



the two following years. Or. his return to tlomo 
in 190, a triumph was refused him, through the 
influence of M. Cato, who delivered on the oc 
casion his two orations entitled De AecemHomin 
ibus and De falsis Pugnis. Thermus was killed 
in 188, while fighting under Cn. Manlius Vulso 
against the Thracians. — 2. M., propraetor in 81, 
accompanied L. Murena, Sulla's legate, into 
Asia. Thermus was engaged in the siege of 
Mytilene, and it was under him that Julius Cae- 
sar served his first campaign and gained his 
first laurels. — 3. Q., propraetor 51 and 50 in Asia, 
where he received many letters from Cicero, 
who praises his administration of the province. 
On the breaking out of the civil war he espous- 
ed the side of Pompey. 

Theron (Qr;pidv), tyrant of Agrigentum in 
Sicily, was the son of JEnesidemus, and de- 
scended from one of the most illustrious fam- 
ilies in his native city. He obtained the su- 
preme power about B.C. 488, and retained it 
till his death in 472. He conquered Himera in 
482, and united this powerful city to his own 
dominions. He was in close alliance with Ge- 
lon, ruler of Syracuse and Gela, to whom he 
had given his daughter Demarete in marriage ; 
and he shared with Gelon in the great victory 
gained over the Carthaginians in 480. On the 
death of Gelon in 478, Theron espoused the 
cause of Polyzelus, who had been driven into 
exile by his brother Hieron. Theron raised an 
army for the purpose of reinstating him, but 
hostilities were prevented, and a peace con- 
cluded between the two sovereigns. 

Thersander (QepaavSpos), son of Polynices 
and Argia, and one of the Epigoni, was married 
to Demonassa, by whom he became the father 
of Tisamenus. He went with Agamemnon to 
Troy, and was slain in that expedition by Tele- 
phus. His tomb was shown at Elaea in Mysia, 
where sacrifices were offered to him. Virgil 
(Mn., ii., 261) enumerates Thersander among 
the Greeks concealed in the wooden horse. 
Homer does not mention him. 

[Thersilochus (Qepoikoxos), aPaeonian chief- 
tain, an ally of the Trojans, killed by Achilles.] 

Thersites (Gcpffi'rjjf), son of Agrius, the most 
deformed [and ugliest of the Greeks that came 
beneath the walls of Troy, and, at the same 
time, the most loquacious busy-body and fault- 
finder in the Greek army. He was especially 
fond of abusing Achilles and Ulysses ; and, oa 
one occasion, having assailed Agamemnon him- 
self with his revilings, Ulysses inflicted sum- 
mary punishment upon him with his sceptre in 
the assembly of the Greeks, and caused him to 
sit down quietly.] According to the later poets, 
he was killed by Achilles because he had ridi- 
culed him for lamenting the death of Penthe- 
silea, queen of the Amazons. 

Theseus (Qnuevc), the great legendary hero 
of Attica, was the son of^Egeus, king of Athens, 
and of ^Ethra, the daughter of Pittheus, king 
of Trcezen. He was brought up at Troezen ; 
and when he reached maturity, he took, by his 
mother's directions, the sword and sandals, the 
tokens which had been left by iEgeus, and pro- 
ceeded to Athens. Eager to emulate Hercules, 
he went by land, displaying his prowess by de- 
stroying the robbers and monsters that infested 
the country. Periphetes, Sinis, Phaea the Crom 

879 



THESEUS. 



THESPLE. 



myorftan sow, Sciron, Cercyon, and Procrustes 
fell before him. At Athens he was immediately 
recognized by Medea, who laid a plot for poison- 
ing him at a banquet to which he was invited. 
By means of the sword which he carried, The- 
seus was recognized by iEgeus, acknowledged 
as his son, and declared his successor. The 
sons of Pallas, thus disappointed in their hopes 
of succeeding to the throne, attempted to se- 
cure the succession by violence, and declared 
war ; but, being betrayed by the herald Leos, 
were destroyed. The capture of the Maratho- 
nian bull, which had long laid waste the sur- 
rounding country, was the next exploit of The- 
seus. After this Theseus went of his own ac- 
cord as one of the seven youths, whom the 
Athenians were obliged to send every year, 
with seven maidens, to Crete, in order to be 
devoured by the Minotaur. When they arrived 
Et Crete, Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, be- 
came enamored of Theseus, and provided him 
with a sword with which he slew the Minotaur, 
and a clew of thread by which he found his way 
out of the labyrinth. Having effected his ob- 
ject, Theseus sailed away, carrying off Ariadne. 
There were various accounts about Ariadne ; 
but, according to the general account, Theseus 
abandoned her in the island of Naxos on his 
way home. Vid. Ariadne. He was generally 
believed to have had by her two sons, CEnopion 
and Staphylus. As the vessel in which The- 
seus sailed approached Attica, he neglected to 
hoist the white sail, which was to have been 
the signal of the success of the expedition ; 
whereupon ^Egeus, thinking that his son had 
perished, threw himself into the sea. Vid. 
/Egeus. Theseus thus became King of Athens. 
One of the most celebrated of the adventures 
of Theseus was his expedition against the Ama- 
zons. He is said to have assailed them before 
they had recovered from the attack of Hercules, 
and to have carried off their queen Antiope. 
The Amazons, in their turn, invaded Attica, 
and penetrated into Athens itself ; and the final 
battle in which Theseus overcame them was 
fought in the very midst of the city. By An- 
tiope Theseus was said to have had a son named 
Hippolytus orDemophoon, and after her death to 
have married Phasdra. ( Vid. Hippoi-ytus, Phae- 
dra.) Theseus figures in almost all the great 
heroic expeditions. He was one of the Argo- 
nauts (the anachronism of the attempt of Me- 
dea to poison him does not seem to have been 
noticed) ; he joined in the Calydonian hunt, 
and aided Adrastus in recovering the bodies 
of those slain before Thebes. He contracted 
a close friendship with Pirithous, and aided 
him and the Lapitha; against the Centaurs. 
With the assistance of Pirithous he carried 
off Helen from Sparta while she was quite a 
girl, and placed her at Aphidnae, under the 
care of iEthra. In return, he assisted Pirith- 
ous in his attempt to carry off Proserpina (Per- 
sephone) from the lower world. Pirithous per- 
ished in the enterprise, and Theseus was kept 
in hard durance until he was delivered by Her- 
cules. Meantime Castor and Pollux invaded 
Attica, and carried off Helen and ^Ethra, Aca- 
demus having informed the brothers where 
they were to be found. {Vid. Academus.) Me- 
nestheus also endeavored to incite the peo- 
880 



pie against Theseus, who, on his return, found 
i himself unable to re-establish his authority, 
and retired to Scyros, where he met with a 
< treacherous death at the hands of Lycomedes. 
| The departed hero was believed to have ap- 
| peared to aid the Athenians at the battle of 
Marathon. In 469 the bones of Theseus were 
discovered by Cimon in Scyros, and brougl t to 
Athens, where they were deposited in a teuple 
(the Thcscum) erected in honor of the hero. A 
considerable part of this temple still remains, 
forming one of the most interesting monuments 
of Athens. A festival in honor of Theseus was 
celebrated on the eighth day of each month, es- 
pecially on the eighth of Pyanepsion. There can 
be no doubt that Theseus is a purely legendary 
personage. Nevertheless, in later times the 
Athenians came to regard him as the author of 
a very important political revolution in Attica. 
Before his time Attica had been broken up into 
twelve petty independent states or townships, 
acknowledging no head, and connected only by 
a federal union. Theseus abolished the sep- 
arate governments, and erected Athens into the 
capital of a single commonwealth. The festival 
of the Panatheneea was instituted to commem- 
orate this important revolution. Theseus is 
said to have established a constitutional govern- 
ment, retaining in his own hands only certain 
definite powers and functions. He is further 
said to have distributed the Athenian citizens 
into the three classes of Eupatridae, Geomori, 
and Demiurgi. It would be a vain task to at- 
tempt to decide whether there is any historical 
basis for the legends about Theseus, and still 
more so to endeavor to separate the historical 
from the legendary in what has been preserved. 
The Theseus of the Athenians was a hero who 
fought the Amazons, and slew the Minotaur, 
and carried offHelen. A personage who should 
be nothing more than a wise king, consolidating 
the Athenian commonwealth, however possible 
his existence might be, would have no historical 
reality. The connection of Theseus with Po-i 
seidon (Neptune), the national deity of the Ionic 
tribes, his coming from the Ionic town Troezen, 
forcing his way through the Isthmus into Atti- 
ca, and establishing the Isthmia as an Ionic 
Panegyris, rather suggest that Theseus is, at 
least in part, the mythological representative of ■ 
an Ionian immigration into Attica, which, add- 
ing, perhaps, to the strength and importance of 
Ionian settlers already in the country, might 
easily have led to that political aggregation of 
the disjointed elements of the state which is 
assigned to Theseus. 

Thesmia or Thesmophoros (Qcauia, Qsa/iO(j>6 
poc), that is, "the law-giver," a surname of De- 
meter (Ceres) and Persephone (Proserpina), in 
honor of whom the Thcsmophoria were cele- 
brated at Athens in the month of Pyanepsion. 

Thespue or Thespia (Osanctac, Qea-nriai, Oea- 
neia, Qianta : Qeamsvc, QcaniaS^c, Thespiensis : 
now Ercmo or Rimokastro), an ancient town in 
Boeotia, on the southeastern slope of Mount Hel- 
icon, at no great distance from the Crissaean 
Gulf. Its inhabitants did not follow the exam- 
ple of the other Boeotian towns in submitting 
to Xerxes, and a number of them bravely fought 
under Leonidas at Thermopylae, and perished 
with the Spartans. Their city was burned to 



[ 



THESPIS. 

the ground by the Persians, but was subse- 
quent rebuilt. In the Peloponnesian war the 
Thffbans made themselves masters of the town. 
At Thespiae was preserved the celebrated mar- 
ble statue of Eros by Praxiteles, who had given 
it to Phryne, by whom it was presented to her 
native town. Vid. Praxiteles. From the vi- 
cinity of the town to Mount Helicon the Muses 
are called Tkespiades, and Helicon itself is 
named the Thespia rupes. 

Thespis (Qiatvu;), the celebrated father of 
Greek tragedy, was a contemporary of Pisistra- 
tus, and a native of Icarus, one of the demi in 
Attica, where the worship of Bacchus (Diony- 
sus) had long prevailed. The alteration made 
by Thespis, and which gave to the old tragedy 
a new and dramatic character, was very simple 
but very important. He introduced an actor, 
for the sake of giving rest to the chorus, and 
independent of it, in which capacity he proba- 
bly appeared himself, taking various parts in 
the same piece, under various disguises, which 
he was enabled to assume by means of the linen 
masks, the invention of which is ascribed to 
him. The first representation of Thespis was 
in B.C. 535. For further details, vid. Diet, of 
Anliq., art. Tragcedia. 

ThespIus (Qeawioc), son of Erechtheus, who. 
according to some, founded the town of Thes- 
piae in Bceotia. His descendants are called 
Thespiada. 

Thesproti (OeoTrpuToi), a people of Epirus, 
inhabiting the district called after them Thes- 
protia (Beairpurta) or Thesprotis (QeavrpuTtc), 
which extended along the coast from the Am- 
bracian Gulf northward as far as the River Thy- 
amis, and inland as far as the territory of the 
Molossi. The southeastern part of the country 
on the coast, from the River Acheron to the 
Ambracian Gulf, was called Cassopaea, from the 
town Cassope, and is sometimes reckoned a 
distinct district. The Thesproti were the most 
ancient inhabitants of Epirus, and are said to 
have derived their name from Thesprotus, the 
son of Lycaon. They were Pelasgians, and 
their country was one of the chief seats of the 
Pelasgic nation. Here was the oracle of Dodo- 
na, the great centre of the Pelasgic worship. 
From Thesprotia issued the Thessalians, who 
took possession of the country afterward called 
Thessaly. In the historical period the Thes- 
protians were a people of small importance, 
having become subject to the kings of" the Mo- 
lossians. 

Thessalia (QtcoaAia or QerraMa ■ Beaca\6c 
or 6eTra?.6c), the largest division of Greece, was 
bounded on the north by the Cambunian Mount- 
ains, which separated it from Macedonia ; on 
the west by Mount Pindus, which separated it 
from Epirus ; on the east by the ^Egean Sea ; 
and on the south by the Maliac Gulf and Mount 
CEta, which separated it from Locris, Phocis, 
and ^Etolia. Thessaly Proper is a vast plain, 
lying between the Cambunian Mountains on 
the north and Mount Othrys on the south, 
Mount Pindus on the west, and Mounts Ossa and 
Pelion on the east. It is thus shut in on every 
side by mountain barriers, broken only at the 
northeastern corner by the valley and defile 
of Tempe, which separates Ossa from Olym- 
pus, and is the only road through which an in- 



THESSALIA. 

vader can enter Thessaly from the west. This 
plain is drained by the River Peneus and its 
affluents, and is said to have been originally a 
vast lake, the waters of which were afterward 
carried off through the Vale of Tempe by some 
sudden convulsion, which rent the rocks of 
this valley asunder. The Lake of Nessonis, at 
the foot of Mount Ossa, and that of Bcr.beis, at 
the foot of Mount Pelion, are supposed to have 
been remains of this vast lake. In addition to 
the plain already described, there were two 
other districts included under the general name 
of Thessaly : one called Magnesia, being a long, 
narrow strip of country, extending along the 
coast of the ^Egean Sea from Tempe to the 
Pagaseean Gulf, and bounded on the west by 
Mounts Ossa and Olympus ; and the other be- 
ing a long narrow vale at the extreme south 
of the country, lying between Mounts Othrys 
and (Eta, and drained by the River Sperche- 
us. Thessaly is said to have been originally 
known by the names of Pyrrha, Mmonia, and 
Molis. ' The two former appellations belong 
to mythology ; the latter refers to the period 
when the country was inhabited by ^Eolians, 
who were afterward expelled from the coun- 
try by the Thessalians about sixty years after 
the Trojan war. The Thessalians are said to 
have come from Thesprotia ; but at what pe- 
riod their name became the name of the coun- 
try can not be determined. It does not occur 
in Homer, who only mentions the several prin- 
cipalities of which it was composed, and does 
not give any general appellation to the country. 
Thessaly was divided in very early times into 
four districts or tetrarchies, a division which 
we still find subsisting in the Peloponnesian 
war. These districts were Hestimotis, Pelasgio- 
tis, Thessaliotis, and Phthiotis. They comprised, 
however, only the great Thessalian plain ; and 
besides them, we find mention of four other dis- 
tricts, viz., Magnesia, Dolopia, CEtaa, and Malis. 
Thus there were eight districts altogether. 
Perrhabia was, properly speaking, not a district, 
since Perrhtebi was the name of a Pelasgic 
people settled in Hestiaeotis and Pelasgiotis. 
Vid. Perrh^ebi. 1. Hestiaeotis ('EaTtaiuTic or 
'Eotcutlc), inhabited by the Hestiabta ('Eanac- 
urai or 'EoTitirai), the northwestern part of 
Thessaly, bounded on the north by Macedonia, 
on the west by Epirus, on the east by Pelasgi- 
otis, and on the south by Thessaliotis : the Pe- 
neus may be said in general to have formed its 
southern limit. — 2. Pelasgiotis (Tle^aayMTic), 
inhabited by the Pclasgibla (UeXaayuoTat), the 
eastern part of the Thessalian plain, was bound- 
ed on the north by Macedonia, on the west by 
Hestiaeotis, on the east by Magnesia, and on the 
south by the Sinus Pagasaeus and Phthiotis. 
The name shows that it was originally inhabited 
by Pelasgians ; and one of the chief towns in 
the district was Larissa, which was of Pelas- 
gic origin. — 3. Thessaliotis (Qeaaa^iur^), the 
southwestern part of the Thessalian plain, so 
called because it was first occupied by the Thes- 
salians who came from Thesprotia. It was 
bounded on the north by Hestiaeotis, on the 
west by Epirus, on the east by Pelasgiotis, and 
on the south by Dolopia and Phthiotis — 4. 
Phthiotis (QOlutic), inhabited by the Phlhibla 
tidiurai), the southeast of Thessaly, bounded 

881 



THESSALIA. 



THESSALONICA. 



on the north by Thessaliotis, on the west by 
Dolopia, on the south by the Sinus Maliacus, 
and on the east by the Pagasaean Gulf. Its in- 
habitants were Achaeans, and are frequently 
called the Achaean Phthiotae. It is in this dis- 
trict that Homer places Phthia and Hellas 
Proper, and the dominions of Achilles. — 5. Mag- 
nesia. Vid. Magnesia. — 6. Doi.opia (boloKia), 
inhabited by the Dolopes (Adlo-irer), a small dis- 
trict bounded on the east by Phthiotis, on the 
north by Thessaliotis, on the west by Athama- 
nia, and on the sou»by CEtaea. They were 
an ancient people, for they are not only men- 
tioned by Homer as fighting before Troy, but 
they also sent deputies to the Amphictyonic as- 
sembly. — 7. GEtvea (Ohala), inhabited by the 
OEtai (0'iTalot) and Mnianes (Aiviavec), a dis- 
trict in the upper valley of the Spercheus, lying 
between Mounts Othrys and (Eta, and bounded 
on the north by Dolopia, on the south by Phocis, 
and on the east by Malis. — 8. Malis. Vid. Ma- 
lis. — History of Thessaly. The Thessalians, as 
we have already seen, were aThesprotian tribe. 
Under the guidance of leaders, who are said to 
have been descendants of Hercules, they in- 
vaded the western part of the country, afterward 
called Thessaliotis, and drove out or reduced to 
the condition of Penestae or bondsmen the an- 
cient ^Eolian inhabitants. The Thessalians 
afterward spread over the other parts of the 
country, compelling the , Perrhaebi, Magnetes, 
Achaean Phthiotae, etc., to submit to their au- 
thority and pay them tribute. The population 
of Thessaly, therefore, consisted, like that of 
Laconia, of three distinct classes: 1. The Pe- 
nestae, whose condition was nearly the same as 
that of the Helots. 2. The subject people, cor- 
responding to the Perioeci of Laconia. 3. The 
Thessalian conquerors, who alone had any share 
in the public administration, and whose lands 
were cultivated by the Penestae. For some 
time after the conquest, Thessaly was governed 
by kings of the race of Hercules ; but the kingly 
power seems to have been abolished in early 
times, and the government in the separate cities 
became oligarchical, the power being chiefly in 
the hands of a few great families descended 
from the ancient kings. Of these, two of the 
most powerful were the Aleuadae and the Sco- 
padae, the former of whom ruled at Larissa, and 
the latter at Cranon or Crannon. These nobles 
had vast estates cultivated by the Penestae ; 
they were celebrated for their hospitality and 
princely mode of life ; and they attracted to 
their courts many of the poets and artists of 
Southern Greece. At an early period the Thes- 
salians were united into a confederate body. 
Each of the four districts into which the coun- 
try was divided probably regulated its affairs 
by some kind of provincial council ; and, when 
occasion required, a chief magistrate was elect- 
ed under the name of Tagus (Tayor), whose 
commands were obeyed b^all the four districts. 
His command was of a military rather than of 
a civil nature, and he seems to have been ap- 
pointed only n case of war. We do not know 
the extent of his constitutional power, nor the 
time for which he held his office ; probably 
neither was precisely fixed, and depended on 
the circumstances of the time and character of 
the individual. This confederacy, however, 
882 



was not of much practical benefit to the Thes- 
salian people, and appears to have been only 
used by the Thessalian nobles as a means of 
cementing and maintaining their power. The 
Thessalians never became of much importance 
in Grecian history. They submitted to the Per- 
sians on their invasion of Greece, and they ex- 
ercised no important influence on Grecian af- 
fairs till after the end of the Peloponnesian war. 
About this time the power of the aristocratical 
families began to decline, and Lycophron, who 
had established himself as a tyrant at Pherae, 
offered a formidable opposition to the great aris- 
tocratical families, and endeavored to extend 
his power over all Thessaly. His ambitious 
schemes were realized by Jason, the successor, 
and probably the son of Lycophron, who caused 
himself to be elected Tagus about B.C. 374. 
While he lived the whole of Thessaly was 
united as one political power, and he began to 
aim at making himself master of all Greece, 
when he was assassinated in 370. The office 
of Tagus became a tyranny under his success- 
ors, Polydorus, Polyphron, Alexander, Tisiphon, 
and Lycophron ; but at length the old aristo- 
cratical families called in the assistance of 
Philip of Macedonia, who deprived Lycophron 
of his power in 353, and restored the ancient 
government in the different towns. The coun 
try, however, only changed masters ; for a few 
years later (344) Philip made it completely sub- 
ject to Macedonia, by placing at the head "of the 
four divisions of the country governors devoted 
to his interests, and probably members of the 
ancient noble families, who had now become 
little better than his vassals. From this time 
Thessaly remained in a state of dependence 
upon the Macedonian kings, till the victory of 
T. Flamininus at Cynoscephalae in 197 again 
gave them a semblance of independence under 
the protection of the Romans. 

Thessalonica (6eoca?iovtK7i), daughter of 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, by his 
wife or concubine Nicesipolis of Pherae. She 
was taken prisoner by Cassander along with 
Olympias on the capture of Pydna in B.C. 317 ; 
and Cassander embraced the opportunity to 
connect himself with the ancient royal house 
of Macedonia by marrying her. By Cassander 
she became the mother of three sons, Philip, 
Antipater, and Alexander ; and her husband 
paid her the honor of conferring her name upon 
the city of Thessalonica, which he founded on 
the site of the ancient Therma. (Vid. below.) 
After the death of Cassander, Thessalonica was 
put to death by her son Antipater, 295. 

Thessalonica (&EooakovLiiri, also QsooaXovi- 
Keia : QeaaakovLKevc : now Saloniki), more an- 
ciently Therma (Oepfirj : Qepftatoe), an ancient 
city in Macedonia, situated at the northeastern 
extremity of the Sinus Thermaicus. Under 
the name of Therma it was not a place of much 
importance. It was taken and occupied by the 
Athenians a short time before the commence- 
ment of the Peloponnesian war (B.C. 432), but 
was soon afterward restored by them to Per- 
diccas. It was made an important city by Cas- 
sander, who collected in this place the inhabit- 
ants of several adjacent towns (about B.C. 
315), and who gave it the name of Thessalo- 
nica, in honor of his wife, the daughter of Philip 



THESSALUS. 



THILSAPHATA. 



j and sister of Alexander the Great. From this 
time it hecame a large and flourishing city. Its 
harhor was well situated for commercial inter- 
course with the Hellespont and the iEgean ; 
and under the Romans it had the additional ad- 
vantage of lying on the Via Egnatia, which led 
from the western shores of Greece to Byzantium 
and the East. It was visited by the Apostle 
Paul about A.D. 53 ; and about tw# years after- 
ward he addressed from Corinth two epistles 
to his converts in the city. Thessalonica con- 
tinued to be, under the empire, one of the most 
important cities of Macedonia ; and at a later 
time it became the residence of the prefect, and 
the capital of the Illyrian provinces. It is cele- 
brated at this period on account of the fearful 
massacre of its inhabitants by order of Theodo- 
6ius, in consequence of a riot in which some of 
the Roman officers had been assassinated by 
the populace. Vid. Theodosius. 

[Thessalus (Qeaaa?.dg). 1. Sin of Hercu- 
les and Chalciope (the daughter of Eurypylus, 
king of Cos), and father of Phidippus and Anti- 
phus. — 2. An eminent tragic actor in the time 
of Alexander the Great, whose special favor he 

l enjoyed, and whom he served before his acces- 
sion to the throne, and afterward accompanied 
on his expedition into Asia.] 

Thessalus (QeaaaTiog.) 1. A Greek physi- 
cian, son of Hippocrates, passed some of his 
time at the court of Archelaus, king of Mace- 
donia, who reigned B.C. 413-399. He was one 
* of the founders of the sect of the Dogmatici, 
and is several times highly praised by Galen, 
who calls him the most eminent of the sons 
of Hippocrates. He was supposed by some of 
the ancient writers to be the author of several 
of the works that form part of the Hippocratic 
Collection, which he might have compiled from 
notes left by his father. — 2. Also a Greek phy- 
sician, was a native of Tralles in Lydia, and 
one of the founders of the medical sect of the 
Methodici. He lived at Rome in the reign of 
the Emperor Nero, A.D. 54-68, to whom he 
addressed one of his works ; and here he died 
and was buried, and his tomb was to be seen 
in Pliny's time on the Via Appia. He consid- 
ered himself superior to all his predecessors ; 
he asserted that none of them had contributed 
anything to the advance of medical science, and 
boasted that he could himself teach the art of 
healing in six months. He is frequently men- 
tioned by Galen, but always in terms of contempt 
and ridicule. None of his works are extant. 

Thestius (Gcoriof), son of Mars (Ares) and 
Demonice or Androdice, and, according to oth- 
ers, son of Agenor, and grandson of Pleuron, the 
king of iEtolia. He was the father of Iphiclus, 
Euippus, Plexippus, Eurypylus, Leda, Althaea, 
and Hypermnestra. His wife is not the same 
in all traditions, some calling her Leucippe or 
Laophonte, a daughter of Pleuron, and others 
Deidamla. The patronymic Thestiades is 
given to his grandson Meleager, as well as to 
his sons, and the female patronymic Thestias 
to his daughter Althaea, the mother of Melea- 
ger. 

Thestor (Oscrup). I. Son of Idmon and 
Laothoe, and father of Calchas, Theoclyme- 
nus, Leucippe, and Theonoe. The patronymic 
Thestokides is frequently given to his son 



Calchas. — [2. A Trojan warrior, son of Enops 
slain by Patroclus.] 

Thetis (9e'nf), one of the daughters of Ne- 
reus and Doris, was the wife of Peleus, by 
whom she hecame the mother of Achilles. As 
a marine divinity, she dwelt like her sisters, 
the Nereids, in the depth of the sea, with her 
father Nereus. She there received Bacchus 
(Dionysus) on his flight from Lycurgus, and 
the god, in his gratitude, presented her with a 
golden urn. When Hephaestus (Vulcan) was 
thrown down from heaven, he was likewise re- 
ceived by Thetis. She had been brought up by 
Hera (Juno), and when she reached the age of 
maturity, Zeus (Jupiter) and Hera (Juno) gave 
her, against her will, in marriage to Peleus 
Poseidon (Neptune) and Zeus (Jupiter) himself 
are said by some to have sued for her hand ; but 
when Themis declared that the son of Thetis 
would be more illustrious than his father, both 
gods desisted from their suit. Others state 
that Thetis rejected the offers of Zeus (Jupiter), 
because she had been brought up by Hera 
(Juno) ; and the god, to revenge himself, de- 
creed that she should marry a mortal. Chiron 
then informed Peleus how he might gain pos- 
session of her, even if she should metamorphose 
herself ; for Thetis, like Proteus, had the power 
of assuming any form she pleased ; and she had 
recourse to this means of escaping from Peleus, 
but the latter, instructed by Chiron, held the 
goddess fast till she again assumed her proper 
form, and promised to marry him. The wed- 
ding of Peleus was honored with the presence 
of all the gods, with the exception of Eris or 
Discord, who was not invited, and who avenged 
herself by throwing among the assembled gods 
the apple, which was the source of so much 
misery. Vid. Paris. After Thetis had become 
the mother of Achilles, she bestowed upon him 
the tenderest care and love. Vid. Achilles. 

Theupolis {Beovno?at), a later name given to 
the city of Antioch in Syria, on account of its 
eminence in the early history of Christianity. 

Theuprosofon (Qeov irpocuirov, i. e., the face 
of a god : now Ras-esh-Shukeh ; Arab. Wejch- 
el-Khiar, i. e., a face of stone), a lofty rugged 
promontory on the coast of Phcenice, between 
Tripolis and Byblus, formed by a spur of Leb- 
anon, and running far out to sea. Some travel- 
lers have fancied that they can trace in its side 
view that resemblance to a human profile which 
its name implies. 

Theveste (QeoveaTT; : ruins at Tebessa), a con- 
siderable city of Northern Africa, on the frontier 
of Numidia and Byzacena, at the centre of sev- 
eral roads. It was of comparatively late ori- 
gin, and a Roman colony. Among its recently 
discovered ruins are a fine triumphal arch and 
the old walls of the city, the circuit of which 
was large enough to have contained forty thou- 
sand inhabitants. 

Thia (Beta), daughter of Coelus (Uranus) and 
Terra (Ge), one of the female Titans, became by 
Hyperion the mother of Helios, Eos (Aurora), 
and Selene, that is, she was regarded as tho 
deity from whom all light proceeded. 

[Thibron. Vid. Thimbron.] 

Thilsaphata (now probably Tell Afad, be 
tween Mosul and Sinjar), a town of Mesopota- 
mia near the Tigris. 

883 



THILUTHA. 

Tiiilctha, a fort in the south of Mesopotamia, 
jn an island in the Euphrates. Some identify 
it with Olabus, and that with the fort now called 
Zobia or Juba in about 34° north latitude. 

[Thimbron (9i,u6puv) or THiBRON(6i'6 ( o(ji'). 1. 
A Lacedaemonian, was sent as harmost in B.C. 
400, with an army of five thousand men, to aid 
the Ionians against Tissaphernes. He arrived 
in Asia about the time of the return of the Greek 
mercenaries of Cyrus from Upper Asia, and at 
once engaged them to serve with him against 
Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus. With their 
aid he captured several cities. — 2. A Lacedae- 
monian, an officer under Harpalus, Macedonian 
satrap of Babylon. After his death he got pos- 
session of his treasures, fleet, and army, and 
laid siege to Cyrene in Africa. He took their 
port Apollonia, and would have succeeded but 
for the desertion of his officer 'Mnasicles, under 
Whose direction the Cyreneans recovered most 
of what they had previously lost. A force having 
been sent against him from Egypt under Ophel- 
ias, he was defeated, and soon after fell into the 
hands of some Libyans, by whom he was deliv- 
ered up, taken to Apollonia, and crucified.] 

Thin^e or Thina (Qlvai, Qlva), a chief city of 
the Sin^e, and a great emporium for the silk and 
wool trade of the extreme East. Some seek it 
on the eastern coast of China, others on the 
southeastern coast of Cochin-China. 

Thiodamas (Qeioddfiac), father of Hylas, and 
King of the Dryopes. 

This (Qic : Qivirrjc), a great city of Upper 
Egypt, capital of the Thinites Nomos, and the 
seat of some of the ancient dynasties. It was 
either the same place as Abydus (No. 2), or 
was so near it as to be entirely supplanted by 
Abydus. 

Thisbe {Qia&ri), a beautiful Babylonian maid- 
en, beloved by Pyramus. The lovers, living in 
adjoining houses, often secretly conversed with 
each other through a hole in the wall, as their 
parents would not sanction their marriage. 
Once they agreed upon a rendezvous at the 
tomb of Ninus. Thisbe arrived first, and, while 
she was waiting for Pyramus, she perceived a 
lioness which had just torn to pieces an ox, and 
took to flight. While running she lost her gar- 
ment, which the lioness soiled with blood. In 
the mean time Pyramus arrived, and, finding her 
garment covered with blood, he imagined that 
she had been murdered, and made away with 
himself under a mulberry-tree, the fruit of which 
henceforth was as red as blood. Thisbe, who 
afterward found the body of her lover, likewise 
killed herself. 

Thisbe, afterward Thisb^e (Qlcs6ti, OioSai : 
Oia6aloc, Qiafevc : now Kakosia), a town of 
Boeotia, on the borders of Phocis, and between 
Mount Helicon and the Corinthian Gulf. It was 
famed for its number of wild pigeons, which 
are still found in abundance in the neighbor- 
hood of Kakosia. 

Thisoa (Qtioba : BeiaodrTic), a town in Ar- 
cadia, on Mount Lyeasus, called after a nymph 
of the same name. 

[Thius (Qeiovc, now Kutufarina), a river in 
Northern Laconia, which joins the Alpheus on 
the borders of Arcadia.] 

Thmuis (Q/xovic : ruins at Tmaie, near Man- 
iourah), a city of Lower Esrypt, on a canal on 
884 



THOON. i 

the eastern side of the Mendesian mouth of the 
Nile. It was a chief seat of the worship of the i 
god Mendes (the Egyptian Pan), under the sym- i 
bol of a goat ; and, according to Jerome, "the |i 
I word Thmuis signifies goat. It was the chief 
| city of the Nomos Thmultes, which was after- p 
ward united with the Mendesian Nomos. 

Thoantea, a surname of the Taurian Artemi3, ij 
derived fron| Thoas, king of Tauris. 
Thoas (96af.) 1. Son of Andrsemon and 
! Gorge, was king of Calydon and Pleuron, in 1 
; iEtolia, and sailed with forty ships against Troy. : 
— 2. Son of Bacchus (Dionysus) and Ariadne, f 
; was king of Lemnos, and married to Myrina, by f 
J whom he became the father of Hypsipyle and ! 
I Sicinus. When the Lemnian women killed all > 
I the men in the island, Hypsipyle saved her I 
! father Thoas, and concealed him. Afterward, 
however, he was discovered by the other worn- 
, en and killed ; or, according to other accounts, 
he escaped t^Taurus, or to the island of GEnoe I 
near Eubcea, which was henceforth called Si- 
cinus. The patronymic Thoantias is given to I 
Hypsipyle, as the daughter of Thoas. — 3. Son | 
of Borysthenes, and king of Tauris, into whose 
dominions Iphigenia was carried by Diana (Ar- 
temis) when she was to iave been sacrificed. 
—[4. Son of Jason and Hypsipyle, grandson of 
No. 2, according to Homer, while others called 
him Deiphilus or Nebrophonus. — 5. Son of 

Icarius and Peribcea, brother of Penelope. 

6. A Trojan warrior, slain by Menelaus at the D 
siege of Troy. — 7. A Trojan warrior, accom- 'j 
panied ^Eneas to Italy, where he was slain by i 
Halesus.] i 

Thomas Magister, a rhetorician and gram- 
marian, who flourished about A.D. 1310. He 
was a native of Thessalonica, and lived at the 
court of the Emperor Andronicus Palaeologus I., 
where he held the offices of marshal (Magister \ 
Officiorum) and keeper of the archives (Ciiarto- 
■phylax) ; but he afterward retired to a monas- 
tery, where he assumed the name of Thcodulus. ■ 
and devoted himself to the study of the ancient j 
Greek authors. His chief work, which ha? 
come down to us, is a Lexicon of Attic Word* \> 
(Kara ' ATicpdSr/rov bvofidruv Wttckuv 'E/iAoyoi'), | 
compiled from the works of the elder gramma || 
rians, such as Phrynichus, Ammonius, Herodian 
and Mceris. The work has some value on ac- 
count of its containing much from the eldei i|{ 
grammarians, which would otherwise have been 
lost ; but, when Thomas deserts his guides, he 
often falls into the most serious errors. The |j 
best edition is by Ritschl, Halis Sax., 1831, 
1832, 8vo. 

[Thon (Guv), husband of Polydamna, re- ' ! 
nowned for his wealth, a king in Egypt, receiv- j :j 
ed Menelaus hospitably when he came thither 
with Helen after the Trojan war, and bestowed 1 1 
rich presents upon him, while Polydamna was 
equally liberal to Helen. Herodotus makes 
Paris and Helen to have arrived there from j 
Sparta, and to have been detained by Thonis I 
(Otivic), the guard of the Canobic mouth of the 
Nile, until delivered to Proteus, who kept Helen 
until the visit of Menelaus in search of her after 
the fall of Troy.] 

[Thoosa (Qouoa), daughter of Phorcys, moth- 
er of Polyphemus by Neptune (Poseidon).] 

[Thoon (Gduc). 1. One of the giants, slain by 



THORICUS. 



THRACIA. 



the Mceree. — 2. Son of Phasnops, a Trojan war- 
rior, slain along with his brother Xanthus by 
Diomedes.— 3. A Trojan warrior, slain by Ulys- 
ses. — 4. A Phaeacian, who distinguished hitn- 
'< self in the games celebrated by Alcinous iu 
honor of Ulysses.] 

Thoricus (Qopucoc or QopwoQ : Qopinio<;, Qopi- 
kcvi now Theriko), one of the twelve ancient 
towns in Attica, and subsequently a demus be- 
longing to the tribe Acamantis, was situated on 
the southeastern coast, a little above Sunium, 
and was fortified by the Athenians toward the 
close of the Peloponnesian war. There are 
still extensive remains of the ancient town. 

Thornax (Qopvai; : now Pavlaitca), a mount- 
ain in Laconia, northeast of Sparta, on which 
stood a celebrated temple of Apollo. 

Thospites Lacus (QuarriTig Xt/ivrj : now Gol- 
jik ?), a lake in Armenia Major, through which 
the Tigris flows. The lake, and the surround- 
ing district, also called Thospitis, were both 
named from a city Thospia {Quania) at the 
northern end of the lake. 

Thracia {QpaKrj, lon.OpjKTi,, QprjiKri, Qprjiicuj: 
Gpai;, pi. OpdKec, Ion. QpyZ and Qpr)i$, pi. Qpy- 
QprfiKes: Thrax, pl.Thraces), was in earlier 
times the name of the vast space of country 
bounded on the north by the Danube, on the 
south by the Propontis and the ^Egean, on the 
east by the Pontus Euxinus, and on the west 
by the River Strymon and the easternmost of 
the Illyrian tribes. It was divided into two 
parts by Mount Hatnus (now the Balkan), run- 
ning from west to east, and separating the plain 
of the Lower Danube from the rivers which 
fall iuto the ^Egean. Two extensive mountain 
langes branch off from the southern side of 
Mount Hasmus, one running southeast toward 
Constantinople, and the other, called Rhodope, 
east of the preceding one, and also running in 
a southeasterly direction near the River Nes- 
tus. Between these two ranges there are many 
plains, which are drained by the Hebrus, the 
largest river in Thrace. At a later time the 
name Thrace was applied to a more limited ex- 
tent of country. The district between the Stry- 
mon and the Nestus was added to Macedonia 
by Philip, and was usually called Macedonia 
Adjeeta. Vid. Macedonia. Under Augustus the i 
part of the country north of the Haemus was 
made a separate Roman province under the 
name of Mcesia (vid. Mcesia) ; but the district 
between the Strymon and the Nestus had been 
pupviously restored to Thrace by the Romans. 
The Roman province of Thrace was according- 
ly bounded on the west by the River Nestus, 
which separated it from Macedonia, on the north 
by Mount Haemus, which divided it from Mossia, 
on the east by the Euxine, and on the south by j 
the Propontis and JSgean. Thrace, in its wid- 
est extent, was peopled in the times of Herod- 
otus and Thucydides by a vast number of dif- I 
ferent tribes ; but their customs and character 
were marked by great uniformity. Herodotus j 
says that, next to the Indians, the Thracians 
were the most numerous of all races, and if j 
united under one head would have been irre- 
sistible. He describes them as a savage, cruel, 
and rapacious people, delighting in blood, but 1 
brave and warlike. According to his account, ; 
which is confirmed by other writers, the Thra- i 



cian chiefs sold their children for exportation 
to the foreign merchant ; they purchased their 
wives from their parents; they punctured or 
tattooed their bodies, and those of the women 
belonging to them, as a sign of noble birth ; they 
despised agriculture, and considered it most 
honorable to live by war and robbery. Deep 
drinking prevailed among them extensively, 
and their quarrels over their wine-cups were 
notorious even in the time of Augustus. (Hoi 
Carm., i., 27.) They worshipped deities, whom 
the Greeks assimilated to Ares, Dionysus, and 
Artemis : the great sanctuary and oracle of 
their god Bacchus (Dionysus) was in one of the 
loftiest summits of Mount Rhodope. The tribes 
on the southern coast attained to some degree of 
civilization, owing to the numerous Greek col 
onies which were founded in their vicinity ; but 
the tribes in the interior seem to have retained 
their savage habits, with little mitigation, down 
to the time of the Roman empire. In earlier 
times, however, some of the Thracian tribes 
must have been distinguished by a higher de- 
gree of civilization than prevailed among them 
at a later period. The earliest Greek poets, 
Orpheus, Linus, Musaeus, and others, are all 
represented as coming from Thrace. Eumol- 
pus, likewise, who founded the Eleusinian mys- 
teries at Attica, is said to have been a Thra- 
cian, and to have fought against Erechtheus, 
k«ig of Athens. We also find mention of the 
Thracians in other parts of Southern Greece : 
thus they are said to have once dwelt both in 
Phocis and Boeotia. They were also spread 
over a part of Asia : the Thynians and Bithyn- 
ians, and perhaps also the Mysians, were mem- 
bers of the great Thracian race. Even Xen- 
ophon speaks of Thrace in Asia, which extend- 
ed along the Asiatic side of the Bosporus as far 
asHeraclea. The principal Greek colonies along 
the coast, beginning at the Strymon and going 
eastward, were Amphipolis, at the mouth of the 
Strymon ; Abdera, a little to the west of the 
Nestus ; Dic^ea or Diceepolis, a settlement of 
Maronea ; Maronea itself, colonized by the 
Chians ; Stryme, a colony of the Thasians ; 
Mesembria, founded by the Samothracians ; 
and ^Enos, a Lesbian colony at the mouth of 
the Hebrus. The Thracian Chersonesus was 
probably colonized by the Greeks at an early 
period, but it did not contain any important 
Greek settlement till the migration of the first 
Miltiades to the country, during the reign of 
Pisistratus at Athens. Vid. Chersonesus. On 
the Propontis the two chief Greek settlements 
were those of Perinthus and Selymbria ; and 
on the Thracian Bosporus was the important 
town of Byzantium. There were only a few 
Greek settlements on the southwest coast of 
the Euxine ; the most important were those of 
Apoi.lonia, Odessus, Cali.atis,Tomi, renowned 
as the place of Ovid's banishment, and Istria, 
near the southern mouth of the Danube. The 
Thracians are said to have been conquered by 
Sesostris, king of Egypt, and subsequently to 
have been subdued by the Teucrians and Mys- 
ians ; but the first really historical fact respect- 
ing them is their subjugation by Megabazus, the 
general of Darius. After the Persians had been 
driven out of Europe by the Greeks, the Thra- 
cians recovered their independence ; and at th« 

885 



THRASEA. 



THRAUSTUS. 



beginning of the Peloponnesian war, almost all 
the Thracian tribes were united under the do- 
minion of Sitalces, king of the Odrysaj, whose 
kingdom extended from Abdera to the Euxine 
ar»d the mouth of the Danube. In the third 
year of the Peloponnesian war (B.C. 429), Sital- 
ces, who had entered into an alliance with the 
Athenians, invaded Macedonia with a vast army 
of one hundred and fifty thousand men, but was 
compelled, by the failure of provisions, to return 
hrome after remaining in Macedonia thirty clays. 
Sitalces fell in battle against the Triballi in 424, 
and was succeeded by his nephew Seuthes, who, 
during a long reign, raised his kingdom to a 
height of power and prosperity which it had 
never previously attained, so that his regular 
revenues amounted to the annual sum of four 
hundred talents, in addition to contributions of 
gold and silver in the form of presents to a near- 
ly equal amount. After the death of Seuthes, 
which appears to have happened a little before 
the close of the Peloponnesian war, we find his 
powerful kingdom split up into different parts ; 
and when Xenophon, with the remains of the 
ten thousand Greeks, arrived on the opposite 
coast of Asia, another Seuthes applied to him 
for assistance to reinstate him in his dominions. 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, re- 
duced the greater part of Thrace; and after the 
death of Alexander, the country fell to the share 
of Lysimachus. It subsequently formed a past 
of the Macedonian dominions, but it continued 
to be governed by its native princes, and was 
only nominally subject to the Macedonian mon- 
archs. Even under the Romans Thrace was 
for a long time governed by its own chiefs, and 
we do not know at what period it was made 
into a Roman province. 

Thrasea Pjetus, P., a distinguished Roman 
senator and Stoic philosopher in the reign of 
Nero, was a native of Patavium, and was prob- 
ably born soon after the death of Augustus. He 
appears at an early period of his life to have 
made the younger Cato his model, of whose life 
he wrote an account. He married Arria, the 
daughter of the heroic Arria, who showed her 
husband Caecina how to die ; and his wife was 
worthy of her mother and her husband. At a 
later period he gave his own daughter in mar- 
riage to Helvidius Priscus, who trod closely in 
the footsteps of his father-in-law. After in- 
curring the hatred of Nero by the independence 
of his character and the freedom with which 
he expressed his opinions, he was condemned 
to death by the senate by command of the em- 
peror, A.D 66. By his execution and that of 
his friend Barea Soranus, Nero, says Tacitus, 
resolved to murder Virtue herself. The pane- 
gyric of Thrasea was written by Arulenus Rus- 
ticus, who was, in consequence, put to death by 
Domitian. 

[Thrasius {Qpuaiog). 1. A Trojan warrior, 
slain by Achilles. — 2. A soothsayer of Cyprus, 
who told Busiris that by sacrificing a stranger 
to the gods, he would cause a drought which then 
prevailed to cease ; Busiris tried the experi- 
ment with the seer himself] 

Thrasybblus (8 paavdovXoc;). 1. Tyrant of 
Miletus, was a contemporary of Periander and 
Alyattes, the king of Lydia. He was intimate- 
ly connected with Thrasybulus. The story of 
886 



the mode in which Thrasybulus gave his advice 
to Periander as to the best means of securing 
his power, is given under Periander. — 2. A cel- 
ebrated Athenian, son of Lycus. He was zeal- 
ously attached to the Athenian democracy, and 
took an active part in overthrowing the oli- 
garchical government of the Four Hundred in 
B.C. 411. This is the first occasion on which 
he is mentioned ; but from this lime he took a 
prominent part in the conduct of the war. On 
the establishment of the Thirty Tyrants at Ath- 
ens he was banished, and was living in exile at 
Thebes when the rulers of Athens were perpe- 
trating their excesses of tyranny. Being aided 
by the Thebans with arms and money, he col- 
lected a small band, and seized the fortress of 
Phyle. He next marched upon the Piraeus, 
which fell into his hands ; and from this place 
he carried on war for several months against 
the Ten, who had succeeded to the govern- 
ment, and eventually he obtained possession of 
Athens, and restored the democracy, 403. In 
390 he commanded the Athenian fleet in the 
iEgean, and was slain by the inhabitants of As- 
pendus. — 3. Brother of Gelon and Hieron, ty- 
rants of Syracuse. He succeeded Hieron in 
the government B.C. 467, and was soon after- 
ward expelled by the Syraeusans, whom he 
had provoked by his rapacity and cruelty. He 
withdrew to Locri, in Italy, and there ended 
his days. 

Thrasydj^us (Qpacvdaloc), tyrant of Agrigen- 
tum, was the son and successor of Theron, B.C. 
472. Shortly after his accession he was defeat- 
ed by Hieron of Syracuse, and the Agrigentines 
immediately took advantage of this disaster to 
expel him from their city. He made his escape 
to Greece, but was arrested at Megara, and pub- 
licly executed. 

Thrasyllus or Thrasylus (QpaavXkog, Opu- 
av2.o(). 1. An Athenian, who actively assisted 
Thrasybulus in opposing the oligarchical revo- 
lution in B.C. 411. He was one of the com- 
manders at the battle of Arginusae, and was 
among the six generals who returned to Athens 
and were put to death, 406. — 2. A celebrated 
astrologer at Rhodes, with whom Tiberius be- 
came acquainted during his residence in that 
island, and whom he ever after held in the high- 
est honor. He died in A.D. 36, the year before 
Tiberius, and is said to have saved the lives of 
many persons whom Tiberius would otherwise 
have put to death, by falsely predicting for this 
very purpose that the emperor would live t^n 
years longer. The son of this Thrasyllus suc- 
ceeded to his father's skill, and he is said to 
have predicted the empire to Nero. 

Thrasymachus (Qpaov/iiaxw;),^ native of Chal- 
cedon, was a sophist, and one of the earliest cul- 
tivators of the art of rhetoric. He was a con- 
temporary of Gorgias. He is introduced by 
Plato as one of the interlocutors in the Politia, 
and is referred to several times in the Phaedrus. 

Thrasymedes (Qpaovfu'idw), son of the Pylian 
Nestor and Anaxibia, accompanied his father on 
the expedition against Troy, and returned with 
him to Pylos. 

[Thrasymelus {Qpacv^Xog), in the Iliad, 
charioteer of Sarpedon, slain by Patroclus.] 

Thrasymenus. Vid. Trasimenus. 

[Thraustus (Qpavoroc, Xen., or Qpatarog 



THRIA. 

Diod.), a city of the Acrorei in'Elis, not far from 
the horders of Arcadia.] 

[Thria (Opia), a village of Attica, from which 
the surrounding district was called Thriasius 
Campus (to Qpiaaiov ncSiov), a part of the Eleu- 
sinian plain extending between the range of 
-Egaleus and Eleusis, along the borders of the 
bay, and to the north of it, and famed for its 
fertility.] 

ThronIum (Qpoviov : Bp6vio(, Qpovieve : now 
Romani), the chief town of the Locri Epicne- 
midii, on the River Boagrius, at a short distance 
from the sea, with a harbor upon the coast. 
. [Thrinakia (Qpivaaia). Vid. Sicilia.] 

[Thryum (Qpvov, near the modern Agulinitea), 
a city in Triphylia in Elis, on the Alpheus, near 
the borders of the Pylians, corresponding to the 
later Epitalium.] 

Thucydides ( QovuvdiSris ). 1. An Athenian 
statesman, of the demus Alopece, son of Mele- 
sias. After the death of Cimon in B.C. 449, 
Thucydides became the leader of the aristocrat- 
ic party, which he concentrated and more thor- 
oughly organized in opposition to Pericles. He 
was ostracized in 444, thus leaving the undis- 
puted political ascendency to Pericles. He left 
two sons, Melesias and Stephanus ; and a son 
of the former of these, named Thucydides after 
his grandfather, was a pupil of Socrates. — 2. 
The great Athenian historian, of the demus Hali- 
mus, was the son of Olorus or Orolus and Heg- 
esipyle. He is said to have been connected 
with the family of Cimon ; and we "know that 
Miltiades, the conqueror of Marathon, married 
Hegesipyle, the daughter of a Thracian king 
called Olorus, by whom she became the mother 
of Cimon ; and it has been conjectured with 
much probability that the mother of Thucydides 
was a grand-daughter of Miltiades and Hegesip- 
yle. According to a statement of Pamphila 
(vid. Pamphila), Thucydides was forty years of 
age at the commencement of the Pelbponnesian 
war or B.C. 431, and accordingly he was born 
in 471. There is a story in Lucian of Herodo- 
tus having read his History at the Olympic 
games to the assembled Greeks ; and Suidas 
adds that Thucydides, then a boy, was present, 
and shed tears of emulation ; a presage of his 
own future historical distinction. But this cel- 
ebrated story ought probably to be rejected as 
a fable. Thucydides is said to have been in- 
structed in oratory by Antiphon, and in philoso- 
phy by Anaxagoras ; but whether these state- 
ments are to be received can not be determin- 
ed. It is certain, however, that, being an Athe- 
nian of a good family, and living in a city which 
was the centre of Greek civilization, he must 
have had the best possible education : that he 
was a man of great ability and cultivated un- 
derstanding his work clearly shows. He in- 
forms us that he possessed gold mines in that 
part of Thrace which is opposite to the island 
of Thasos, and that he was a person of the 
greatest influence among those in that part of 
Thrace. This property, according to some ac- 
counts, he had from his ancestors : according 
to other accounts, he married a rich woman of 
Scaptesyle, and received them as a portion with 
her. Thucydides left a son called Timotheus ; 
and a daughter also is mentioned, who is said 
to have written the eighth book of the History 



THUCYDIDES. 

of Thucydides. Thucydides (ii., 48) was one 
of those who suffered from the great plague 
of Athens, and one of the few who recovered. 
We have no trustworthy evidence of Thucyd- 
ides having distinguished himself as an ora- 
tor, though it is not unlikely that he did, for 
his oratorical talent is shown by the speeches 
that he has inserted in his history. He was, 
however, employed in a military capacity, and 
he was in command of an Athenian squadron 
of seven ships at Thasus, B.C. 424, when Eu 
cles, who commanded in Amphipolis, sent for 
his assistance against Brasidas, who was before 
that town with an army. Brasidas, fearing 
the arrival of a superior force, offered favor- 
able terms to Amphipolis, which were readily 
accepted, for there were few Athenians in the 
place, and the rest did not wish to make re- 
sistance. Thucydides arrived at Eion, at the 
mouth of the Strymon, on the evening of the 
same day on which Amphipolis surrendered ; 
and though he was too late to save Amphipolis, 
he prevented Eion from falling into the hand 
of the enemy. In consequence of this failure, 
Thucydides became an exile, probably to avoid 
a severer punishment ; for Cleon, who was at 
this time in great favor with the Athenians, ap- 
pears to have excited popular suspicion against 
him. There are various untrustworthy ac- 
counts as to his place of residence during his 
exile ; but we may conclude that he could nut 
safely reside in any place which was under 
Athenian dominion, and as he kept his eye on 
the events of the war, he must have lived in 
those parts which belonged to the Spartan al- 
liance. His own words certainly imply that, 
during his exile, he spent much of his time 
either in the Peloponnesus or in places which 
were under Peloponnesian influence (v., 26) ; 
and his work was the result of his own experi- 
ence and observations. His minute description 
of Syracuse and the neighborhood leads to the 
probable conclusion that he was personally ac- 
quainted with the localities ; and if he visited 
Sicily, it is probable that he also saw some parts 
of Southern Italy. Thucydides says that he 
lived twenty years in exile (v., 26) ; and as his 
exile commenced in the beginning of 423, he 
may have returned to Athens in the beginning 
of 403, about the time when Thrasybulus liber- 
ated Athens. Thucydides is said to have been 
assassinated at Athens soon after his return ; 
but other accounts place his death in Thrace. 
There is a general agreement, however, among 
the ancient authorities that he came to a violent 
end. His death can not be placed later than 401. 
The time when he composed his work has been 
a matter of dispute. He informs us himself that 
he was busy in collecting materials all through 
the war from the beginning to the end (i., 22), 
and, of course, he would register them as he got 
them. Plutarch says that he wrote the work in 
Thrace ; but the work, in the shape in which we 
have it, was certainly not finished until after the 
close of the war, and he was probably engaged 
upon it at the time of his death. A question has 
been raised as to the authorship of the eighth 
and last book of Thucydides, which breaks offin 
the twenty-first year of the war (411). It dif- 
fers from all the other books in containing no 
speeches, and it has also been supposed to be 

887 



THUCYDIDES. 



THUCYDIDES. 



Inferior to the rest as a piece of composition. 
Accordingly, several ancient critics supposed 
that the eighth hook was not by Thucydides : 
some attribute i it to his daughter, and some to 
Xenophon or Theopompus, because both of them 
continued the history. The words with which 
Xenophon's Hellenica commence (fieri de ravTa) 
may chiefly have led to the supposition that he 
was the author, for his work is made to appear 
as a continuation of that of Thucydides ; but 
this argument is in itself of little weight ; and 
besides, both the style of the eighth book is dif- 
ferent from that of Xenophon, and the manner 
of treating the subject, for the division of the | 
year into summers and winters, which Thucyd- 
ides has observed in his first seven books, 
is continued in the eighth, but is not observed 
by Xenophon. The rhetorical style of The- 
opompus, which was the characteristic of his 
writing, renders it also improbable that he was 
the author of the eighth book. It seems the 
simplest supposition to consider Thucydides 
himself as the author of this book, since he 
names himself as the author twice (viii., 6, 60) ; 
but it is probable that he had not the opportuni- 
ty of revising it with the same care as the first 
seven books. It is stated by an ancient writer 
that Xenophon made the work of Thucydides 
known, which may be true, as he wrote the first 
two books of his Hellenica, or the part which 
now ends with the second hook, for the purpose 
of completing the history. The work of Thucyd- 
ides, from the commencement of the second 
book, is chronologically divided into winters and 
summers, and each summer and winter make a 
year (ii., 1). His summer comprises the time 
from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, and 
the winter comprises the period from the au- 
tumnal to the vernal equinox. The division 
into books and chapters was probably made by 
the Alexandrine critics. The history of the 
Peloponnesian war opens the second book of 
Thucydides, and the first is introductory to the 
history. He begins his first book by observ- 
ing that the Peloponnesian war was the most 
important event in Grecian history, which he 
shows by a rapid review of the history of the 
Greeks from the earliest periods to the com- 
mencement of the war (i., 1-21). After his 
introductory chapters he proceeds to explain 
the alleged grounds and causes of the war : the 
real cause was, he says, the Spartan jealousy 
of the Athenian power. His narrative is inter- 
rupted (c. 89-] 18), after he has come to the 
time when the Lacedaemonians resolved on war, 
by a digression on the rise and progress of the 
power of Athens ; a period which had been 
either omitted by other writers, or treated im- 
perfectly, and with little regard to chronology, 
as by Hellanicus in his Attic history (c. 97). He 
resumes his narrative (c. 119) with the negoti- 
ations that preceded the war ; but this leads to 
another digression of some length on the trea- 
son of Pausanias (c. 128-134), and the exile of 
Themistocles (c. 135-138). He concludes the 
book with the speech of Pericles, who advised 
the Athenians to refuse the demands of the Pel- 
oponnesians ; and his subject, as already ob- 
served, begins with the second book. A history 
which treats of so many events, which took 
place at remote spots, could only be written, in 
888 



the time of Thucydides, by a man who took grea' 
pains to ascertain facts by personal inquiry. In 
modern times facts are made known by printing 
as soon as they occur; and the printed records 
of the time, newspapers and the like, are often 
the only evidence of many facts which become 
history. When we know the careless way in 
which facts are now reported and recorded by 
very incompetent persons, often upon very indif- 
ferent and hearsay testimony, and compare with 
such records, the pains that Thucydides took to 
ascertain the chief events of a war, with which he 
was contemporary, in which he took a share as 
a commander, the opportunities which his means 
allowed, his great abilities, and serious, earnest 
character, it is a fair conclusion that we have a 
more exact history of a long eventful period by 
Thucydides than we have of any period in mod- 
ern history equally long and equally eventful. 
His whole work shows the most scrupulous care 
and diligence in ascertaining facts ; his strict 
attention to chronology, and the importance that 
he attaches to it, are additional proof of his his- 
torical accuracy. His narrative is brief and 
concise : it generally contains bare facts ex- 
pressed in the fewest possible words ; and wh'en 
we consider what pains it must have cost him 
to ascertain these facts, we admire the self- 
denial of a writer who is satisfied with giving 
facts in their naked brevity, without ornament, 
without any parade of his personal importance, 
and of the trouble that his matter cost him. A 
single chapter must sometimes have represent- 
ed the labor of many days and weeks. Such a 
principle of historical composition is the evi- 
dence of a great and elevated mind. The his- 
tory of Thucydides only makes an octavo vol- 
ume of moderate size ; many a modern writer 
would have spun it out to a dozen volumes, and 
so have spoiled it. A work that is for all ages 
must contain much in little compass. He sel- 
dom makes reflections in the course of his nar- 
rative : occasionally he has a chapter of politi- 
cal and moral observations, animated by the 
keenest perception of the motives of action 
and the moral character of man. Many of his 
speeches are political essays, or materials for 
them ; they r^re not mere imaginations of his 
own for rhetorical effect ; they contain the gen- 
eral sense of what was actually delivered as 
nearly as he could ascertain, and in many in- 
stances he had good opportunities of knowing 
what was said, for he heard some speeches de- 
livered (i., 22). His opportunities, his talents, 
his character, and his subject, all combined to 
produce a work that stands alone, and in its 
kind has neither equal nor rival. His pictures 
are sometimes striking and tragic, an effect pro- 
duced by severe simplicity and minute particu- 
larity. Such is the description of the plague 
of Athens. Such, also, is the incomparable his- 
tory of the Athenian expedition to Sicily, and 
its melancholy termination. A man who thinks 
profoundly will have a form of expression which 
is stamped with the character of his mind ; and 
the style of Thucydides is accordingly concise, 
vigorous, and energetic. We feel that all the 
words were intended to have a meaning, and 
have a meaning : none of them are idle. Yet 
he is sometimes harsh and obscure ; and prob- 
ably he was so, even to his own countrymen. 



THULE. 



THYMELE 



So.ne of his sentences are very involved, and 
the connection and dependence of the parts are 
often difficult to seize. The best editions of 
Thucydides are by Bekker, Berlin, 1821, 3 vols. 
8vo ; by Poppo, Leipzig, 10 vols. 8vo, 1821- 
t 18J8, of which two volumes are filled with pro- 
legomena ; by Haack, with selections from the 
Greek Scholia and short notes, Leipz., 1820, 2 
vols. 8vo ; by Goller, 2 vols. 8vo, Leipz., 1826, 
[2d edit., 1836, 2 vols. 8vo] ; by Arnold, 3 vols. 
8vo, Oxford, 1830-1835, [2d edit, Oxford, 1840- 
1842 ; 3d edit., with copious indexes, still unfin- 
ished ; by Kriiger, with grammatical and brief 
explanatory notes, Berlin, 1846, 2 vols. 8vo ; 
and by Poppo (school edit.), with brief notes, 
Erfurt and Gotha, 1843-1848, still incomplete.] 
Thule {QovXti), an island in the northern 
part of the German Ocean, regarded by the an- 
cients as the most northerly point on the whole 
earth. It is first mentioned by Pytheas, the 
celebrated Greek navigator of Massilia, who 
undertook a voyage to Britain and Thule, of 
which he gave a description in his work on the 
Ocean. All subsequent writers who speak of 
Thule appear to have taken their accounts from 
that Gf Pytheas. According to Pytheas, Thule 
was six days' sail from Britain ; and the day 
and night there were each six months long. 
He further stated that in Thule and those dis- 
tant parts there was neither earth, sea, nor air, 
but a sort of mixture of all these, like to the 
tnollusca, in which the earth, and the sea, and 
every thing else were suspended, and which 
could not be penetrated either by land or by sea. 
Many modern writers suppose the Thule of 
Pytheas to be the same as Iceland, while oth- 
ers regard it as a part of Norway. The Thule 
of Ptolemy, however, lay much farther to the 
south, and should probably be identified with 
the largest of the Shetland Islands. 

Thurii, more rarely Thurium {Qovpioi, Bov- 
piov : Qovptoc, Bovpievc, Thurius, Thurlnus : 
now Terra nuova), a Greek city in Lucania, 
founded B.C. 443, near the site of the ancient 
.Sybaris, which had been destroyed more than 
sixty years before. Vid. Sybaris. It was built 
by the remains of the population of Sybaris, as- 
sisted by colonists from all parts of Greece, but 
especially from Athens. Among these colonists 
were the historian Herodotus and the orator 
Lysias, the latter of whom, however, was only 
a youth at the time, and subsequently returned 
to Athens. The new city, from which the re- 
mains of the Sybarites were soon expelled, 
rapidly attained great power and prosperity, and 
became one of the most important Greek towns 
in the south of Italy. Thus we are told that 
the Thurians were able to bring fourteen thou- 
sand foot soldiers and one thousand horse into 
the field against the Lucanians. In the Sam- 
nite wars Thurii received a Roman garrison ; 
but it revolted to Hannibal in the second Punic 
war. The Carthaginian general, however, at a 
later time, not trusting the Thurians, plundered 
the town, and removed three thousand five 
hundred of its inhabitants to Croton. The Ro- 
mans subsequently sent a Latin colony to Thu- 
rii, and changed its name into Copiae ; but it 
continued to retain its original name, under 
which it is mentioned by Caesar in the civil war 
as a municipium. 



j [Thurius Mons (to Qovpiov opoc, according 
to Plutarch, also called to 'Opdorrayov opoc), a 
! mountain of Boeotia, south of Chaeronea, on the 
j right bank of the Cephisus, containing the sour- 
ces of the River Morius.] 

[Thyami a (Qvauta), a strong place in the south 
of Sicyonia, on the borders of Phliasia, and an 
object of contention between the two states.] 

Thyam'is (Qvafiic : now Kalama), a river in 
I Epirus, forming the boundary between Thes- 
protia and the district of Cestryna, and flowing 
into the sea opposite Corcyra and near a prom- 
ontory of the same name. 

Thyades. Vid. Thyia. 

Thyamus {Ova/joe), a mountain in Acarnania, 
south of Argos Amphilochicum. 

[Thyatira (QvuTEipa til : now Akhissar, with 
important ruins), a considerable city in the 
northern part of Lydia, near Mysia, on the River 
Lycus, a branch of the Hyllus ; according to 
Strabo, a Macedonian colony ; said to have been 
built by Seleucus Nicator, or, at least, greatly 
enlarged, as others mention an earlier place on 
the site called Pelopia and Euhippc. It was 
celebrated for its purple dye, but still more as 
an early seat of Christianity and one of the sev- 
en churches of the Apocalypse.] 

Thyestes (Qvegttic), son of Pelops and Hip- 
podamia, was the brother of Atreus and the 
father of iEgisthus. His story is given under 
Atreus and JEgisthus. 

[Thyestiades (&veaTidd7is), son or grandson 
of Thyestes, as JCgisthus is called in the Odys- 
sey, &c] 

Thyia (Gm'a), a daughter of Castalius or Ce- 
phisseus, became by Apollo the mother of Del- 
phus. She is said to have been the first to sac 
rifice to Bacchus (Dionysus), and to celebrate or- 
gies in his honor. From her the Attic women, 
who went yearly to Mount Parnassus to cele- 
brate the Dionysiac orgies with the Delphian 
Thyiades, received themselves the name of 
Thyiades or Thyades. This word, however, 
comes from -&vu, and properly signifies the 
raging or frantic women. 

Thymbra (Qvu6pq). 1. A city of the Troad, 
north of Ilium Vetus, on a hill by the side of 
the River Thymbrius, with a celebrated temple 
of Apollo, who derived from this place the epi- 
thet Thymbrasus. The surrounding plain still 
bears the same name. — 2. A wooded district in 
Phrygia, no doubt connected with Thymbrium. 

[Thymbrius {Bvfi6paloc). 1. Vid. Thymbka, 
No. 1. — 2. A Trojan warrior, slain by Diomedes.] 

Thymbria (Qv[i6pia), a place in Caria, on the 
Maeander, four stadia east of Myus, with a Cha- 
ronium, that is, a cave containing mephitic va- 
por. 

Thymbrium (QvfiBpiov : Thymbriani), a small 
town of Phrygia, ten parasangs west of Tyriae- 
um, with the so-called fountain of Midas (Xen., 
Anab., i., 2). 

' Thymbrius {Bvfi&pioc : now Thimbrek), a river 
of the Troad, falling into the Scamander. At 
the present day it flows direct into the Helles- 
pont; and, on this and other grounds, some 
doubt whether the Thimbrek is the ancient river. 

Thymele, a celebrated mima or actress in 
the reign of Domitian, with whom she was a 
great favorite. She frequently acted along with 
Latinus. 

889 



THUMCETES. 



TIBERIUS. 



Thym^tes (QvfioiTTicI 1. One of the elders of 
Troy. A soothsayer had predicted that on a 
certain day a boy should be born by whom Troy 
should be destroyed. On that day Paris was 
born to Priam, and Munippus to Thymcetes. 
Priam ordered Munippus and his mother Cylla 
to be killed. Hence Virgil (2En., ii., 31) repre- 
sents /Eneas saying that it was doubtful wheth- 
er Thymcetes advised the Trojans to draw the 
wooden horse into the city, in order to revenge 
himself. — [2. A Trojan warrior, accompanied 
/Eneas to Italy, and was there slain in the war 
with Turnus.] 

Thyni (Qvvoi), aThracian people, whose orig- 
inal abodes were near Salmydessus, but who 
afterward passed over into Bithynia. 

Thynia (Qvvia). 1. The land of the Thyni 
in Thrace. — 2. Another name for Bithynia. — 3. 
Vid. Thynias. 

Thynias or Thynia (Bvviac, Gvvia). 1. (Now 
Inada), a promontory on the coast of Thrace, 
northwest of Salmydessus, with a town of the 
same name. — 2. (Now Kirpe), a small island of 
the Euxine, on the coast of Bithynia, near the 
Promontorium Calpe, also called Apollonia and 
Daphnusa. 

Thyone (Qvuvrj), the name of Semele, under 
which Bacchus (Dionysus) fetched her from 
Hades, and introduced her among the immor- 
tals. Hence Bacchus (Dionysus) is also called 
Thyoneus. Both names are formed from -Oveiv, 
" to be inspired." 

Thyrea (Ovpea, Ion. Qvpiq : Qvpeurnc), the 
chief town in Cynuria, the district on the bor- 
ders of Laconia and Argolis, was situated upon 
a height on the bay of the sea called after it 
Sinus Thykeates {Qvpedrric koXttoc). It was 
for the possession of Thyrea that the celebra- 
ted battle was fought between the three hund- 
red Spartans and three hundred Argives. The 
territory of Thyrea was called Thyreatis {Qv- 
peiiTig). 

Thysdrus, Tisdrus, or Tusdrus (Qvo&poc : 
ruins at El-Jemm), a large fortified city of By- 
zacena, northwest of the promontory Brachodes 
(now Ras Kapoudiah). Under the Romans it 
was a free city. It was here that the Emperor 
Gordian assumed the purple. 

Thyssaget^s: {Ovaaayerai), a people of Sar- 
matia Asiatica, on the eastern shores of the Pa- 
lus Maeotis. 

Thyssus (Qvaaoc or Qvaaoc), a town of Mace- 
donia, on the peninsula of Acte. 

Tiarantus, a river of Scythia and a tributary 
of the Danube. 

[Tiasa (Tiaaa: now Magula), a small river 
of Laconia, flowing by Sparta into the Eurotas. 
Vid. Sparta, p. 829, a.] 

Tibareni or Tibari (TiCaptjvoi, Ti6apoi, a 
quiet agricultural people on trie northern coast 
of Pontus, east of the River Iris. 

Tiberias. 1. {Tdepiac : TiCepievc), a city of 
Galilee, on the southwestern shore of the Lake 
of Tiberias, built by Herod Antipas in honor of 
the Emperor Tiberius. After the destruction 
of Jerusalem it hecame the seat of the Jewish 
sanhedrim. Near it were the warm baths of 
Emmaus. — 2. (Ti6epiuc, XipLvrj fj TifapLuv), or 
Gennesaret {TtvvqaaptT, vSup Tevvqaup, ij Tcv- 
■"Tjoapins), also the Sea of Galii.ee (t/ ddlaoaa 
rjj£ YaTidaiac), in the Old Testament, ChinniJ- 
690 



reth (now Bahr Tubariych), the second of the 
three lakes in Palestine formed by the course 
of the Jordan. Vid. Jordanes. Its length is 
eleven or twelve geographical miles, and its 
breadth from five to six. It lies deep among 
fertile hills, has very clear and sweet water, 
and is full of excellent fish. Its surface is sev- 
en hundred and fifty feet below the level of the 
Mediterranean. In the time of our Saviour its 
shores were covered with populous villages, 
but they are now almost entirely deserted. Its 
eastern coast belonged to the districts of De- 
capolis and Gaulonitis. 

Tiberinus, one of the mythical kings of Alba, 
son of Capetus, and father of Agrippa, is said to 
have been drowned in crossing the River Alba, 
which was hence called Tiberis after him, and 
of which he became the guardian god. 

Tiberiopolis (Ti6i]piovKo?iis), a city of Great j 
Phrygia, near Eumenia. 

Tiberis, also Tibris, Tybris, Thybris, Am- i 
nis Tiberinus, or simply Tiberinus (now Ti- 
ber or Tevere), the chief river in Central Italy, | 
on which stood the city of Rome. It is said to 
have been orginally called Albula, and to have I 
received the name of Tiberis in consequence of 
Tiberinus, king of Alba, having been drowned | 
in it. It has been supposed that Albula was the 
Latin and Tiberis the Etruscan name of the riv- 
er. The Tiber rises from two springs of limpid 
water in the Apennines, near Tifernum, and 
flows in a southwesterly direction, separating 
Etruria from Umbria, the land of the Sabines, 
and Latium. After flowing about one hundred ' 
and ten miles it receives the Nar (now Nera), 
and from its confluence with this river its reg- i 
ular navigation begins. Three miles above 
Rome, at the distance of nearly seventy miles 
from the Nar, it receives the Anio (now Teve- 
rone), and from this point becomes a river of ! 
considerable importance. Within the walls of 
Rome, the Tiber is about three hundred feet j 
wide and from twelve to eighteen feet deep. 
After heavy rains, the river in ancient times, as 
at the present day, frequently overflowed its 
banks, and did considerable mischief to the low- 
er parts of the city. (Hor., Carm., i., 2.) At 1 
Rome the maritime navigation of the river be- ' 
gins ; and at eighteen miles from the city, and 
about four miles from the coast, it divides into - 
two arms, forming an island, which was sacred J 
to Venus, and called Insula Sacra (now Isola 
Sagra). The left branch of the river runs into 
the sea by Ostia, which was the ancient harbor , 
of Rome; but in consequence of the accumula- 
tion of sand at the mouth of the left branch, the 
right branch was widened by Trajan, and was i 
made the regular harbor of the city, under the 
name of Porlus Romanus, Portits Augusti, ot 
simply Portus. The whole length of the Tiber, : 
with its windings, is about two hundred miles. 
The waters of the river are muddy and yellow- 
ish, whence it is frequently called by the Roman 
poets flavus Tiberis. The poets also give it 
the epithets of Tyrrhenus because it flowed past 
Etruria during the whole of its course, and of 
Lydius because the Etruscans are said to have 
been of Lydian origin. 

Tiberius. 1. Emperor of Rome A.D. 14-37. 
His full name was Tiberius Claudius Nero 
0<£sar. He was the son of T. Claudius Nero jj 



TIBERIUS. 



TIBERIUS. 



and of Livia, and was born on the 16th of No- 
vember, B.C. 42, before his mother married Au- 
gustus. Tiberius was tall and strongly made, 
and his health was very good. His face was 
handsome, and his eyes were large. He was 
carefully educated, and he became well acquaint- 
ed with Greek and Latin literature. His master 
in rhetoric was Theodoras of Gadara. Though 
not without military courage, as his life shows, 
he had a great timidity of character, and was 
of a jealous and suspicious temper ; and these 
qualities rendered him cruel after he had ac- 
quired power. In the latter years of his life, 
particularly, he indulged his lustful propensities 
in every way that a depraved imagination could 
suggest : lust and cruelty are not strangers. 
He affected a regard to decency and to exter- 
nals. He was the prince of hypocrites ; and 
the events of his reign are little more than the 
exhibition of his detestable character. In B.C. 
11, Augustus compelled Tiberius, much against 
his will, to divorce his wife Vipsania Agrip- 
pina, and to marry Julia, the widow of Agrippa 
and the emperor's daughter, with whom Tibe- 
rius, however, did not long live in harmony. 
Tiberius was thus brought into still closer con- 
tact with the imperial family ; but, as Caesar 
and L. Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus, were 
still living, the prospect of Tiberius succeeding 
to the imperial power seemed very remote. He 
was employed by Augustus on various military 
services. In 20 he was sent by Augustus to 
restore Tigranes to the throne of" Armenia. It 
was during this campaign that Horace address- 
ed one of his epistles to Julius Floras (i., 12), 
who was serving under Tiberius. In 15, Dru- 
sus and his brother Tiberius were engaged in 
warfare with the Rasti, and the exploits of the 
two brothers were sung by Horace (Carm., iv., 
4, 14). In 13 Tiberius was consul with P. 
Quintilius Varus. In 11, while his brother Dru- 
sus was fighting against the Germans, Tiberius 
conducted the war against the Dalmatians and 
against the Pannonians. Drusus died in 9, 
owing to a fall from his horse. On the news 
of the accident, Tiberius was sent by Augustus 
to Drusus, whom he found just alive. Tiberius 
returned to the war in Germany, and crossed 
the Rhine. In 7 he was consul a second time. 
In 6 he obtained the tribunitia potestas for five 
years, but during this year he retired, with the 
emperor's permission, to Rhodes, where he spent 
the next seven years. Tacitus says that his 
chief reason for leaving Rome was to get away 
from his wife, who treated him with contempt, 
and whose licentious life was no secret to her 
husband ; probably, too, he was unwilling to 
stay at Rome when the grandsons of Augustus 
were attaining years of maturity, for there was 
mutual jealousy between them and Tiberius. 
He returned to Rome A.D. 2. He was relieved 
from one trouble during his absence, for his 
wife Julia was banished to the island of Panda- 
taria (B.C. 2), and he never saw her again. 
After the deaths of L. Cassar (A.D. 2) and C. 
Caesar (A.D. 4), Augustus adopted Tiberius, 
with the view of leaving to him the imperial 
power ; and, at the same time, he required Ti- 
berius to adopt Germanicus, the son of his 
brother Drusus, though Tiberius had a son Dru- 
sus by his wife Vipsania. From the year of 



his adoption to the death of Augustus, Tiberius 
was in command of the Roman armies, though 
he visited Rome several times. He was sent 
into Germany A.D. 4. He reduced all Ulyricum 
to subjection A.D. 9 ; and in A.D. 12 he had the 
honor of a triumph at Rome for his German and 
Dalmatian victories. On the death of Augus- 
tus at Nola, on the 19th of August, A.D. 14, 
Tiberius, who was on his way to Ulyricum, was 
immediately summoned home by his mother 
Livia. He took the imperial power without any 
opposition, affecting all the while a great reluct- 
ance. He began his reign by putting to death 
Postumus Agrippa, the surviving grandson of 
Augustus, and he alleged that it was done pur- 
suant to the command of the late emperor. 
When he felt himself sure in his place, he be- 
gan to exercise his craft. He took from the 
popular assembly the election of the magistrates, 
and transferred it to the senate. The news of 
the death of Augustus roused a mutiny among 
the legions in Pannonia, which was quelled by 
Drusus, the son of Tiberius. The armies on 
the Rhine under Germanicus showed a disposi- 
tion to reject Tiberius, and, if Germanicus had 
been inclined to try the fortune of a campaign, 
he might have had the assistance of the Ger- 
man armies against his uncle. But Germani- 
cus restored discipline to the army by his firm- 
ness, and maintained his fidelity to the new em- 
peror. The first year of his reign was marked 
by the death of Julia, whom Augustus had re 
moved from Pandataria to Rhegium. The deatl 
of Germanicus in the East, in A.D. 19, relieveo 
Tiberius from all fear of a rival claimant to the 
throne ; and it was believed by many that Ger- 
manicus had been poisoned by order of Tibe- 
rius. From this time Tiberius began to indulgo 
with less restraint in his love of tyranny, and 
many distinguished senators were soon put to 
death on the charge of treason against the em- 
peror (lasa majestas). Notwithstanding his sus- 
picious nature, Tiberius gave his complete con- 
fidence to Sejanus, who for many years pos- 
sessed the real government of the state. Thia 
ambitious man aimed at the imperial power. 
In 23, Drusus, the son of Tiberius, was poisoned 
by the contrivance of Sejanus. Three years 
afterward (26) Tiberius left Rome and with- 
drew into Campania. He never returned to the 
city. He left on the pretext of dedicating tem- 
ples in Campania, but his real motives were his 
dislike to Rome, where he heard a great deal 
that was disagreeable to him, and his wish to 
indulge his sensual propensities in private. In 
order to secure still greater retirement, he took 
up his residence (27) in the island of Capreae, 
at a short distance from the Campanian coast. 
The death of Livia (29), the emperor's mother, 
released Tiberius from one cause of anxiety. 
He had long been tired of her because she wish- 
ed to exercise authority, and one object in leav- 
ing Rome was to be out of her way. Lh ia's 
death gave Sejanus and Tiberius free scope, for 
Tiberius never entirely released himself from a 
kind of subjection to his mother, and Sejanus 
did not venture to attempt the overthrow of 
Livia's influence. The destruction of Agrip- 
pina and her children was now the chief pur- 
pose of Sejanus : he finally got from the tyrant 
(31) the reward that was his just desert, an ig 

m 



TIBILIS. 



TIBULLUS. 



nominious death. Vid. Sejanus. The death of 
Sejanus was followed by the execution of his 
friends ; and for the remainder of the reign of 
Tiberius, Rome continued to be the scene of 
tragic occurrences. Tiberius died on the 16th 
of March, 37, at the villa of Lucullus, in Mise- 
num. He was seventy-eight years of age, and 
had reigned twenty-two years. . He was suc- 
ceeded by Caius (Caligula), the son of German- 
icus, but he had himself appointed no successor. 
Tiberius did not die a natural death. It was 
known that his end was rapidly approaching, 
and having had a fainting fit, he was supposed 
to be dead. Thereupon Caius came forth and 
was sainted as emperor ; but he was alarmed 
by the intelligence that Tiberius had recovered 
and called for something to eat. Caius was so 
frightened that he did not know what to do ; 
but Macro, the praefect of the praetorians, with 
more presence of mind, gave orders that a quan- 
tity of clothes should be thrown on Tiberius, 
and that he should be left alone. In the time 
of Tiberius lived Valerius Maximus, Velleius 
Paterculus, Phaedrus, Fenestella, and Strabo ; 
also the jurists Massurius Sabinus, M. Cocceius 
Nerva, and others. Tiberius wrote a brief com- 
mentary of his own life, the only book that the 
Emperor Domitian studied : Suetonius made 
use of it for his life of Tiberius. Tiberius also 
wrote Greek poems, and a lyric poem on the 
death of L. Caesar.— 2. A philosopher and soph- 
ist, of unknown time, the author of numerous 
works on grammar and rhetoric. One of his 
works, on the figures in the orations of Demos- 
thenes (irepl tuv napa Ar/fioadivei axrjjJ-aTuv), is 
still extant, and has been published. 

Tibilis (now Hammam Miskouten?), a town 
of Numidia, in Northern Africa, on the road from 
Cirta to Carthage, with warm springs, called 
Aquas Tibilitanae. 

Tibiscum, a town of Dacia and a Roman mu- 
nicipium on the River Tibiscus. 

Tibiscus or Tibissus, probably the same as 
the Parthiscds or Parthissus (now Theiss), a 
river of Dacia, forming the western boundary 
of that country, rising in the Montes Carpates, 
and falling into the Danube. 

Tibullos, Albius, the Roman poet, was of 
equestrian family. The date of his birth is un- 
certain ; but he died young, soon after Virgil. 
His birth is therefore placed by conjecture B.C. 
54, and his death B.C. 18. Of his youth and 
education, absolutely nothing is known. The 
estate belonging to the equestrian ancestors of 
Tibullus was at Pedum, between Tibur and 
Praeneste. This property, like that of the other 
great poets of the day, Virgil and Horace, had 
been either entirely or partially confiscated dur- 
ing the civil wars ; yet Tibullus retained or re- 
covered part of it, and spent there the better 
portion of his short, but peaceful and happy life. 
His great patron was Messala, whom he accom- 
panied in 31 into Aquitania, whither Messala 
had been sent by Augustus to suppress a formi- 
dable insurrection which had broken out in this 
province. Part of the glory of the Aquitanian 
campaign, which Tibullus celebrates in language 
of unwonted loftiness, redounds, according to 
the poet, to his own fame. He was present at 
the battle of Atax (Aude in Langnedoc), which 
broke the Aquitanian rebellion. In the follow- 
898 



ing year (30), Messala, having pacified Gaul, 
was sent into the East. Tibullus set out in his 
company, but was taken ill, and obliged to re- 
main in Corcyra, from whence he returned to 
Rome. So ceased the active life of Tibullus ; 
his life is now the chronicle of his poetry and 
of those tender passions which were the in- 
spiration of his poetry. The first object of his 
attachment is celebrated under the poetic name 
of Delia. To Delia are addressed the first six 
elegies of the first book. The poet's attach- 
ment to Delia had begun before he left Rome 
for Aquitania. But Delia seems to have been 
faithless during his absence from Rome. On 
his return from Corcyra he found her ill, and 
attended her with affectionate solicitude {Elcg., 
i., 5), and hoped to induce her to retire with him 
into the country. But first a richer lover ap- 
pears to have supplanted him with, the incon- 
stant Delia ; and afterward there appears a 
husband in his way. The second book of Ele- 
gies is chiefly devoted to a new mistress named 
Nemesis. Besides these two mistresses Tibul- 
lus was enamored of a certain Glycera. He 
wrote elegies to soften that cruel beauty, whom 
there seems no reason to confound either with 
Delia, the object of his youthful attachment, or 
with Nemesis. Glycera, however, is not known 
to us from the poetry of Tibullus, but from the 
ode of Horace, which gently reproves him for 
dwelling so long in his plaintive elegies on the 
pitiless Glycera. The poetry of his contempo- 
raries shows Tibullus as a gentle and singularly 
amiable man. To Horace especially he was an 
object of warm attachment. Besides the ode 
which alludes to his passion for Glycera (Hor., 
Carm., i., 33), the epistle of Horace to Tibullus 
gives the most full and pleasing view of his 
poetical retreat, and of his character : it is 
written by a kindred spirit. Horace does hom- 
age to that perfect purity of taste which distin- 
guishes the poetry of Tibullus ; he takes pride 
in the candid but favorable judgment of his own 
satires. The time of Tibullus he supposes to 
be shared between the finishing his exquisite 
small poems, which were to surpass even those 
of Cassius of Parma, up to that time the models 
of that kind of composition, and the enjoyment 
of the country. Tibullus possessed, according 
to his friend's notions, all the blessings of life — 
a competent fortune, favor with the great, fame, 
health ; and he seemed to know how to enjoy 
all those blessings. The first two books alone 
of the Elegies, under the name of Tibullus, are 
of undoubted authenticity. The third i? the 
work of another, a very inferior poet, Aether 
Lygdamus be a real or fictitious name or not. 
This poet was much younger than Tibullus, for 
he was born in the year of the battle of Mutina, 
43. The hexameter poem on Messala, which 
opens the fourth book, is so bad that, although 
a successful elegiac poet may have failed when 
he attempted epic verse, it can not well be as- 
cribed to a writer of the exquisite taste of Ti- 
bullus. The smaller elegies of the fourth book 
have all the inimitable grace and simplicity of 
Tibullus. With the exception of the thirteenth 
(of which some lines are hardly surpassed by 
Tibullus himself), these poems relate tothe love 
of a certain Sulpicia, a woman of noble birth, 
for Cerinthus, the real or fictitious name of a 



TIBUR. 



TIGRANES. 



beautiful youth. Nor is there any improbability 
in supposing that Tibullus may have written 
elegies in the name or by the desire of Sulpicia. 
If Sulpicia was herself the poetess, she ap- 
proached nearer to Tibullus than any other 
writer of elegies. The first book of Elegies 
alone seems to have been published during the 
author's life, probably soon after the triumph of • 
Messala (27). The second book no doubt did 
not appear till after the death of Tibullus. With 
it, according to our conjecture, may have been 
published the elegies of his irhitator, perhaps his 
friend and associate in the society of Messala, 
Lygdamus (if that be a real name), i. c, the 
third book ; and likewise the fourth, made up 
of poems belonging, as it were, to this intimate 
society of Messala, the Panegyric by some name- 
less author, which, feeble as it is, seems to be 
of that age ; the poems in the name of Sulpicia, 
with the concluding one, the thirteenth, a frag- 
ment of Tibullus himself. The best editions of 
Tibullus are by Lachmann, Berol., 1829, and by 
Dissen, Gottingen, 1835. 

Tibur (Tiburs, pi. Tiburtes, Tiburtlnus : now 
Tivoli), one of the most ancient towns of La- 
tium, sixteen miles northeast of Rome, situated 
on the slope of a hill (hence called by Horace 
supinum Tibur), on the left bank of the Anio, 
which here forms a magnificent water-fall. It 
is said to have been originally built by the Sic- 
uli, and to have afterward passed into the pos- 
session of the Aborigines and Pelasgi. Accord- 
ing to tradition, it derived its name fromTibur- 
tus, son of Catillus, who emigrated from Greece 
with Evander. It was afterward one of the 
chief towns of the Latin league, and became 
subject to Rome with the other Latin cities on 
the final subjugation of Latium in B.C. 338. Un- 
der the Romans Tibur continued to be a large 
and flourishing town, since the salubrity and 
beautiful scenery of the place led many of the 
most distinguished Roman nobles to build here 
magnificent villas. Of these the most splendid 
was the villa of the Emperor Hadrian, in the 
extensive remains of which many valuable spec- 
imens of ancient art have been discovered. 
Here also the celebrated Zenobia lived after 
adorning the triumph of her conqueror Aure- 
lian. Horace likewise had a country house 
in the neighborhood of Tibur which he prefer- 
red to all his other residences. The deity chief- 
ly worshipped at Tibur was Hercules ; and in 
the neighborhood was the grove and temple of 
the Sibyl Albunea, whose oracles were consult- 
ed from the most ancient times. Vid. Albu- 
nea. The surrounding country produced ex- 
cellent dives, and also contained some celebra- 
ted stone quarries. There was a road from 
Rome leading to Tibur, called Via Tiburtina, 
which was continued from the town under the 
name of the Via Valeria, past Corfinium to Adria. 
Tichis or Tecum. Vid. Tecum. 
Tichiussa (Tcixiovaaa), a fortress in the ter- 
ritory of Miletus. 

Ticinum (Ticinensis : now Pavia), a town of 
the Laevi, or, according to others, of the Insu- 
bres, in Gallia Cisalpina, on the left bank of the 
Ticinus. It was subsequently a Roman muni- 
cipium ; but it owed its greatness to the Lom- 
bard kings, who made it the capital of their do- 
minions. The Lombards gave it the name of 



1 Papia, which it still retains under the slightly 
changed form of Pavia. 

Ticinus (now Tcssino), an important river in 
j Gallia Cisalpina, rises in Mons Adula, and after 
flowing through Lacus Verbanus (now Lago 
Maggiorc), falls into the Po near Ticinum. It 
was upon the bank of this river that Hannibal 
\ gained his first victory over the Romans by tho 
\ defeat of P. Scipio, B.C. 218. 

Tifata, a mountain in Campania, east of Ca- 
' pua, near which the Samnites defeated the Cam- 
I panians, and where at a later time Sulla gained 
| a victory over the proconsul Norbanus. On this 
mountain there was a temple of Diana, and also 
one of Jupiter of some celebrity. 

Tifernum. 1. Tiberinum (Tifernates Tiberi- 
ni, pi. : now Citta di Castcllo), a town of Um 
bria, near the sources of the River Tiber, 
whence its surname, and upon the confines of 
Etruria. Near this town the younger Pliny had 
a villa. — 2. Metaurense (Tifernates Metauren- 
ses : now S. Angela in Vado), a town in Um- 
bria, east of the preceding, on the River Metau- 
rus, whence its surname. — 3. A town in Sam- 
nium, on the River Tifernus. 

Tifernus (now Bifeno), a river of Samnium, 
rising in the Apennines, and flowing through 
the country of the Frentani into the Adriatic. 

Tigellinus Sophonius, the son of a native 
of Agrigentum, owed his rise from poverty and 
obscurity to his handsome person and his un- 
scrupulous character. He was banished to Scyl- 
laceum in Bruttii (A.D. 39-40) for an intrigue 
with Agrippina and Julia Li villa, sisters of Ca- 
ligula. He was probably among the exiles re- 
stored by Agrippina, after she became empress, 
since early in Nero's reign he was again in fa- 
vor at court, and on the death of Burrus (63) 
was appointed praetorian prefect jointly with 
Fenius Rufus. Tigellinus ministered to Nero's 
worst passions, and of all his favorites was the 
most obnoxious to the Roman people. He in- 
flamed his jealousy or his avarice against the 
noblest members of the senate and the most- 
pliant dependants of the court. In 65, Tigelli- 
nus entertained Nero in his ^Emilian gardens 
with a sumptuous profligacy unsurpassed even 
in that age, and in the same year shared with 
him the odium of burning Rome, since the con- 
flagration had broken out on the scene of the 
banquet. On Nero's fall he joined with Nym- 
phidius Sabinus, who had succeeded Fenius 
B.ufus as praetorian prefect, in transferring the 
allegiance of the soldiers to Galba. The people 
clamorously demanded his death. During the 
brief reign of Galba his life was spared, but on 
the accession of Otho he was compelled to put 
an end to his own life. 

Tigeluus Hermogenes. Vid. Hermogenes. 
Tigranes (Tiypuv77f), kings of Armenia. 1. 
Reigned B.C. 96-56 or 55. He united under 
his sway not only all Armenia, but several of 
the neighboring provinces, such as Atropatene 
and Gordyene, and thus raised himself to a de- 
gree of power far superior to that enjoyed by 
any of his predecessors. He assumed the pomp- 
ous title of king of kings, and always appeared 
in public accompanied by some of his tributary 
princes as attendants. His power was also 
greatly strengthened by his alliance with Mith- 
radates the Great, king of Pontus, whose daugh- 

893 



TIGRANES. 



TIMAEUS. 



ter Cleopatra he had married at an early period 
of his reign. In consequence of the dissensions 
in the royal family of Syria, Tigranes was en- 
abled in 83 to make himself master of the whole 
Syrian monarchy from the Euphrates to the 
sea. He was now at the summit of his power, 
and continued in the undisputed possession of 
these extensive dominions for nearly fourteen 
years. At the instigation of his son-in-law 
Mithradates, he invaded Cappadocia in 74, and 
is said to have carried off into captivity no less 
than three hundred thousand of the inhabit- 
ants, a large portion of whom he settled in his 
newly-founded capital of Tigranocerta. Vid. 
Tigranocerta. In other respects he appears 
to have furnished little support to Mithradates 
in his war against the Romans ; but when the 
Romans haughtily demanded from him the 
surrender of Mithradates, who had taken ref- 
uge in his dominions, he returned a peremp- 
tory refusal, accompanied with an express dec- 
laration of war. Lucullus invaded Armenia 
in 69, defeated the mighty host which Tigranes 
led against him, and followed up his victory 
by the capture of Tigranocerta. In the fol- 
lowing year (68) the united forces of Tigranes 
and Mithradates were again defeated by Lu- 
cullus ; but the mutinous disposition of the 
Roman troops prevented Lucullus from gain- 
ing any further advantages over the Armenian 
king, and enabled the latter not only to regain 
his dominions, but also to invade Cappadocia. 
The arrival of Pompey (66) soon changed the 
face of events. Mithradates, after his final de- 
feat by Pompey, once more threw himself upon 
the support of his son-in-law ; but Tigranes, 
who suspected him of abetting the designs of 
his son Tigranes, who had rebelled against his 
father, refused to receive him, while he himself 
hastened to make overtures of submission to 
Pompey. That general had already advanced 
into the heart of Armenia under the guidance 
of the- young Tigranes, when the old king re- 
paired in person to the Roman camp, and, pre- 
senting himself as a suppliant before Pompey, 
laid his tiara at his feet. By this act of humili- 
ation he at once conciliated the favor of the con- 
queror, who treated him in a friendly manner, 
and left him in possession of Armenia Proper 
with the title of king, depriving him only of the 
provinces of Sophene and Gordyene, which he 
erected into a separate kingdom for his son Ti- 
granes. The elder monarch was so overjoyed at 
obtaining these unexpectedly favorable terms, 
that he not only paid the sum of six thousand 
talents demanded by Pompey, but added a large 
sum as a donation to his army, and continued 
ever after the steadfast friend of the Roman gen- 
eral. He died in 56 or 55, and was succeeded 
by his son Artavasdes. — 2. Son of Artavasdes, 
and grandson of the preceding. He was living 
an exile at Rome, when a party of his country- 
men, discontented with the rule of his elder 
brother, Artaxias, sent to request that he should 
be placed on the throne. To this Augustus as- 
sented, and Tiberius was charged with the duty 
of accomplishing it, a task which he effected 
apparently without opposition (B.C. 20). 

Tigranocerta (ru TiypavoKepra and 7/ Ttyp-, 
i. e., in Armenian, the City of Tigranes : ruins 
at Sert), the later capital of Armenia, built by 
894 



Tigranes on a height by the River Nicephorius, 
in the valley between Mounts Masius and Ni- 
phates. It was strongly fortified, and peopled 
chiefly with Macedonians and Greeks, forcibly i 
removed from Cappadocia and Cilicia ; but, after 
the defeat of Tigranes by Lucullus under its 
walls, these people were permitted to return to 
their homes. The city was, at the same time, P 
partially destroyed ; but it still remained a con- 
siderable place. 

Tigris, generally -idos and -is (o Tiypic, gen- 
erally TiypiSoc and Tiypioc, also Tiypic, gener- 
ally Tiypr/Toc : now Tigris), a great river of 
Western Asia, rises from several sources on the 
southern side of that part of the Taurus chain 
called Niphates, in Armenia, and flows south- 
east, first through the narrow valley between 
Mount Masius and the prolongation of Mount 
Niphates, and then through the great plain which 
is bounded on the east by the last-named chain, 
till it falls into the head of the Persian Gulf, 
after receiving the Euphrates from the west. . 
(Compare Euphrates.) Its other chief tribu- 
taries, all falling into its eastern side, were the 
Nicephorius or Centrites, the Lycus, the Ca- 
prus, the Phvscus, the Gorgus, Sillas, or De- 
las, the Gyndes, and the Choaspes. It divided' 
Assyria and Susiana on the east, from Mesopo- 
tamia and Babylonia, and (at its mouth) Arabia, 
on the west. The name is sometimes applied 
to the Pasitigris. 

Tigurini, a tribe of the Helvetii, who joined 
the Cimbri in invading the country of the Allo- 
broges in Gaul, where they defeated the consul 
L. Cassius Longinus, B.C. 107. They formed i 
in the time of Caesar the most important of the I 
four cantons (pagi) into which the Helvetii were 
divided. It was perhaps from this people that 
the town of Tigurum (now Zurich) derived its : 
name, though this name does not occur in any 
ancient writer. 

Tilphusium (Ti?i<j>ovaiov, TilfovaaLov, Dor. 
TiktytjGGiov: Ti?t(j>ov<jtoc, Dor. TiXtyCiaioe), a town i 
in Bceotia, situated upon a mountain of the 
same name, south of Lake Copais, and between 
Coronea and Haliartus. It derived its name 
from the fountain Tilphusa, which was sacred 
to Apollo, and where Tiresias is said to have | 
been buried. 

Timjeus (Ttfiaioc). 1. The historian, was the 
son of Andromachus, tyrant of Tauromenium, I 
in Sicily. Timaeus attained the age of ninety- 
six ; and though we do not know the exact date 
either of his birth or death, we can not be fai 
wrong in placing his birth in B.C. 352, and hiss 
death in 256. Timajus received instruction 
from Philiscus, the Milesian, a disciple of Isoc- 
rates ; but we have no further particulars of 
his life, except that he was banished from Sicily 
by Agathocles, and passed his exile at Athens, j. 
where he had lived fifty years when he wrote I 
the thirty-fourth took of his history. The great 
work of Timaeus was a history of Sicily from 
the earliest times to 264, in which year Polybius 
commences the introduction to his work. This 
history was one of great extent. We have a 
quotation from the thirty-eighth book, and there 
were probably many books after this. The value 
and authority of Timaeus as an historian have 
been most vehemently attacked by Polybius in I 
many parts of his work. Most of the charges I 



TIMAGENES. 



i 

TIMESITHEUS. 



of Polybius appear to have been well founded ; 
but lie has not only omitted to mention some 
of the peculiar excellences of Timaeus, but has 
even regarded these excellences as deserving 
the severest censure. Thus it was one of the 
great merits of Timasus, for which he is loudly 
denounced by Polybius, that he attempted to 
give the myths in their simplest and most gen- 
uine form, as related by the most ancient writ- 
ers. Timaeus, also, collected the materials of 
his history with the greatest diligence and care, 
a fact which even Polybius is obliged to admit. 
He likewise paid very great attention to chro- 
nology, and was the first writer who introduced 
the practice of recording events by Olympiads, 
which was adopted by almost all subsequent 
writers of Greek history. The fragments of 
Timaeus have been collected by Gbller, in his 
De Situ et Origine Syracusarum, Lips., 1818, and 
by Car. and Theod. Miiller, in the Fragmenta 
Historic. Grczc, Paris, 1841. — 2. Of Locri, in 
Italy, a Pythagorean philosopher, is said to have 
been a teacher of Plato. There is an extant 
work, bearing his name, written in the Doric 
dialect, and entitled nepl rpvx<i£ Koo/iov ical tpvawc : 
but its genuineness is very doubtful, and it is 
in all probability nothing more than an abridg- 
ment of Plato's dialogue of Timaus. The best 
edition is by Gelder, Leyden, 1836. — 3. The 
Sophist, wrote a- Lexicon to Plato, addressed to 
a certain Gentianus, which is still extant. The 
time at which he lived is quite uncertain. He 
is usually placed in the third century of the 
Christian era, which produced so many ardent 
admirers of the Platonic philosophy, such as 
Porphyry, Longinus, Plotinus, &c. The Lexi- 
con is very brief, and bears the title Tiptaiov 
(jofiaTov kK t&v tov TWaruvoc; Tii^Euv. It is evi- 
dent that the work has received several inter- 
polations, especially in explanations of words 
occurring in Herodotus. But it is one of great 
value, and the explanations of words are some 
of the very best which have come down to us 
from the ancient grammarians. It has been ed- 
ited by P„uhnken, Leyden, 1754, and again, Ley- 
den, 1789 ; and by Koch, Leipzig, 1828 and 1833. 

Tim.vgenes (Tifiayivrj;), a rhetorician and a 
historian, was a native of Alexandrea, from 
which place he was carried as a prisoner to 
Rome, where he was first employed as a slave 
in menial offices, but being liberated by Faustus 
Sulla, the son of the dictator, he opened a school 
of rhetoric, in which he taught with great suc- 
cess. (Comp. Hor., Ep., i., 19, 15.) The Em- 
peror Augustus induced him to write a history 
of his exploits ; but having offended Augustus 
by sarcastic remarks upon his family, he was 
forbidden the palace ; whereupon he burned his 
historical works, gave up his rhetorical school, 
and retired from Rome to the house of his 
friend Asinius Pollio at Tusculum. He after- 
ward went to the East, and died at Dabanum in 
Mesopotamia. 

[Timagenidas (T ' ijiaysv'idac or -«S??c), aTheban, 
son of Herpys, advised Mardonius in his inva- 
sion of Greece to occupy the passes of Mount 
Cithasron, so as to cut off the re-enforcements 
and supplies that were coming through them to 
the Greeks. After the battle of Plateea;, his sur- 
lender (with that of the other Tbeban traitors 
to the national cause) was demanded, and he 



was finally given up at his own instigation. 
But instead of a trial, which he had expected, 
he was sent with the other culprits to Corinth 
by Pausanias, and there put to death.] 

Timanthes (Ti/iuv6ric), a celebrated Greek 
painter at Sicyon, contemporary with Zeuxis 
and Parrhasius, about B.C. 400. The master- 
piece of Timanthes was his celebrated picture 
of the sacrifice of Iphigenia, in which Agamem- 
non was painted with his face hidden in his 
mantle. The ancient critics tell us that the 
picture showed Iphigenia standing by the altar, 
surrounded, among the assistants, by Calchas, 
whose prophetic voice had demanded her sacri- 
fice, and wlrose hand was about to complete it ; 
Ulysses, who had brought her from her home, 
and Menelaus, her father's brother, all manifest- 
ing different degrees of grief, so that, when the 
artist had painted the sorrow of Calchas, and 
the deeper sorrow of Ulysses, and had added all 
his powers to express the woe of Menelaus, his 
resources were exhausted, and, unable to give 
a powerful expression to the agony of the father, 
he covered his head with a veil. But this is 
clearly not the reason why Timanthes hid the 
face of Agamemnon. The critics ascribe to 
impotence what was the forbearance of judg- 
ment. Timanthes felt like a father : he did not 
hide the face of Agamemnon because it was 
beyond the possibility, but because it was be- 
yond the dignity of expression. If he made 
Agamemnon bear his calamity as a man, he 
made him also feel it as a man. It became the 
leader of Greece to sanction the ceremony with 
his presence, but it did not become the father to 
see his daughter beneath the dagger's point. 

[Timasion (Ti/iactov), a Dardanian, served un- 
der Clearchus in Asia, and afterward joined the 
expedition of the younger Cyrus against Arta- 
xerxes. After the arrest and murder of the 
generals by Tissaphernes, Timasion was chosen 
in the place of Clearchus, and he and Xenophon, 
as the youngest, had command of the rear. 
When the army had reached Cotyora, he en- 
deavored to extort money as well as the means 
of conveyance from some of the neighboring 
cities by the report ofXenophon's intention to 
found a city in Pontus, but was foiled by Xen- 
ophon's refusing to lend himself to his designs. 
Timasion, in the subsequent movements, contin- 
ued with Xenophon until they crossed over into 
Europe, and also entered with him into the serv- 
ice of Seuthes. After this he probably return- 
ed to Asia with the army, when it entered the 
Spartan service under Thimbron] 

TimIvus (now Timavo), a small river in the 
north of Italy, forming the boundary between 
Istria and Venetia, and falling into the Sinus 
Tergestinus in the Adriatic, between Tergeste 
and Aquileia. This river is frequently cele- 
brated by the poets and other ancient writers, 
who speak of its numerous sources, its lake, 
and its subterraneous passage ; but these ac- 
counts seem, to a great extent, fabulous. 

[Timesias (TifiTjaiac), or Timesius (Tt/iyotoc), 
of Clazomenae, was the first founder of the col- 
ony of Abdera in Thrace. He was expelled by 
the Thracians, but was afterward worshipped 
as a hero at Abdera by the Teians, who found- 
ed a second colony at that place.] 

[Timesitheus (Tt,fiT]oideoc), a Trapezuntian, 

895 



TIMOCLES. 



TIMOLEON. 



proxenus of the Mossynoeci, sent by the Greeks 
under Xenophon to treat with the Mossynoeci 
about a passage through their territory : in an 
interview between the magistrates of the Mos- 
synoeci and the Greek generals, Timesitheus act- 
ed as interpreter.] 

Timocles {TijioKXijs), a distinguished Athe- 
nian comic poet of the Middle Comedy, who 
lived at a period when the revival of political 
energy, in consequence of the encroachments 
of Philip, restored to the Middle Comedy much 
of the vigor and real aim of the Old. He is con- 
spicuous for the freedom with which he dis- 
cussed public men and measures, as well as for 
the number of his dramas and the purity of his 
style. He flourished from about the middle of 
the fourth century B.C. till after 324, so that at 
the beginning of his career he was in part con- 
temporary with Antiphanes, and at the end of 
\t with Menander. [The fragments of his Com- 
edies are edited by Meineke in the Comic. Grac. 
Fragm., vol. ii., 798-811, edit, minor.] 

[Timocrates (TtfioKpd,T7]c). 1. A Lacedsmo- 
nian, one of the three counsellors sent to assist 
Cnemus after his first defeat by Phormion in 
the Corinthian Gulf in B.C. 429. In the second 
battle there, shortly after, Timocrates having 
had the vessel, on board which he himself was, 
sunk by an Athenian galley, slew himself, and 
his body was washed into the harbor of Naupac- 
tus. — 2. An Athenian, was one of the commis- 
sioners for concluding the fifty years' truce be- 
tween Athens and Sparta in B.C. 421, and also 
the separate treaty between these states in the 
same year. — 3. An Athenian, in B.C. 406, was 
a member of the Council of Five Hundred, be- 
fore which the generals who had conquered at 
Arginusse gave in their account. (Perhaps the 
same as No. 2.) — 4. A Rhodian, who was sent 
into Greece by the satrap Tithraustes in B.C. 
395, taking with him fifty talents wherewith to 
bribe the leading men in the several states to 
excite a war against Sparta at home, and so to 
compel the return of Agesilaus from his vic- 
torious career in Asia. Plutarch calls him Her- 
mocrates. — 5. A Lacedaemonian, was one of the 
ambassadors who were sent to Athens in B.C. 
369 to settle the terms of alliance between the 
Athenians and the Spartans. — 6. A Syracusan, 
who commanded a squadron of twelve galleys 
sent by Dionysius the younger to the aid of 
Sparta in B.C. 366. The arrival of this force 
enabled the Spartans to reduce Sellasia, which 
had revolted from them.] 

Timocreon (Ttfioupcuv), of Rhodes, a lyric 
poet, -celebrated for the bitter and pugnacious 
spirit of his works, and especially for his attacks 
on Themistocles and Simonides. He was a na- 
tive of Ialysus in Rhodes, whence he was ban- 
ished on the then common charge of an inclina- 
tion toward Persia (firidioftog) ; and in this ban- 
ishment he was left neglected by Themistocles, 
who had formerly been his friend, and his con- 
nection by the ties of hospitality. Timocreon 
was still flourishing after B.C. 471, since one 
of his poems, of which we have a fragment, 
was an attack upon Themistocles after the exile 
of the latter. It appears that Timocreon was 
a man of prodigious strength, which he sustain- 
ed by great voracity. 

Timoleon (TiftoMitv), son of Timodemus or 
896 



Timaenetus and Demariste, belonged to one of 
the noblest families at Corinth. His early life 
was stained by a dreadful deed of blood. We 
are told that so ardent was his love of liberty, 
that when his brother Timophanes endeavored 
to make himself tyrant of their native city, Ti- 
moleon murdered him rather than allow him to 
destroy the liberty of the state. The murder 
was perpetrated just before an embassy arriveu 
from several of the Greek cities of Sicily, beg- 
ging the Corinthians to send assistance to the 
island, which was distracted by internal dissen- 
sions, and was expecting an invasion of the 
Carthaginians. It is said that the Corinthians 
were at the very moment of the arrival of the 
Sicilians deliberating respecting Timoleon's act, 
and had not come to any decision respecting it ; 
and that they avoided the difficulty of a decision 
by appointing him to the command of the Sicil- 
ian expedition, with the singular provision, that 
if he conducted himself justly in the command, 
they would regard him as a tyrannicide, and 
honor him accordingly ; but if otherwise, they 
would punish him as a fratricide. To whatever 
causes Timoleon owed his appointment, his ex 
traordinary success more than justified the con- 
fidence which had been reposed in him. His 
history reads almost like a romance ; and yet 
of the main facts of the narrative we can not 
entertain any reasonable doubt. Although the 
Corinthians had readily assented to the requests 
of the Sicilians in the appointment of a com- 
mander, they were not prepared to make many 
sacrifices in their favor, and accordingly it was 
only with ten triremes and seven hundred mer- 
cenaries that Timoleon sailed from Corinth to 
repel the Carthaginians, and restore order to the 
Sicilian cities. He reached Sicily in B.C. 344, 
and straightway marched against Syracuse, of 
two quarters of which he obtained possession 
In the following spring (343), Dionysius, despair 
ing of success, surrendered the citadel to Ti 
moleon, on condition of his being allowed to de- 
part in safety to Corinth. Vid. Dionysius. 
Timoleon soon afterward obtained possession of j 
the whole of Syracuse. He destroyed the cita- 
del, which had been for so many 3'ears the seat 
and bulwark of the power of the tyrants, and 
restored the democratical form of government. 
He then proceeded to expel the tyrants from the 
other Greek cities of Sicily, but was interrupt 
ed in this undertaking by a formidable invasion \ 
of the Carthaginians, who landed at Lilybaeum 
in 339, with an immense army, under the com- | 
mand of Hasdrubal and Hamilcar, consisting ol i 
seventy thousand foot and ten thousand horse I 
Such an overwhelming force struck the Greeks 
with consternation and dismay. So great was s 
their alarm, that Timoleon could only induce \ 
twelve thousand men to march with him against j 
the Carthaginians. But with this small force i| 
he gained a brilliant victory over the Carthagin- 
ians on the river Crimissus (339.) This vie 
tory justly ranks as one of the greatest gained I 
by Greeks over barbarians. The booty which 
Timoleon acquired was prodigious ; and some 
of the richest of the spoils he sent to Corinth fl 
and other cities in Greece, thus diffusing t lie 
glory of his victory throughout the mother coun- 
try. Timoleon now resolved to carry into exe- 
cution his project of expelling all the tyrants j 



TIMOMACHUS 



flMOTHEUS. 



j from Sicily. Of these, two of the most power- 
! ' ful, Hicetas of Leontini, and Mamercus of Ca- 
j tana, had recourse to the Carthaginians for as- 
| sistance, who sent Gisco to Sieily with a fleet 
i 1 of seventy ships and a hody of Greek mercena- 
i ries. Although Gisco gained a few successes 
I at first, the war was, upon the whole, favorable 
I to Tiraoleon, and the Carthaginians were there- 
fore glad to conclude a treaty with the latter in 
338, by which the River Halycus was fixed as 
the boundary of the Carthaginian and Greek 
dominions in Sicily. It was during the war 
with Gisco that Hicetas fell into the hands of 
Timoleon, and was massacred by his order. His 
wife and daughters were carried to Syracuse, 
where they were executed by the people, as a 
satisfaction to the manes of Dion, whose wife 
Arete and sister Aristomache had both been put 
to death by Hicetas. This is one of the greatest 
stains upon Timoleon's character, as he might 
easily have saved these unfortunate women if 
he had chosen. After the treaty between the 
Carthaginians and Timoleon, Mamercus, being 
unable to maintain himself in Catana, fled to 
Messana, where he took refuge with Hippon, 
tyrant of that city. Timoleon quickly followed, 
and besieged Messana so vigorously by sea and 
land, that Hippon, despairing of holding out, 
attempted to escape by sea, but was taken and 
put to death in the public theatre. Mamercus 
now surrendered, stipulating only for a public 
trial before the Syracusans, with the condition 
that Timoleon should not appear as his accuser. 
Put as soon as he was brought into the assem- 
oly at Syracuse, the people refused to hear him, 
and unanimouslycondernnedhimtodeath. Thus 
almost all the tyrants were expelled from the 
Greek cities in Sicily, and a democratical form 
of government established in their place. Ti- 
moleon, however, was in reality the ruler of Si- 
cily, for all the states consulted him on every 
matter of importance ; and the wisdom of his 
rule is attested by the flourishing condition of 
the island for several years even after his death. 
He did not, however, assume any title or office, 
but resided as a private citizen among the Syr- 
acusans. Timoleon died in 337, having become 
blind a short time before his death. He was 
buried at the public expense in the market-place 
at Syracuse, where his monument was after- 
ward surrounded with porticoes and a gymna- 
sium, which was called after him the Timoleon- 
teum. Annual games were also instituted in 
his honor. 

Timomachus (Ti/io/iaxoc), a distinguished 
painter of Byzantium, lived in the time of Ju- 
lius Caesar (according to Pliny), who purchased 
two of his pictures, the Ajax and Medea, for the 
immense sum of eighty Attic talents, and ded- 
icated them in the temple of Venus Genitrix. 
It has been supposed, however, by some mod- 
ern w iters, that Timomachus lived at an ear- 
lier period. 

Timom (Ti/xuv). 1. The son of Timarchus of 
Phlius, a philosopher of the sect of the Skeptics, 
flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
about B.C. 279, and onward. He first studied 
philosophy at Megara, under Stilpon, and then 
returned home and married. He next went to 
Elis with his wife, and heard Pyrrhon, whose 
tenets he adopted. Driven from Elis by strait- 
57 



ened circumstances, he spent some time on the 
Hellespont and the Propontis, and taught at 
Chalcedon as a sophist with such success that 
he realized a fortune. He then removed to 
Athens, where he passed the remainder of his 
life, with the exception of a short residence at 
Thebes. He died at the age of almost ninety. 
Timon appears to have been endowed by nature 
with a powerful and active mind, and with thai 
quick perception of the follies of men which be- 
trays its possessor into a spirit of universal dis- 
trust both of men and truths, so as to make him 
a skeptic in philosophy and a satirist in every 
thing. He wrote numerous works botli in prose 
and poetry. The most celebrated of his poems 
were the satiric compositions called Silli (ac'A- 
Xoi), a word of somewhat doubtful etymology, 
but which undoubtedly describes metrical com- 
positions of a character at once ludicrous and 
sarcastic. The invention of this species of 
poetry is ascribed to Xenophanes of Colophon. 
Vid. Xenophanes. The Silli of Tinion were in 
three books, in the first of which he spoke in his 
own person, and the other two are in the form 
of a dialogue between the author and Xenopha- 
nes of Colophon, in which Timon proposed ques- 
tions, to which Xenophanes replied at length. 
The subject was a sarcastic account of the ten- 
ets of all philosophers, living and dead ; an un- 
bounded field for skepticism and satire. They 
were in hexameter verse, and, from the way in 
which they are mentioned by the ancient writ- 
ers, as well as from the few fragments of them 
which have come down to us, it is evident that 
they were very admirable productions of their 
kind. The fragments of his poems are collected 
by Wolke, Dc Grcecorum Sillis, Varsav., 1820 ; 
and by Paul, Dissertatio de Sillis, Berol , 1821. — 
2. The Misanthrope (6 fiiouvdpunoc), lived in the 
time of the Peloponnesian war. He was an 
Athenian, of the demos of Colyttus, and his 
father's name was Echecratidea. In conse- 
quence of the ingratitude he expeiienced, and 
the disappointments he suffered from his early 
friends and companions, he secluded himself en- 
tirely from the world, admitting no one to his 
society except Alcibiades, in whose reckless and 
variable disposition he probably found pleasure 
in tracing and studying an image of the world 
he had abandoned ; and at last he is said to have 
died in consequence of refusing to suffer a sur- 
geon to come to him to set a broken limb. One 
of.Lucian's pieces bears his name. 

[Timopiianes (Tifiotpavrjc), the brother of Ti- 
moleon. Vid. Timoleon.] 

TimothEus (Tt/i6deoc). 1. Son of Conon, the 
famous general, was himself a distinguished 
Athenian general. He was first appointed to 
a public command in B.C. 378, and from this 
time his name frequently occurs as one of the 
Athenian generals down to 356. In this year 
he was associated with Iphicrates, Menestheus, 
and Chares in the command of the Athenian 
fleet. In consequence of his conduct in this 
war, he was arraigned in 354, and condemned 
to the crushing fine of one hundred talents 
(more than £24,000). Being unable to pay the 
fine, he withdrew to Chalcis in Eubosa, where 
he died shortly after. The Athenians sub- 
sequently remitted nine tenths of the penalty, 
and allowed his son Conon to ex pend the re 

897 



TINA. 



TIRESIAS. 



niainder on the repair of the walls, which the 
famous Conon had restored. — 2. Son of Clear- 
chus, the tyrant of Heraclea on the Euxine, 
whom he succeeded in the sovereignty B.C. 
353. There is extant a letter addressed to him 
by Isocrates. — 3. A celebrated musician and 
poet of the later Atlienian dithyramb, was a 
native of Miletus, and the son of Thersander. 
He was born B.C. 446, and died in 357, in the 
ninetieth year of his age. Of the details of his 
life we have very little information. He was 
at first unfortunate in his professional efforts. 
Even the Athenians, fond as they were of nov- 
elty, were offended at the bold innovations of 
Timotheus, and hissed off his performance. On 
this occasion it is said that Euripides encour- 
aged Timotheus by the prediction that he would 
soon have the theatres at his feet. This predic- 
tion appears to have been accomplished in the 
vast popularity which Timotheus afterward en- 
joyed. The Ephesians rewarded him, for his 
dedicatory hymn to Diana (Artemis), with the 
sum of one thousand pieces of gold ; and the last 
accomplishment by which the education of the 
Arcadian youth was finished, was learning the 
nomes of Timotheus and Philoxenus. Timo- 
theus is said to have died in Macedonia. He 
delighted in the most artificial and intricate 
forms of musical expression, and he used in- 
strumental music, without a vocal accompani- 
ment, to a greater extent than any previous 
composer. Perhaps the most important of his 
innovations, as the means of introducing all 
the ethers, was his addition to the number of 
the strings of the cithara. Respecting the pre- 
cise nature of that addition the ancient writers 
are not agreed ; but it is most improbable, from 
the whole evidence, that the lyre of Timotheus 
had eleven strings. It is said that, when Timo- 
theus visited Sparta, and entered the musical 
contest at Carnea, one of the ephors snatched 
away his lyre, and cut from it the strings, four 
in number, by which it exceeded the seven- 
stringed lyre of Terpander, and, as a memorial 
of this public vindication of the ancient simplic- 
ity of music, and for a warning to future inno- 
vators, the Lacedaemonians hung up the muti- 
lated lyre of Timotheus in their Scias. With 
regard to the subjects of his compositions, and 
the manner in which he treated them, we have 
abundant evidence that he even went beyond 
the other musicians of the period in the liber- 
ties which he took with the ancient myths, jn 
the attempt to make his music imitative as well 
as expressive, and in the confusion of the dif- 
ferent departments of lyric poetry ; in one word, 
in the application of that false principle, which 
also misled his friend Euripides, that pleasure 
is the end of poetry. — 4. A distinguished flute- 
player of Thebes, flourished under Alexander 
the Great, on whom his music made so power- 
ful an impression, that once, in the midst of a 
performance by Timotheus of an Orthian Nome 
to Athena, Alexander started from his seat and 
seized his arms. — 5. A statuary and sculptor, 
whose country is not mentioned, but who be- 
longed to the later Attic school of the time of 
Scopas and Praxiteles. He was one of the art- 
ists who executed the bas-reliefs which adorned 
the frieze of the Mausoleum, about B.C. 352. 
[Tina (now Tyne), a river of Britannia, north 
898 



of the Vedra, marking the eastern termination 
of the wall of Hadrian.] 

Tingis {{j Ti'yytf : now Tangier), a city of 
Mauretania, on the southern coast of the Fre- 
tum Gaditanum (now Straits of Gibraltar), was 
a place of very great antiquity. It was made 
by Augustus a free city, and by Claudius a col- 
ony, and the capital of Mauretania Tingitana. 

Tinia (now Timia), a small river in Umbria, 
rising near Spoletium. and falling into the Ti- 
ber after receiving the Clitumnus. 

[Tiph^e. Vid. Siph^e.] 

[Tiphys (Ti'0i;f), son of Hagnius, or, according 
to others, of Phorbas, born at Tiphaa or Siphae 
in Boeotia, or at Aphormium, in the territory of 
the Thespians, was the pilot of the Argo, but 
died before the Argonauts reached Colchis.] 

Tiresias (Tetpvaiac), a Theban, son of Eu- 
eres and Chariclo, was one of the most renown- 
ed soothsayers in all antiquity. He was blind 
from his seventh year, but lived to a very old 
age. It was believed that his blindness was 
occasioned by his having revealed to men things 
which they ought not to have known, or by his 
having seen Athena while she was bathing, on 
which occasion the goddess deprived him of 
sight by sprinkling water upon his face. Chari- 
clo prayed to Minerva (Athena) to restore his 
sight, but as the goddess was unable to do this, 
she conferred upon him the power of under- 
standing the voices of birds, and gave him a 
staff, with the help of which he could walk as 
safely as if he had his eyesight. Another tra- 
dition accounts for his blindness in the follow- 
ing manner. Once, when on Mount Cilhseron 
(others say Cyllene), he saw a male and a fe- 
male serpent together ; he struck at them with 
his staff, and as he happened to kill the female, 
he himself was metamorphosed into a woman. 
Seven years later he again saw two serpents, 
and now killing the male, he again became a 
man. It was for this reason that Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Juno (Hera), when disputing whether a man 
or a woman had more enjoyments, referred the 
matter to Tiresias, who declared that women 
enjoyed more pleasure than men. Juno (Hera), 
indignant at the answer, deprived him of sight, 
but Jupiter (Zeus) gave him the power of proph- 
ecy, and granted him a life which was to last 
for seven or nine generations. In the war of 
the Seven against. Thebes, he declared that 
Thebes should be victorious if Menoeceus would 
sacrifice himself; and during the war of the 
Epigoni, when the Thebans had been defeated, 
he advised them to commence negotiations of 
peace, and to avail themselves of the opportu- 
nity that would thus be afforded them to take 
to flight. He himself fled with them (or, ac- 
cording to others, he was carried to Delphi as 
a captive"), but on his way he drank from the 
well of Tilphossa and died. His daughter Man- 
to (or Daphne) was sent by live victorious Ar- 
gives to Delphi as a present to Apollo. Even 
in the lower world Tiresias was believed to re- 
tain the powers of perception, while the souls 
of other mortals were mere shades, and there 
also he continued to use his golden staff. His 
tomb was shown in the neighborhood of the 
Tilphusian well near Thebes, and in Macedonia 
likewise, The place near Thebes where he had 
observed the birds was pointed out as a remark 



TIRIBAZUS. 



TISSAPHERNES. 



able spot e;en in later times. The blind seer 
Tiresias acts so prominent a part in the myth 
ical history of Greece that there is scarcely any 
event with which he is not connected in some 
v/ay or other ; and this introduction of the seer 
in so many occurrences separated by long in- 
tervals of time, was facilitated by the belief in 
his long life. 

[Tiribazus (Ttpj'Oafof). Vid. Teribazus.] 

1 iridates or Teridates (Tripiddrri(). 1. The 
second king of Parthia. Vid. Arsaces II. — 2. 
King of Armenia, and brother of Vologeses I. 
Arsaces, No. 23), king of Parthia. He was 
made King of Armenia by his brother, but was 
driven out of the kingdom by Corbulo, the Ro- 
man general, and finally received the Arme- 
nian crown from Nero at Rome in A.D. 63. 

Tiro, M. Tullius, the freedman of Cicero, to 
whom he was an object of tender affection. He 
appears to have been a man of very amiable dis- 
position and highly-cultivated intellect. He was 
not only the amanuensis of the orator, and his 
assistant in literary labor, but was himself an 
author of no mean reputation, and notices of 
several works frora his pen have been preserved 
by ancient writers. It is supposed by many 
that Tiro was the chief agent in bringing to- 
gether and arranging the works of his illustri- 
ous patron, and in preserving his correspond- 
ence from being dispersed and lost. After the 
death of Cicero, Tiro purchased a farm in the 
neighborhood of Puteoli, where he lived until 
he reached his hundredth year. It is usually 
believed that Tiro was the inventor of the art 
of short-hand writing among the Romans ; and 
hence abbreviations of this description, which 
are common' in MSS. from the sixth century 
downward, have very generally been designa- 
ted by the learned as Notm Tironiance. 

Tiryns (T/puiif, -wdoc: Tipvvdiog), an ancient 
town in Argolis, southeast of Argos, and one of 
the most ancient in all Greece, is said to have 
been founded by Prcetus, the brother of Acris- 
ius, who built the massive walls of the city with 
the help of the Cyclopes. Prcetus was succeed- 
ed by Perseus ; and it was here that Hercules 
was brought up. Hence we find his mother Alc- 
mena called Tirynthia, and the hero himself Ti- 
rynthius. Homer represents Tiryns as subject 
to Argos ; the town was at a later time destroyed 
by the Argives, and most of the inhabitants 
were removed to Argos. Tiryns was built upon 
a hill of small extent, rising abruptly from the 
dead level of the surrounding country. The re- 
mains of the city are some of the most interest- 
ing in all Greece, and are, with those of Myce- 
nae, the most ancient specimens of what is called 
Cyclopian architecture. They consist of masses 
of enormous stones, rudely piled in tiers above 
one another. 

Tisamenus (Tiaa/xevoc; .) 1. Son of Orestes 
and Hermione, was king of Argos, but was de- 
prived of his kingdom when the Heraclida? in- 
vaded Peloponnesus. He was slain in a battle 
against the Heraclidae, and his tomb was after- 
ward shown at Helice, from which place his re- 
mains were subsequently removed to Sparta by 
command of an oracle. — 2. Son of Thersander 
and Demonassa, was king of Thebes, and the 
father of Autesion.— 3. An Elean soothsayer, i 
of the family of the Clytiadaj. He was assured I 



by the Delphic oracle that he should be success 
ful in five great conflicts. Supposing this to be 
a promise of distinction as an athlete, he de- 
voted himself to gymnastic exercises ; but the 
Spartans, understanding the oracle to refer, not 
to gymnastic, but to military victories, made 
great offers to Tisamenus to induce him to take 
with their kings the joint command of their ar- 
mies. This he refused to do on any terms short 
of receiving the full franchise of their city, which 
the Spartans eventually granted. He was pres- 
ent with the Spartans at the battle of Plataeae, 
B.C. 379, which was the first of the five con- 
flicts referred to by the oracle. The second 
was with the Argives and Tegeans at Tegea ; 
the third, with the Arcadians at Dipaea ; the 
fourth was the third Messenian War (465-455) ; 
and the last was the battle of Tanagra, with the 
Athenians and their allies, in 457. 

Tisia (Tisiates, pi.), a town in Bruttium, in 
the Sila Silva, of uncertain site. 

[Tisias, of Syracuse, one of the earliesfwrit- 
ers on rhetoric, a pupil of Corax, who was said to 
have invented the rhetorical art. Vid. Corax.] 

Tisicrates, an eminent Greek statuary of the 
school of Lysippus, to whose works those of 
Tisicrates so nearly approached that many of 
them were scarcely to be distinguished from the 
works of the master. 

TlSIPHONE. Vid. EcMENIDES. 

Tissa (Tis'siensis, Tissinensis), a town in Si- 
cily north of Mount ^Etna. 

Tissaphernes (Viaaa^epvri^), a famous Per- 
sian, who was appointed satrap of Lower Asia 
in B.C. 414. He espoused the cause of.the 
Spartans in the Peloponnesian war, but he did 
not give them any effectual assistance, since his 
policy was not to allow either Spartans or Athe- 
nians to gain the supremacy, but to exhaust 
the strength of both parties by the continuance 
of the war. His plans, however, were thwarted 
by the arrival of Cyrus in Asia Minor in 407. 
This prince supplied the Lacedaemonians with 
cordial and effectual assistance. Tissaphernes 
and Cyrus were not on good terms ; and after 
the death of Darius, they were engaged in con- 
tinual disputes about the cities in the satrapy 
of the former, over which Cyrus claimed domin- 
ion. The ambitious views of Cyrus toward the ■ 
throne at length became manifest to Tissapher- 
nes, who lost no time in repairing to the king 
with information of the danger. At the battle 
of Cunaxa in 401, he was one of the four gen- 
erals who commanded the army of Artaxerxes, 
and his troops were the only portion of the left 
wing that was not put to flight by the Greeks 
When the ten thousand had begun their retreat, 
Tissaphernes professed his great anxiety to 
serve them, and promised to conduct them 
home in safety. In the course of the inarch 
he treacherously arrested Clearchus and foui 
of the other generals, who were put to death. 
After this, Tissaphernes annoyed and harassed 
the Greeks in their march, without, however, 
seriously impeding it, till they reached the Car- 
duchian Mountains, at which point he gave up 
the pursuit. Not long after, Tissaphernes, as a 
reward for his great services, was invested by 
the king, in addition to his own satrapy, with 
all tL 3 authority which Cyrus had enjoyed in 
Western Asia. On his arrival he claimed do- 

899 



TITANES. 



TITUS FLAVIUS. 



minion over the Ionian cities, which applied to 
Sparta for aid. Their request was granted, and 
the Spartans carried on war against Tissapher- 
nes with success for some years under the com- 
mand successively of Thimbron, Dercyllidas, 
and Agesilaus (400-395). The continued want 
of success on the part of Tissaphernes led to 
grievous complaints against him ; and the 
charges were transmitted to court, where they 
were backed by all the influence of Parysatis, 
eager for revenge on the enemy of Cyrus, her 
favorite son. The result was, that Tithraustes 
was commissioned by the king to put Tissapher- 
nes to death and to succeed him in his govern- 
ment, which was accordingly done (395). 

Titanes (Tirafff, sing. Tltuv, Ion. Tir?/v£f : 
fern. Tcravidec, sing. Tiravitf. 1 . The sons and 
daughters of Coelus (Uranus) and Terra (Ge), 
originally dwelt in heaven, whence they are 
called Ovpaviuves or Ovpavidai. They were 
twelve in number, six sons and six daughters, 
namely, Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iap- 
etus, Cronus, Thia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, 
Phoebe, and Tethys ; but their names are dif- 
ferent in other accounts. It is said that Uranus 
(Ccelus), the first ruler of the world, threw his 
sons, the Hecatoncheires (hundred-handed) — 
Briareus, Cottys, Gyes, and the Cyclopes Ar- 
ges, Steropes, and Brontes — into Tartarus. 
Gaea (Terra), indignant at this, persuaded the 
Titans to rise against their father, and gave to 
Cronus (Saturn) an adamantine sickle. They 
did as their mother bade them, with the excep- 
tion of Oceanus. Cronus (Saturn), with his 
sickle, unmanned his father, and threw the part 
into the sea : from the drops of his blood there 
arose the Erinyes Alecto, Tisiphone, and Me- 
gaera. The Titans then deposed Uranus (Cce- 
lus), liberated their brothers who had been 
cast into Tartarus, and raised Cronus (Saturn) 
to the throne. But Cronus (Saturn) hurled the 
Cyclopes back into Tartarus, and married his 
sister Rhea. Having been foretold by Gaea 
(Terra) and Uranus (Ccelus) that he should be 
dethroned by one of his own children, he swal- 
lowed successively his children Hestia (Vesta), 
Demeter (Ceres), Hera (Juno), Hades (Pluto), 
and Poseidon(Neptune). Rhea, therefore, when 
she was pregnant with Zeus (Jupiter), went to 
Crete, and gave birth to the child in the Dictaean 
Cave, where he was brought up by the Curetes. 
When Zeus (Jupiter) had grown up, he availed 
Himself of the assistance of Thetis, the daugh- 
ter of Oceanus, who gave to Cronus (Saturn) 
a potion which caused him to bring up the stone 
and the children he had swallowed. United 
with his brothers and sisters, Zeus (Jupiter) 
now began the contest against Cronus (Saturn) 
and the ruling Titans. This contest (usually 
called the Titanomachia) was carried on in 
Thessaly, Cronus (Saturn) and the Titans oc- 
cupying Mount Othrys, and the sons of Cronus 
(Saturn) Mount Olympus. It lasted ten years, 
till at length Gaea (Terra) promised victory to 
Zeus (Jupiter) if he would deliver the Cyclopes 
and Hecatoncheires from Tartarus. Zeus (Ju- 
piter) accordingly slew Campe, who guarded the 
Cyclopes, and the latter furnished him with 
thunder and lightning. The Titans then were 
overcome, and hurled down into a cavity below 
Tartarus, and the Hecatoncheires were set to 
900 



guard them. It must be observed that the fight 
of the Titans is sometimes confounded by an- 
cient writers with the fight of the Gigantes. — 
2. The name Titans is also given to those di- 
vine or semi-divine beings who were descended 
from the Titans, such as Prometheus, Hecate, 
Latona, Pyrrha, and especially Helios (the Sun) 
and Selene (the Moon) as the children of Hype- 
rion and Thia, and even the descendants of 
Helios, such as Circe. 

Titaresius (TiTaprjctoc : now Elassonitiko or 
Xeraghi), a river of Thessaly, also called Euro- 
pus, rising in Mount Titarus, flowing through 
the country of the Perrhaebi, and falling into the 
Peneus southeast of Phalanna. Its waters were 
impregnated with an oily substance, whence it 
was said to be a branch of the infernal Styx. 

Tithonus (TiBuvog), son of Laomedon and 
Strymo, and brother of Priam. By the prayers 
of Eos (Aurora), who loved him, he obtained 
from the gods immortality, but not eternal youth, 
in consequence of which he completely shrunk 
together in his old age, whence an old decrepit 
man was proverbially called Tithonus. As he 
could not die, Eos (Aurora) changed him into a 
cicada. 

Tithorea. Vid. Neon. 

Tithraustes (Tidpavorric), a Persian, wno 
succeeded Tissaphernes in his satrapy, and put 
him to death by order of Artaxerxes Mnemon, 
B.C. 395. Being unable to make peace with 
Agesilaus, he sent Timocrates, the Rhodian, 
into Greece with fifty talents, to distribute 
among the leading men in the several states, in 
order to induce them to exc.'te a war against 
Sparta at home. 

Titianus, Julius, a Roman writer, was the 
father of the rhetorician Titianus, who taught 
the younger Maximinus. The elder Titianus 
may therefore be placed in the reigns of Com- 
modus, Pertinax, and Severus. He was called 
the ape of his age, because he had imitated 
every thing. All his works are lost. 

TitinIus, a Roman dramatist, whose produc- 
tions belonged to the department of the Comm- 
dia Togata, is commended by Varro on account 
of the skill with which he developed the char- 
acters of the personages whom he brought upon 
the stage. It appears that he was younger than 
Caecilius, but older than Terence, and flourished 
about B.C. 170. The names of upward of 
fourteen plays, together with a considerable 
number of short fragments, have been preserv- 
ed by the grammarians. 

Titius Septimius. Vid. Septimius. 

[Titormus (Ttrop/ioc), a herdsman of ^tolia, 
renowned for his great strength, which so far 
surpassed that of the celebrated Milo of Cro- 
tona, that the latter is said to have exclaimed, 
on witnessing a display of his physical powers, 
"Oh, Jupiter! hast thou begotten in this man 
another Hercules for us !"] 

Titus FlavIus Sabinus Vespasianus, Roman 
emperor A D. 79-81, commonly called by his 
praenomen Titus, was the son of the Emperor 
Vespasianus and his wife Flavia Domitilla. He 
was born on the 30th of December, A D. 40. 
When a young man he served as tribunus mil 
itum in Britain and in Germany with great 
credit. After having been quaestor, he had the 
command of a legion, and served under his 



TITUS FLAVIUS. 



TMOLUS. 



father in the Jewish wars. Vespasian returned 
to Italy after he had been proclaimed emperor 
on the first of July, A.D. 69 ; but Titus remain- 
ed in Palestine to prosecute the siege of Jeru- 
salem, during which he showed the talents of 
a general with the daring of a soldier. The 
siege of Jerusalem was concluded by the cap- 
ture of the place on the 8th of September, 70. 
Titus returned to Italy in the following year 
(71), and triumphed at Rome with his father. 
He also received the title of Caesar, and became 
the associate of Vespasian in the gover.nment. 
His conduct at this time gave no good promise, 
and the people looked upon him as likely to be 
another Nero. He was accused of being ex- 
cessively addicted to the pleasures of the table, 
of indulging lustful passions in a scandalous 
way, and of putting suspected persons to death 
with very little ceremony. His attachment to 
Berenice, the sister of Agrippa II., also made 
him unpopular. Titus became acquainted with 
her when he was in Judaea, and after the cap- 
ture of Jerusalem she followed him to Rome 
with her brother Agrippa, and both of them 
lodged in the emperor's residence. It was said 
that Titus had promised to marry Berenice, 
but as this intended union gave the Romans 
great dissatisfaction, he sent her away from 
Rome after he became emperor. Titus suc- 
ceeded his father in 79, and his government 
proved an agreeable surprise to those who had 
anticipated a return of the times of Nero. His 
brother Domitian was accused of having enter- 
tained designs against Titus ; but, instead of 
punishing him, Titus endeavored to win his 
affection, and urged him not to attempt to gain 
by criminal means that power which he would 
one day have in a legitimate way. During his 
whole reign Titus displayed a sincere desire for 
the happiness of the people, and he did all that 
he could to. relieve them in times of distress. 
He assumed the office of pontifex maximus aft- 
er the death of his father, and with the purpose, 
as he declared, of keeping his hands free from 
blood ; a resolution which he kept. Two patri- 
cians, who were convicted by the senate of a 
conspiracy against him, were pardoned, and 
treated with kindness and confidence. He 
cheeked all prosecutions for the crime of Icesa 
majestas, and he severely punished all informers. 
The first year of his reign is memorable for the 
great eruption of Vesuvius, which desolated a 
large part of the adjacent country, and buried 
with lava and ashes the towns of Herculaneum 
and Pompeii. Titus endeavored to repair the 
ravages of this great eruption : he sent two con- 
sulars with money to restore the ruined towns, 
and he applied to this purpose the property of 
those who had been destroyed, and had left no 
next of kin. At the beginning of the following 
year (80) there was a great fire at Rome, which 
lasted three days and three nights, and destroy- 
ed the Capitol, the library of Augustus, the the- 
atre of Pompeius, and other public buildings, 
besides many houses. The emperor declared 
that he should consider all the loss as his own, 
and he set about repairing it with great activity ; 
he took even the decorations of the imperial 
residences, and sold them to raise money. The 
eruption of Vesuvius was followed by a dread- 
ful pestilence, which called for fresh exertions 



on the part of the benevolent emperor. In this 
year he completed the great amphitheatre called 
the Colosseum, which had been commenced by 
his father ; and also the baths called the baths 
of Titus. The dedication of these two edifices 
was celebrated by spectacles which lasted one 
hundred days ; by a naval battle in the old 
naumachia, and fights of gladiators : on one day 
alone five thousand wild animals are said to 
have been exhibited, a number which we may 
reasonably suspect to be exaggerated. He died 
on the thirteenth of September, 81, after a reign 
of two years, two months, and twenty days. 
He was in the forty-first year of his age. There 
were suspicions that he was poisoned by Domi- 
tian. There is a story that Domitian came be- 
fore Titus was dead, and ordered him to be de- 
serted by those about him : according to an- 
other story, he ordered him to be thrown into a 
vessel full of snow, under the pretext of cooling 
his fever. Titus was succeeded by his brother 
Domitian. His daughter Julia Sabina was mar- 
ried to Flavius Sabinus, his cousin, the son of 
Flavius Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian. 
Titus is said to have written Greek poems and 
tragedies ; he was very familiar with Greek. 
He also wrote many letters in his father's name 
during Vespasian's life, and drew up edicta. 

Tityus (Tiriid?), son of Terra (Gaea), or of 
Jupiter (Zeus) and Elara, the daughter of Or- 
chomenus, was a giant in Euboea. Instigated 
by Juno (Hera), he attempted to offer violence 
to Latona (Leto) or Diana (Artemis), when she 
passed through Panopaeus to Pytho, but he was 
killed by the arrows of Diana (Artemis) or Apol- 
lo ; according to others, Jupiter (Zeus) destroy- 
ed him with a flash of lightning. He was then 
cast into Tartarus, and there he lay outstretch- 
ed on the ground, covering nine acres, with two 
vultures or snakes devouring his liver. His de- 
struction by the arrows of Diana (Artemis) and 
Apollo was represented on the throne of Apollo 
at Amyclae. 

Tius or Tium (Ti'of, T/ov, also Tr/iov : now 
Tios or Tilios), a sea port town of Bithynia, on 
the River Billaeus ; a colony from Miletus, and 
the native place of Philetaerus, the founder of 
the Pergamene kingdom. 

Tlepolemus (TAi77rd/W,uof), son of Hercules by 
Astyoche, daughter of Phylas, or by Astydamia, 
daughter of Amyntor. He was King of Argos, 
but after slaying his uncle Licymnius he was 
obliged to take to flight ; and, in conformity with 
the command of an oracle, he settled in Rhodes, 
where he built the to#ns of Lindos, Ialysus, and 
Camirus. He joined the Greeks in the Trojan 
war with nine ships, but was slain by Sarpedon. 

Tlos (TAuf, gen. T/U5 : TAueuf, TAwir^f : ru- 
ins near Doover), a considerable city in the inte- 
rior of Lycia, about two and a half miles east 
of the River Xanthus, on the road leading over 
Mount Massicytus to Cibyra. 

Tmarus. Vid. Tomarus. 

Tmolus (Tuw/loc), god of Mount Tmolus In 
Lydia, is described as the husband of Pluto (or 
Omphale) and father of Tantalus, and is said tc 
have decided the musical contest between Apol 
lo and Pan. 

Tmolus or Timolus (T/ztjAof : now Kisilja 
Musa Dagh), a celebrated mountain of Asia 
Minor, running east and west through the cen » 

901 



TOGATA, GALLIA. 



TORQUATUS. 



tre of Ljdia, and dividing the plain of the Her- 
mus, on the north, from that of the Cayster, on 
the south. At its eastern end it joins Mount 
Messogis, thus entirely inclosing the valley of 
the Cayster. On the west, after throwing out 
the northwestern branch called Sipylus, it runs 
far out into the iEgean, forming, under the name 
of Mimas, the great Ionian peninsula, beyond 
which it is still further prolonged in the island 
of Chios. On its northern side are the sources 
of the Pactolus and the Cogamus ; on its south- 
ern side those of the Cayster. It produced 
wine, saffron, zinc, and gold. 

Togata, Gallia. Vid. Gallia. 

Tolbiacum (now Zulpich), a town of Gallia 
Belgica, on the road from Colonia Agrippina to 
Treviri. 

Tolentinum (Tolinas, -atis : now Tolentino), 
a town of Picenum, on a height on the River 
Flusor (now Chiente). 

Tolenus or Telonius (now Turano), a river 
in the land of the Sabines, rising in the country 
of the Marsi and jEqui, and falling into the 
Velinus. 

Toletum (now Toledo), the capital of the Car- 
petani in Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on 
the River Tagus, which nearly encompasses the 
town, and upon seven hills. According to tra- 
dition, it was founded by Jews, who fled thither 
when Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 
and who called it Tolcdoth, or the " city of gen- 
erations." It was taken by the Romans under 
the proconsul M. Fulvius, B.C. 192, when it is 
described as a small but fortified town. It was 
celebrated in ancient, as well as in modern 
times, for the manufactory of swords ; but it 
owed its greatness to the Gothic kings, who 
made it the capital of their dominions. It still 
contains many Roman remains. 

Tolistobogi, Tolistoboji (Toliaro66yioi, To- 
Xiaroboioi, To\tcTo6C>yioi). Vid. Galatia. 

[Tolmides (To^jiidric). 1. An Athenian gen- 
eral, who ravaged the coast of the Peloponne- 
sus in B.C. 455, burned the Spartan arsenal at 
Gythium, took Naupactus, and settled there the 
Messenians who left their country on its con- 
quest by the Spartans. He afterward under- 
took an expedition to quell a disturbance in 
Chaeronea and Orchomenus, but was defeated 
and slain. — 2. An Elean, a herald in the Greek 
army of Cyrus, considered the best herald of 
his day.] 

Tolophon (To7io<j>6v : ToTiOtpuvioc), also called 
Colophon (Ko"Xo<f>6v), a town of Locris, on the 
Corinthian Gulf. * 

Toi.osa (now Tolouse), a town of Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, and the capital of the Tectosages, was 
situated on the Garumna, near the frontiers of 
Aquitania. It was subsequently made a Roman 
colony, and was surnamed Palladia. It was a 
large and wealthy town, and contained a cele- 
brated temple, in which great riches were de- 
posited. In this temple there is said to have 
been preserved a great part of the booty taken 
by Brennus from the temple at Delphi. The 
town and temple were plundered by the consul 
Q. Servilius Caepio in B.C. 106 ; but the sub- 
sequent destruction of his army and his own 
unhappy fate were regarded as a divine punish- 
ment for his sacrilegious act. Hence arose the 
* Droverb Aurum Tolosanum habet. There are 
902 



the ruins of a small amphitheatre and some 
other Roman remains at the modern town. 

[Tolumnius, an augur among the Rutulians, 
who distinguished himself by his bravery, was 
the means of preventing the completion of a 
friendly compact between Turnus and .Eneas, 
and was slain in the subsequent conflict.] 

Tolumnius, Lar, king of the Veientes, to 
whom Fidenae revolted in B.C. 438, and at ' 
whose instigation the inhabitants of Fidenas 
slew the four Roman ambassadors who had 
been sent to Fidenas to inquire into the reasons 
of their recent conduct. Statues of these am- 
bassadors were placed on the Rostra at Rome, 
where they continued till a late time. In the 
war which followed, Tolumnius was slain in 
single combat by Cornelius Cossus, who dedi 
cated his spoils in the temple of Jupiter Fere 
trius, the second of the three instances in which 
the spolia opima were won. 

Tomarus or Tmarus {Tojiapoc, Tfiupoc : now 
Tomaro), a mountain in Epirus, in the district 
Molossia, between the Lake Pambotis and the 
River Arachthns, near Dodona. 

Tomeus (To^eiif : now Kondozoni), a mount- 
ain in Messenia, east of the promontory Cory- 
phasium. 

TomI or Tomis (Tofioi, Topic : To/ievc, Tomi- 
ta : now Tomiswar or Jegni Pangola), a town 
of Thrace (subsequently Mcesia), situated on the 
western shore of the Euxine, and at a later 
time the capital of Scythia Minor. According 
to tradition, it was called Tomi (from rtftvu, 
" cut") because Medea here cut to pieces the 
body of her brother Absyrtus. It is said to have 
been a colony of the Milesians. It is renowned 
as the place of Ovid's banishment. 

Tomyris {Tofivpic), a queen of the Massagetae 
who dwelt south of the Araxes (Jaxartes), by 
whom Cyrus was slain in battle B.C. 529. 

[Tongilius. 1. A dissolute young Roman, 
mentioned contemptuously by Cicero among 
the favorites of Catiline. — 2. A lawyer undei 
Adrian, noted for his avarice, ridiculed by Juve- 
nal.] 

[Topazos, an island on the western side of 
the Sinus Arabicus. Vid. Ophiodes.] 

Tornadotus. Vid. Physcus, No. 3. 

[Toron^eus or Toronicus Sinus (Tnpuvaioc, 
TopoviKdc,TopuviaKoc k6\-koq), Toronaicus (Lit., 
now Gulf of Cassandhra or Hagios-Mamos). 
Vid. Torone, No. 1.] 

Torone (Topuvi) : Topuvaioc). 1. A town Ol 
Macedonia; in the district Chalcidice, and on 
the southwestern side of the peninsula Sitho- 
nia, from which the gulf between the peninsu- 
las Sithonia and Pallene was called Sinus Toro- 
naicus. — [2. Vid. Toryne.] 

Torquatus, the name of a patrician family o.* 
the Manlia gens. 1. T. Manlius Imperiosus 
Torquatus, the son of L. Manlius Capitolinus 
Imperiosus, dictator B.C. 363, was a favorite 
hero of Roman story. Manlius is said to have 
been dull of mind in his youth, and was brought 
up by his father in the closest retirement in the 
country. When the tribune M. Pomponius ac- 
cused the elder Manlius in B.C. 362, on ac- 
count of the cruelties he had practiced in his 
dictatorship, he endeavored to excite an odium 
against him by representing him at the same 
time as a cruel and tyrannical father. As soon 



TORQUATUS. 

j as the younger Manlius heard of this, he hur- 
ried to Rome, obtained admission to Pomponius 
early in the morning, and compelled the trib- 
une, by threatening him with instant death if 

J he did not take the oath, to swear that he would 
drop the accusation against his father. In 361 
Manlius served under the dictator T. Quintius 
Pennus in the war against the Gauls, and in 

| this campaign earned immortal glory by slaying 
in single combat a gigantic Gaul. From the 

1 dead body of the barbarian he took the chain 
(torques) which had adorned him, and placed it 

I around his own neck ; and from this circum- 

| stance he obtained the surname of Torquatus. 

I He was dictator in 353, and again in 349. He 
was also three times consul, namely, in 347, 

! 344, and in 340. In the last of these years 
Torquatus and his colleague P. Decius Mus 
gained the great victory over the Latins at the 
foot of Vesuvius, which established forever the 
supremacy of Rome over Latium. Vid. Decius. 
Shortly before the battle, when the two armies 
were encamped opposite to one another, the 
consuls published a proclamation that no Ro- 
man should engage in single combat with a 
Latin on pain of death. Notwithstanding this 
' proclamation, the young Manlius, the son of the 
consul, provoked by the insults of a Tusculan 
noble of the name of Mettius Geminus, accept- 

* ed his challenge, slew his adversary, and bore 
the bloody spoils in triumph to his father. Death 
was his reward. The consul would not over- 
look this breach'of discipline, and the unhappy 
youth was executed by the lictor in presence of 
the assembled army. This severe sentence 
rendered Torquatus an object of detestation 
among the Roman youths as long as he lived ; 
and the recollection of his severity was pre- 
served in after ages by the expression Manliana 
imperia. — 2. T. ManliusTorquatus, consul B.C. 
235, when he conquered the Sardinians ; cen- 
sor 231, and consul a second time in 224. He 
possessed the hereditary sternness and severity 
of his family, and we find him opposing in the 
senate the ransom of those Romans who had 
been taken prisoners at the fatal battle of Can- 
nae. In 217 he was sent into Sardinia, where 
he carried on the war with success against the 
Carthaginians and the Sardinians. He was dic- 
tator in 210.— 3. T. Manlius Torquatus, con- 
sul 165 with Cn. Octavius. He inherited the 
severity of his ancestors, of which an instance 
is related in the condemnation of his son, who 
had been adopted by D. Junius Silanus. Vid. 
Silanus, No. 1. — 4. L. Manlius Torquatus, con- 
sul B.C. 65 with L. Aurelius Cotta. Torquatus 
and Cotta obtained the consulship in conse- 
quence of the condemnation, on account of brib- 
ery, of P. Cornelius Sulla and P. Autronius Par- 
tus, who had been already elected consuls. Aft- 
er his consulship Torquatus obtained the prov- 
ince of Macedonia. He took an active part in 
suppressing the Catilinarian conspiracy in 63 ; 
and he also supported Cicero when he was ban- 
ished in 58.-5. L. Manlius Torquatus, son of 
No. 4, accused of bribery, in 66, the consuls 
elect, P. Cornelius Sulla and P. Autronius Pae- 
tus, and thus secured the consulship for his fa- 
ther. He was closely connected with Cicero 
during the praetorship (65) and consulship (63) 
of the latter. In 62 he brought a second accu- 



TRACHONITJS 

sation against P. Sulla, whom he now charged 
with having been a party to both of Catiline's 
conspiracies. Sulla was uerended by Horten- 
sius and by Cicero in a speech which is still 
extant. Torquatus, like his father, belonged to 
the aristocratical party, and accordingly opposed 
Caesar on the -breaking out of the civil war in 
49. He was praetor in that year, and was sta- 
tioned at Alba with six cohorts. He subse- 
quently joined Pompey in Greece, and in the 
following year (48) he had the command of Ori- 
cum intrusted to him, but was obliged to sur- 
render both himself and the town to Caesar, 
who, however, dismissed Torquatus uninjured. 
After the battle of Pharsalia Torquatus went to 
Africa, and upon the defeat of his party in that 
country in 46 he attempted to escape to Spain 
along with Scipio and others, but was taken 
prisoner by P. Sittius at Hippo Regius, and 
slain together with his companions. Torquatus 
was well acquainted with Greek literature, and 
is praised by Cicero as a man well trained in 
every kind of learning. He belonged to the 
Epicurean school of philosophy, and is intro- 
duced by Cicero as the advocate of that school 
in his dialogue De Finibus, the first book of 
which is called Torquatus in Cicero's letters to 
Atticus. — 6. A. Manlius Torquatus, praetor in 
52, when he presided at the trial of Milo for 
bribery. On the breaking out of the civil war 
he espoused the side of Pompey, and after the 
defeat of the latter retired to Athens, where he 
was living in exile in 45. He was an intimate 
friend of Cicero, who addressed four letters to 
him while he was in exile. 

Torquatus Silanus. Vid. Silanus. 

[Toryne (TopvvT)) or Torone (Topuvn, near 
Perga), a haven in Thesprotia, where the fleet 
of Augustus was moored for a short time pre- 
vious to the battle of Actium.] 

Toxandri, a people in GalliaBelgica, between 
the Menapii and Morini, on the right bank of 
the Scaldis. 

Trabea, Q., a Roman comic dramatist, who 
occupies the eighth place in the canon of Vol- 
catius Sedigitus. Vid. Sedigitus. The peri- 
od when he flourished is uncertain, but he has 
been placed about B.C. 130. No portion of his 
works has been preserved with the exception of 
half a dozen lines quoted by Cicero, [edited in 
Bothe's Pocta. Scenici Latin., vol. vi., p. 29-30.] 

Trachalus, Galerius, consul A.D. 68 with 
Silius Italicus, is frequently mentioned by his 
contemporary Quintilran as one of the most 
distinguished orators of his age. 

Trachis or Trachin (Tpaxk, Ion. Tprjxlc, 
Tpax'iv : Tpax'ivLos). 1. Also called Heraclea 
Trachinite, or Heraclea Phthiotidis, or sim 
ply Heraclea ('Hpa/cAtta ri kv Tpaxcvaig, or 'H 
7j iv Tpaxtvi), a town of Thessaly, in the dis 
trict Malis, celebrated as the residence of Her 
cules for a time. — 2. A town of Phocis, on the 
frontiers of Bceotia, and on the slope of Mount 
Helicon, in the neighborhood of Lebadea. 

Trachonitis or Trachon (Tpax^virtc, Tpd- 
Xw), the northern district of Palestine beyond 
the Jordan, lay between Antilibanus and the 
mountains of Arabia, and was bounded on the 
north by the territory of Damascus, on the east 
by Auranitis, on the south by Ituraea, and on • 
the west by Gaulanitis. It was for the most 

903 



TRADUCTA, JULIA. 



TRAJEOTUM. 



part a sandy desert, intersected by two ranges 
of rocky mountains, called Trachones (Tpo^ui- 
vec), the caves in which gave lefuge to numer- 
ous bands of robbers. For its political rela- 
tions under the Asmoneean aiid Idumaean prin- 
ces, vid. Pal^estina. Under the Romans it 
belonged sometimes to the province of Juda?a 
and sometimes to that of Arabia. It forms part 
of the Hauran. 

[Traducta, Julia (now Tarifa), a town in 
tiispania Baetica, owed its origin to the Ro- 
mans, who transported (whence the name Tra- 
ducta) hither the inhabitants of Zelas, a town in 
Africa, near Tingis, adding some colonists of 
their own to the number ] 

Tragia, TragLe, or Tragias (Tpayia, Tpa- 
yiat, Tpayiag), a small island (or more than 
one) in,the ^Egean Sea, near Samos, probably 
between it and Pharmacussa, where Pericles 
gained a naval victory over the Samians, B.C. 
439. 

Tragurium (now Trau or Troghie), a town 
of Dalmatia, in Illyricum, celebrated for its mar- 
ble, and situated on an island connected with 
the main land by means of a mole. 

Trajanopolis. 1. (Now Orichovo), a town in 
the interior of Thrace, on the Hebrus, founded 
by Trajan. — 2. A town of Cilicia. Vid. Seli- 
nus. — 3. A town in Mysia, on the borders of 
Phrygia. 

Trajanus, M. Ulpius, Roman emperor A.D. 
98-117, was born at Italica, near Seville, the 
18th of September, 52. He was trained to 
arms, and served with distinction in the East 
and in Germany. He was consul in 91, and at 
the close of 97 he was adopted by the Emperor 
Nerva, who gave him the rank of Caesar and 
the names of Nerva and Germanicus, and, 
shortly after, the title of imperator and the trib- 
unitia potestas. His style and title after his 
elevation to the imperial dignity were Imperalor 
Casar Nerva Trajanus Augustus. He was the 
first emperor who was born out of Italy. Nerva 
died in January, 98, and was succeeded by Tra- 
jan, who was then at Cologne. His accession 
was hailed with joy, and he did not disappoint 
the expectations of the people. He was a man 
adapted to command. He was strong and heal- 
thy, of a majestic appearance, laborious, and 
inured to fatigue. Though not a man of letters, 
he had good sense, a knowledge of the world, 
and a sound judgment. His mode of living was 
very simple, and in his campaigns he shared 
all the sufferings and privations of the soldiers, 
by whom he was both loved and feared. He 
was a friend to justice, and he had a sincere de- 
sire for the happiness of the people. Trajan 
did not return to Rome for some months, being 
employed in settling the frontiers on the Rhine 
and the Danube. He entered Rome on foot, ac- 
companied by his wife Pompeia Plotina. This 
lady is highly commended by Pliny the younger 
for her modest virtues, and her affection to Mar- 
ciana, the sister of Trajan. In A.D. 101 Trajan 
left Rome for his campaign against the Daci. 
Decebalus, king of the Daci, had compelled Do- 
initian to purchase peace by an annual payment 
of money ; and Trajan determined on hostili- 
ties. This war employed Trajan between two 
and three years ; but it ended with the defeat 
of Decebalus, who sued for peace at the feet 
904 



of the Roman emperor. Trajan assumed the 
name of Daeicus, and entered Rome in triumph 
(103). In the following year (104) Trajan com- 
menced his second Dacian war against Dece- 
balus, who, it is said, had broken the treaty. 
Decebalus was completely defeated, and put an 
end to his life (106). In the course of this war 
Trajan built (105) a permanent bridge across the 
Danube at a place now called Szernecz. The 
piers were of stone and of an enormous size, 
but the arches were of wood. After the death 
of Decebalus Dacia was reduced to the form 
of a Roman province ; strong forts were built 
in various places, and Roman colonies were 
planted. It is generally supposed that the col 
umn at Rome, called the Column of Trajan, was 
erected to commemorate his Dacian victories 
On his return Trajan had a triumph, and he ex 
hibited games to the people for one hundred am? 
twenty-three days. Eleven thousand animals 
were slaughtered during these amusements ; 
and an army of gladiators, ten thousand men, 
gratified the Romans by killing one another. 
About this time Arabia Petraea was subjected 
to the empire by A. Cornelius Palma, the gov- 
ernor of Syria ; and an Indian embassy came 
to Rome. Trajan constructed a road across the 
Pomptine marshes, and built magnificent bridges 
across the streams. Buildings, probably man- 
siones, were constructed by the side of this 
road. In 114 Trajan left Rome to make war 
on the Armenians and the Parthians. He spent 
the winter of 114 at Antioch, and in the follow- 
ing year he invaded the Parthian dominions 
The most striking and brilliant success attend 
ed his arms. In the course of two campaigns 
(115-116) he conquered the greater part of the 
Parthian empire, and took the Parthian capital, 
Ctesiphon. In 116 he descended the Tigris 
and entered the Erythraean Sea (the Persian 
Gulf). While he was thus engaged the Par- 
thians rose against the Romans, but were again 
subdued by the generals of Trajan. On his re- 
turn to Ctesiphon, Trajan determined to give 
the Parthians a king, and placed the diadem on 
the head of Parthamaspates. In 117" Trajan 
fell ill, and, as his complaint grew worse, he set 
out for Italy. He lived to reach Selinus in Ci- 
licia, afterward called Trajanopolis, where he 
died in August, 117, after a reign of nineteen 
years, six months, and fifteen days. His ashes 
were taken to Rome in a golden urn, carried in 
triumphal procession, and deposited under the 
column which bears his name. He left no chil- 
dren, and he was succeeded by Hadrian. Tra- 
jan constructed several great roads in the em- 
pire ; he built libraries at Rome, one of which, 
called the Ulpia Bibliotheca, is often mentioned ; 
and a theatre in the Campus Martius. His 
great work was the Forum Trajanum, in the 
centre of which was placed the column of Tra- 
jan. Under the reign of Trajan lived Sextus 
Julius Frontinus, C. Cornelius Tacitus, the 
younger Pliny, and various others of less note. 
Plutarch, Suetonius, and Epictetus survived 
Trajan. The jurists Juventius Celsus and Ne 
ratius Priscus were living under Trajan. 

Trajanus Portus. Vid. Centum Cell^e. 

Trajectum (now Utrecht), a town of the Bi» 
tavi, on the Rhine, called at a later time Trajet 
I 'us Rhcni, or Ad Khenum. 



TRALLES. 



TREBULA. 



Tkalles or Trallis (ai Tpallelg, rj TpuWit; : 
Tpa.Mia.v6f, Trallianus : ruins at Ghiuzel- Hisar, 
near Aidin), a flourishing commercial city of 
Asia Minor, reckoned sometimes to Ionia and 
sometimes to Caria. It stood on a quadrangular 
height at the southern foot of Mount Messogis 
(with a citadel on a higher point), on the banks 
of the little river Eudon, a northern tributary of 
the Maeander, from which the city was distant 
eighty stadia (eight geographical miles). The 
surrounding country was extremely fertile and 
beautiful, and hence the city was at first called 
Anthea ("kvOcia). Under the Seleucidas it bore 
the names of Seleucia and Antiochia. It was 
inhabited by a mixed population of Greeks and 
Carians. There was a less important city of 
the same name in Phrygia, if, indeed, it be not 
the same. 

[Teanips/E (Tpaviipai), a people of Thrace, 
mentioned along with the Melanditae (oid. Me- 
landept^e) and Thyni, by Seuthes, in the Anab- 
asis of Xenophon, as forming part of the gov- 
ernment of his father Ma;sades.] 

TRANQUILLUS, SuETONICS. Vid. SUETONIUS. 

Transcellensis Mons, a mountain ofMaure- 
tania Caesariensis, between Caesarea and the 
River Chinalaph. 

[Trans Tiberim or Transtiberina, a region 
of Rome. Vid. Roma, p. 746, a, No. 14.] 

Trapezopqlis {Tpane^ovnoT^ig) a town of Asia 
Minor, on the southern slope of Mount Cadmus, 
on the confines of Caria and Phrygia. Its site 
is uncertain. 

Trapezus (Tpaire&vc : TpanefrvvTioc and 
■ oiaiog). 1. (Near Mavria), a city of Arcadia, 
on the Alpheus, the name of which was myth- 
ically derived from the Tpunefa, or altar, on 
which Lycaon was said to have offered human 
sacrifices to Jove. At the time of the building 
of Megalopolis, the inhabitants of Trapezus, 
rather than be transferred to the new city, mi- 
grated to the shores of the Euxine, and their 
city fell to ruin. — 2. (Now Tarabosan, Trabczun, 
or Trebizond), a colony of Sinope, at almost the 
extreme east of the northern shore of Asia 
Minor. After Sinope lost her independence, 
Trapezus belonged first to Armenia Minor, and 
afterward to the kingdom of Pontus. Under 
the Romans it was made a free city, probably 
by Pompey, and, by Trajan, the capital of Pon- 
tus Cappadocius. Hadrian constructed a new 
harbor ; and the city became a place of first-rate 
commercial importance. It was also strongly 
fortified. It was taken by the Goths in the 
-eign of Valerian ; but it had recovered, and 
«vas in a flourishing state at the time of Justin- 
ian, who repaired its fortifications. In the Mid- 
dle Ages it was for some time the seat of a frag- 
ment of the Greek empire, called the empire of 
Trebizond. It Ls now the second commercial 
port of the Black Sea, ranking next after 
Odessa. 

Trasimenus Lacus (now Lago di Perugia), 
sometimes, but not correctly, written Thrasy- 
menus, a lake in Etruria, between Clusium and 
Perusia, memorable for the victory gained by 
Hannibal over the Romans under Flaminius, 
B.C. 217. 

Treba (Trebanus : now Trevi), a town in 
Latium, near the sources of the Anio, north- 
east of Anagnia. 



Trebatius Testa. Vid. Testa. 

[Trebellianus, C. Annius, a Cilician pirate, 
proclaimed himself Roman emperor (one of the 
so-called thirty tyrants) A.D. 264, but was de- 
feated and slain in Isauria by one of the gen- 
erals of Gallienus.] 

Thebellius Pollio, one of the six Scripiores 
Histories Augusta, flourished under Constantine, 
and was anterior to Vopiscus. His name is 
prefixed to the biographies of, 1. The two Va- 
leriani, father and son; 2. TheGallieni ; 3. The" 
Thirty Tyrants ; 4. Claudius, the last-named 
piece being addressed to Constantine. We learn 
from Vopiscus that the lives written by Trebel- 
lius Pollio commenced with Philippus and ex- 
tended down to Claudius. Of these, all as far 
as the Valeriani, regarding whom but a short 
fragment remains, have been lost. [For edi- 
tions, vid. Capitolinus, Julius.] 

Trebia (now Trebbia), a small river in Gallia 
Cisalpina, falling into the Po near Placentia. 
It is memorable for the victory which Hannibal 
gained over the Romans, B.C. 218. This river 
is generally dry in summer, but is filled with a 
rapid stream in winter, which was the season 
when Hannibal defeated the Romans. 

Trebonius, C, played rather a prominent 
part in the last days of the republic. He com- 
menced public life as a supporter of the aristo- 
cratical party, and in his quasstorship (B.C. 60) 
he attempted to prevent the adoption of P. Oio- 
dius into a plebeian family. He changed sides 
soon afterward, and in his tribunate of the plebs 
(55) he was the instrument of the triumvirs in 
proposing that Pompey should have the two 
Spains, Crassus Syria, and Cassar the Gauls and 
Illy ricum for another period of five years. This 
proposal received the approbation of the comi- 
tia, and is known by the name of Lex Trebonia. 
For this service he was rewarded by being ap- 
pointed one of Caesar's legates in Gaul, where 
he remained till the breaking out of the civil 
war in 49. In the course of the same year he 
was intrusted by Caesar with the command of 
the land forces engaged in the siege of Massilia. 
In 48 Trebonius was city-praetor, and in the dis- 
charge of his duties resisted the seditious at- 
tempts of his colleague M. Caelius Rufus to ob- 
tain by force the repeal of Caesar's law respect- 
ing the payment of debts. Toward the end of 
47, Trebonius, as pro-praetor, succeeded Q. Cas- 
sius Longinus in the government of Further 
Spain, but was expelled from the province by a 
mutiny of the soldiers who espoused the Pom 
peian party. Caesar raised him to the consul 
ship in October, 45, and promised him the prov- 
ince of Asia. In return for all these honors and 
favors, Trebonius was one of the prime movers 
in the conspiracy to assassinate Caesar, and 
after the murder of his patron (44) he went as 
proconsul to the province of Asia. In the fol- 
lowing year (43), Dolabella, who had received 
from Antonius the province of Syria, surprised 
the town of Smyrna, where Trebonius was then 
residing, and slew him in his bed. 

TrebOla (Trebulanus). 1. (Now Tregghia), 
a town in Samnium, situated in the southeastern 
part of the mountains of Cajazzo. — 2. Mutusca., 
atown of the Sabines of uncertain site. — 3. Svr 
fena, also 3 town of the Sabines, and of uncei 
tain site. 

905 



TRERUS. 



TRIDENTUM. 



Treros (now Sacco), a river in Latium, and 
a tributary of the Liris. 

Tres Tabern^e. 1. A station on the Via Ap- 
pia in Latium, between Aricia and Forum Appii. 
It is mentioned in the account of St. Paul's jour- 
ney to Rome. — 2. (Now Borghetto), a station in 
Gallia Ci'salpina, on the road from Placentia to 
Mediolanum. 

Tretum (Tpnrov : now Cape Bugiaroni, or Ras 
Seba Rous, i. e. Seven Capes), a great promon- 
tory on the coast of Numidia, forming the west- 
ern headland of the Sinus Olcachites (now Bay 
of Storah). 

Treviri or Treveri, a powerful people in 
Gallia Belgica, who were faithful allies of the 
Romans, and whose cavalry was the best in all 
Gaul. The River Mosella flowed through their 
territory, which extended westward from the 
Rhine as far as the Remi. Their chief town 
was made a Roman colony by Augustus, and 
was called Augusta Trevirorum (now Trier or 
Treves). It stood on the right bank of the Mo- 
sella, and became under the later empire one of 
the most flourishing Roman cities north of the 
Alps. It was the capital of Belgica Prima ; and 
after the division of the Roman world by Diocle- 
tian (A.D. 292) into four districts, it became the 
residence of the Caesar who had the govern- 
ment of Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Here dwelt 
Constantius Chlorus and his son Constantine 
the Great, as well as several of the subsequent 
emperors. The modern city still contains many 
nteresting Roman remains. They belong, how- 
ever, to the latter period of the empire, and are 
consequently not in the best style of art. The 
most important of these remains is the Porta 
Nigra or Black Gate, a large and massive build- 
ing in an excellent state of preservation. In 
addition to this, we have extensive remains of 
the Roman baths, of the amphitheatre, and of 
the palace of Constantine. The piers of the 
bridge over the Moselle are likewise Roman. 
At the village of Igel, about six miles from 
Treves, is a beautiful Roman structure, being a 
four-sided obelisk, more than seventy feet high, 
covered with carvings, inscriptions, and bas- 
reliefs. There has been much dispute respect- 
ing the object for which this building was erect- 
ed ; but it appears to have been set up by two 
brothers, named Secundini, partly as a funeral 
monument to their deceased relatives, partly to 
celebrate their sister's marriage, which is rep- 
resented on one of the bas-reliefs by the figures 
of a man and woman joining hands. 

Triarius, Valerius. 1. L., quaestor urbanus 
B.C. 81, and propraetor in Sardinia 77, when he 
repulsed Lepidus, who had fled into that island 
after his unsuccessful attempt to repeal the laws 
of Sulla. Triarius served under Lucullus as 
one of his legates in the war against Mithrada- 
tes, and at first gained considerable distinction 
by his zeal and activity. In 68 Triarius was 
dispatched to the assistance of Fabius, who had 
been intrusted with the defence of Pontus, while 
Lucullus invaded Armenia, and who was now 
attacked by Mithradates with overwhelming 
numbers. Triarius compelled Mithradates to 
assume the defensive, and early in the follow- 
ing year he commenced active operations against 
the Pontic king. Anxious to gain the victory 
over Mithradates before the arrival of Lucullus, 
906 



Triarius allowed himself to be attacked at a dis 
advantage, and was defeated with great slaugh- 
ter near Zela. — 2. P., son of the preceding, ac- 
cused M. jEmilius Scaurus, in 54, first of repe- 
tundae and next of ambitus. Scaurus was de- 
fended on both occasions by Cicero. — 3. C, a 
friend of Cicero, who introduces him as one ol 
the speakers in his dialogue Be Finibus, and 
praises his oratory in his Brutus. He fought on 
Pompey's side at the battle of Pharsalia. Tri- 
arius perished in the civil wars, probably in Af- 
rica, for Cicero speaks in 45 of his death, and 
adds, that Triarius had left him the guardian of 
his children. 

Triballi, a powerful people in Thrace, a 
branch of the Getae dwelling along the Danube, 
who were defeated by Alexander the Great, 
B.C. 335, and obliged to sue for peace. 

Tribocci, a German people, settled in Gallia 
Belgica, between Mount Vogesus and the Rhine, 
in the neighborhood of Strasburg. 

Tribonianus, a jurist, commissioned by Jus- 
tinianus, with sixteen others, to compile the Di- 
gest or Pandect. For details, vid. Justinianus. 

Tricala. Vid. Triocala. 

Trioaranon ( Tpwdpavov : Tpaiapavevc ), a 
fortress in Phliasia, southeast of Phlius, on d 
mountain of the same name. 

Tricasses, Tricasii, or Tricassini, a people 
in Gallia Lugdunensis, east of the Senones, 
whose chief town was Augustobona, afterward 
Tricassse (now Troyes). 

Tricastini, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, 
between the Cavares and Voconlii, inhabiting a 
narrow slip of country between the Drome and 
the here. Their chief town was Augusta Tri- 
castinorum, or simply Augusta (now Aouste). 

Tricca, subsequently Tricala (Tpinnn, Tp'iKa- 
Xa : now Trikkala), an ancient town of Thes- 
saly, in the district Hestiaeotis, situated on the 
Lethaeus, north of the Peneus. Homer repre- 
sents it as governed by the sons of ^Eseulapius ; 
and it contained in later times a celebrated tem- 
ple of this god. 

Trichonis (Tpixuvic : now Zygos or Vrakho- 
ri), a large lake in ^Etolia, east of Stratos and 
north of Mount Aracynthus. 

Trichonium (Tpi^QVLov : Tpixavuve), a town 
in iEtolia, east of Lake Trichonis. 

Tricipitinus, Lucretius. Vid. Lucretu 
Gens. 

Tricoloni (VpikoXuvol : TpiKoXavevc), a town 
of Arcadia, a little north of Megalopolis, of 
which a temple of Neptune (Poseidon) alone 
remained in the time of Pausanias. 

Tricorii, a Ligurian people in Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, a branch of the Sallyi, in the neighbor- 
hood of Massilia and Aquas Sextiae. 

Tricoryth js (TpiKopvdoc : Tpucopvaoc), a de- 
mus in Attica, belonging to the tribe Aiantis, 
between Marathon and Rhamnus. 

Tricrana (TpiKpava : now Trikhiri), an island 
off the coast of Argolis, near.Hermione. 

Tridentum (now Trent, in Italian Trento), the 
capital of the Tridentini, and the chief town of 
Rastia, situated on the River Athesis (now 
Adige), and on the pass of the Alps leading to 
Verona. Its greatness dates from the Middle 
Ages, and it is chiefly celebrated on account 
of the ecclesiastical council which assembled 
within its walls A.D. 1545. 



TRIERES. 



TRIPTOLEMUS. 



Tiueres or Trieris yVpifipric. now En/eh?), 
a small fortress on the coast of Phoenicia, be- 
tween Tripolis and the Promontorium Theu- 
prosopon. 

Trifanum, a town in Latium of uncertain site, 
between Minturnae and Sinuessa. 

[Trimerus (now Tremiti), an island on the 
coast of Apulia, one of the Diomede/E Insula 
(q. v.), where Julia, the grand-daughter of Au- 
gustus, died in exile.] 

[Trimontium. Vid. Phlippopolis.] 

Trinacria. Vid. Sicilia. 

Trinemes or Trinemia (Tptvefieic, Tptve/ieca : 
Tpive/ieix;), a demus in Attica, belonging to the 
tribe Cecropis, on Mount Parnes. 

[Trinium (Jlumen, now Trigno), a small river 
in the country of the Frentani, afforded a good 
harbor for ships (flumen portuosum, Plin.).~] 

Trinobantes, one of the most powerful peo- 
ple of Britain, inhabiting the modern Essex. 
They are mentioned in Caesar's invasion of 
Britain, and they offered a formidable resist- 
ance to the invading force sent into the island 
by the Emperor Claudius. 

[Trio, L. Fclcinius, a notorious informer un- 
der Tiberius, and one of the friends and favor- 
ites of that emperor : in A.D. 20 he accused Pi- 
so before the consuls, and for that service was 
still further honored by Tiberius. In A.D. 35 
he was thrown into prison on suspicion, and 
there put an end to his own life.] 

Triocala or Tricala (TptoaaTia, TptKaXa : 
TpiicaTiivoc, Tricallnus : near Calata Bellota), a 
mountain fortress in the interior of Sicily, near 
the Crimisus,. was in the Servile war the head- 
quarters of the slaves, and the residence of their 
leader Tryphon. 

Triopas (Tpwnat; or Tpiof), son of Neptune 
(Poseidun) and Canace, a daughter of iEolus, or 
of Helios and Rhodos, and the father of Iphi- 
media and Erysichthon. Hence his son Ery- 
sichthon is called Triop'eius, and his grand- 
daughter Mestra or Metra, the daughter of Ery- 
sichthon, Triopeis. Triopas. expelled the Pelas- 
gians from the Dotian plain, but was himself 
obliged to emigrate, and went to Caria, where 
he founded Cnidus on the Triopian promontory. 
His son Erysichthon was punished by Ceres 
(Demeter) with insatiable hunger because he 
had violated her sacred grove ; but others re- 
late the same of Triopas himself. 

Triopia or Triopion, an early name of Cnidus. 

TriopTum (Tpioiuov : now Cape Krio), the 
promontory which terminates the peninsula of 
Cnidus, forming the southwestern headland of 
Caria and of Asia Minor. Upon it was a temple 
of Apollo, surnamed Triopius, which was the 
centre of union for the states of Doris. Hence 
it was also called the Sacred Promontory (a/cpw- 
Ttjpiov iepbv). 

TriphylIa (JVptfyvXia : TpityvXioc), the south- 
ern portion of Elis, lying between the Alpheus 
and the Neda, is said to have derived its name 
from the three different tribes by which it was 
peopled. Its chief town was Pylos. 

[Triphylus (TpifvXos), son of Areas and Lao- 
damia, the legendary hero eponymus of Tri- 
phylia.] 

Tripodiscos (TpinoSianoc : TpnrodtoKiog : ru- 
ins near Dcrweni), a town in the interior of Me- 
garis, northwest of Megara. 



Tripolis (Tp'inoXic : Tpiirol'iTris), is properly 
the name of a confederacy composed of three 
cities, or a district containing three cities, but 
it is also applied to single cities which had some 
such relation to others as to make the name ap- 
propriate. 1. In Arcadia, comprising the three 
cities of Callia, Dipcena, and Nonacris : its name 
is preserved in the modern town of Tripolilza. 
— 2. T. Pelagonia, in Thessaly, comprising the 
three towns of Azorus, Doliche, and Pythium. 
— 3. In Rhodes, comprising the three Dorian 
cities Lindus, Ialysus, and Camirus. Vid. Rho- 
dvs. — 4. (Now Kash Yeniji), a city on the Mee- 
ander, twelve miles west of Hierapolis, on the 
borders of Phrygia, Caria, and Lydia, to each 
of which it is assigned by different authorities. 
— 5. (Now Tircboli), a fortress on the coast of 
Pontus, on a river of the same name, (now Ti- 
reboli Su), ninety stadia east of the Promonto- 
rium Zephyrium (now Cape Zefreh). — 6. (Now 
Tripoli, Tarabulus), on the coast of Phoenicia, 
consisted of three distinct cities, one stadium 
(six hundred feet) apart, each having its own 
walls, but all united in a common constitution, 
having one place of assembly, and forming in 
reality one city. They were colonies of Tyre, 
Sidon, and Aradus respectively. Tripolis stood 
about thirty miles south of Aradus, and about 
the same distance north of Byhlus, on a bold 
headland formed by a spur of Mount Lebanon. 
It had a fine harbor and a flourishing com 
merce. It is now a city of about fifteen thou 
sand inhabitants, and the capital of one of the 
pachalics of Syria, that of Tripoli. — 7. The dis- 
trict on the northern coast of Africa, between 
the two Syrtes, comprising the three cities of 
Sabrata (or Abrotonum), QEa, and Leptis Mag- 
na, and also called Tripolitana Regio. Vid. Syr- 
tica. Its name is preserved in that of the re- 
gency of Tripoli, the western part of which an- 
swers to it, and in that of the city of Tripoli, 
probably the ancient CEa. 

Tripolitana Regio. Vid. Syrtica, Tripolis, 
No. 7. 

Triptolemus (TptirToXefiog), son .of Celeus, 
king of Eleusis, and Metanira or Polymnia. 
Others describe him as son of King Eleusis by 
Cothonea, or of Oceanus and Gaea, or of Trochi- 
lus by an Eleusinian woman. Triptolemus was 
the favorite of Demeter (Ceres), and the invent- 
or of the plough and agriculture, and of civiliza- 
tion, which is the result of it. He was the great 
hero in the Eleusinian mysteries. According 
to the common legend, he hospitably received 
Demeter at Eleusis when she was wandering 
in search of her daughter. The goddess, in 
return, wished to make his son Demophon im- 
mortal, and placed him in the fire in order to 
destroy his mortal parts ; but Metanira scream- 
ed out at the sight, and the child was consumed 
by the flames. As a compensation for this be- 
reavement, the goddess gave to Triptolemus a 
chariot with winged dragons and seeds of wheat. 
In this chariot Triptolemus rode over the earth, 
making man acquainted with the blessings of 
agriculture. On his return to Attica, Celeus 
endeavored to kill him, but by the command of 
Demeter he was obliged to give up his country 
to Triptolemus, who now established the wor- 
ship of Demeter, and institued the Thesmopho. 
ria. Triptolemus is represented in works of 

907 



TRIT^EA. 



TROAS. 



art as a youthful hero, sometimes with the pela- 
sus, on a chariot drawn by dragons, and holding 
in his hand a sceptre and corn ears. 

Tkitjea (Tphaia: Tptraievc). 1. A town of 
Phocis, northwest of Cleonae, on the left hank 
of the Cephisus, and on the frontiers of Locris. 
— 2. One of the twelve cities of Achaia, one 
hundred and twenty stadia east of Pharee, and 
near the frontiers of Arcadia. Augustus made 
it dependent upon Patrae. 

[Tritant^echmes (TpiTavTUtxfiiK). 1. A Per- 
sian satrap of Babylon, son of Artabazus.— 2. A 
son of Artabanus, and cousin of Xerxes, was 
one of the commanders of the Persian infantry 
when the barbarians invaded Greece in B.C. 
480.] 

Trito or TritogenIa (Tpirw or Tpiroyivcia, 
and Tpiroyevfji), a surname of Minerva (Athe- 
na), which is explained in different ways. Some 
derive it from Lake Tritonis in Libya, near which 
she is said to have been born ; others from the 
stream Triton, near Alalcomenae in Boeotia, 
where she was worshipped, and where, accord- 
ing to some statements, she was also born ; 
the grammarians, lastly, derive the name from 
Tpcrw, which, in the dialect of the Athamani- 
ans, is said to signify "head," so that it would be 
the goddess born out of the head of her father. 

Triton (Tpiruv), son of Neptune (Poseidon) 
and Amphitrite (or Celajno), who dwelt with his 
father and mother in a golden palace in the bot- 
tom of the sea, or, according to Homer, at ^Egae. 
Later writers describe him as riding over the 
sea on horses or other sea-monsters. Some- 
times we find mention of Tritons in the plu- 
ral. Their appearance is differently described ; 
though they are always conceived as having 
the human figure in the upper part of their bod- 
ies, and that of a fish in the lower part. The 
chief characteristic of Tritons in poetry as well 
as in works of art is a trumpet made out of a 
shell (concha), which the Tritons blow at the 
command of Neptune (Poseidon) to soothe the 
restless waves of the sea. 

Triton Fl., Tritonis, or TkitonItis Palus 
[TpiTuv, TptTuvic, TpiruviTic), a river and lake 
on the Mediterranean coast of Libya, which are 
mentioned in several old Greek legends, espe- 
cially in the mythology of Minerva (Athena), 
whom one account represented as born on the 
Lake Tritonis, and as the daughter of the nymph 
of the same name, and of Neptune (Poseidon) : 
hence her surname of Tpiroycveia. When the 
Greeks first became acquainted geographically 
with the northern coast of Africa, they identified 
the gulf afterward called the Lesser Syrtis 
with the Lake Tritonis. This seems to be the 
notion of Herodotus, in the story he relates of 
Jason (iv., 178, 179). A more exact knowledge 
of the coast showed them a great lake be- 
yond the inmost recess of the Lesser Syrtis, 
to which the name Tritonis was then applied. 
This lake had an opening to the sea, as well as 
a river flowing into it, and accordingly the ge- 
ographers represented the River Triton as ris- 
ing in a mountain called Zuchabari, and form- 
ing the Lake Tritonis on its course to the Less- 
er Syrtis, into which it fell. The lake is un- 
doubtedly the great salt lake, in the south of 
Tunis, called El-Sibkah; but as this lake has 
no longer an opening to the sea, and the whole 
908 



coast is much altered by the inroads of the 
sands of the Sahara, it seems impossible to 
identify the river : some suppose that it is rep- 
resented by the Wady-el-Khabs. Some of the 
ancient writers gave altogether a different lo- 
cality to the legend, and identify the Triton with 
the river usually called Lathon in Cyrena'ica ; 
and Apollonius Rhodius even transfers the name 
to the Nile. 

Trivicum (now Trivico), a small town in Sam 
nium, situated among the mountains separating 
Samnium from Apulia. 

Troas (j? Tpudc, sc. x<*>pa, the feminine of the 
adjective Tpuf : Tpuadevc : now Chan), the ter- 
ritory of Ilium or Troy, formed the northwest- 
ern part of Mysia. It was bounded on the west 
by the^Egean Sea, from Promontorium Lectum 
to Promontorium Sigeum, at the entrance of 
the Hellespont ; on the northwest by the Hel- 
lespont, as far as the River Rhodius, below 
Abydus ; on the northeast and east by the 
mountains which border the valley of the Rho- 
dius, and extend from its sources southward to 
the main ridge of Mount Ida, and on the south 
by the northern coast of the Gulf of Adramyt- 
tium along the southern foot of Ida ; but on the 
northeast and east the boundary is sometimes 
extended so far as to include the whole coast 
of the Hellespont, and part of the Propontis, and 
the country as far as the River Granicus, thus 
embracing the district of Dardania, and some- 
what more. Strabo extends the boundary still 
further east, to the River ^Esepus, and also 
south to the Caicus ; but this clearly results 
from his including in the territory of Troy that 
of her neighboring allies. The Troad is for the 
most part mountainous, being intersected by 
Mount Ida and its branches : the largest plain 
is that in which Troy stood. The chief rivers 
were the Satnois on the south, the Rhodius on 
the north, and the Scamander and Simoi's in the 
centre. These two rivers, so renowned in the 
legends of the Trojan war, flow from two dif- 
ferent points in the chain of Mount Ida, and 
unite in the plain of Troy, through which the 
united stream flows northwest, and falls into 
the Hellespont east of the promontory of Sige- 
um. The Scamander, also called Xanthus, is 
usually identified with the Mcndereh-Chai, and 
the Simois with the Gumbrek ; but this subject 
presents difficulties which can not be discussed 
within the limits of the present article. The 
precise locality of the city of Troy, or, accord- 
ing to its genuine Greek name, Ilium, is also 
the subject still of much dispute. First, there 
is the question whether the Ilium of Homer 
had any real existence ; next, whether the Ili- 
um Vetus of the historical period, which was 
visited by Xerxes and by Alexander the Great, 
was on the same site as the city of Priam. The 
most probable opinion seems to be that which 
places the original city in the upper part of the 
plain, on a moderate elevation at the foot of 
Mount Ida, and its citadel (called Pergama, 
Jlepyafia) on a loftier height, almost separated 
from the city by a ravine, and nearly surround- 
ed by the Scamander. This city seems never 
to have been restored after its destruction by 
the Greeks. The ^Eolian colonists subsequent- 
ly built a new city, on the site, as they doubtless 
believed, of the old one, but really much lowe« 



TROCML 

down the plain ; and this city is the Troja or 
Ilium Vetus of most of the ancient writers. 
After the time of Alexander, this city declined, 
and a new one was built still further down the 
plain, below the confluence of the Simoi's and 
Scamander, and near the Hellespont, and this 
was called Ilium Novum. Under the Romans, 
this city was honored with various immunities, 
as the only existing refresentative of the an- 
cient Ilium. Its substantial importance, how- 
ever, was entirely eclipsed by that of Alexan- 
| drea Troas. — For the general political history 
of the Troad, see Mysia. The Teucrians, by 
| whom it was peopled at a period of unknown 
antiquity, were a Thracian people. Settling in 
the plain of the Scamander, they founded the city 
of Ilium, which became the head of an extens- 
ive confederacy, embracing not only the north- 
west of Asia Minor, but much of the opposite 
shores of Thrace, and with allies in Asia Minor 
"•.yen as far as Lycia, and evidently much in ad- 
vance of the Greeks in civilization. The myth- 
ical account of the origin of the kingdom is 
briefly as follows. Teucer, the first king in the 
Troad, had a daughter, who married Dardanus, 
the chieftain of the country northeast of the 
Troad. Vid. Dardania. Dardanus had two 
sons, Ilus and Erichthonius ; and the latter was 
the father of Tros, from whom the country and 
people derived the names of Troas and Troes. 
Tros was the father of Ilus, who founded the 
city, which was called after him Ilium, and also, 
after his father, Troja. The next king was 
Laomedon, and after him Priam. Vid. Priamus. 
In his reign the city was taken and destroyed 
by the confederated Greeks, after a ten years' 
siege. Vid. Helena, Alexander, Agamemnon, 
Achilles, Hector, Ajax, Ulysses, Neoptole- 
mus, ^Eneas, &c, and Homerus. To discuss 
the historical value of this legend is not th,e 
province of this work : it is enough to say that 
we have in it evidence of a great conflict, at a 
very early period, between the great Thracian 
empire in the northwest of Asia Minor, and the 
rising power of the Achajans in Greece, in 
which the latter were victorious ; but their vic- 
tory was fruitless, in consequence of their com- 
paratively low civilization, and especially of 
their want of maritime power. The chronolo- 
gers assigned different dates for the capture of 
Troy : the calculation most generally accepted 
placed it in B.C. 1184. This date should be 
carefully remembered, as it forms the starting 
point of various computations ; but it should also 
be borne in mind that the date is of no historical 
authority. (There is not spacft to explain this 
matter here.) The subsequent history of the 
Troad presents an entire blank till we come to 
the period of the great /Eolic migration, when it 
merges in that of ^Eolis and Mysia. In writers 
of the Roman period, the name Troas is often 
used by itself for the city of Alexandres Troas. 
Trocmi or -ii. Vid. Galatia. 
Troes. Vid. Troas. 

Trcezen (Tpoi&v, more rarely Tpoi&vri : Tpoc- 
tf/vioc : now Dhamala), the capital of Trcgzenia 
(Tpot&v'ia), a district in the southeast of Argo- 
lis, on the Saronic Gulf, and opposite the island 
of ^Egina. The town was situated at some 
little distance from the coast, on which it pos- 
sessed a harbor called Pogon (Uuyuv), opposite 



TROTILUM. 

the island of Calauria. Trcezen was a very an 
cient city, and is said to have been originally 
called Poseidonia, on account of its worship of 
Poseidon (Neptune). It received the name of 
Trcezen from Trcezen, one of the sons of Pelops ; 
and it is celebrated in mythology as the place 
where Pittheus, the maternal grandfather of 
Theseus, lived, and where Theseus himself was 
born. Trcezen was for a long time dependent 
upon the kings of Argos ; but in the historical 
period it appears as an independent state. It 
was a city of some importance, for we read that 
the Trcezenians sent five ships of war to Sala- 
mis and one thousand heavy-armed men to Pla- 
ta;se. When the Persians entered Attica, the 
Trcezenians distinguished themselves by the 
kindness with which they received the Atheni- 
ans, who were obliged to abandon their city. 

TrogIlLe, three small islands, named Psilon, 
Argennon, and Sandalion, lying off the promon- 
tory of Trogilium. Vid. Mycale. 

[Trogilium Promontorium (Tpuyihiov a/tpu- 
rf/pLov). Vid. Mycale.] 

Trogitis Lacus. Vid. Pisidia. 

Troglodyte (TpuyXotivTai, i. e., dwellers in 
caves), the name applied by the Greek geogra- 
phers to various uncivilized people, who had no 
abodes but caves, especially to the inhabitants 
of the western coast of the Red Sea, along the 
shores of Upper Egypt and /Ethiopia. "The 
whole of this coast was called Troglodytice 
{TpuyXoSvriKTi). There were also Troglodytae 
in Mcesia, on the banks of the Danube. 

Trogtjs, Pompeius. Vid. Justinus. 

Troilium. Vid. Trossulum. 

Troilus (TpuifAof), son of Priam and Hecuba, 
or, according to others, son of Apollo. He fell 
by the hands of Achilles. 

Troja (Tpota, Ion. Tpoir;, Ep. Tpnia : Tpuc, 
Tpuoc, Ep. and Ion. Tpuior, fem. Tpudc, &e. : 
Tros, Tro'ius, Trojanus, fem. Troas, pi. Troades 
and Trolades), the name of the city of Troy or 
Ilium, also applied to the country. Vid. Troas. 

Thophonius (Tpo$6vwc), son of Erginus, king 
of Orchomenus, and brother of Agamedes. He 
and his brother built the temple at Delphi and 
the treasury of King Hyrieus in Bceotia. For 
details, vid. Agamedes. Trophonius, after his 
death, was worshipped as a hero, and had a cel- 
ebrated oracle in a cave near Lebadea in Bceo- 
tia. (Vid. Diet, of Anliq., art. O343ULUM.) 

Tros (Tpuc), son of Erichthonius and Asty- 
oche, and grandson of Dardanus. He was mar- 
ried to Callirrhoe, by whom he became the 
father of Ilus, Assaracus, and Ganymedes, and 
was King of Phrygia. The country and people 
of Troy derived their name from him. He [re- 
ceived from Jupiter (Zeus) as a compensation 
for his son Ganymedes a pair of divine horses.] 
Vid. Ganymedes. 

Trossulum (Trossulanus : now Tr:isso), a 
town in Etruria, nine miles from Volsinii, which 
is said to have been taken by some Roman 
equites without the aid of foot soldiers ; whence 
the Roman equites obtained the name of Tros- 
suli. Some writers identify this town with 
Troilium, which was taken by the Romans B.C. 
293 ; but they appear to have been different 
places. 

Trotilum (TpuriXov : now Trontcllo), a town 
of Sicily, on the road from Syracuse to Leontini 

909 



TRUENTUM. 



TUDITANUS. 



Truentum, a town of Picenum, on the River 
Truentus or Truentinus (now Tronto). 

Trutulensis Portus, a harbor on the north- 
eastern coast of Britain, near the estuary Taus 
(now Tay), but of which the exact site is un- 
known. 

Tryphi5d6rus (Tpv^LoSupoo), a Greek gram- 
marian and poet, was a native of Egypt ; but 
nothing is known of his personal history. He 
is supposed to have lived in the fifth century of 
the Christian era. Of his grammatical labors 
we have no record ; but one of his poems has 
come down to us, entitled 'IXlov aXuai;, the Cap- 
ture of Ilium, consisting of six hundred and 
ninety-one lines. From the small dimensions 
of it, it is necessarily little but a sketch. The 
best editions are by Northmore, Cambridge, 
1791, London, 1804 ; by Schafer, Leipzig, 1808 ; 
and by Wernicke, Leipzig, 1819. 

Tryphon (TpiHpov). 1. Diodotus, a usurper 
of the throne of Syria during the reign of De- 
metrius II. Nicator. After the death of Alex- 
ander Balas in B.C. 146, Tryphon first set up 
Antiochus, the infant son of Balas, as a pretend- 
er against Demetrius ; but in 142 he murdered 
Antiochus and reigned as king himself. Try- 
phon was defeated and put to death by Antio- 
chus Sidetes, the brother of Demetrius, in 139, 
after a reign of three years. — 2. Salvius, one 
of the leaders of the revolted slaves in Sicily, 
was supposed to have a knowledge of divina- 
tion, for which reason he was elected king by 
the slaves in 103. He displayed considerable 
abilities, and in a short time collected an army 
of twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse, 
with which he defeated the propraetor P. Licin- 
ius Nerva. After this victory Salvius assumed 
all the pomp of royalty, and took the surname 
of Tryphon, probably because it had been borne 
by Diodotus, the usurper of the Syrian throne. 
He chose the strong fortress of Triocala as the 
seat of his new kingdom. Tryphon was defeat- 
ed by L. Lucullus in 102, and was obliged to 
take refuge in Triocala. But Lucullus failed in 
taking the place, and returned to Rome without 
effecting any thing more. Lucullus was suc- 
ceeded by C. Servilius ; and on the death of 
Tryphon, about the same time, the kingdom de- 
volved upon Athenion, who was not subdued 
till 101. 

Tryphoninus, Claudius, a Roman jurist, 
wrote under the reigns of Septimius Severus 
and Caracalla. 

Tubantes, a people of Germany, allies of the 
Cherusci, originally dwelt between the Rhine 
and the Yssel ; in the time of Germanicus, on 
the southern bank of the Lippe, between Pader- 
born, Hamm, and the Armsberger Wald ; and 
at a still later time in the neighborhood of the 
Thuringer Wald, between the Fulda and the 
Werra. Subsequently they are mentioned as a 
part of the great league of the Franci. 

Tubero, -iElius. 1. Q., son-in-law of L. 
iEmilius Paulus, served under the latter in his 
war against Perseus, king of Macedonia. This 
Tubero, like the rest of his family, was so poor 
that he had not an ounce of silver plate till 
his father-in-law gave him five pounds of plate 
from the spoils of the Macedonian monarch. — 
2. Q , son of the preceding, was a pupil ofPanse- 
tius, and is called the Stoic. He had a reputa- 
910 



tion for talent and legal knowledge. He was 
praetor in 123, and consul suffectus in 118. He 
was an opponent of Tib. Gracchus, as well as 
of C. Gracchus, and delivered some speeches 
against the latter, 123. Tubero is one of the 
speakers in Cicero's dialogue de RepuUka. The 
passages in the Digest in which Tubero is cited 
do not refer to this Tubero, but to No. 4. — 3. 
L., an intimate friend of Cicero. He was a re- 
lation and a school-fellow of the orator, had 
served with him in the Marsic war, and had aft- 
erward served under his brother Quintus as 
legate in Asia. On the breaking out of the 
civil war, Tubero, who had espoused the Pom- 
peian party, received from the senate the prov- 
ince of Africa ; but as Atius Varus and Q. Liga- 
rius, who likewise belonged to the aristocratical 
party, would not surrender it to him, he passed 
over to Pompey in Greece. He was afterward 
pardoned by Caesar, and returned with his son 
Quintus to Rome. Tubero cultivated literature 
and philosophy. He wrote a history, add the i 
philosopher ^Enesidemus dedicated to him his 
work on the skeptical philosophy of Pyrrhon. — i 
4. Q., son of the preceding. In 46 he made a 
speech before C. Julius Caesar against Q. Liga- 
rius, who was defended by Cicero in a speech 
which is extant (Pro Q. Ligario). Tubero ob- 
tained considerable reputation as a jurist. He 
had a great knowledge both of Jus Publicum 
and Privatum, and he wrote several works on 
both these divisions of law. He married a 
daughter of Servius Sulpicius, and the daugh- ' 
ter of Tubero was the mother of the jurist C. 
Cassius Longinus. Like his father, Q. Tubero 
wrote a history. Tubero the jurist, who is often 1 
cited in the Digest, is this Tubero ; but there 
is no excerpt from his writings. 

Tucca, Plotius, a friend of Horace and Vir- 
gil. The latter poet left Tucca one of his heirs, 
and bequeathed his unfinished writings to him 
and Varius, who afterward published the JEncid 
by order of Augustus. 

Tuder (Tuders, -tis : now Todi), an ancient 
town of Umbria, situated on a hill near the 
Tiber, and on the road from Mevania to Rome. 
It was subsequently made a Roman colony. 
There are still remains of the polygonal walls 
of the ancient town. 

Tuditanus, Sempronius. 1. M., consul B.C. 
240, and censor 230.— 2. P., tribune of the sol- 
diers at the battle of Cannae in 216, and one of 
the few Roman officers who survived that fatal 
day. In 214 he was curule aedile ; in 213 prae- 
tor, with Ariminum as his province, and was 
continued in the command for the two follow- 
ing years (212, 211). He was censor in 209 
with M. Cornelius Ccthegus, although neither 
he nor his colleague had yet held the consul- 
ship. In 205 he was sent into Greece with the 
title of proconsul, for the purpose of opposing 
Philip, with whom, however, he concluded a 
treaty, which was ratified by the Romans. Tu 
ditanus was consul in 204, and received Bruttii I 
as his province. He was at first defeated by 
Hannibal, but shortly afterward he gained a de- 
cisive victory over the Carthaginian general. — 
3. C, plebeian sedile 198, and praetor 197,. when 
he obtained Nearer Spain as his province. He 
was defeated by the Spaniards with great loss, 
and died shortly afterward of a wound which 



TULCIS. 

he had received in the battle. — 4. M., tribune 
of the plebs 193 ; praetor 189, when he obtain- 
ed Sicily as his province ; and consul 185. In 
his consulship he carried on war in Liguria, and 
defeated the Apuani, while his colleague was 
equahy successful against the Ingauni. He 
was carried off by the great pestilence which 
devastated Rome in 174. — 5. C, praetor 132, and 
consul 129. In his consulship he carried on 
war against the Iapydes'in Illyricum, over whom 
he gained a victory chiefly through the military 
skill of his legate, D. Junius Brutus. Tudita- 
nus was an orator and a historian, and in both 
obtained considerable distinction. 

Tolcis, a river on the eastern coast of Spain, 
near Tarraco. 

Tulingi, a people of Gaul of no great import- 
ance, who dwelt on the Rhine, between the 
Rauraci and the Helvetii. 

Tullia, the name of the two daughters of 
Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome. Vid. 

T'ULLIUS. 

Tullia, frequently called by the diminutive 
TullIola, was the daughter of M. Cicero and 
Terentia, and was probably born B.C. 79 or 78. 
She was betrothed in 67 to C. Calpurnius Piso 
Frugi, whom she married in 63 during the con- 
sulship of her father. During Cicero's banish- 
ment Tullia lost her first husband. She was 
married again in 56 to Furius Crassipes, a 
young man of rank and large property ; but she 
did not live with him long, though the time and 
the reason of her divorce are alike unknown. 
In 50 she was married to her third husband, P. 
Cornelius Dolabella, who was a thorough profli- 
gate. The marriage took place during Cicero's 
absence in Cilicia, and, as might have been an- 
ticipated, was not a happy one. On the break- 
ing out of the civil war in 49, the husband and 
the father of Tullia espoused opposite sides. 
While Dolabella fought for Caesar, and Cicero 
took refuge in the camp of Pompey, Tullia re- 
mained in Italy. On the 19th of May, 49, she 
was delivered of a seven months' child, which 
died soon afterward. After the battle of Phar- 
salia, Dolabella returned to Rome ; but he con- 
tinued to lead a dissolute and profligate life, and 
at length (46) a divorce took place by mutual 
consent. At the beginning of 45 Tullia was 
delivered of a son. As soon as she was suffi- 
ciently recovered to bear the fatigues of a jour- 
ney, she accompanied her father to Tusculum, 
but she died there in February. Her loss was 
a severe blow to Cicero. Among the many 
consolatory letters which he received on the 
occasion is the well-known one from the cele- 
brated jurist Serv. Sulpicius (ad Farm.., iv., 5). 
To dissipate his grief, Cicero drew up a treatise 
on Consolation. 

Tullia Gens, patrician and plebeian. The 
patrician Tullii were one of the Alban houses, 
which were transplanted to Rome in the reign 
of Tullus Hostilius. The patrician branch of 
the gens appears to have become extinct at an 
early period ; for, after the early times of the 
republic, no one of the name occurs for some 
centuries, and the Tullii of a later age are not 
only plebeians, but, with the exception of their 
bearing the same name, can not be regarded as 
having any connection with the ancient gens. 
The first plebeian Tullius who rose to the hon- 



TULLITJS, SERVrUS. 

ors of the state was M. Tullius Decula, con* 
sul B.C. 81, and the next was the celebrated 
orator M. Tullius Cicero. Vid. Cicero. 

Tullianum. Vid. Roma, p. 753, a. 

Tullius, Servius, the sixth king of Rome. 
The account of the early life and death of Ser- 
vius Tullius is full of strange marvels, and «an 
not be regarded as possessing any title to a real 
historical narrative. His mother, Ocrisia, was 
one of the captives taken at Corniculum, and 
became a female slave of Tanaquil, the wife of 
Tarquinius Priscus. He was born in the king's 
palace, and, notwithstanding his servile origin, 
was brought up as the king's son, since Tana- 
quil, by her powers of divination, had foreseen 
the greatness of the child ; and Tarquinius placed 
such confidence in him, that he gave him his 
daughter in marriage, and intrusted him with 
the exercise of the government. His rule was 
mild and beneficent ; and so popular did he be- 
come, that the sons of Ancus Marcius, fearing 
lest they should be deprived of the throne which 
they claimed as their inheritance, procured the 
assassination of Tarquinius. Vid. Tarquinius 
They did not, however, reap the fruit of their 
crime, for Tanaquil, pretending that the king's 
wound was not mortal, told the people that Tar- 
quinius would recover in a few days, and that 
he had commanded Servius, meantime, to dis- 
charge the duties of the kingly office. Servius 
forthwith began to act as king, greatly to the 
satisfaction of the people ; and when the death 
of Tarquinius could no longer be concealed, he 
was already in firm possession of the royal pow- 
er. The reign of Servius is almost as barren 
of military exploits as that of Numa. The only 
war which Livy mentions is one against Veii, 
which was brought to a speedy conclusion. The 
great deeds of Servius were deeds of peace ; 
and he was regarded by posterity as the author 
of all their civil rights and institutions, just as 
Numa was of their religious rites and ordinan- 
ces. Three important events are assigned to 
Servius by universal tradition. First, he gave 
a new constitution to the Roman state. The 
two main objects of this constitution were to 
give the plebs political independence, and to 
assign to property that influence in the state 
which had previously belonged to birth exclu- 
sively. In order to carry his purpose into ef- 
fect, Servius made a two-fold division of the 
Roman people, one territorial, and the other ac- 
cording to property. For details, vid. Diet, of 
Antiq., art. Comitia. Secondly, he extended 
the pomoerium, or hallowed boundary of the 
city, and completed the city by incorporating 
with it the Quirinal, Viminal,- and Esquiline 
hills. Vid. Roma. Thirdly, he established an 
important alliance with the Latins, by which 
Rome and the cities of Latium became the 
members of one great league. By his new con- 
stitution Servius incurred the hostility of the 
patricians, who conspired with L. Tarquinius 
to deprive him of his life and of his throne. 
His death was the subject of a legend, which 
ran as follows. Servius, soon after his suc- 
cession, gave his two daughters in marriage to 
the two sons of Tarquinius Priscus. L. Tar- 
quinius, the elder, was married to a quiet and 
gentle wife ; Aruns, the younger, to an aspiring 
and ambitious woman. The character of the 

911 



TULLIUS TIRO. 



TURIASSO. 



ivvo brothei s was the very opposite of the wives 
who had fallen to their lot ; for Lucius was 
proud and haughty, but Aruns unambitious and 
quiet. The wife of Aruns, fearing that her hus- 
band would tamely resign the sovereignty to his 
elder brother, resolved to destroy both her fa- 
ther and her husband. She persuaded Lucius 
to murder his wife, and she murdered her own 
husband, and the survivors straightway married. 
Tullia now urged her husband to murder her fa- 
ther ; and it was said that their design was hast- 
ened by the belief that Servius entertained the 
thought of laying down his kingly power and 
establishing the consular form of government. 
The patricians were equally alarmed at this 
scheme. Their mutual hatred and fears united 
them closely together ; and when the conspir- 
acy was ripe, Tarquinius entered the Forum ar- 
rayed in the kingly robes, seated himself in the 
royal chair in the senate-house, and ordered the 
senators to be summoned to him as their king. 
At the first news of the commotion, Servius 
hastened to the senate-house, and, standing at 
the door-way, ordered Tarquinius to come down 
from the throne. Tarquinius sprang forward, 
seized the old man, and flung him down the 
stone steps. Covered with blood, the king was 
hastening home, but, before he reached it, he 
was overtaken by the servants of Tarquinius 
and murdered. Tullia drove to the senate- 
house, and greeted her husband as king ; but 
her transports of joy struck even him with hor- 
ror. He bade her go home ; and as she was 
returning, her charioteer pulled up and pointed 
out the corpse of her father lying in his blood 
across the road. She commanded himto drive 
on ; the blood of her father spirted over the 
carriage and on her dress; and from that day 
forward the street bore the name of the Vicus 
Sceleratus, or Wicked Street. The body lay 
unburied, for Tarquinius said scoffingly, "Rom- 
ulus too went without burial ;" and this impi- 
ous mockery is said to have given rise to his 
surname of Superbus. Servius had reigned for- 
ty-four years. His memory was long cherished 
by the plebeians. 

Tullius Tiro. Vid. Tiro. 

Tullum (now Toul), the capital of the Leuci, 
a people in the southeast of Gallia Belgica, be- 
tween the Matrona and Mosella. 

Tijllus HostilIus, third king of Rome, is 
said to have been the grandson of Hostus Hos- 
tilius, who fell in battle against the Sabines in 
the reign of Romulus. His legend ran as fol- 
lows : Tullus Hostilius departed from the peace- 
ful ways of Numa, and aspired to the martial 
renown of Romulus. He made Alba acknowl- 
edge Rome's supremacy in the war wherein 
the three Roman brothers, the Horatii, fought 
with the three Alban brothers, the Curiatii, at 
the Fossa Cluilia. Next he warred with Fide- 
nae and with Veii, and being straitly pressed by 
their joint hosts, he vowed temples to Pallor 
and Pavor — Paleness and Panic. And after the 
fight was won, he tore asunder with chariots 
Mettius Fufetius, the king or dictator of Alba, 
because he had desired to betray Rome ; and 
he utterly destroyed Alba, sparing only the tem- 
ples of the gods, and bringing the Alban people 
to Rome, where he gave them the Caelian Hill 
to dwell on. Then he turned himself to war 
912 



with the Sabines ; and being again straitened 
in fight in a wood called the Wicked Wood, he 
vowed a yearly festival to Saturn and Ops, and 
to double the number of the Salii, or priests of 
Mamers. And when, by their help, he had van- 
quished the Sabines, he performed his vow, and 
its records were the feasts Saturnalia and Opa- 
lia. In his old age, Tullus grew weary of war- 
ring; and when a pestilence struck him and 
his people, and a shower of burning stones fell 
from heaven on Mount Alba, and a voice as of 
the Alban gods came forth from the solitary 
temple of Jupiter on its summit, he remembered 
the peaceful and happy days of Numa, and sought 
to win the favor of the gods, as Numa had done, 
by prayer and divination. But the gods heeded 
neither his prayers nor his charms, and when 
he would inquire of Jupiter Elicius, Jupiter was 
wroth, and smote Tullus and his whole house 
with fire. Perhaps the only historical fact em- 
bodied in the legend of Tullus is the ruin ol 
Alba. 

[Tullus, Volcatius. 1. L., consul B.C. 66 
with M'. /Emilius Lepidus. After his consul- 
ship he lived in retirement, and during the civil I 
wars took no part in public affairs. He had 
approved of Cicero's measures against the ac- 
complices of Catiline, and spoke on the subject 
in the senate. — 2. C, probably son of No. 1, 
fought under Caesar in the Gallic war, and also 
distinguished himself at the siege of Dyrrachi- 
um in B.C. 48. — 3. L., son of No. 1, was praetoi 
urbanus in B.C. 46, and consul with Octavianus 
in B.C. 33.] 

Tunes or Tunis (Tvvqc, Tovvi; : Tvvrjoaios : 
now Tunis), a strongly-fortified city of North- 
ern Africa, stood at the bottom of the Cartha- 
ginian Gulf, ten miles southwest of Carthage, at 
the mouth of the little river Catada. At the 
time of Augustus it had greatly declined, but it 
afterward recovered, and is now the capital of 
the regency of Tunis. 

Tungri, a German people who crossed the 
Rhine, and settled in Gaul in the country for- 
merly occupied by the Aduatici and the Ebu- 
rones. Their chief town was called Tungri or 
Aduaca Tongrorum (now Tongern), on the road 
from Castellum Morinorum to Colonia Agrip- 
pina. 

[Turbo. 1. A gladiator of small stature, but 
great courage, mentioned by Horace (" et idem 
Corpore majorem rides Turbonis in armis Spir- 
itum et incessum," Sat., ii., 3, 310-11). — 2. A 
distinguished commander, and governor foi 
some time of Pannonia under Hadrian ] 

Turdetani, the most numerous people in 
Hispania Baetica, dwelt in the south of the prov- 
ince, on both banks of the Baetis, as far as Lusi- 
tania. They were regarded as the most civil- 
ized people in all Spain. Their country was 
called Turdetania. 

Turduli, a people in Hispania Baetica, situa- 
ted to the east and south of the Turdetani, with 
whom they were closely connected. The names, 
in fact, appear identical. 

Turia or Turium (now Guadalaviar), a rivei 
on the eastern coast of Spain, flowing into the 
sea at Valentia, memorable for the battle fought 
on its banks between Pompey and Sertorius. 

Turiasso (Turiassonensis : now Tarrazona) 
a town of the Celtiberi in Hispania Tarraconen 



TURIOUM. 



TYDEUS. 



Bis, on the road from Caesaraugusta to Numan- 
iia. It possessed a fountain, the water of which 
was said to be very excellent for hardening 
iron. 

[Tunic um (Turicensis, now Zurich), a town 
in the territory of the Helvetii, on the Limagus 
(now Limmat).] 

Turnus (Tvpvoc). 1. Son of Daunus and 
Venilia, and king of the Rutuli at the time of 
the arrival of /Eneas in Italy. He was a broth- 
er of Juturna, and related to Amata, the wife 
of King Latinus ; and he fought against /Eneas 
because Latinus had given to the Trojan hero 
his daughter Lavinia, who had been previously 
promised to Turnus. He appears in the JEneid 
as a brave warrior ; but in the end he fell by 
the hand of ^Eneas. — 2. A Roman satiric poet, 
was a native of Aurunca, and lived under Ves- 
pasian and Domitian. We possess thirty hex- 
ameters, forming a portion of, apparently, a long 
satiric poem, the subject being an enumeration 
of the crimes and abominations which charac- 
terized the reign of Nero. These lines are as- 
cribed by some modern scholars to Turnus. 

Turnus Herdonius. Vid. Herdonius. 

Turones, TOroni or Turonii, a people in the 
interior of Gallia Lugdunensis, between the Au- 
lerci, Andes, and Pictones. Their chief town 
was C^esarodunum, subsequently Turoni (now 
Tours), on the Liger (now Loire). 

Turpilius, Sextus, a Roman dramatist, 
whose productions belonged to the department 
of Comcsdia Palliata. The titles of thirteen or 
fourteen of his plays have been preserved, to- 
gether with a few fragments. He died, when 
very old, at Sinuessa in B.C. 101. He stands 
seventh in the scale of Volcatius Sedigitus. 
Vid. Sedigitus. [His fragments are collected 
in Bothe's Pocla Scenici Latinorum, vol. vi., p. 
77-94.] 

Turpio, L. Ambivius, a very celebrated actor 
in the time of Terence, in most of whose plays 
he acted. 

Turris Hannibalis (ruins at Bourj Salcktah), 
a castle on the coast of Byzacena, between 
Thapsus and Acholla, belonging to Hannibal, 
who embarked here when he fled to Antiochus 
the Great. 

Tureis Stratonis. Vid. CjEsarea, No. 3. 

Tuscania (Tuscaniensis : now Toscanella), a 
town of Etruria, on the River Marta, rarely men- 
tioned by ancient writers, but celebrated in mod- 
ern times on account of the great number of 
Etruscan antiquities which have been discov- 
ered in its ancient tombs. 

Tusci, Tuscia. Vid. Etruria. 

Tusculum (Tusculanus : ruins near Frascati), 
an ancient town of Latium, situated about 
ten miles southeast of Rome, on a lofty sum- 
mit of the mountains, which are called after the 
town Tusculani Montes, and which are a con- 
tinuation of Mons Albanus. Tusculum was 
one of the most strongly fortified places in all 
Italy, both by nature and by art. It is said to 
have been founded by Telegonus, the son of 
Ulysses ; and it was always one of the most 
important of the Latin towns. Its importance 
in the time of the Roman kings is shown by 
Tarquinius Superbus giving his daughter in 
marriage to Octavius Mamilius, the chief of Tus- 
culum. At a late-- time it became a Roman 
58 



] municipium, and was the birth-place of several 
! distinguished Roman families. Cato the cen- 
J sor was a native of Tusculum. Its proximity 
i to Rome, its salubrity, and the beauty of its 
situation made it a favorite residence of the 
' Roman nobles during the summer. Cicero, 
[ among others, had a favorite villa at this place, 
which he frequently mentions under the name 
of Tusculanum. The site of this villa is not 
exactly known ; some placing it near Grotta 
, Ferrata, on the road from Frascati to the Alban 
Lake, and others near La Rufinella. The ruins 
| of ancient Tusculum are situated on the sum- 
j mit of the mountain, about two miles above 
Frascati. 

Tuticanus, a Roman poet and a friend of 
Ovid, who had translated into Latin verse a 
j portion of the 'Odyssey. 

Tutzis (ruins at Garshee or Guerfcy Hassan), 
J a city in the Dodecaschoenus, that is, the part 
of ^Ethiopia immediately above Egypt, on the 
western bank of the Nile, north of Pselcis, and 
south of Talmis. 

Tyana (Tvava : Tvavevc: ruins at Kiz Hisar), 
a city of Asia Minor, stood in the south of Cap- 
padocia, at the northern foot of Mount Taurus, 
on the high road to the Cilician Gates, three 
' hundred stadia from Cybistra, and four hundred 
from Mazaca, in a position of great *natural 
strength, which was improved by fortifications. 
Under Caracalla it was made a Roman colony. 
In B.C. 272 it was taken by Aurelian, in the 
war with Zenobia, to whose territory it then 
belonged. Valens made it the chief city of 
Cappadocia Secunda. In its neighborhood was 
a great temple of Jupiter, by the side of a lake 
in a swampy plain ; and near the temple was a 
remarkable effervescing spring called Asmaba?- 
on. Tyana was the native place of Apollonius, 
the supposed worker of miracles. The south- 
ern district of Cappadocia, in which the city 
stood, was called Tyanltis 
Tyche. Vid. Fortuna. 
Tyche. Vid. Syracuse. 
[Tychius (Tvxloc), of Hyle, a mythical artifi- 
cer, mentioned by Homer as the maker of 
Ajax's shield of seven ox-hides, covered with a 
plate of brass.] 

Tydeus (Tvdevc), son of CEneus, king of Caly- 
don, and Peribcea. He was obliged to leave 
Calydon in consequence of some murder which 
he had committed, but which is differently de- 
scribed by the different authors, some saying 
that he killed his father's brother, Melas, Lyco- 
peus, or Alcathous ; others, that he slew Thoas 
or Aphareus, his mother's brother ; others, that 
he slew his brother Olenias ; and others, again, 
that he killed the sons of Melas, who had revolt- 
I ed against CEneus. He fled to Adrastus atAr- 
; gos, who purified him from the murder, and 
I gave him his daughter Deipyle in marriage, by 
whom he became the father of Diomedes, who 
is hence frequently called Tydides. He ac- 
companied Adrastus in the expedition against 
Thebes, where he was wounded by Melanippus, 
who, however, was slain by him. When Tyd- 
eus lay on the ground wounded, Minerva (Athe- 
na) appeared to him with a remedy which she 
had received from Jupiter (Zeus), .and which 
was to make him immortal. This, however, 
was prevented by a stratagem of Amphiaraus 

913 



TYLOS. 

who hated Tydeus, for he cut off the head of 
Melanippus and brought it to Tydeus, who di- 
vided it and ate the brain, or devoured some of 
the flesh. Minerva (Athena), seeing this, shud- 
dered, and left Tydeus to his fate, who conse- 
quently died, and was buried by Macon. 

Tylos or Tyros (Vv'Aoc, Tvpnc : now Bah- 
rein), an island in the Persian Gulf, off the coast 
of Arabia, celebrated for its pearl fisheries. 

Tymbres oi'Tembrogius (now Pursek), ariver 
of Phrygia, rising in Mount Dindymene, and 
flowing past Cotyaeum and Dorylaeum into the 
Sangarius. It was the boundary between Phry- 
gia Epictetus and Phrygia Salutaris. 

Tymnes ( Tv/ivrje ), an epigrammatic poet, 
whose epigrams were included in the Garland 
of Meleager, but respecting whose exact date 
wo have no further evidence. There are seven 
of his epigrams in the Greek Anthology. 

TymphjEi (Tvfitpaioi), a people of Epirus, on 
the borders of Thessaly, so called from Mount 
Tymphb (Tvixfy), sometimes, but less correctly, 
written Stymphe {TZrufiyri). Their country was 
called Tymph^ea (Tv/ityaia). 

Tymphrestus (Tvpfpnaroc : now EUadha), a 
mountain in Thessaly, in the country of the 
Dryopes, in which the River Spercheus rises. 

Tyndareus (Twdupeoc), not Tyndarus, which 
is not fdund in classical writers, was son of Pe- 
rieres and Gorgophone, or, according to others, 
son of CEbalus, by the nymph BatTa or by Gor- 
gophone. Tyndareus and his brother Icarius 
were expelled by their step-brother Hippocoon 
and his sons ; whereupon Tyndareus fled to* 
Thestius in Jitolia, and assisted him in his wars 
against his neighbors. In /Etolia Tyndareus 
married Leda, the daughter of Thestius, and 
was afterward restored to Sparta by Hercules. 
By Leda, Tyndareus became the father of 
Timandra, Clytaemnestra, and Philonoe. One 
night Leda was embraced both by Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Tyndareus, and the result was the birth of 
Pollux and Helena, the children of Jupiter 
(Zeus), and of Castor and Clytasmnestra, the 
children of Tyndareus. The patronymic Tyn- 
DARicaE is frequently given to Castor and Pol- 
lux, and the female patronymic Tyndaris to 
Helen and Clytaemnestra. When Castor and 
Pollux had been received among the immortals, 
Tyndareus invited Menelaus to come to Spar- 
ta, and surrendered his kingdom to him. 

Tyndaris orTYNDARiuni (Tvvdapic , Tvv&apiov : 
Tyndaritanus : now Tindare), a town on the 
northern coast of Sicily, with a good harbor, a 
little west of Messana, near the promontory of 
the same name founded by the elder Dionysius, 
B.C. 396, which became an important place. It 
was the head-quarters of Agrippa, the general 
of Octavianus, in the war against Sextus Pom- 
pey. The greater part of the town was subse- 
quently destroyed by an inundation of the sea. 

[Typ^eus (Tvnaiov opoc), a craggy elevation 
In Elis, between Scillus and the Alpheus, in the 
direction of Olympia, from which the law de- 
creed that women should be hurled, who had 
infringed the regulations excluding them from 
appearing at the Olympic games.] 

Typhon or Typhoeus (Tvipuov, Tvtyucvc, con- 
tracted into TvQuc), a monster of the primitive 
world, is described sometimes as a destructive 
hurricane, and sometimes as a fire-breathing 
914 



TYRAS. , 

giant. According to Homer, he was concealed 
in the earth in the country of the Arimi (Eiv 
'Apifioic, of which the Latin poets have made j 
Inarime), which was lashed by Jupiter (Zeus) J 
with flashes of lightning. In Hesiod, Typhaon 
and Typhoeus are two distinct beings. Typha- 
'on is represented as a son of Typhoeus, and a 
fearful hurricane, who by Echidna became the i 
father of the dog Orthus, Cerberus, the Lernaean 
hydra, Chimaera, and the Sphinx. Typhoeus, on 
the other hand, is called the youngest son of 
Tartarus and Terra (Gasa), or of Juno (Hera) 
alone, because she was indignant at Jupiter 
(Zeus) having given birth to Minerva (Athena). 
He is described as a monster with one hundred 
heads, fearful eyes, and terrible voices ; he 
wanted to acquire the sovereignty of gods and 
men, but was subdued, after a fearful struggle, 
by Jupiter (Zeus), with a thunderbolt. He be- 
got the winds, whence he is also called the 
father of the Harpies ; but the beneficent winds 
Notus, Boreas, Argestes, and Zephyrus, were 
not his sons. ./Eschylus and Pindar describe 
him as living in a Cilician cave. He is further 
said to have at one time been engaged in a 
struggle with all the immortals, and to have 
been killed by Jupiter (Zeus) with a flash of 
lightning ; he was buried in Tartarus under 
Mount yEtna, the work-shop of Hephaestus, 
which is hence called by the poets Typheis Mi- 
na. The later poets frequently connect Ty- 
phoeus with Egypt. The gods, it is said, unable 
to hold out against him, fled to Egypt, where, , 
from fear, they metamorphosed themselves into 
animals, with the exception of Jupiter (Zeus) 
and Minerva (Athena). 

Tyraget\e, Tyriget^, or Tyranget^e, a peo- 
ple in European Sarmatia, probably a branch of 
the Getae, dwelling east of the River Tyras. 

TyrannIon (Tvpavviov). 1. A Greek gram ' 
marian, a native of Amisus in Pontus, was orig 
inally called Theophrastus, but received from i 
his instructor the name of Tyrannion on account 
of his domineering behavior to his fellow-disci- 
ples. In B.C. 72 he was taken captive by Lu- 
cullus, who carried him to Rome. He was 
given by Lucullus to Murena, who manumitted 
him. At Rome Tyrannion occupied himself in ) 
teaching. He was also employed in arranging | 
the library of Apellicon, which Sulla brought to 
Rome. This library contained the writings of 
Aristotle, upon which Tyrannion bestowed con- 
siderable care and attention. Cicero speaks in 
the highest terms of the learning and ability of 1 
Tyrannion. Tyrannion amassed considerable 
wealth, and died at a very advanced age of a 
paralytic stroke. — 2. A native of Phoenicia, the 1 
son of Artemidorus, and a disciple of the pre- 
ceding. His original name was Diocles. He 
was taken captive in the war between Antony j 
and Octavianus, and was purchased by Dymas, a 
freedman of the latter. By him he was pre- 
sented to Terentia. the wife of Cicero, who man- ! 
umitted him. He taught at Rome, and wrote j 
a great number of works, which are all lost. 

Tyras (Tupac, Tupnc : now Dniester), subse- 
quently called Danastris, a river in European , 
Sarmatia, forming, in the lower part of its 
course, the boundary between Dacia and Sar- 
matia, and falling into the Pontus Euxinus j 
north of the Danube. At its mouth there was I 



TYRES. 



TZETZES. 



a town of the same name, probably on the site 
of the modern Ackjermann. 

[Tvres, brother of Teuthras, one of the com- 
panions of ^Eneas, fought in Italy against Tur- 
nus.] 

TyKLffiUM (Tvpialov : now Ilghun), a city of 
Lycaonia, described by Xenophon (in the Anab- 
asis) as twenty parasangs west of Iconium. 
It lay due west of Laodicea. 

Tyro (Tvpu), daughter of Salmoneus and Al- 
cidice. She was wife of Cretheus, and beloved 
by the river-god Enipeus in Thessaly, in whose 
form Neptune (Poseidon) appeared to her, and 
became by her the father of Pelias and Neleus. 
By Cretheus she was the mother of yEson, 
Pheres, and Amythaon. 

Tyrrheni, Tyrrhenia. Vid. Etruria. 

Tyrrhenum Mare. Vid. Etruria. 

Tyrrhenus {Tvpprjv6<; or Tupcr^vdf), son of 
the Lydian king Atys and Callithea, and brother 
of Lydus, is said to have led a Pelasgian colony 
from Lydia into Italy, into the country of the 
Urnbrians, and to have given to the colonists 
his name, Tyrrhenians. Others call Tyrrhenus 
a son of Hercules by Omphale, or of Telephus 
and Hiera, and a brother of Tarchon. The 
name Tarchon seems to be only another form 
of Tyrrhenus. 

Tyrrheos, a shepherd of King Latinus. As 
Ascanius was hunting, he killed a tame stag be- 
longing to Tyrrheus, whereupon the country 
people took up arms, which was the first con- 
flict in Italy between the natives and the Tro- 
jan settlers. 

Tyrt/Eus (Tvpraioc; or Tvpraioc), son of Ar- 
chembrotus, of Aphid nae in Attica. According 
to the older tradition, the Spartans, during the 
second Messenian war, were commanded by an 
oracle to take a leader from among the Athe- 
nians, and thus to conquer their enemies, where- 
upon they chose Tyrtaeus as their leader. Later 
writers embellish the story, and represent Tyr- 
taeus as a lame schoolmaster, of low family and 
reputation, whom the Athenians, when applied 
to by the Lacedaemonians in accordance with 
the oracle, purposely sent as the most inefficient 
leader they could select, being unwilling to as- 
sist the Lacedaemonians in extending their do- 
minion in the Peloponnesus, but little thinking 
that the poetry of Tyrtaeus would achieve that 
victory which his physical constitution seemed 
to forbid his aspiring to. Many modern critics 
reject altogether the account of the Attic origin 
of Tyrtaeus, and maintain that the extant frag- 
ments of his poetry actually furnish evidence 
of his being a Lacedaemonian. But it is impos- 
sible to arrive at any positive decision upon the 
subject. It is certain, however, that the poems 
of Tyrtaeus exercised an important influence 
upon the Spartans, composing their dissensions 
at home, and animating their courage in the 
field. In order to appease their civil discords, 
he composed his celebrated elegy entitled " Le- 
gal Order" (Ewop'a), which appears to have 
had a wondrous effect in stilling the excited 
passions of the Spartans. But still more cele- 
brated were the poems by which he animated 
the courage of the Spartans in their conflict 
with the Messenians. These poems were of 
two kinds ; namely, elegies, containing exhorta- 
tions to constancy and courage, and descriptions 



of the glory of fighting bravely for one's nativa 
land ; and more spirited compositions, in the 
anapaest'c measure, which were intended as 
marching songs, to be performed with the music 
of the flute. He lived to see the success of his 
efforts in the entire conquest of the Messenians, 
and their reduction to the condition of Helots. 
He therefore flourished down to B.C. 668, which 
was the last year of the second Messenian war. 
The best separate edition of the fragments of 
his poems is by Bach, with the remains of the 
elegiac poets Callinus and Asius, Lips., 1831. 

Tyrus (Ti'ipof : Aram. Tura: in the Old Test- 
ament, Tsor: Tvpio;, Tyrius : ruins at Sur), one 
of the greatest and most famous cities of the 
ancient world, stood on the coast of Phoenice, 
about twenty miles south of Sidon. It was a 
colony of the Sidonians, and is therefore called 
in Scripture " the daughter of Sidon." It grad- 
ually eclipsed the mother city, and came to be 
the chief place of all Phoenice for wealth, com- 
merce, and colonizing activity. In the time of 
Solomon, we find its king, Hiram, who was also 
King of Sidon, in close alliance with the Hebrew 
monarch, whom he assisted in building the tem- 
ple and his palace, and in commercial enter- 
prises. Respecting its colonies and maritime 
enterprise, vid, Phcenice and Carthago. The 
Assyrian king Shalmaneser laid siege to Tyre 
for five years, but without success. It was 
again besieged for thirteen years by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and there is a tradition that he took it, 
but the matter is not quite certain. At the pe- 
riod when the Greeks began to be well acquaint- 
ed with the city, its old site had been abandon- 
ed, and a new city erected on a small island 
about half a mile from the shore, and a mile in 
length, and a little north of the remains of the 
former city, which was now called Old Tyre 
(TlaXaiTvpos). With the additional advantage 
of its insular position, this new city soon rose 
to a prosperity scarcely less than that of its 
predecessor ; though, under the Persian kings, 
it 'seems to have ranked again below Sidon. 
Vid. Sidon. In B.C. 322 the Tyrians refused 
to open their gates to Alexander, who laid siege 
to the city for seven months, and united the 
island on which it stood to the main land by a 
mole constructed chiefly of the ruins of Old 
Tyre. This mole has ever since formed a per- 
manent connection between the island and the 
main land. After its capture and sack by Alex- 
ander, Tyre never regained its former conse- 
quence, and its commerce was for the most 
part transferred to Alexandrea. It recovered, 
however, sufficiently to be mentioned as a strong 
fortress and flourishing port under the early Ro 
man emperors. Septimius Severus made it a 
Roman colony. It was the see of a bishop, 
and Jerome calls it the most beautiful city of 
Phoenicia. It was a place of considerable im- 
portance in medieval history, especially as one 
of the last points held by the Christians on the 
coast of Syria. The wars of the Crusades com- 
pleted its ruin, and its site is now occupied by 
a poor village ; and even its ruins are for the 
most part covered by the sea. Even the site 
of Babylon does not present a more striking ful- 
filment of prophecy. 

TzETZEs(Tferf7?f). 1. Joannes, a Greek gram- 
marian of Constantinople, flourished about A.D. 

915 



TZITZIS. 



» ULYSSES. 



1150. His writings bear evident traces of the 
extent of his learning, and not less of the inor- 
dinate self-conceit with which they had filled 
him. He wrote a vast number of works, of 
which several are still extant. Of these the 
two following are the most important : 1. Iliaca, 
which consists properly of three poems, collect- 
ed into one under the titles Td irpd 'Ojiripov, to, 
'Ofirjpov, Kal ra fieff "Ofiripov. The whole amounts 
to one thousand six hundred and seventy-six 
lines, and is Written in hexameter metre. It is 
a very dull composition. Edited by Bekker, 
Berlin, 1816. 2. Chiliades, consisting in its pres- 
ent form of twelve thousand six hundred and 
sixty-one lines. This name was given to it by 
the first editor, who divided it, without refer- 
ence to the contents, into thirteen divisions of 
one thousand lines, the last being incomplete. 
Its subject-matter is of the most miscellaneous 
kind, but embraces chiefly mythological and his- 
torical narratives, arranged under separate ti- 
tles, and without any further connection. The 
following are a few of them, as they occur : 
Croesus, Midas, Gyges, Codrus, Alcmaeon, &c. 
It is written in bad Greek, in that abominable 
make-believe of a metre called political verse- 
Edited by Kiessling, Lips., 1826.— 2. Isaac, 
brother of the preceding, the author of a val- 
uable commentary on the Cassandra of Lyco- 
phron, printed in most of the editions of Lyco- 
phron; [best edit, by Muller, Lips. 1811, 3 vols ] 
Tzitzis or Tzutzis (ruins south of Debout), a 
city in the north of the Dodeeaschoenus, that is, 
the part of ^Ethiopia immediately above Egypt, 
a little south of Parembole, and considerably 
north of Taphis. 

U. 

Ubii, a German people, who originally dwelt 
on the right bank of the Rhine, but were trans- 
ported across the river by Agrippa in B.C. 37, 
at their own requeet, because they washed to es- 
cape the hostilities of the Suevi. They took 
the name of Agrippenses, from their town Co- 

LONIA AGKIPPINA. 

Ucalegon (OvKaXeyuv), one of the elders at 
Troy, whose house was burned at the destruc- 
tion of the city. 

Ucubis, a town inHispania Baetica, nearCor- 
duba. 

Ufens (now Uffente), a river in Latium, flow- 
ing from Setia, and falling into the Amasenus. 

Uffugum, a town in Bruttium, between Seyl- 
lacium and Rhegium. 

Ugernum (now Beaucaire), a town in Gallia 
Narbonensis, on the road from Nemausus to 
Aquae Sextiae, where Avitus was proclaimed 
emperor. 

Ulia (now Monlemayor), a Roman mtinicip- 
ium in Hispania Baetica, situated upon a hill, 
and upon the road from Gades to Corduba. 

Uliarus or Olarionensis Insula (now Ole- 
ron), an island off the western coast of Gaul, in 
the Aquitanian Gulf. 

Ulpianus. 1. Domitius Ulpianus, a celebra- 
ted jurist, derived his origin from Tyre in Phoe- 
nicia, but was probably not a native of Tyre 
himself. The time of his birth is unknown. 
The greater part of his juristical works were 
written during the sole reign of Caracalla, es- 
916 



pecially the two great works Ad Edictum and 
the Libri ad Sabinum. He was banished or de- 
prived of his functions under Elagabalus, who 
became emperor 217 ; but on the accession of 
Alexander Severus, 222, he became the emper- 
or's chief adviser. The emperor conferred on 
Ulpian the office of Scriniorum magister, and 
made him a consiliarius. He also held the of- 
fice of Praefectus Annonae, and he was likewise 
made Praefectus Praetorio. Ulpian perished in 
the reign of Alexander by the hands of the sol- 
diers, who forced their way into the palace at 
night, and killed him in the presence of the em- 
peror and his mother, 228. His promotion to 
the office of praefectus praetorio was probably 
an unpopular measure. A great part of the nu- 
merous writings of Ulpian were still extant in 
the time of Justinian, and a much greater quan- 
tity is excerpted from him by the compilers of 
the Digest than from any other jurist. The 
number of excerpts from Ulpian is said to be 
two thousand four hundred and sixty-two ; and 
many of the excerpts are of great length, and 
altogether they form about one third of the 
whole body of the Digest. The excerpts from 
Paulus and Ulpian together make about one 
half of the Digest. Ulpian's style is perspicu- 
ous, and presents fewer difficulties than that of 
many of the Roman jurists who are excerpted 
in the Digest. The great legal knowledge, the 
good sense, and the industry of Ulpian place 
him among the first of the Roman jurists ; and 
he has exercised a great influence on the juris- 
prudence of modem Europe through the copi- 
ous extracts from his writings which have been 
preserved by the compilers of Justinian's Di- 
gest. We possess a fragment of a work under 
the title of Domitii Ulpiani Fragmcnta. ; it con- 
sists of twenty-nine titles, and is a valuable 
source for the history of the Roman law. The 
best editions are by Hugo, Berlin, 1834, and by 
Bocking, Bonn, 1836.— 2. Of Antioch, a soph- 
ist, lived in the time of Constantine the Great, 
and wrote several rhetorical works. The name 
of Ulpianus is prefixed to extant Commentaries 
in Greek on eighteen of the orations of Demos- 
thenes, and it is usually stated that they were 
written by Ulpianus of Antioch. But the Com- 
mentaries have evidently received numerous 
additions and interpolations from some gram- 
marian of a very late period. They are printed 
in several editions of the Attic orators. 

Ulpius Trajanus. Vid. Trajanus. 

Ultor, " the avenger," a surname of Mars, 
to whom Augustus built a temple at Rome in 
the Forum, after taking vengeance upon the 
murderers of his great-uncle, Julius Caesar. 

Ulubr^e (Ulubranus, Ulubrensis), a small 
town in Latium, of uncertain site, but in the 
neighborhood of the Pontine Marshes. 

Ulysses, Ulyxes, or Ulixes, called Odys- 
seus {'Odvooevs) by the Greeks, one of the prin- 
cipal Greek heroes in the Trojan war. Ac- 
cording to the Homeric account, he Was a son 
of Laertes and Antielea, the daughter of Au- 
tolycus, and was married to Penelope, the 
daughter of Icarius, by whom he became the 
father of Telemachus. But, according to a lat- 
er tradition, he was a son of Sisyphus and An- 
tielea, who, being with child by Sisyphus, was 
married to Laertes, and thus gave birth to him 



ULYSSES. 

*ither after her arrival in Phaca or on her way 
thither. Later traditions further state that, be- 
sides Telemachus, Ulysses became by Penelope 
the father of Arcesilaus or Ptoliporthus ; and, 
by Circe, the father of Agrins, Latinus, Telego- 
nus, and Cassiphone ; by Calypso, of Nausith- 
ous and Nausinous or Auson, Telegonus, and 
Teledamus ; and, lastly, by Evippe, of Leonto- 
phron, Doryclus or Euryalus. The name Odys- 
seus is said to signify the angry. The story of 
Ulysses ran as follows : When a young man, 
Ulysses went to see his grandfather Autolycus 
near Mount Parnassus. There, while engaged 
in the chase, he was wounded by a boar in his 
knee, by the scar of which he was subsequently 
recognized by Euryclea. Even at that age he 
was distinguished for courage, for knowledge of 
navigation, for eloquence, and for skill as a nego- 
tiator; and on one occasion, when the Messeni- 
ans had carried off some sheep from Ithaca, La- 
ertes sent him to Messene to demand reparation. 
He there met with Iphitus, who was seeking the 
norses stolen from him, and who gave him the 
famous bow of Eurytus. This bow Ulysses 
used only in Ithaca, regarding it as too great a 
treasure to be employed in the field, and it was 
so strong that none of the suitors was able to 
handle it. According to some accounts, he went 
to Sparta as one of the suitors of Helen ; and 
he is said to have advised Tyndareus to make 
the suitors swear that they would defend the 
chosen bridegroom against any one who should 
insult him on Helen's account. Tyndareus, to 
show him his gratitude, persuaded his brother 
to give Penelope in marriage to Ulysses ; or, 
according to others, Ulysses gained her by con- 
quering his competitors in thefoot-race. Homer, 
however, mentions nothing of all this, and states 
that Agamemnon, who visited Ulysses in Ithaca, 
prevailed upon him only with great difficulty to 
join the Greeks in their expedition against Troy. 
Other traditions relate that he was visited by 
Menelaus and Agamemnon, and that Palamedes 
more especially induced him to join the Greeks. 
When Palamedes came to Ithaca, Ulysses pre- 
tended to be mad : he yoked an ass and ox to 
a plough, and began to sow salt. Palamedes, j 
to try him, placed the infant Telemachus before 
the plough, whereupon the father could not con- 
tinue to play his part. He stopped the plough, 
and was obliged to undertake the fulfillment of 
the promise he had made when he was one of 
the suitors of Helen. This occurrence is said 
to have been the cause of his hatred of Palame- 
des. Being now himself gained for the under- 
taking, he coptrived to discover Achilles, who 
was concealed among the daughters of King 
Lycomedes. Vid. Achilles. Before, however, 
the Greeks sailed from home, Ulysses, in con- 
junction with Menelaus, went to Troy for the 
purpose of inducing the Trojans to restore Helen 
and her treasures. When the Greeks were as- 
sembled at Aulis, Ulysses joined them with 
twelve ships and men from Cephallenia, Ithaca, 
Neritus, Crocylia, Zacynthus, Samos, and the 
coast of Epirus. During the siege of Troy he 
distinguished himself as a valiant and undaunt- 
ed warrior, but more particularly as a cunning 
spy, and a prudent and eloquent negotiator. 
After the death of Achilles, Ulysses contended 
for his at nor with the Telamonian Ajax, and | 



ULYSSES. 

gained the prize. He is said by some to have 
devised the stratagem of the wooden horse, and 
he was one of the heroes concealed within it. 
He is also said to have taken part in carrying 
offlhe palladium. But the most celebrated part 
of his story consists of his adventures after the 
destruction of Troy, which form the subject of 
the Homeric poem called after him, the Odyssey. 
After the capture of Troy he set out on his voy- 
age home, but was overtaken by a storm and 
thrown upon the coast of Ismarus, a town of 
the Cicones, in Thrace, north of the island of 
Lemnos. He plundered the town, but several 
of his men were cut off by the Cicones. From 
thence he was driven by a north wind toward 
Malea and to the Lotophagi on the coast of 
Libya. Some of his companions were so much 
delighted with the taste of the lotus that they 
wanted to remain in the country, but Ulysses 
compelled them to embark again, and continued 
his voyage. In one day he reached the goat- 
island, situated north of the country of the Lo- 
tophagi. He there left behind eleven ships, and 
with one he sailed to the neighboring island of 
the Cyclopes (the western coast of Sicily), 
where, with twelve companions, he entered the 
cave of the Cyclops Polyphemus, a son of Nep- 
tune (Poseidon) and Thoosa. This giant de- 
voured, one after another, six of the compan- 
ions of Ulysses, and kept the unfortunate Ulys- 
ses and the six others as prisoners in his cave. 
In order to save himself, Ulysses contrived to 
make the monster drunk with wine, and then, 
with a burning pole, deprived him of his one 
eye. He now succeeded in making his escape 
with his friends, by concealing himself and them 
under the bodies of the sheep which the Cyclops 
let out of his cave. In this way Ulysses reached 
his ship. The Cyclops implored his father Nep- 
tune (Poseidon) to take vengeance upon Ulys- 
ses, and henceforth the god of the sea pursued 
the wandering king with implacable enmity. 
Ulysses next arrived at the island of ^Eolus ; 
and the god gave him, on his departure, a bag 
of winds, which were to carry him home ; but 
the companions of Ulysses opened the bag, and 
the winds escaped, whereupon the ships were 
driven back to the island of ^Eolus, who indig- 
nantly refused all further assistance. After a 
voyage of six days, Ulysses arrived at Telepylos, 
the city of Lamus, in which Antiphates ruled 
over the Lsestrygones, a sort of cannibals. This 
place must probably be sought somewhere in 
the north of Sicily. Ulysses escaped from them 
with only one ship ; and his fate now carried 
him to a western island, ^Eaea, inhabited by 
the sorceress Circe. Part of his people were 
sent to explore the island, but they were 
changed by Circe into swine. Eurylochus alone 
escaped, and brought the sad news to Ulysses, 
who, when he was hastening to the assistance 
of his friends, was instructed by Mercury (Her- 
mes) by what means he could resist the magic 
powers of Circe. He succeeded in liberating 
his companions, who were again changed into 
men, and were most hospitably treated by the 
sorceress. When at length Ulysses begged for 
leave to depart, Circe desired him to descend 
into Hades and to consult the seer Tiresias. 
He now sailed west, right across the river Oce- 
anus, and having landed on the other side, in 

917 



ULFSSES. 



ULYSSES 



the country of the Cimmerians, where Helios 
does not shine, he entered Hades, and consult- 
ed Tiresias about the manner in which he might 
reach his native land. Tiresias informed him 
of the danger and difficulties arising from the 
anger of Neptune (Poseidon), but gave him hope 
that all would yet turn out well, if Ulysses and 
his companions would leave the herds of Helios 
in Thrinacia uninjured. Ulysses now returned 
to J3a?a, where Circe again treated the stran- 
gers kindly, told them of the dangers that yet 
awaited them, and of the means of escaping. 
The wind which she %ent with them carried 
them to the island of the Sirens, somewhere 
near the western coast of, Italy. The Sirens 
sat on the shore, and with their sweet voices 
attracted all that passed by, and then destroyed 
them. Ulysses, in order to escape the danger, 
filled the ears of his companions with wax, and 
fastened himself to the mast of his ship, until he 
was out of the reach of the Sirens' song. His 
ship next sailed between Scylla and Charyb- 
dis, two rocks between Thrinacia and Italy. As 
the ship passed between them, Scylla, the mon- 
ster inhabiting the rock of the same name, car- 
ried off and devoured six of the companions of 
Ulysses. From thence he came to Thrinacia, 
the island of Helios, who there kept his sacred 
herds of oxen. Mindful of the advice of Tire- 
sias and Circe, Ulysses wanted to sail past, but 
his companions compelled him to land. He 
made them swear not to touch any of the cat- 
tle ; but as they were detained in the island by 
storms, and were hungry, they killed the finest 
of the oxen while Ulysses was asleep. After 
some days the storm abated, and they sailed 
away, but soon another storm came on, and 
heir ship was destroyed by Jupiter (Zeus) with 
a flash of lightning. All were drowned with 
the exception of Ulysses, who saved himself by 
means of the mast and planks, and after ten 
days reached the island of Ogygia, inhabited by 
the nymph Calypso. She received him with 
kindness, and desired him to marry her, prom- 
ising immortality and eternal youth if he would 
consent, and forget Ithaca. But he could not 
overcome his longing after his own home. Mi- 
nerva (Athena), who had always protected Ulys- 
ses, induced Jupiter (Zeus) to promise that her 
favorite hero, notwithstanding the anger of Nep- 
tune (Poseidon), should one day return to his 
native island, and take vengeance on the suitors 
of Penelope. Mercury (Hermes) carried to Ca- 
lypso the command of Jupiter (Zeus) to dismiss 
Ulysses. The nymph obeyed, and taught him 
how to build a raft, on which, after remaining 
eight years with her, he left the island. In 
eighteen days he came in sight of Scheria, the 
island of the Phaeacians, when Neptune (Posei- 
don) sent a storm, which cast him off the raft. 
By the assistance of Leucothea and Minerva 
(Athena), he reached Scheria by dint of swim- 
ming. The exhausted hero slept on the shore 
until he was awoke by the voices of maidens. 
He found Nausicaa, the daughter of King Alci- 
nous and Arete, who conducted the hero to her 
father's court. He was there honored with 
feasts and contests, and the minstrel Demodo- 
cus sang of the fall of Troy, which moved Ulys- 
ses to tears ; and, being questioned about the 
cause of his emotion, he related his whole his- 
918 



| tory. At length he was sent home in a ship. i 
One night, as he had fallen asleep in his ship, 
it reached the coast of Ithaca ; the Plwacians 
who had accompanied him carried him on shore, 
and left him. He had now been away from 
Ithaca for twenty years, and when he awoke he 
did not recognize his native land, for Athena, 
that he might not be recognized, had enveloped 
him in a cloud. As he was lamenting his fate, 
the goddess informed him where he was, and 
advised him how to take vengeance upon the i 
enemies of his house. During his absence, his ' 
father Laertes, bowed down by grief and old 
age, had withdrawn into the country, his mother 
Anticlea had died of sorrow, his son Telemachus 
had grown up to manhood, and his wife Penel- 
ope had rejected all the offers that had been 
made to her by the importunate suitors from 
the neighboring islands. During the last few 
years more than a hundred nobles of Ithaca, 
Same, Dulichium, and Zacynthushad been suing 
for the hand of Penelope, and in their visits to 
her house had treated all that it contained as | 
if it had been their own. That he might be able 
to take vengeance upon them, it was necessary ' 
that he should not be recognized. Minerva 
(Athena) accordingly metamorphosed him into 
an unsightly beggar, and he was kindly received 
by Eumseus, the swine-herd, a faithful servant 
of his house. While staying with Eumajus, his 
son Telemachus returned from Sparta and Py- 
los, whither he had gone to obtain information i 
concerning his father. Ulysses made himself 
known to him, and with him deliberated upon 
the plan of revenge. In the disguise of a beg- 
gar he accompanied Telemachus and Eumajus | 
to the town. The plan of revenge was now 
carried into effect. Penelope, with great diffi- 
culty, was made to promise her hand to him 
who should conquer the others in shooting with I 
the bow of Ulysses. As none of the suitors 
was able to draw this bow, Ulysses himself took 
it up and then began to attack the suitors. He 
was supported by Athena and his son, and all 
fell by his hands. Ulysses now made himself 
known to Penelope, and went to see his aged 
father. In the mean time the report of the death 
of the suitors was spread abroad, and their rel- 
atives rose in arms against Ulysses ; but Athe- 
na, who assumed the appearance of Mentor, 
brought about a reconciliation between the peo- 
ple and the king. It has already been remark- 
ed that in the Homeric poems Ulysses is rep- 
resented as a prudent, cunning, inventive, and , 
eloquent man, but, at the same time, as a brave, 
bold, and persevering warrior, wjiose courage 
no misfortune or calamity could subdue, but 
later poets describe him as a cowardly, deceit- 
ful, and intriguing personage. Respecting the 
last period of his life the Homeric poems give ; 
us no information, except the prophecy of Tire- 
sias, who promised him a painless death in a 
happy old age ; but later writers give us differ- 
ent accounts. According to one, Telegonus, 
the son of Ulysses by Circe, was sent out by 
his mother to seek his father. A storm cast 
him upon Ithaca, which he began to plunder in 
order to obtain provisions. Ulysses and Telem- 
achus attacked him, but he slew Ulysses, and 
his body was afterward carried to ^sBa. Ac 
cording to some, Circe recalled Ulysses to life j 



UMBRENUS. 



URSUS. 



airain, 01, on his arrival in Tyrrhenia, he was 
burned on Mount Perge. In works of art Ulys- 
ses is commonly represented as a sailor, wear- 
ing a semi-oval cap. 

[Umbrenus, P., one of the accomplices of Cat- 
iline ; he was a freedman, and had followed the 
business of a negotiator in Gaul, and was for 
that reason employed to gain over the ambas- 
sadors of the Allobroges to favor the designs of 
the conspirators ] 

Umbria, called by the Greeks OmbrIca (j? 
'Ofi6piKti), a district of Italy, bounded on the 
north by Gallia Cisalpina, from which it was 
separated by the River Rubicon ; on the east 
by the Adriatic Sea ; on the south by Picenum, 
from which it was separated by the River ^Esis, 
and by the land of the Sabines, from which it 
was separated by the River Nar ; and on the 
west by Etruria, from which it was separated 
by the Tiber. Under Augustus it formed the 
sixth Regio of Italy. The Apennines ran 
through the western part of the country, but it 
contained many fertile plains on the coast. Its 
inhabitants, the Umbri (sing. Umber), called by 
the Greeks Umbrici (OpSpiKoi), were one of the 
most ancient races of Italy, and were connect- 
ed with the Opicans, Sabines, and those other 
tribes whose languages were akin to the Greek. 
The Umbri were at a very early period the 
most powerful people in Central Italy, and ex- 
tended across the peninsula from the Adriatic 
to the Tyrrhene seas. Thus they inhabited the 
country afterward called Etruria; and we are 
expressly told that Crotona, Perusia, Clusium, 
and other Etruscan cities were built by the 
Umbrians. They were afterward deprived of 
their possessions west of the Tiber by the Etrus- 
cans, and confined to the country between this 
river and the Adriatic. Their territories were 
still further diminished by the Senones, a Gallic 
people, who took possession of the whole coun- 
try on the coast, from Ariminum to the iEsis. 
The Umbri were subdued by the Romans B.C. 
307 ; and after the conquest of the Senones by 
the Romans in 283, they again obtained posses- 
sion of the country on the coast of the Adriatic. 
This district, however, continued to be called 
Ager Gallicus down to a late period. The chief 
towns of Umbria were Ariminum, Fanum For- 
tune, Mevania, Tuder, Narnia, and Spole- 

TIUM. 

[Umbricius, a diviner, who predicted to Galba, 
shortly before his death, that a plot threatened 
him.] 

[Umbro, a famous magician, from the coun- 
try of the Marsi, aided Turnus against the Tro- 
jans, but was slain in battle : he was brother 
of the nymph Angitia.] 

Umbro (now Ombrone), one of the largest riv- 
ers in Etruria, falling into the Tyrrhene Sea, 
near a town of the same name. 

Ummidius Quadratus. Vid. Quadratus. 

Unelli, a people on the northern coast of 
Gaul, on a promontory opposite Britain (the 
modern Cotanli?i), belonging to the Armorici. 

[Unsingis (now the Hunze, flowing by Gronin- 
gen), a conjectural emendation in Tacitus (Ann., 
i., 70) for the Visurgis, a river of Germania, 
flowing into the Oceanus Germanicus.] 

Upis (Oi;r(,?). 1. A surname of Artemis (Di- 
ana) as the goddess assisting women in child- 



birth. — 2. The name of a mythical heing, who 
is said to have reared Artemis (Diana), and who 
is mentioned by Virgil as one of the nymphs in 
her train. The masculine Upis is mentioned 
by Cicero as the father of Artemis (Diana). 
Ur. Vid. Edessa. 

Urania (Ovpavia). 1. One of the Muses, a 
daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) by Mnemosyne. The 
ancient bard Linus is called her son by Apollo, 
and Hymenaeus also is said to have been a son 
of Urania. She was regarded, as her name in- 
dicates, as the Muse of Astronomy, and was 
represented with a celestial globe, to which she 
points with a small staff — 2. Daughter of Oce- 
anus and Tethys, who also occurs as a nymph 
in the train of Persephone (Proserpina). — 3. A 
surname of Aphrodite (Venus), describing her 
as "the heavenly," or spiritual, to distinguish 
her from Aphrodite Pandemos. Plato repre- 
sents her as a daughter of Uranus (Orelus), be- 
gotten without a mother. Wine was not used 
in the libations offered to her. 

Uranus. (Ovpavoc), Ccelus, or Heaven, some- 
times called a son, and sometimes the husband 
of Geea (Earth). By Gsea Uranus became the 
father of Oceanus, Cceus, Crius, Hyperion, lape- 
tus, Thia, Rhia, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, 
Tethys, Cronos (Saturn); of the Cyclopes 
Brontes, Steropes, Arges ; and of the Hecaton- 
cheires Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes. Accord- 
ing to Cicero, Uranus also was the father of 
Mercury by Dia, and of Venus by Hemera. Ura- 
nus hated his children, and immediately after 
their birth he confined them in Tartarus, in con- 
sequence of which he was unmanned and de- 
throned by Cronos (Saturn) at the instigation 
of Gaea (Terra). Out of the drops of his blood 
sprang the Gigantes, the Melian nymphs, and, 
according to some, Silenus, and from the foam 
gathering around his limbs in the sea sprang 
Aphrodite (Venus). 

Urbigenus Pagus. Vid. Helvetii. 
Urbinum (Urbinas, -atis). 1. Hortense (now 
Urbeno), a town in Umbria and a municipium, 
situated on a steep round rock. — 2. Metaurense 
(now Urbania), a town in Umbria, on the River 
Metaurus, and not far from its source. 
Urbs Salvia. Vid. Poi.lentia, No. 2. 
Urci, a town of the Bastetani in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, on the coast, and on the road 
from Castulo to Malaca. 

Urcinium (now Orcine), a town on the west- 
ern coast of Corsica. 

Urgo or Gorgon (now Gorgona), an island 
off the coast of Etruria, north of Ilva. 

Uria (Urias • now Oria), called Hyria ('Ypiy) 
by Herodotus, a town in Calabria, on the road 
from Brundisium to Tarentum, was the ancient 
capital of Iapygia, and is said to have been 
founded by the Cretans under Minos. 

Urium, a small town in Apulia, from which 
the Sinus Urias took its name, being the bay 
on the northern side of Mount Garganus, oppo- 
site the Diomedean islands. 
Urseius Ferox. Vid. Ferox. 
[Urso (Ovpauv : now Osuha, with ruins and 
inscriptions), a city of Hispania Baetiea, also 
called Genua. Urbanorum; this was the last hold 
of the partisans of Pompey in Spain.] 

Ursus, a contemporary of Domitian, whom 
dissuaded from killing his wife Domitia. 

919 



USCANA. 



VALENS. 



Statius addressed to him a poem of consolation 
on the death of a favorite slave (Silv., ii., 6), 
and he also mentions him in the Preface to the 
second book of his Silva. 

Uscana, a large town in Illyria, on a tributary 
of the Aous, and in the district Penestiana. 

Usipetes or Usipii, a German people, who, 
being driven out of their abodes by the Suevi, 
crossed the Rhine and penetrated into Gaul ; 
but they were defeated by Caesar, and compelled 
to recross the river. They were now received 
by the Sigambri, and allowed to dwell on the 
northern bank of the Lippe ; but we afterward 
find them south of the Lippe ; and at a still 
later time they become lost under the general 
name of Alemanni. 

[Uspe, the capital of the Siraceni or Siraci, 
a people of Sarmatia Asiatica.] 

Ustica, a valley near the Sabine villa of Hor- 
ace. 

Utica (?) 'Itvkt] or Ovt'uo] : 'IrvKaio^, Uticen- 
sis: ruins at Bou-Shater), the greatest city of 
ancient Africa, after Carthage, was a Phoeni- 
cian colony, older (and, if the chronologers are 
to be trusted, much older) than Carthage. Like 
others of the very ancient Phoenician colonies 
in the territory of Carthage, Utica maintained 
a comparative independence, even during the 
height of the Punic power, and was rather the 
ally of Carthage than her subject. It stood on 
the shore of the northern part of the Cartha- 
ginian Gulf, a little west of the mouth of the 
Bagradas, and twenty-seven Roman miles north- 
west of Carthage; but its site is now inland, 
in consequence of the changes effected by the 
Bagradas in the coast-line. Fid. Bagradas. In 
ihe third Punic war, Utica took part with the 
Romans against Carthage, and was rewarded 
with the greatest part of the Carthaginian ter- 
ritory. It afterward became renowned to all 
future time as the scene of the last stand made 
by the Pompeian party against Caesar, and of 
the glorious, though mistaken, self-sacrifice of 
the younger Cato. Vid. Cato. 

Utus (now Vid), a river in Mcesia and a trib- 
utary of the Danube, falling into the latter riv- 
er at the town Utus. It is perhaps the same 
river as the Artanes of Herodotus. 

Uxama (now Osma), a town of the Arevaci 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from 
Asturica to Ceesaraugusta, fifty miles west of 
Numantia. 

Uxantis (now Usha.nl), an island off the north- 
western coast of Gaul. 

Uxellodunx'm, a town of the Cadurci in Gal- 
lia Aquitanica, situated on a steep hill, rising 
out of the plain, at the foot of which a river 
flowed. It is probably the same as the modern 
Capedenac, on the Lot. 

Uxentuii (Uxentinus : now Ugento), a town 
in Calabria, northwest of the Iapygian promon- 
tory. 

Uxa (Oufioi), a warlike people, of predatory 
habits, who had their strongholds in Mount 
Parachoathras, on the northern border of Per- 
sis, in the district called Uxia (Ov&a), but who 
also extended over a considerable tract of coun- 
try in Media. 



920 



V. 

Vacc l, Vaga, or Vaba (Ovaya, Bdya : now 
Btja), a city of Zeugitana in Northern Africa, 
on the borders of Numidia, on an eastern trib- 
utary of the River Tusca, a good day'.s journey ' 
south of Utica. It was a great emporium for ( 
the trade between Hippo, Utica, and Carthage, 
and the interior. It was destroyed by Metellus 
in the Jugurthine war, but was restored and col- 
onized by the Romans. Its fortifications were 
renewed by Justinian, who named it Theodo- 
rias in honor of his wife. 

Vacc^ei, a people in the interior of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, occupying the modern Toro, Pa- \ 
lencia, Burgos, and Valladolid, east of the As- ' 
tures, south of the Cantabri, west of the Cel- 
tiberi, and north of the Vettones. Their chief 
towns were Pallantia and Intercatia. 

[Vaccus, M. Vitruvius, general of the Fun- 
dani and Privernates in their revolt against the 
Romans in B.C. 330 : he had a house at Rome 
on the Palatine, which was destroyed (after the 
suppression of the revolt and the death of Vac- 
cus), and its site made public under the name 
of Vacci prala.] 

[Vacuna, a Sabine divinity, identical with Vic- 
toria. She had an ancient sanctuary near Hor- 
ace's villa at Tibur, and another at Rome. The 
Romans, however, derived the name from va- 
cuus, and said that she was a divinity to whom 
the country people offered sacrifices when the 
labors of the field were over, that is, when they 
were at leisure, vacui.] 

Vada. 1. A fortress of the Batavi in Gallia 
Belgica, east of Batavodurum.— 2. Vada Sab- 
batia (now Vado), a town of Liguria, on the 
coast, which was the harbor of Sabbata or Savo. 
— 3. Vada Volaterrana (now Torre di Vado). 
a small town on the coast of Etruna, in the ter- 
ritory of Volaterrse. 

Vadicassii, a people in Gallia Belgica, near 
the sources of the Sequana. 

Vadimoms Lacus (now Lago di Bassano), a 
small lake of Etruna of a circular form, with 
sulphureous waters, and renowned for its float- 
ing islands, a minute description of which is 
given by the younger Pliny. It is celebrated in 
history for the defeat of the Etruscans in two 
great battles, first by the dictator Papirius Cur- 
sor in B.C. 309, from the effects of which the 
Etruscans never recovered ; and again in 283, 
when the allied forces of the Etruscans and 
Gauls were routed by the consul Cornelius Do- 
labella. The lake has so shrunk in dimensions 
in modern times as to be only a small stagnant 
pond, almost lost in the tall reeds and bulrush- 
es which grow in it. 

Vagedrusa, a small river in Sicily, between 
Camarina and Gela. 

Vagienni, a small people in Liguria, whose 
chief town was Augusta Vagiennorum. Theii 
site is uncertain, but they perhaps dwelt near 
Saluzzo. 

Vahalis. Vid. Rhenus. 
[Vala, C. Nujionius, a friend of Horace, who 
addressed to him the fifteenth of the first book 
of Epistles.] 

Valens, emperor of the East A.D. 364-378 
was born about A D. 338, and was made em- 



VALENS, ABURNUS. 



VALENTINIANUS. 



peror by his brother Valentinian. Vid. Valen- 
tinianus. The greater part of Valens's reign is 
occupied by his wars with the Goths. At first 
he gained great advantages over the barba- 
rians, and concluded a peace with them in 370, 
on the condition that they should not cross the 
Danube. In 376 the Goths were driven out of 
their country by the Huns, and were allowed 
by Valens to cross the Danube, and settle in 
Thrace and the country on the borders of the 
Danube. Dissensions soon arose between the 
Romans and these dangerous neighbors, and in 
I 377 the Goths took up arms. Valens collect- 
ed a powerful army, and marched against the 
Goths ; but he was defeated by them with im- 
mense slaughter, near Hadnanople, on the 9th 
of August, 378. Valens was never seen after 
the battle ; some say he died on the field, and 
others relate that he was burned to death in a 
peasant's house, to which he was carried, and 
which the barbarians set fire to without know- 
ing who was in it. The reign of Valens is im- 
portant in the history of the empire on account 
of the admission of the Goths into the coun- 
tries south of the Danube, the commencement 
of the decline of the Roman power. The fu- 
rious contests between the rival creeds of the 
Catholics and the Ariafp also characterize this 
reign. 

Valens, Aburnus, also called Aburnius, one 
of the jurists who are excerpted in the Digest, 
belonged to the school of the Sabinians. He 
flourished under Antoninus Pius. 

Valens, Fabius, one of the principal generals 
of the Emperor Vitellius in A.D. 69, marched 
into Raly through Gaul, and, after forming a 
junction with the forces of Caecina, defeated 
Otho in the decisive battle of Bedriacum, which 
secured for Vitellius the sovereignty of Raly. 
Vitellius raised Valens and Caecina to the con- 
sulship, and he left the whole government in 
their hands. Valens remained faithful to Vi- 
tellius, when Antonius Primus, the general of 
Vespasian, marched into Raly ; but as he had 
not sufficient forces to oppose Antonius after 
the capture of Cremona, he resolved to sail to 
Gaul and rouse the Gallic provinces to espouse 
the cause of Vitellius; but he was taken pris- 
oner at the islands called Stcechades (now Hi- 
ercs), off Massilia, and was shortly afterward 
put to death at Urbinum (now Urbino). 

ValentIa. l.(Now Valencia), the chief town 
of the Edetani, on the River Turia, three miles 
from the coast, and on the road from Carthago 
Nova to Castulo. R was founded by Junius 
Brutus, who settled here the soldiers of Viria- 
thus ; it was destroyed by Pompey, but it was 
soon afterward rebuilt and made a Roman col- 
ony. R continued to be an important place 
down to the latest times. — 2. (Now Valence), a 
town in Gallia Narbonensis, on the Rhone, and 
a Roman colony. Some writers call it a town 
of the Cavares, and others a town of the Segel- 
launi. — 3. A town of Sardinia, of uncertain site, 
but which some writers place on the eastern 
coast, between Portus Sulpicii and Sorabile. — 
4. Or Valentidm, a town in Apulia, ten miles 
from Bruntlisium. — 5. A province in the north 
of Britain, beyond the Roman wall, which ex- 
isted only for a, short time. Vid. Britannia. 
V 4 (,entinianus. I., Roman emperor A.D. 



364-375, was the son of Gratianus, and was born 
A.D. 321, at Cibalis in Pannonia. His first wife 
was Valeria Severa, by whom he became the 
father of the Emperor Giatianus. He held im- 
portant military commands under Julian and 
Jovian ; and on the death of the latter in Feb- 
ruary, 364, Valentinian was elected emperor by 
the troops at Nicaea. A few weeks after his 
elevation Valentinian elected his brother Va- 
lens emperor, and assigned to him the East, 
while he himself undertook the government of 
the West. Valentinian was a Catholic, though 
his brother Valens was an Arian ; but he did 
not persecute either Arians or heathens. He 
possessed good abilities, prudence, and vigor of 
character. He had a capacity for military mat- 
ters, and was a vigilant, impartial, and labori- 
ous administrator; but he sometimes punished 
with excessive severity. The greater part of 
Valentinian's reign was occupied by the wars 
against the Alemanni, and the other barbarians 
on the Roman frontiers. His operations were 
attended with success. He not only drove the 
Alemanni out of Gaul, but on more than one 
occasion crossed the Rhine and carried the war 
into the enemy's country. His usual residence 
was Treviri (Treves). In 375 he went to Car- 
nuntum, on the Danube, in order to repel the 
Quadi and Sarmatians, who had invaded Pan- 
nonia. After an indecisive campaign, he took 
up his winter quarters at Bregetio. In this 
piace, while giving an audience to the deputies 
of the Quadi, and speaking with great heat, he 
fell down in a fit, and expired suddenly on the 
17th of November. — II., Roman emperor A.D. 
375-392, younger son of the preceding, was 
proclaimed Augustus by the army after his fa- 
ther's death, though he was then only three or 
four years of age. His elder brother Gratia- 
nus, who had been proclaimed Augustus during 
the lifetime of their father, assented to the 
choice of the army, and a division of the West 
was made between the two brothers. Valen- 
tinian had Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. Gratian 
had the Gauls, Spain, and Britain. In 383 Gra- 
tian was defeated and slain by Maximus, who 
left Valentinian a precarious authority out of 
fear of Theodosius, the emperor of the East ; 
but in 387 Valentinian was expelled from Italy 
by Maximus, and fled for refuge to Theodosius. 
In 388 Theodosius defeated Maximus, and re- 
stored Valentinian to his authority as emperor 
of the West. Theodosius returned to Constan- 
tinople in 391, and in the following year (392) 
Valentinian was murdered by the general Ar- 
gobastes, who raised Eugenius to the throne. 
Valentinian perished on the 15th of May, being 
only a few months above twenty years of age. 
His funeral oration was pronounced by St. Am- 
brose. — III., Roman emperor A.D. 425-455, was 
born 419, and was the son of Constantius III. 
by Placidia, the sister of Honorius, and the 
daughter of Theodosius I. He was declared 
Augustus in 425 by Theodosius II., and was 
placed over the West ; but as he was only six 
years of age, the government was intrusted to 
his mother Placidia. During his long reign the 
empire was repeatedly exposed to the invasions 
of the barbarians ; and it was only the military 
abilities of Aetius which saved the empire from 
ruin. In 429, the Vandals, under Genseric, 

921 



TALERIA. 



VALERIUS MAXIMUS. 



crossed over into Africa, which they corxjuered, 
and of which they continued in possession till 
the reign of Justinian. The Goths likewise es- 
tablished themselves in Gaul; but Aetius final- 
ly made peace with them (439), and with their 
assistance gained a great victory over Attila 
and the vast army of the Huns at , Chalons in 
451. The power and influence of Aetius ex- 
cited the jealousy and fears of Valentinian, 
who murdered his brave and faithful general in 
454. In the following year the emperor him- 
self was slain by Petronius Maximus, whose 
wife he had violated. He was a feeble and con- 
temptible prince, and had all the vices that in 
a princely station disgrace a man's character. 

Valeria. 1. Sister of P. Valerius Publicola, 
advised the Roman matrons to ask Veturia, the 
mother of Coriolanus, to go to the camp of Cor- 
iolanus in order to deprecate his resentment. — 
2. The last wife of Sulla, was the daughter of 
M. Valerius Messala, and bore a daughter soon 
afterSuIla's death.— 3. GalerIa Valeria, daugh- 
ter of Diocletian and Prisca, was, upon the re- 
construction of the empire in A.D. 292, united 
to Galerius, one of the new Caesars. After the 
death of her husband in 311, Valeria rejected 
the proposals of his successor Maximinus, who, 
in consequence, stripped her of her possessions, 
and banished her along with her mother. After 
the death of Maximinus, Valeria and her moth- 
er were executed by order of Licinius, 315. — 4. 
MeSsalina. Vid. Messalina. 

Valeria Gens, one of the most ancient pa- 
trician houses at Rome. The Valerii were of 
Sabine origin, and their ancestor Volesus or Vo- 
lusus is said to have settled at Rome with Ti- 
tus Tatius. One of the descendants of this 
Volesus, P. Valerius, afterward surnamed Pub- 
licola, plays a distinguished part in the story of 
the expulsion of the kings, and was elected con- 
sul in the first year of the republic, B.C. 509. 
From this time forward down to the latest pe- 
riod of the empire, for nearly one thousand 
years, the name occurs more or less frequently 
in the Fasti, and it was borne by the emperors 
Maximinus, Maximianus, Maxentius, Diocle- 
tian, Constantius, Constantine the Great, and 
others. The Valeria gens enjoyed extraordi- 
nary honors and privileges at Rome. Their 
house at the bottom of the Velia was the only 
one in Rome of which the doors were allowed 
to open back into the street. In the Circus a 
conspicuous place was set apart for them, where 
a small throne was erected, an honor of which 
there was no other example among the Ro- 
mans. They were also allowed to bury their 
dead within the walls. The Valerii in early 
times were always foremost in advocating the 
lights of the plebeians, and the laws which they 
proposed at various times were the great char- 
ters of the liberties of the second order. Vid. 
Diet, of Anliq., s. v. Leges Valeria. The Va- 
leria gens was divided into various families un- 
der the republic, the most important of which 
bore the names of Corvus, Flaccus, L^evinus, 
Messala, Publicola, and Triarius. 

Valeria, a province in Pannonia formed by 
Galerius, and named in honor of his wife. Vid. 
Pannonia. 

Valerianic. 1. Roman emperor A.D. 253- 
260, whose full name was P. Licinius Vale- 
922 



rianus. Valerian was proclaimed emperor by 
the troops whom he was leading against the 
usurper ^Emilianus. Valerian proclaimed his 
son Gallienus Augustus, and first carried on 
war against the Goths, whom he defeated (257). 
But though the barbarians still threatened the 
Roman frontiers on the Danube and the Rhine, 
the conquests of the Persians, who had crossed 
the Euphrates and stormed Antioch, compelled 
him to hasten to the East. For a time his 
measures were both vigorous and successful. 
Antioch was recovered, and the Persian king 
Sapor was compelled to fall back behind the 
Euphrates ; but the emperor, flushed by his 
good fortune, followed too rashly. He was sur- 
rounded, in the vicinity of Edessa, by the count- 
less horsemen of his active foe ; he was en- 
trapped into a conference, taken prisoner (260), 
and passed the remainder of his life in captiv- 
ity, subjected to every insult which Oriental 
cruelty could devise. After death his skin was 
stuffed and long preserved as a trophy in the 
chief temple of the nation. — 2. Son of the pre- \ 
ceding, but not by the same mother as Gallie- 
nus. He perished along with Gallienus at Mi- I 
lan in 268. Vid. Gallienus. 

Valerius. Vid. Valeria Gens. 

Valerius Volusus*Maximus, M'., was a 
brother of P. Valerius Publicola, and was dic- 
tator in B.C. 494, when the dissensions be- 
tween the burghers and commonalty of Rome 
de Nexis were at the highest. Valerius 'was 
popular with the plebs, and induced them to en- 
list for the Sabine and jEquian wars, by prom- 
ising that when the enemy was repulsed, the 
condition of the debtors (next) should be alle- 
viated. He defeated and triumphed over the ■ 
Sabines ; but, unable to fulfill his promise to 
the commons, resigned his dictatorship. The 
plebs, seeing that Valerius at least had kept | 
faith with them, escorted him honorably home. 
As he was advanced in life at the time of his 1 
dictatorship, he probably died soon after. There ' 
were several descendants of this Valerius Max- 
imus, but none of them are of sufficient im- 
portance to require special mention. 

Valerius Maximus, is known to us as the ! 
compiler of a large collectio'n of historical anec- ! 
dotes, entitled Dc Fac/is Diclisque Memorabilibus 
Libri IX., arranged under different heads, the i 
sayings and doings of Roman worthies being, 
moreover, kept distinct in each division from 
those of foreigners. He lived in the reign of 
the Emperor Tiberius, to whom he dedicated 
his work. Of his personal history we know 
nothing, except the solitary circumstance, re- 
corded by himself, that he accompanied Sextus 
Pompeius into Asia (ii., 6, § 8), the Sextus 
Pompeius, apparently, who was consul A.D. 14, 
at the time when Augustus died. The subjects 
treated of in the work are of a character so 
miscellaneous, that it would be impossible, 
without transcribing the short notices placed at 
the head of each chapter, to convey a clear idea 
of the contents. In some books the topics se 
lected for illustration are closely allied to each 
other, in others no bond of union can be traced. 
Thus the first book is entirely devoted to mat- 
ters connected with sacred rites ; the second 
book relates chiefly to certain remarkable civil 
institutions ; the third, "-iurth, fifth, and sixth. 



VALERIUS FLACCUS. 



VARRO, TEREJNiiuS. 



to the more prominent social virtues ; but in 
the seventh the chapters De Strategematis, De 
Repulsis, are abruptly followed by those De 
Necessitate, De Testamentis Rescissis, De Ratis 
Testamentis et Inspcratis. In an historical point 
of view, the work is by no means without value, 
since it preserves a record of many curious 
events not to be found elsewhere ; but from 
the errors actually detected upon points where 
we possess more precise information, it is mani- 
fest that we must not repose implicit confidence 
in the statements, unless where they are cor- 
roborated by collateral testimony. The work 
of Valerius Maximus became very popular in 
the later times of the empire and in the Middle 
Ages. It was frequently abridged, and we still 
possess an abridgment of it made by Julius 
Paris. The best editions of the original work 
are by Torrenius, Leid., 1726, and by Kappius, 
Lips., 1782. 

Valerius Flaccus. Vid. Flaccos. 

[Valgius. I. The father-in-law of Rullus, 
who proposed the agrarian law in the consul- 
ship of Cicero, which was opposed by the latter. 
It appears from Cicero that Valgius had ob- 
tained much confiscated property in the time of 
Sulla. — 2. A., the son of a senator, deserted the 
Pompeian party in the Spanish war, B.C. 45, 
and went over to Ca?sar. — 3. C. Valgius Hippi- 
anus, the son of Q. Hippius, was adopted by 
a certain C. Valgius ] 

Valgius Rufus, C, a Roman poet, and a con- 
temporary of Virgil and Horace, the latter of 
whom ranks him along with Varius, Maecenas, 
and Virgil, among those friends of genius whose 
approbation far more than compensated for the 
annoyance caused by the attacks of his detract- 
ors. 

Vandali, Vandalii, or Vindalii, a confeder- 
acy of German nations, probably of the great 
Suevic race, to which the Burgundiones, Goth- 
ones, Gepidae, and Rugii belonged. They dwelt 
originally on the northern coast of Germany, 
but were afterward settled north of the Mar- 
comanni, in the Riesengebirge, which are hence 
called Vandalici Montes. They subsequently 
appear for a short time in Dacia and Pannonia ; 
but at the beginning of the fifth century (A.D. 
409) they traversed Germany and Gaul, and in- 
vaded Spain. In this country they subjugated 
the Alani, and founded a powerful kingdom, the 
name of which is still preserved in Andalusia 
(Vandalusia). In A.D. 429 they crossed over 
into Africa, under their king Genseric, and con- 
quered all the Roman dominions in that coun- 
try. Genseric subsequently invaded Italy, and 
took and plundered Rome in 455. The Vandals 
continued masters of Africa till 535, when their 
kingdom was destroyed by Belisarius, and an- 
nexed to the Byzantine empire. 

Vangiones, a German people, dwelling along 
the Rhine, in the neighborhood of the modern 
Worms. 

Varagri. Vid. Veragri. 

[VardvEi, an Illyrico-Dalmatian nation, whom 
Pliny styles " populatores quondam Italiae."] 

Varduli, a people in Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, west of the Vascones, in the modern Gui- 
puzcoa and Alava. 

[Varenus, L., a centurion in Caesar's army, 
distinguished himself, along with T. Pulfio, by 



a daring act of bravery, when the camp of Q. 
Cicero was besieged by the Nervii in B.C. 54.] 

[Vargula, a friend of C. Julius Caesar Strabo, 
was noted as a wit.] 

Vargunteius, a senator, and one of Catiline's 
conspirators, undertook, in conjunction with C. 
Cornelius, to murder Cicero in B.C. 63, but 
their plan was frustrated by information con- 
veyed to Cicero through Fulvia. He was after- 
ward brought to trial, but could find no one to 
defend him. 

VarIa (now Varea), a town of the Berones in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the Iberus, which 
was navigable from this town. 

Varini, a people of Germany, on the right 
bank of the Albis, north of the Langobardi. 

Varius. 1. Q. Varius Hybrida, tribune of 
the plebs B.C. 90, was a native of Sucro in 
Spain, and received the surname of Hybrida 
because his mother was a Spanish woman. In 
his tribuneship he carried a lex de majeslate, in 
order to punish all those who had assisted or 
advised the Socii to take up arms against the 
Roman people. Under this law many distin- 
guished senators were condemned ; but in the 
following year Varius himself was condemned 
under his own law, and was put to death. — 2. 
L. Varius Rufus, one of the most distinguished 
poets of the Augustan age, the companion and 
friend of Virgil and Horace. By the latter he 
is placed in the foremost rank among the epic 
bards, and Quintilian has pronounced that his 
tragedy of Thyestes might stand a comparison 
with any production of the Grecian stage. He 
enjoyed the friendship of Maecenas, and it wa3 
to the recommendation of Varius, in conjunc- 
tion with that of Virgil, that Horace was in- 
debted for an introduction to the minister, about 
B.C. 39. Virgil appointed Plotius Tucca and 
Varius his literary executors, and they revised 
the ^Eneid. Hence Varius was alwe subse- 
quent to B.C. 19, in which year Virgil died. 
Only the titles of three works of Varius have 
been preserved : 1. De Morte. 2. Panegyricus in 
Casarem Octavianum. 3. The tragedy Thyestes. 
Only a very few fragments of these poems are 
extant. 

Varro, Atacinus. (Vid. below, Varro, No. 3.) 

Varro, Cingonius, a Roman senator under 
Nero, supported the claims of Nymphidius to 
the throne on the death of Nero, and was put 
to death in consequence by Galba, being at the 
time consul designatus. 

Varro, Terentius. 1. C, consul B.C. 216 
with L. ^Emilius Paulus. Varro is said to have 
been the son of a butcher, to have carried on 
business himself as a factor in his early years, 
and to have risen to eminence by pleading the 
causes of the lower classes in opposition to the 
opinion of all good men. Notwithstanding the 
strong opposition of the aristocracy, he was 
raised to the consulship by the people, who 
thought that it only needed a man of energy at 
the head of an overwhelming force to bring the 
war against Hannibal to a close. His colleague 
was L. ^Emilius Paulus, one of the leaders of the 
aristocratical party. The two consuls were de- 
feated by Hannibal at the memorable battle of 
Cannae. Vid. Hannibal. The battle was fought 
by Varro against the advice of Paulus. The Ro- 
man army was all but annihilated. Paulus and 

923 



VARRO, TERENTIUS. 



VARUS, ALFENUS. 



slmost all the officers perished. Varro was one 
of the few who escaped and reached Venusia in 
safety, with about seventy horsemen. His con- 
duct after the battle seems to have been deserv- 
ing of high praise. He proceeded to Canusium, 
where the remnant of the Roman army had taken 
refuge, and there adopted every precaution 
which the exigencies of the case required. His 
conduct was appreciated by the senate and the 
people, and his defeat was forgotten in the serv- 
ices he had lately rendered. On his return to 
the city all classes went out to meet him, and 
the senate returned him thanks because he had 
not despaired of the commonwealth. He con- 
tinued to be employed in Italy for several suc- 
cessive years in important military commands 
till nearly the close of the Punic war. — 2. The 
celebrated writer, whose vast and varied erudi- 
tion in almost every department of literature 
earned for him the title of the " most learned 
of the Romans." He was born B.C. 116, and 
was trained under the superintendence of L. 
JSlius Stilo Preeconinus, and he afterward re- 
ceived instruction from Antiochus, a philoso- 
pher of the Academy. Varro held a high naval 
command in the wars against the pirates and 
Mithradates, and afterward served as the. lega- 
tus of Pompeius in Spain in the civil war, but 
was compelled to surrender his forces to Caesar. 
He then passed over into Greece, and shared 
the fortunes of the Pompeian party till after the 
battle of Pharsalia, when he sued for and ob- 
tained the forgiveness of Caesar, who employ- 
ed him in superintending the collection and ar- 
rangement of" the great library designed for pub- 
lic use. For some years after this period Varro 
remained in literary seclusion, passing his time 
chiefly at his country seats near Cumae and Tus- 
culum, occupied with study and composition. 
Upon the formation of the second triumvirate, 
his name* appeared upen the list of the pro- 
scribed ; but he succeeded in making his escape, 
and, after having remained for some time con- 
cealed, he obtained the protection of Octavianus. 
The remainder of his career was passed in tran- 
quillity, and he continued to labor in his favor- 
ite studies, although his magnificent library had 
been destroyed, a loss to him irreparable. His 
death took place B.C. 28, when he was in his 
eighty-ninth year. Not only was Varro the most 
learned of Roman scholars, but he was likewise 
the most voluminous of Roman authors. "We 
have his own authority for the assertion that he 
had composed no less than four hundred and 
ninety books ; but cff these only two works have 
come down to us, and one of them in a mutila- 
ted form. The following is a list of the princi- 
pal works, both extant and lost : l.DeRe Rustica 
Libri III., still extant, was written when the au- 
thor was eighty years old, and is the most import- 
ant of all the treatises upon ancient agriculture 
now extant, being far superior to the more vo- 
luminous production of Columella, with which 
alone it can be compared. The best editions 
are in the Scriptores Rei Rustica veteres Latini 
by Gesner, 4to, 2 vols., Lips., 1735, and by 
Schneider, 8vo, 4 vols., Lips., 1794-1797. 2. 
Be Lingua Latina, a grammatical treatise which 
extended to twenty-four books ; but six only 
(v.-x.) have been preserved, and these are in a 
mutilated condition. The remains of this treat- 1 
921 



ise are particularly valuable, in so far as they 
have been the means of preserving many terms 
and forms which would otherwise have been 
altogether lost, and much curious information . 
is here treasured up connected with the ancient 
usages, both civil and religious, of the Romans 
The best editions are by Spengel, 8vo, Berol., 
1826, and by Miiller, 8vo, Lips., 1833. 3. Sen- 
tences. One hundred and sixty-five Sententice, 
or pithy sayings, have been published by Devit 
under the name of Varro, Patav., 1843. It is 
manifest that these sayings were not strung to- 
gether by Varro himself, but are scraps gleaned 
out of various works, probably at different timea 
and by different hands. 4. Antiquitatm,i Libn, 
divided into two sections. Antiquitates Rerum 
humanarum, in twenty-five books, and Antiqui- 
tates Rerum divinarum, in sixteen books. This 
was Varro's great work ; and upon this chiefly 
his reputation for profound learning was based ; 
but, unfortunately, only a few fragments of it 
have come down to us. With the second sec- 
tion of the work we are, comparatively speak- 
ing, familiar, since Augustine drew very largely 
from this source in his " City of God." 5. Sat- 
urm, which were composed, not only in a variety 
of metres, but contained an admixture of prose 
also. Varro, in these pieces, copied to a certain 
extent the productions of Menippus the Gada- 
rene (vid. Menippus), and hence designated them 
as Satura Menippcce, s. Cynicce. They appear 
to have been a series of disquisitions on a vast 
variety of subjects, frequently, if not uniformly, 
couched in the shape of dialogue, the object 
proposed being the inculcation of moral lessons 
and serious truths in a familiar, playful, and 
even jocular style. The best edition of the 
fragments of these Saturn is by CEhler, M. Te- 
rentii Varronis Saturarum MenippcarumReliquice, 
Quedlingb., 1844. Of the remaining works of 
Varro we possess little except a mere catalogue 
of titles. — 3. P., a Latin poet of considerable 
celebrity, surnamed Atacinus, from the Alax, 
a river of Gallia Narbonensis, his native prov- 
ince, was born B.C. 82. Of his personal history 
nothing further is known. He is believed to 
have been the composer of the following works, 
of which a few inconsiderable fragments only 
have come down to us ; but some of them oughl 
perhaps to be ascribed to" his illustrious con- 
temporary M. Terentius Varro : 1. Argonautica, 
probably a free translation of the well-known 
poem by Apollonius Rhodius. Upon this piece 
the fame of Varro chiefly rested. It is referred 
to by Propertius, by Ovid, and by Statius. 2. 
Chorographia s. Cosmographia, appears to have 
been a metrical system of astronomy and geog- 
raphy. 3. Libri Navales, appears to have been 
a poem upon navigation. 

Varus, a cognomen in many Roman gentes, 
signified a person who had his legs bent in- 
ward, and was opposed to Valgus, which signi- 
fied a person having his legs turned outward. 

Varus, Alfenus. 1. A Roman jurist, was a 
pupil of Servius Sulpicius, and the only pupil 
of Servius from whom there are any excerpts 
in the Digest. The scholiast on Horace (Sat., 
i., 3, 130) tells us that the " Alfenus vafer" of 
Horace was the lawyer, and that he was a na- 
tive of Cremona, where he carried on the trade 
of a barber or a botcher of shoes (for there are 



VARUS, AT1US. 



VATIA ISAURICOS. 



both readings, sutor and tonsor) ; that he jame 
to Rome, where lie became a pupil of Servius 
Snlpicins, attained the dignity of the consulship, 
and was honored with a public funeral. — 2. A 
general of Vitellius, in the civil war in A.D. 
69, and perhaps a descendant of the jurist. 

Varus, Atius. 1. P., a zealous partisan of 
Pompey in the civil war, was stationed in Piee- 
num on the breaking out of the civil war in B.C. 
49. He subsequently crossed over into Africa, 
and took possession of the province, which was 
j then governed by Q. Ligarius. Vid. Ligarius. 
In consequence of his having been propraetor of 
Africa a few years previously, Varus was well 
acquainted with the country and the people, and 
was thus able to raise two legions without much 
difficulty. Meantime, L. JEYius Tubero, who 
had received from the senate the province of 
Africa, arrived to take the command ; but Va- 
rus would not even allow him to land, and com- 
pelled him to sail away. In the course of the 
same year, Varus, assisted by King Juba, defeat- 
ed Curio, Caesar's legate, who had crossed over 
from Sicily to Africa. Vid. Curio. Varus 
fought with the other Pompeians in Africa 
against Caesar in 46 ; but after the battle of 
Thapsus he sailed away to Cn. Pompey in Spain. 
I He fell at the battle of Munda, and his head was 
carried to Caesar. — 2. Q. Atius Varus, com- 
mander of the cavalry under C. Fabius, one of 
Caesar's legates in Gaul, and probably the same 
as the Q. Varus who commanded the cavalry 
under Domitius, one of Caesar's generals in 
Greece in the war with Pompey. It is sup- 
posed by many modern writers that he is the 
same person as the Varus to whom Virgil dedi- 
cated his sixth eclogue, and whose praises the 
poet also celebrates in the ninth (ix., 27), from 
which poems we learn that Varus had obtained 
renown in war. 

Varus, Quintilius. 1. Sex., quaestor B.C. 
49, belonged to the Pompeian party. He fell 
into Caesar's hands at the capture of Corfinium, 
but was dismissed by Caesar. He afterward 
fought under Brutus and Cassius against the 
triumvirs ; and after the loss of the battle of 
Philippi, he fell by the hands of his freedmen, 
who slew him at his own request. — 2. P., son 
of the preceding, was consul B.C. 13, and was 
subsequently appointed to the government of 
Syria, where he acquired enormous wealth. 
Shortly after his return from Syria be was made 
governor of Germany (probably about A.D. 7). 
Drusus had conquered a great part of Central 
Germany as far as the Visurgis (now Weser) ; 
and Varus received orders from Augustus to in- 
troduce the Roman jurisdiction into the newly- 
conquered country. The Germans, however, 
were not prepared to submit thus tamely to the 
Roman yoke, and found a leader in Arminius, a 
noble chief of the Cherusci, who had previously 
served in the Roman army. Arminius organ- 
ized a general revolt of all the German tribes 
between the Visurgis and the Weser, but kept 
his design a profound secret from Varus, with 
whom he continued to live on the most friendly 
terms. When he had fully matured his plans, 
he suddenly attacked Varus,*at the head of a 
countless host of barbarians, as the Roman gen- 
eral was marching with his three legions through 
a pass of the Saltus Tcutoburgicnsis, a range of 



hills covered with wood, which extends north 
of the Lippe from Osnabriick to Paderborn, and 
is known in the present day by the name of the' 
Teutoburgerwald or Lippische Wald. The bat- 
tle lasted three days, and ended with the en- 
tire destruction of the Roman army. Varus put 
an end to his own life. His defeat was follow- 
ed by the loss of all the Roman possessions be- 
tween the Weser and the Rhine, and the latter 
river again became the boundary of the Roman 
dominions. When the news of this defeat 
reached Rome, the whole city was thrown into 
consternation ; and Augustus, who was both 
weak and aged, gave way to the most violent 
grief, tearing his garments, and calling upon Va- 
rus to give him back his legions. Orders were 
issued, as if the very empire was in danger ; 
and Tiberius was dispatched with a veteran 
army to the Rhine. 

Varus (now Var or Varo), a river in Gallia 
Narbonensis, forming the boundary between 
this province and Italy, rises in Mount Cema in 
the Alps, and falls into the Mediterranean Sea 
between Antipolis and Nicaea. 

Vasates, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, on the 
Garuinna, whose chief town was Cossiurn (now 
Bazas), on the road from Burdigala to Elusa. 

Vascones, a powerful people on the northern 
coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, between the 
Iberus and the Pyrenees, in the modern Na- 
varre and Guipuzco. Their chief towns were 
Pompelon and Calagurris. They were a brave 
people, and fought in battle bare-headed. Un- 
der the empire they were regarded as skillful 
diviners and prophets. Their name is still re- 
tained in that of the modern Basques. 

Vasconum Saltus. Vid. Pyrene. 

Vasio (now Vaisori), a considerable town of 
the Vocontii in Gallia Narbonensis. 

[Vasius, T., one of the conspirators agains 
Q. Cassius Longinus,. propraetor of Furthei 
Spain in B.C. 48.] 

Vatia IsaurTcus, P. Servilius. 1. Consul in 
B.C. 79, was sent in the following year as pro- 
consul to Cilicia, in order to clear the seas of 
the pirates, whose ravages now spread far and 
wide. He carried on the war with great ability 
and success, and from his conquest of the Isauri 
he obtained the surname of Isauricus. After 
giving Cilicia the organization of a Roman prov- 
ince, he entered Rome in triumph in 74. After 
his return Servilius took a leading part in pub- 
lic affairs. In 70 he was one of the judices at 
the trial of Verres ; in 66 he supported the roga- 
tion of Manilius for conferring upon Pompey the 
command of the war against the pirates ; in 63 
he was a candidate for the dignity of pontifex 
maximus, but was defeated by Julius Caesar ; in 
the same year he spoke in the senate in favor 
of inflicting the last penalty of the law upon the 
Catilinarian conspirators ; in 57 he joined the 
other nobles in procuring Cicero's recall from 
banishment ; in 56 he opposed the restoration 
of Ptolemy to his kingdom ; and in 55 he was 
censor with M. Valerius Messala Niger. He 
took no part in the civil wars, probably on ac- 
count of his advanced age, and died in 44. — 2. 
Praetor 54, belonged originally to the aristocrat- 
ical party, but espoused Caesar's side on the 
breaking out of the civil war, and was consul 
with Cuesar in 48. In 46 he governed the prov- 

925 



VATICANUS MONS. 



VEIL 



inJe of Asia as proconsul, during which time 
Cicero wrote to him several letters. After the 
death of Caesar in 44, he supported Cicero and 
ihe rest of the aristocratical party, in opposition 
to Antony. But he soon changed sides again, 
became reconciled to Antony, and was made 
consul a second time in 41. 

[Vaticanus Mons. Vid. Roma, p. 747, b, 
748, a.] 

Vatinius. 1. P., a political adventurer in the 
last days of the republic, who is described by 
Cicero as one of the greatest scamps and vil- 
lains that ever lived. His personal appearance 
was unprepossessing ; his face and neck were 
covered with swellings, to which Cicero alludes, 
calling him the struma civitatis. Vatinius was 
quaestor B.C. 63, and tribune of the plebs 59, 
when he sold his services to Caesar, who was 
then consul along with Bibulus. It was Vatin- 
ius who proposed the bill to the people by 
which Caesar received the provinces of Cisal- 
pine Gaul and Illyricum for five years. Vatini- 
us continued to take an active part in political 
affairs. In 56 he appeared as a witness against 
Milo and Sestius, two of Cicero's friends, in con- 
sequence of which the orator made a vehement 
attack upon the character of Vatinius, in the 
speech which has come down to us. Vatinius 
was praetor in 55, and in the following year (54) 
he was accused by C. Licinius Calvus of having 
gained the praetorship by bribery. He was de- 
fended on this occasion by Cicero, in order to 
please Caasar, whom Cicero had offended by his 
former attack upon Vatinius. Soon afterward 
Vatinius went to Gaul, where we find him serv- 
ing in 51. He accompanied Caesar in the civil 
war, and was made consul suffectus for a few 
days, at the end of December, 47. At the be- 
ginning of the following year he was sent into 
Illyricum, where he carried on the war with 
success. After Caesar's death he was compell- 
ed to surrender Dyrrhachium and his army to 
Brutus, who had obtained possession of Mace- 
donia, because his troops declared in favor of 
Brutus. — 2. Of Benventum, one of the vilest 
and most hateful creatures of Nero's court, 
equally deformed in body and in mind. He was 
originally a shoemaker's apprentice, next earned 
his living as one of the lowest kinds of scurra 
or buffoons, and finally obtained great power 
and wealth by accusing the most distinguished 
men in the state. A certain kind of drinking- 
cups, having nasi or nozzles, bore the name of 
Vatinius, probably because he brought them into 
fashion. Juvenal alludes (v., 46) to a cup of 
this kind. 

Vatrenus. Vid. Padus. 

Vectis or Vecta (now Isle of Wight), an isl- 
and off the southern coast of Britain, with which 
the Romans became acquainted before their 
conquest of Britain, by means of the inhabit- 
ants of Massilia, who were accustomed to visit 
this island for the purpose of obtaining tin. It is 
related by Diodorus that at low water the space 
between Vectis and the coast of Britain was al- 
most entirely dry, so that the Britons used to 
bring tin to the island in wagons. It was con- 
quered by Vespasian in the reign of Claudius. 

Vedius Pollio. Vid. Pollio. 

Vegetios, FlavTus Renatus, the author of a 
treatise Rci Militaris Instituta, or Epitome Rei 
926 



Militaris, dedicated to the Emperor Valentinian 
II. The materials were derived, according to 
the declaration of the writer himself, from Cato 
the Censor, De Disciplina Militari, from Cor 
nelius Celsus, from Frontinus, from Paternus, 
and from the imperial constitutions of Augustus, 
Trajan, and Hadrian. The work is divided into 
five books. The first treats of the levying and j 
training of recruits, including instructions foi 
the fortification of a camp ; the second, of the 
different classes into which soldiers are divided, 
and especially of the organization of the legion ; 
the third, of the operations of an army in the 
field ; the fourth, of the attack and defence of ! 
fortresses ; the fifth, of marine warfare. The 
value of this work is much diminished by the j 
fact that the usages of periods the most remote ! 
from each other are mixed together into one l 
confused mass, and not unfrequently, we have I 
reason to suspect, are blended with arrange- 'I 
ments which never existed, except in the fancy 
of the author. The best edition is by Schwe- 
belius, Norimberg, 1767, and by Oudendorp and 
Bessel, Argent., 1806. 

[Vehilius, praetor B.C. 44, refused to receive 
a province from Antony, and said that he would 
obey the senate alone.] 

[Veianius, a celebrated gladiator in the time 
of Horace, who had retired to a small estate in 
the country, after dedicating his arms in the 
temple of Hercules at Fundi in Latium.] 

Veiento, Fabricius, was banished in the reign 
of Nero, A.D. 62, in consequence of his having 
published several libels. He afterward return- 
ed to Rome, and became in the reign of Domi- 
tian one of the most infamous informers and I 
flatterers of that tyrant. He also enjoyed the 
friendship ofNerva. 

Veii (Veiens, -entis, Veientanus : now Isola j 
Farnese), one of the most ancient and powerful 
cities of Etruria, situated on the River Cremera, 
about twelve miles from Rome. It possessed 
a strongly-fortified citadel, built on a hill rising 
precipitously from the deep glens which bound 
it, save at the single point where a narrow ridge 
unites it to the city. It was one of the twelve [ 
cities of the Etruscan Confederation, and appa- 
rently the largest of all. As far as we can judge i 
from its present remains, it was about seven < j 
miles in circumference, which agrees with the I 
statement of Dionysius, that it was equal in 
size to Athens. Its terriiory {Agcr Veiens) was 
extensive, and appears originally to have ex- 
tended on the south and east to the Tiber ; on 
the southwest to the sea, embracing the salinae i 
or salt-works at the mouth of the river ; and 
on the west to the territory of Caere. The Ci- 
minian forest appears to have been its north- 
western boundary ; on the east it must have 
embraced all the district south of Soracte and 
eastward to the Tiber. The cities of Capena 
and Fidenae were colonies of Veii. Veii was a 
powerful city at the time of the foundation of 
Rome, and the most formidable and dangerous 
of her neighbors. The Veientes were engaged 
in a. most unceasing hostilities with Rome for 
more than three centuries and a half, and we 
have records of fourteen distinct wars between 
the two nations. Veii was at length taken by 
the dictator Camillus, after a siege which is said 
to have lasted ten years. The city fell into his 



VEIOVIS. 



VENETIA. 



hands, according to the common story, by means 
of a cuniculus or mine, which was carried by 
Camillus from the Roman camp under the city 
into the citadel of Veii. So well built and spa- 
cious was Veii, that the Romans were anxious, 
after the destruction of their own city by the 
Gauls in 390, to remove to Veii, and are said to 
have been only prevented from carrying their 
purpose into effect by the eloquence of Camillus. 
From this time Veii was abandoned ; but after 
the lapse of ages it was colonized afresh by 
Augustus, and made a Roman municipium. 
The new colony, however, occupied scarcely a 
third of the ancient city, and had again sunk 
into decay in the reign of Hadrian. From this 
time Veii disappears entirely from history, and, 
on the revival of letters, even its site was long 
an object of dispute. It is now settled, how- 
ever, beyond a doubt, that it stood in the neigh- 
borhood of the hamlet of Isola Farnese, where 
several remains of the ancient city have been 
discovered. Of these the most interesting is 
its cemetery ; but there is now only one tomb 
remaining open, which was discovered in the 
winter of 1842-3, and contains many interesting 
remains of Etruscan art. 

Veiovis, a Roman deity, whose name is ex- 
plained by some to mean " little Jupiter," while 
others interpret it " the destructive Jupiter," 
and identify him with Pluto. Veiovis was prob- 
ably an Etruscan divinity of a destructive na- 
ture, whose fearful lightnings produced deaf- 
ness in those who were to be struck by them, 
even before they were actually hurled. His 
temple at Rome stood between the Capitol and 
the Tarpeian Rock ; he was represented as a 
youthful god armed with arrows. 
Velabrum. Vid. Roma, p. 749, a. 
Velauni or Vellavi, a people in Gallia Aqui- 
tanica, in the modern Velay, who were origin- 
ally subject to the Arverni, but subsequently 
appear as an independent people. 

Veleda, a prophetic virgin, by birth belonged 
to the Bructeri, and was regarded as a divine 
being by most of the nations in Central Ger- 
many in the reign of Vespasian. She inhabited 
a lofty tower in the neighborhood of the River 
Luppia (now Lippe). She encouraged Civilis 
in his revolt against the Romans, but she was 
afterward taken prisoner and carried to Rome. 

Velia or Elea, also called Hyele ('EMa, 
'TCeXt], the different forms are owing to the word 
having originally the .ZEolic digamma, which the 
Romans changed into V: Velienses orEleates, 
pi. : now CasteW a Mare della Brucca), a Greek 
town of Lucania, on the western coast, between 
Paestum and Buxentum, was founded by the 
Phocaeans, who had abandoned their native city 
to escape from the Persian sovereignty, about 
B.C. 543. It was situated about three miles 
east of the River Hales, and possessed a good 
harbor. It is celebrated as the birth-place of 
the philosophers Parmenides and Zeno, who 
founded a school of philosophy usually known 
under the name of the Eleatic. It possessed a 
celebrated temple of Demeter (Ceres). Cicero, 
who resided at Velia at one time, frequently 
mentions it in his correspondence ; and it ap- 
pears to have been reckoned a healthy place. 
(Hor., Ep., i., 15.) In the time of Strabo it had 
ceased to be a town of importance. 



Velinus (now Velino), a river in the territory 
of the Sabines, rising in the central Apennines, 
and falling into the Nar. This river in the 
neighborhood of Reate overflowed its banks 
and formed several small lakes, the largest of 
which was called Lacus Velinus (now Pic dt 
Lugo, also Lago delletMarmore). In order to car- 
ry off these waters, a channel was cut through 
the rocks by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror 
of the Sabines, by means of which the waters 
of the Velinus were carried through a narrow 
gorge to a spot where they fall from a height of 
several hundred feet into the River Nar. This 
fall, which is one of the most celebrated in Eu 
rope, is known at the present day by the name 
of the Fall of Terni, or the Caduta delle Mar- 
more. 

Velitr^e (Veliternus : now Velletri), an an 
cient town of the Volscians in Latium, but sub- 
sequently belonging to the Latin league. It 
was conquered by the Romans, and colonized 
at an early period, but it frequently revolted 
from Rome. It is chiefly celebrated as the 
birth-place of the Emperor Augustus. 

VelTus Longus, a Latin grammarian, known 
to us from a treatise De Orthographia, still ex- 
tant, printed in the " Grammatical Latinee Auc- 
tores Antiqui" of Putschius, 4to, Hanov., 1605. 
Velius also wrote a commentary on Virgil, which 
is mentioned by Macrobius. 

Vellaunodunum (now Beaume), a town of the 
Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Vellavi. Vid. Velauni. 

[Velleius C, a Roman senator, introduced 
by Cicero as one of the supporters of the Epi' 
curean philosophy in his " DeNatura Dcorum:'''' 
he was a friend of the orator L. Crassus.] 

Velleius Paterculus. Vid. Paterculus. 

Vellocasses, a people in Gallia Lugdunen 
sis, northwest of the Parisii, extending along 
the Sequana as far as the ocean : their chiel 
town was Ratomagus. 

Venafrum (Venafranus : now Venafri),^ towp 
in the north of Samnium, near tne River Vul- 
turnus, and on the confines of Latium, celebra- 
ted for the excellence of its olives. 

Venedi or Vened^e, a people in European 
Sarmatia, dwelling on the Baltic east of the 
Vistula. The Sinus Venedicus (now Gulf of 
Rija), and the Venedici Montes, a range of 
mountains between Poland and East Prussia, 
were called after this people. 

Veneris Promontorium. Vid. Pvrenes Pro- 
montorium. 

Veneris Portus or Pyren^ei Portus, a sea- 
port town of the Indigetes in Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, near the Promontorium Veneris, and 
on the frontiers of Gaul. 

Venetia. 1. A district in the north of Italy, 
was originally included under the general name 
of Gallia Cisalpina, but was made by Augustus 
the tenth Regio of Italy. It was bounded on 
the west by the River Athesis, which separated 
it from\ Gallia Cisalpina ; on the north by the 
Carnic Alps ; on the east by the River Tima- 
vus, which separated it from Istria ; and on the 
south by the Adriatic Gulf. This country was, 
and is, very fertile, and its inhabitants enjoyed 
great prosperity. The chief productions of the 
country were excellent wool^ a sweet but much- 
prized wine, and race-horses. Dionysius, the 

927 



VENETUS LACUS. 



VENTIDIUS BASSUS. 



tyrant of Syracuse, is said to have kept a stud 
of race-horses in this country. Its inhabitants, 
the Veneti, frequently called Heneti ('Event) 
by the Greeks, were commonly said to be de- 
scendants of the Paphlagonian Heneti, whom 
Antenor led into the country after the Trojan 
war; but this tale, like so many others, has 
evidently arisen from the mere similarity of the 
name. Others supposed the Veneti to be a 
branch of the Celtic Veneti in Gaul ; but this 
supposition is disproved by the express testi- 
mony of Polybius, that they spoke a language 
entirely different from the Celtic ; and that they 
had no connection with the Celts, may be in- 
ferred from the fact that they were always on 
hostile terms with the Celtic tribes settled in 
Italy. Herodotus regards them as an Illyrian 
race ; and all writers are agreed that they did 
not belong to the original population of Italy. 
In consequence of their hostility to the Celtic 
tribes in their neighborhood, they formed at an 
early period an alliance with Rome ; and their 
country was defended by the Romans against 
their dangerous enemies. On the conquest of 
the Cisalpine Gauls, the Veneti likewise be- 
came included under the Roman dominions ; 
and they were almost the only people in Italy 
who became the subjects of Rome without of- 
fering any resistance. The Veneti continued 
to enjoy great prosperity down to the time of 
the Marcomannic wars, in the reign of the Em- 
peror Aurelius ; but from this time their coun- 
try was frequently devastated by the barba- 
rians who invaded Italy ; and at length, in the 
fifth century, many of its inh itants, to escape 
the ravages of the Huns under Attila, took ref- 
uge in the islands off their coast, on which now 
stands the city of Venice. The chief towns of 
Venetia in ancient times were Patavium, Al- 
tinum, and Aquileia. The two latter carried on 
an extensive commerce, and exported, among 
other things, large quantities of amber, which 
was brought from the Baltic through the inte- 
rior of Europe to these cities. — 2. A district in 
the northwest of Gallia Lugdunensis, inhabited 
by the Veneti, who were a brave people, and 
the best sailors in all Gaul. Off their coast 
was a group of islands called Insula Vene- 

T1C2E. 

Venetus Lacus. Vid. Brigantinus Lacus. 

Venilia, a nymph, daughter of Pilumnus, 
sister of Amata (the wife of King Latinus), and 
mother of Turnus and Juturna by Daunus. 

Vennones, a people of Rastia, and, according 
to Strabo, the most savage of theRsetian tribes, 
inhabiting the Alps near the sources of the 
Athesis (now Adigc). 

[Vennonius. 1. An early Roman annalist, 
placed by Cicero immediately after Fannius in 
his enumeration of Roman historians. No frag- 
ments of his works remain ; a few references 
are collected by Krause, Histor. Rom. Fragm., 
p. 175-6. — 2. Sextus, one of the instruments 
of Verres in oppressing the Sicilians. — 3. C, a 
money-lender (negotiator) in Cilicia, a friend of 
Cicero, solicited, but unsuccessfully, a prcefec- 
tura from the latter.] 

Venta. 1.- Belgarum (now Wiyichester), the 
chief town of the Belgse in Britain. The mod- 
ern city still contains several Roman remains. 
— 2. Icenorum. Vid. Iceni. — 3. Silurum (now 
928 



' CeBrieenl), a town of the Silures in Britain, is 

] Monmouthshire. 

Venti (ave/ioi), the winds. They appear per- 
sonified, even in the Homeric poems, but, at 

j the same time, they are conceived as ordinary 
phenomena of nature. The master and ruler 
of all the winds is iEolus, who resides in the 
island ^Eolia (vid. iEoLus) ; but the other gods 

I also exercise a power over them. Homer men- 
tions by name Boreas (north wind), Eurus (east 
wind), Notus (south wind), and Zephyrus (west 
wind). When the funeral pile of Patroclus 
could not be made to burn, Achilles promised 
to offer sacrifices to the winds ; and Iris accord- 
ingly hastened to them, and found them feast- 
ing in the palace of Zephyrus in Thrace. Bo- 
reas and Zephyrus thereupon straightway cross- 
ed the Thracian Sea into Asia, to cause the fire 
to blaze. According to Hesiod, the beneficial 
winds, Notus, Boreas, Argestes, and Zephyrus, 
were the sons of Astrasus and Eos ; and the de- 
structive ones, such as Typhon, are said to be 
the sons of Typhoeus. Later, especially philo- 
sophical, writers endeavored to define the winds 
more accurately, according to their places in the 
compass. Thus Aristotle, besides the four prin- 
cipal winds (Boreas or Aparciias, Eurus, Notus, 
and Zephyrus), mentions three, the Meses, Cai- 
cias, and Apeliotes, between Boreas and Eurus ; 
between Eurus and Notus he places the Phce- 
nicias ; between Notus and Zephyrus he has 
only the Lips ; and between Zephyrus and Bo 
reas he places the Argestes (Olympias or Sci- 
ron) and the Thrascias. It must further be ob- 
served that, according to Aristotle, the Eurus 
is not due east, but southeast. In the Museum 
Pio-Clementinum there exists a marble monu- 
ment upon which the winds are described with 
their Greek and Latin names, viz., Septentrio 
(Aparctias), Eurus (Euros or southeast), and 
between these two Aquilo (Boreas), Vulturnus 
(Caicias), and Solanus (Apheliotes). Between 
Eurus and Notus (Notos) there is only one, the 
Euroauster (Euronotus) ; between Notus and 
Favonius (Zephyrus) are marked Austro-Africus 
(Libonotus) and Africus (Lips) ; and between 
Favonius and Septentrio we find Chorus (Iapyx) 
and Circius (Thracius). The winds were rep- 
resented by poets and artists in different ways ; 
the latter usually represented them as beings 
with wings at their heads and shoulders. The 
most remarkable monument representing the 
winds is the octagonal tower of Andronicus 
Cyrrhestes at Athens. Each of the eight sides 
of the monument represents one of the eight 
principal winds in a flying attitude. A mov- 
able Triton in the centre of the cupola pointed 
with his staff to the wind blowing at the time. 
All these eight figures have wings at theit 
shoulders, all are clothed, and the peculiarities 
of the winds are indicated by their bodies and 
various attributes. Black lambs were offered 
as sacrifices to the destructive winds, and white 
ones to favorable or good winds. Boreas had a 
temple on the River Ilissus in Attica ; and 
Zephyrus had an altar on the sacred road to 
Eleusis. 

VentidIus Bassus, P., a celebrated Roman 
general, was a native of Picenum, and was 
taken prisoner by Pompeius Strabo in the So- 
cial war (B.C. 89), and carried to Rome. When 



VENULUS. 



VERCELL^E. 



b,e grew up to man's estate, he got a poor living 
j by undertaking to furnish mules and vehicles 
for those magistrates who went from Rome to 
administer a province. In .this humble employ- 
ment he became known to C. Julius Caesar, 
whom he accompanied into Gaul. In the Civil 
war he executed Caesar's orders with ability, 
and became a favorite of his great commander. 
He obtained the rank of tribune of the plebs, 
and was made a praetor for B.C. 43. After Cae- 
sar's death Ventidius sided with M. Antony in 
the war of Mutina (43), and in the same year 
j was made consul suffectus. In 39 Antony sent 
Ventidius into Asia to oppose Labienus and the 
I Parthians. He conducted this war with distin- 
guished ability and success. In the first cam- 
paign (39) he defeated the Parthians and Labi- 
enus, the latter of whom was slain in his flight 
after the battle ; and in the second campaign 
(38) Ventidius gained a still more brilliant vic- 
ory over the Parthians, who had again invaded 
Syria. Pacorus, the king's son, fell in this bat- 
tle. Antony, however, far from being pleased 
with the success of Ventidius, showed great 
jealousy of him, and dismissed him from his 
employment. Yet his services were too great 
to be overlooked, and he had a triumph in No- 
vember, 38. Nothing more is known of him. 
Ventidius was often cited as an instance of a 
man who rose from the lowest condition to the 
highest honors ; a captive became a Roman 
consul and enjoyed a triumph ; but this was in 
a period of revolution. 

[Venulus, a Latin chieftain (according to 
Servius, originally from Argos), sent byTurnus 
to Diomedes to persuade him to lend aid against 
.(Eneas and the Trojans : he was subsequently 
captured by Tarchon, and carried off the field 
alter a fierce struggle.] 

Venus, the goddess of love among the Ro- 
mans. Before she was identified with the Greek 
Aphrodite, she was one of the least important 
divinities in the religion of the Romans ; but 
still her worship seems to have been establish- 
ed at Rome at an early time. There was a 
stone chapel with an image of Venus Murlea or 
Murcia in the Circus, near the spot where the 
altar of Consus was concealed. This surname 
was said to be the same as Myrtea (from myr- 
tus, a myrtle), and to indicate the fondness of 
the goddess for the myrtle-tree. In ancient 
times there is said to have been a myrtle grove 
in front of her sanctuary below the Aventine. 
Another ancient surname of Venus was Cloa- 
aina, which is said to have been derived from 
her image having been found in the great sew- 
er (cloaca) ; but this tale is nothing but an ety- 
mological inference from the name. It is sup- 
posed by modern writers that this surname sig- 
nifies the " Purifier," from chore or cluerc, " to 
wash" or "purify." The statue of Venus un- 
der this surname was set up by T. Tatius in a 
temple near the forum. A third ancient sur- 
name of Venus is Calva, under which she had 
two temples in the neighborhood of the Capitol. 
Some believed that one of them had been built 
by Ancus Marcius, because his wife was in 
danger of losing her hair ; others thought that 
it was a monument of a patriotic act of the 
Roman women, who, during the siege of the 
Gauls, cut off their hair and gave it to the men 
59 



to make strings for their bows ; and others, 
again, supposed it to refer to the fancies and 
caprices of lovers, calvere signifying " to tease." 
But it probably refers to the fact that on her 
wedding-day the bride, either actually or sym- 
bolically, cut off a lock of hair to sacrifice it to 
Venus. In these, the most ancient surnames 
of Venus, we must recognize her primitive char- 
acter and attributes. In later times her wor- 
ship became much more extended, and her iden- 
tification with the Greek Aphrodite introduced 
various new attributes. At the beginning of 
the second Punic war, the worship of Venus 
Erycina was introduced from Sicily, and a tem- 
ple was dedicated to her on the Capitol, to 
which subsequently another was added outside 
the Colline gate. In the year B.C. 114, a Ves- 
tal virgin was killed by lightning; and as the 
general moral corruption, especially among the 
Vestals, was believed to be the cause of this 
disaster, the Sibylline books, upon being con- 
sulted, commanded that a temple should be built 
to Venus Verticordia (the goddess who turns 
the hearts of men) on the Via Salaria. After 
the close of the Samnite war, Fabius Gurges 
founded the worship of Venus Obsequens and 
Postvorta ; Scipio Africanus the younger, that 
of Venus Genitrix, in which he was afterward 
followed by Caesar, who added that of Venus 
Victrix. The worship of Venus was promoted 
by Caesar, who traced his descent from vEneas, 
who was supposed to be the son of Mars and 
Venus. The month of April, as the beginning 
of spring, was thought to be peculiarly sacred 
to the goddess of love. Respecting the Greek 
goddess, vid. Aphrodite. 

VenusIa (Venusinus : now Venosa), an an- 
cient town of Apulia, south of the River Aufi- 
dus, and near Mount Vultur, situated in a ro- 
mantic country, and memorable as the birth- 
place of the poet Horace. It was originally a 
town of the Hirpini in Samnium ; and after its 
original Sabellian inhabitants had been driven 
out by the Romans, it was colonized by tho 
latter, B.C. 291, and formed an important mili- 
tary station. Here the remnants of the Roman 
army took refuge after the fatal battle of Cannae, 
216. i 

Veragri or Varagri, a people in Gallia Bel- 
gica, on the Pennine Alps, near the confluence 
of the Dranse and the Rhone. 

[Veranius, Q., appointed by Tiberius Caesar 
legatus or governor of Cappadocia, when that 
country was reduced to the form of a Rorrran 
province, A.D. 18. Veranius was one of the 
friends of Germanicus, and took an active part 
in the prosecution of Cn. Piso. He was consul 
in A.D. 49, and in A.D. 58, under Nero, he suc- 
ceeded Didius Gallus as governor of Britain, 
but died there within a year.] 

Verbanus Lacus (now Lago Maggiore), a lake 
in Gallia Cisalpina, and the largest lake in all 
Italy, being about forty miles in length from 
north to south : its greatest breadth is eighl 
miles. It is formed by the River Ticinus and 
other streams descending from the Alps; and 
the River Ticinus issues from its southern ex- 
tremity. [In it are the Borromcan islands, the 
admiration of travellers.^ 

Vercell>i2 (Vercellensis : now Vcrcclli), the 
chief town of the Libici in Gallia Cisalpina, and 

929 



VERCINGETORIX. 

subsequently a Roman municipium, and a place 
of considerable importance. 

Vercingetorix, the celebrated chieftain of 
the Arverni, who carried on war With great 
ability against Caesar in B.C. 52. The history of 
this war occupies the seventh book of Caesar's 
Commentaries on the Gallic war. Vercingeto- 
rix fell into Caesar's hands on the capture of 
Alesia, was subsequently taken to Rome, where 
he adorned the triumph of his conqueror in 45, 
and was afterward put to death. 

Veretum (Veretinus : now Alessano), more 
anciently called Baris, a town in Calabria, on 
the road from Leuca to Tarentum, and six 
hundred stadia southeast of the latter city. 

Verg^e, a town in the interior of Bruttium, 
of uncertain site. 

Vergellus, a rivulet in Apulia crossing the 
plain of Cannae, which is said to have been 
choked by the dead bodies of the Romans slain 
in the memorable battle against Hannibal. 

Vergilios. Vid. Virgilius. 

Verginius. Vid. Virginius. 

VerolamIum or VerulamIum (now Old Veru- 
lam, near St. Alban's), the chief town of the 
Catuellani in Britain, probably the residence of 
the King Cassivellaunus, which was conquered 
by Caesar. It was subsequently made a Roman 
municipium. It was destroyed by the Britons 
under Boadicea, in their insurrection against 
the Romans, but was rebuilt, and continued to 
be an important place. 

Veromandui, a people in Gallia Belgica, be- 
tween the Nervii and Suessiones, in the mod- 
ern Vcrmandois. Their chief town was Augusta 
Veromanduorum (now St. Qu.c7il.in). 

Verona (Veronensis : now Verona), an im- 
portant town in Gallia Cisalpina, on the River 
Athesis, was originally the capital of the Euga- 
nei, but subsequently belonged to the Cenomani. 
At a still later time it was made a Roman col- 
ony, with the surname Augusta ; and under the 
empire it was one of the largest and most flour- 
ishing towns in the north of Italy. It was the 
birthplace of Catullus, and, according to some 
accounts, of the elder Pliny, though others make 
him a native of Comum. It is celebrated on 
account of the battle fought in its neighborhood 
in the Campi Raudii, by Marius against the 
Cimbri, and also by the victory of Theodoric 
the Great over Odoacer. Theodoric took up 
his residence in this town, whence it is called 
by the German writers of the Middle Ages 
Dietrichs Bern, to distinguish it from Bern in 
Switzerland. There are still many Roman re- 
mains at Verona, and, among others, an amphi- 
theatre in a good state of preservation. 

Verres, C, was quaestor B.C. 82, to Cn. Pa- 
pirius Carbo, and therefore, at that period, be- 
longed to the Marian party. He, however, de- 
serted Carbo and went over to Sulla, who sent 
him to Beneventum, where he was allowed a 
share of the confiscated estates. Verres next 
appears as the legate of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella, 
praetor of Cilicia in 80-79, and one of the most 
rapacious of the provincial governors. On the 
death of the regular quaestor C. Malleolus, Ver- 
Tes became the pro-quaestor of Dolabella. In 
Verres LV.'labella found an active and unscru- 
pulous agent, and, in return, connived at his 
excesses. But the pro-quaestor proved as faith- 
930 



VERRES. 

less to Dolabella as he had been to Carbo, and 
turned evidence against him on his prosecution 
by M. Scaurus in 78. Verres was praetor ur- 
banus in 74, and afterward pro-praetor in Sicily, 
where he remained nearly three years (73-71). 
The extortions and exactions of Verres in the 
island have become notorious through the cele 
brated orations of Cicero. No class of the in- 
habitants of Sicily was exempted from his ava- 
rice, his cruelty, or his insults. The wealthy 
had money or works of art to yield up ; the 
middle classes might be made to pay heavier 
imposts ; and the exports of the vineyards, the I 
arable land, and the loom, he saddled with 
heavier burdens. 'By capricious changes or 
violent abrogation of their compacts, Verres 
reduced to beggary both the producers and the i 
farmers of the revenue. His three years' rule 
desolated the island more effectually than the 
two recent Servile wars, and than the old strug- 
gle between Carthage and Rome for the pos- I 
session of the island. So diligently did he em- 
ploy his opportunities, that he boasted of having 
amassed enough for a life of opulence, even if 
he were compelled to disgorge two thirds of his 
plunder in stifling inquiry or purchasing an ac- 
quittal. As soon as he left Sicily, the inhabit- 
ants resolved to bring him to trial. They com- 
mitted the prosecution to Cicero, who had been 
Lilybaean quaestor in Sicily in 75, and had prom- 
ised his good offices to the Sicilians whenever 
they might demand them. Cicero heartily en- 
tered into the cause of the Sicilians, and spared j 
no pains to secure a conviction of the great 
criminal. Verres was defended by Hortensius, 
and was supported by the whole power of the | 
aristocracy. At first his partisans attempted to 
stop the prosecution by bribes, flatteries, and 
menaces ; but, finding this to be impossible, 
they endeavoured to substitute a sham prose- 
cutor in the place of Cicero. Hortensius there- 
fore offered as prosecutor Q. Caecilius Niger, j 
who had been quaestor to the defendant, had 
quarrelled with him, and had consequently, it 
was alleged, the means of exposing officially his 
abuse of the public money. But the Sicilians | 
rejected Caecilius altogether, not merely as no 
match for Hortensius, but as foisted into the | 
cause by the defendant or his advocate. By a 
technical process of the Roman law, called Div- \ 
inatio, the judices, without hearing evidence, de- 
termined from the arguments of counsel alone 
who should be appointed prosecutor. They de- 
cided in Cicero's favor. The oration which I 
Cicero delivered on this occasion was the Div- 
inalio in Q. C/zcilium. The pretension? of Cae- 
cilius were thus set aside. Yet hope did not ! 
forsake Verres and his friends. Evidence foi 
the prosecution was to be collected in Sicily it- 
self. Cicero was allowed one hundred and ten j 
days for the purpose. Verres once again at- 
tempted to set up a sham prosecutor, who un- 
dertook to impeach him for his former extor- 
tions in Achaia, and to gather the evidence in 
one hundred and eight days. But the new prose- 
cutor never went even so far as Brundisium in 
quest of evidence, and the design was aban- i 
doned. Instead of the one hundred and ten 
days allowed, Cicero, assisted by his cousin 
Lucius, completed his researches in fifty, and 
[ returned with a mass of evidence and a crowd | 



VERRUGO. 



VESPASIANUS, T. FLAVIUS SABINDS. 



of witnesses gathered from all parts of the isl- 
and. Hortensius now grasped at his last chance 
of an acquittal, and it was not an unlikely one. 
Could the impeachment be put off to the next 
vear, Verres was safe. Hortensius himself 
would then be consul, with Q. Metellus for his 
colleague, and M. Metellus would be praetor ur- 
oanus. For every firm and honest judex whom 
the upright M. Acilius Glabrio, then praetor ur- 
banus, had named, a partial or venal substitute 
would be found. Glabrio himself would give 
place as quaesitor or president of the court to M. 
Metellus, a partisan, if not a kinsman, of the 
defendant. It was already the month of July. 
The games to be exhibited by Cn. Pompey were 
fixed for the middle of August, and would oc- 
cupy a fortnight; the Roman games would im- 
mediately succeed them, and thus forty days in- 
tervene between Cicero's charge and the reply 
of Hortensius, who again, by dexterous adjourn- 
ments, would delay the proceedings until the 
games of Victory, and the commencement of 
the new year. Cicero therefore abandoned all 
thought of eloquence or display, and merely in- 
troducing his case in the first of the Verrine 
orations, rested all bis hopes of success on the 
weight of testimony alone. Hortensius was 
quite unprepared with counter-evidence, and 
after the first day he abandoned the cause of 
Verres. Before the nine days occupied in hear- 
ing evidence were over, Verres quitted the city 
in despair, and was condemned in his absence. 
He retired to Marseilles, retaining so many of 
tiis treasures of art as to cause eventually his 
proscription by M. Antony in 43. Of the seven 
Verrine orations of Cicero, two only, the Div- 
inatio and the Actio Prima, were spoken, while 
the remaining five were compiled from the de- 
positions after the verdict. Cicero's own divi- 
sion of the impeachment is the following : 



1. Preliminary 



2 2. Proor 
( Sta 



Caecilium or Divinatio. 
Proccmium — Actio Prima — 
Statement of the Case. 



These alone were spoken : 



Orations 
founded on 
the Depo- 
sitions. 



f 3. Verres's official life to B.C. 73. 
A. Jurisdictio Siciliensis. 

5. O ratio Frumentaria. 

6. De Signis. 

'\7. — De Suppliciis. 



These were circulated as documents or mani- 
festoes of the cause after the flight of Verres. 

Vkkrugo, a town of the Volsci in Latium, of 
uncertain site. 

Verticordia. Via". Venus. 

Vertumnus or Vortumnus, is said to have 
been an Etruscan divinity, whose worship was 
introduced at Rome by an ancient Vulsinian 
colony occupying at first the Caslian Hill, and 
afterward the vicus Tuscus. The name is evi- 
dently connected with verto, and formed on the 
analogy of alumnus from alo, whence it must 
signify "the god who changes or metamorpho- 
ses himself." For this reason the Romans con- 
nected Vertumnus with all occurrences to which 
the verb vcrlo applies, such as the change of 
seasons, purchase and sale, the return of rivers 
to their proper beds, &c. But, in reality, the 
god was connected only with the transforma- 
tion of plants and their progress from blossom 
to fruit. Hence the story, that when Vertum- 



nus was in love with Pomona, he assumed all 
possible forms, until at last he gained his end 
by metamorphosing himself into a blooming 
youth. Gardeners accordingly offered to him 
the first produce of their gardens and garlands 
of budding flowers. The whole people celebra- 
ted a festival to Vertumnus on the 23d of Au- 
gust, under the name of the Vortumnalia, denot- 
ing the transition from the beautiful season of 
autumn to the less agreeable one. He had a 
temple in the vicus Tuscus, and a statue of him 
stood in the vicus Jugarius, near the altar of 
Ops. The story of the Etruscan origin seems 
to be sufficiently refuted by his genuine Roman 
name, and it is much more probable that the 
worship of Vertumnus was of Sabine origin. 
The importance of the worship of Vertumnus 
at Rome is evident from the fact that it was 
attended to by a special flamen (flamcn Vortum- 
nalis). 

Verul^e (Verulanus : now Veroli), a town of 
the Hernici in Latium, southeast of Aletrium, 
and north of Frusino, subsequently a Roman 
colony. 

Verulamium. Vid. Verolamium. 

Verus, L. Aurelius, the colleague of M. Au- 
relius in the empire, A D. 161-169. He was 
born in 130, and his original name was L. Ceion- 
ius Commodus. His father, L. Ceionius Corn- 
modus, was adopted by Hadrian in 136 ; and on 
the death of his father in 138, he was, in pur- 
suance of the command of Hadrian, adopted, 
along with M. Aurelius, by M. Antoninus. On 
the death of Antoninus in 161, he succeeded to 
the empire along with M. Aurelius. The histo- 
ry of his reign is given under Aurelius. Verus 
died suddenly at Altinum, in the country of the 
Veneti, toward the close of 169. He had been 
married to Lucilla. the daughter of his colleague. 

VescInus Ager. Vid. Suessa Aurunca. 

Vesevus. Vid. Vesuvius. 

Vesontio (now Besangon), the chief town of 
the Sequani in Gallia Belgica, situated on the 
River Dubis (now Doubs), which flowed around 
the town, with the exception of a space of six 
hundred feet, on which stood a mountain, form- 
ing the citadel of the town, and connected with 
the latter by means of walls. Vesontio was an 
important place under the Romans, and still 
contains ruins of an aqueduct, a triumphal arch, 
and other Roman remains. 

Vespasianus, T. Flavius SabInus, Roman 
emperor A.D. 70-79, was born in the Sabine 
country on the seventeenth of November, A.D. 
9. His father was a man of mean condition, of 
Reate, in the country of the Sabini. His moth- 
er, Vespasia Polla, was the daughter of a prae- 
fectus castrorum, and the sister of a Roman 
senator. She was left a widow with two sons, 
Flavius Sabinus and Vespasian. Vespasian 
served as tribunus militum in Thrace, and was 
queestor in Crete and Cyrene. He was after- 
ward aedile and praetor. About this time he 
took to wife Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of a 
Roman eques, by whom he had two sons, both 
of whom succeeded him. In the reign of Clau- 
dius he was sent into Germany as legatus le- 
gionis ; and in 43 he held the same command 
in Britain, and reduced the Isle of "VVight. He 
was consul in 51, and proconsul of Africa un- 
der Nero. He was at this time very poor, and 

931 



VESTA. 

was accused of getting money by dishonorable 
means. But he had a great military reputation, 
and he was liked by the soldiers. Nero after- 
ward sent him to the East (66). to conduct the 
war against the Jews. His conduct of the Jew- 
ish war had raised his reputation, when the war 
broke out between Otho and Vitellius after the 
death of Galba. He was proclaimed emperor 
at Alexandrea on the first of July, 69, and soon 
after all through the East. Vespasian came to 
Rome in the following year (70), leaving his son 
Titus to continue the war against the Jews. 
Titus took Jerusalem after a siege of five 
monibs ; and a formidable insurrection of the 
Batavi, headed by Civilis, was put down about 
the same period. Vespasian, on his arrival at 
Rome, worked with great industry to restore 
order in the city and in the empire. He dis- 
banded some of the mutinous soldiers of Vitel- 
lius, and maintained discipline among his own. 
He co-operated in a friendly manner with the 
senate in the public administration. The sim- 
plicity and frugality of his mode of life formed 
a striking contrast with the profusion and lux- 
ury of some of his predecessors, and his exam- 
ple is said to have done more to reform the 
morals of Rome than all the laws which had 
ever been enacted. He lived more like a pri- 
vate person than a man who possessed supreme 
power : he was affable and easy of access to all 
persons. The personal anecdotes of such a 
man are some of the most instructive records 
of his reign. He was never ashamed of the 
meanness of his origin, and ridiculed all attempts 
to make out for him a distinguished genealogy. 
When Vologeses, the Parthian king, addressed 
to him a letter commencing in these terms, 
" Arsaces, king of kings, to Flavius Vespasia- 
nus," the answer began, "Flavius Vespasianus 
to Arsaces, king of kings." If it be true, as it 
is recorded, that he was not annoyed at satire 
or ridicule, he exhibited an elevation of charac- 
ter almost unparalleled in one who filled so ex- 
alted a station. He knew the bad character of 
his son Domitian, and as long as he lived he 
kept him under proper restraint. The stories 
that are told of his avarice and of his modes of 
raising money, if true, detract from the dignity 
of his character; and it seems that he had a 
taste for little savings, and for coarse humor. 
Yet it is admitted that he was liberal in all his 
expenditure for purposes of public utility. In 
71 Titus returned to Rome, and both father and 
son triumphed together on account of the con- 
quest of the Jews. The reign of Vespasian was 
marked by few striking events The most im- 
portant was the conquest of North Wales and 
the island of Anglesey by Agricola, who was 
sent into Britain in 78. In the summer of 79, 
Vespssian, whose health was failing, went to 
spend some time at his paternal house in the 
mountains of the Sabini. By drinking to excess 
of cold water, he damaged his stomach, which 
was already disordered. But he still attended 
to business, just as if he had been in perfect 
health ; and on feeling the approach of death, 
he said that an emperor should die standing; 
and, in fact, he did actually die in this posture, 
on the twenty-fourth of June, 79, being sixty- 
aine years of age. 
Vesta, one of the great Roman divinities, 
932 



VESTINI. 

identical with the Greek Hestia both in name 1 
and import. She was the goddess of the hearth, i 
and therefore inseparably connected with the 
Penates ; for ^Eneas was believed to have 
brought the eternal fire of Vesta from Troy 
along with the images of the Penates ; and the 
praetors, consuls, and dictators, before entering 
upon their official functions, sacrificed, not only 
to the Penates, but also to Vesta at Laviniura. 
In the ancient Roman house, the hearth was the 
central part, and around it all the inmates daily - 
assembled for their common meal (ccena) ; every 
meal thus taken was a fresh bond of union and 
affection among the members of a family, and 
at the same time an act of worship of Vesta, 
combined with a sacrifice to her and the Pe- 
nates. Every dwelling-house therefore was, in 
some sense, a temple of Vesta; but a public 
sanctuary united all the citizens of the state 
into one large family. This sanctuary stood in ■> 
the Forum, between the Capitoline and Pala- 
tine hills, and not far from the temple of the 
Penates. The temple was round, with a vault- 
ed roof, like the impluvium of private houses, so 
that there is no reason to regard that form as 
an imitation of the vault of heaven. The god- 
dess was not represented in her temple by a 
statue, but the eternal fire burning on her hearth 
or altar was her living symbol, and was kept 
up and attended to by the Vestals, her virgin 
priestesses. As each house, and the city itself, 
so also the country had its own Vesta, and the 
latter was worshipped at Lavinium, the metrop- 
olis of the Latins, where she was worshipped 
and received the regular sacrifices at the hands 
of the highest magistrates. The goddess her- 
self was regarded as chaste and pure, like her 
symbol, the fire ; and the Vestals who kept up 
the sacred fire were likewise pure maidens. 
Respecting their duties and obligations, vul. 
Diet, of Antiq., art. Vestai.es. On the first of 
March in every year, her sacred fire, and the 
laurel-tree which shaded her hearth, were re- 
newed, and on the fifteenth of June her temple 
was cleaned and purified. The dirt wrs carried 
into an angiportus behind the temple, which 
was locked by a gate that no one might enter 
it. The day on which this took place was a 
dies nefastus, the first half of which was thought 
to be so inauspicious, that the priestess of Juno 
was not allowed to comb her hair or to cut her 
nails, while the second half was very favorable 
to contracting a marriage or entering upon other 
important undertakings. A few days before 
that solemnity, on the ninth of June, the Vesta- 
lia was celebrated in honor of the goddess, on 
which occasion none but women walked to the 
temple, and that with bare feet. On one of 
these occasions an altar had been dedicated to 
Jupiter Pistor. Respecting the Greek goddess, 
vid. Hestia. 

Vestini, a Sabellian people in Central Italy, 
lying between the Apennines and the Adriatic 
Sea, and separated from Picenum by the River 
Matrinus, and from the Marrueini by the River 
Aternus. They are mentioned in connection 
with the Marsi, Marrueini, and Peligni ; but 
they subsequently separated from these tribes, 
and joined the Samnites in their war against 
Rome. They were conquered by the Romans- 
B.C. 328, and from this time appear as the al- 



VESULUS. 



VETUS, ANTISTIUS. 



lies of Rome. They joined the other allies in 
the Alarsie war, and were conquered by Pom- 
peius Strabo in 89. They made a particular 
kind of cheese, which was a great favorite with 
the Romans. 
Vesui.us. Vid. Alpes. 

Vesuvius, also called Vesevus, Vesbius, or 
Vesvius, the celebrated volcanic mountain in 
Campania, rising out of the plain southeast of 
Neapolis. There are no records of any erup- 
tion of Vesuvius before the Christian era, but 
the ancient writers were aware of its volcanic 
nature from the igneous appearance of its rocks. 
The slopes of the mountain were extremely fer- 
tile, hut the top was a rough and sterile plain, 
on which Spartaeus and his gladiators were be- 
sieged by a Roman army. In A.D. 63 the vol- 
cano gave the first symptoms of agitation in 
an earthquake, which occasioned considerable 
damage to several towns in its vicinity ; and 
on the 24tli of August, A.D. 79, occurred the 
first great eruption of Vesuvius, which over- 
whelmed the cities of Stabiae, Herculaneum, 
and Pompeii. It was in this eruption that the 
elder Pliny lost his life. Vid. Plinius. There 
have been numerous eruptions since that time, 
which have greatly altered the shape of the 
mountain. Its present height is three thousand 
two hundred feet. 

Vetera or Castra Vetera. Vid. Castra, 
No. 5. 

Vetranio, commanded the legions in Illyria 
and Pannonia at the period (A.D. 350) when 
Constans was treacherously destroyed and his 
throne seized by Magnentius. Vetranio was 
proclaimed emperor by his troops ; but at the 
end of ten months he resigned his pretensions 
in favor of Constantius, by whom he was treat- 
ed with great kindness, and permitted to retire 
to Prusa, in Bithynia, where he passed the re- 
maining six years of his life. 

Vettius, L., a E.oman eques, in the pay of 
Cicero in B.C. 63, to whom he gave some val- 
uable information respecting the Catilinarian 
conspiracy. He again appears in 59 as an in- 
former. In that year he accused Curio, Cicero, 
L. Lucullus, and many other distinguished men, 
of having formed a conspiracy to assassinate 
Pompey. This conspiracy was a sheer inven- 
tion for the purpose of injuring Cicero, Curio, 
and others ; but there is difficulty in determin- 
ing who were the inventors of it. Cicero re- 
garded it as the work of Caisar, who used the 
tribune Vatinius as his instrument. At a later 
period, when Cicero had returned from exile, 
and feared to provoke the triumvir, he threw 
the whole blame upon Vatinius. Vettius gave 
evidence first before the senate, and on the 
next day before the assembly of the people ; 
but his statements were regarded with great 
suspicion, and on the following morning he was 
found strangled in prison, to which the senate 
had sent him. It was given out that he had 
committed suicide ; but the marks of violence 
were visible on his body, and Cicero at a later 
time charged Vatinius with the murder. 

Vettius Scato. Vid. Scato. 

Vettones or Vectones, a people in the inte- 
rior of Lusitania, east of the Lusitani and west 
of the Carpetani, extending from the Durius to 
the Tagus. 



Vetulonia, Vetulonium, or Vetulonii, an 
ancient city of Etruria, and one of the twelve 
cities of the Etruscan confederation. From this 
city the Romans are said to have borrowed the 
insignia of their magistrates — the fasces, sella 
curulis, and toga praetexta— as well as the use of 
the brazen trumpet in war. After the time of the 
Roman kings we find no further mention of Ve- 
tulonia, except in the catalogues of Pliny and 
Ptolemy, both of whom place it among the in- 
land colonies of Etruria. Pliny also states that 
there were hot springs in its neighborhood not 
far from the sea, in which fish were found, not- 
withstanding the warmth of the water. The 
very site of the ancient city was supposed to 
have been entirely lost ; but it has been dis- 
covered within the last few years near a small 
village called Ma.glia.no, between the River Osa 
and the Albegna, and about eight miles inland. 
It appears to have had a circuit of at least four 
and a half miles. 

VeturIa Gens, anciently called Vetusia, pa- 
trician and plebeian. The Veturii rarely occur 
in the later times of the republic, and after B.C. 
206, when L. Veturius Philo was consul, their 
name disappears from the Fasti. The most dis- 
tinguished families in the gens bore the names 
Calvinus, Cicurinus, and Philo. 

Veturius Mamueius is said to have been the 
armorer who made the eleven ancilia exactly 
like the one that was sent from heaven in the 
reign of Numa. His praises formed one of the 
chief subjects of the songs of the Salii. Even 
the ancients themselves doubted in the re- 
ality of his existence : Varro interpreted his 
name as equivalent to vctus mcmoria. Some 
modern writers regard Mamurius Veturius as 
an Etruscan artist, because he is said to have 
made a brazen image of the god Vertum- 
nus. 

Vetus, AntistIus. 1. Propraetor in Further 
Spain about B.C. 68, under whom Ca;sar served 
as quaestor. — 2. C, son of the preceding, quaes- 
tor in 61, and tribune of the plebs in 57, when 
he supported Cicero in opposition to Clodius. 
In the Civil war he espoused Cassar's party, 
and we find him in Syria in 45 fighting against 
Q. Caecilius Bassus. In 34 Vetus carried on 
war against the Salassi, and in 30 was consul 
suffectus. He accompanied Augustus to Spain 
in 25, and on the illness of the emperor contin- 
ued the war against the Cantabri and Astures, 
whom he reduced to submission. — 3. C, son of 
No. 2, consul B.C. 6 ; and as he lived to see 
both his sons consuls, he must have been alive 
at least as late as A.D. 28. He was a friend of 
Velleius Paterculus. — 4. L., grandson of No. 3, 
and consul with the Emperor Nero, A.D. 55. 
In 58 he commanded a Roman army in Ger- 
many, and formed the project of connecting the 
Mosella (now Moselle) and the Arar (now Sa- 
one) by a canal, and thus forming a communi- 
cation between the Mediterranean and the 
Northern Ocean, as troops could be conveyed 
down the Rhone and the Saone into the Mo- 
selle through the canal, and down the Moselle 
into the Rhine, and so into the ocean. Vetus 
put an end to his life in 65, in order to antici- 
pate his sentence of death, which Nero had re- 
solved upon. Vetus was the father-in-law of 
Rubellius Plautus. 

933 



VIADUS. 



VICTOR, SEX. AURELIUS. 



ViIdus (now Oder), a river of Germany, fall- 
ing into the Baltic. 

Vibius Pansa. Vid. Pansa. 

Vibius Sequester. Vid. Sequester. 

Vibo (Vibonensis : now Bivona), the Roman 
form of the Greek town Hipponium ('Iniruviov : 
'l7T7ruvmr?;f), situated on the southwestern coast 
of Bruttium, and on a gulf called after it Sinus 
Vibonensis or Hipponiates. It is said to have 
been founded by the Locri Epizephyrii ; but it 
was destroyed by the elder Dionysius, who trans- 
planted its inhabitants to Syracuse. It was aft- 
erward restored ; and at a later time it fell into 
the hands of the Bruttii, together with the other 
Greek cities on this coast. It was taken from 
the Bruttii by the Romans, who colonized it 
B.C. 194, and called it Vibo Valentia. Cicero 
speaks of it as a municipium ; and in the time 
of Augustus it was one of the most flourishing 
cities in the south of Italy. 

Vibulanus, the name of the most ancient 
family of the Fabia Gens. It was so powerful 
in the early times of the republic that three 
brothers of the family held the consulship for 
seven years in succession, B.C. 4S5-479. The 
last person of the gens who bore this surname 
was Q. Fabius Vibulanus, consul 412. This 
Vibulanus assumed the agnomen of Ambustus ; 
and his descendants dropped the name of Vibu- 
lanus and took that of Ambustus in its place. 
In the same way Ambustus was after a time 
supplanted by that of Maximus. — 1. Q. Fabius 
Vibulanus, consul 485, when he carried on war 
with success against the Volsci and iEqui, and 
consul a second time in 482. In 480 he fought 
under his brother Marcus (No. 3) against the 
Etruscans, and was killed in battle. — 2. K., 
brother of the preceding, was quaestor parricidii 
in 485, and along with his colleague L. Valerius 
accused Sp. Cassius Viscellinus, who was, in 
consequence, condemned by the votes of the 
populus. He was consul in 484, when he took 
an active part in opposing the agrarian law, 
which the tribunes of the people attempted to 
bring forward. In 481 he was consul a second 
time, and in 479 a third time, when he espoused 
the cause of the plebeians, to whom he had be- 
come reconciled. As his propositions were re- 
jected with scorn by the patricians, he and his 
house resolved to quit Rome altogether, where 
they were regarded as aposta-Jes ty their own 
order. They determined to found a settlement 
on the banks of the Cremera, a small stream 
that falls into the Tiber a few miles above Rome. 
According to the legend, the consul Kaeso went 
before the senate, and said that the Fabii were 
willing to carry on the war against the Veientes 
alone and at their own cost. Their offer was 
joyfully accepted, for the patricians were glad 
to see them expose themselves voluntarily to 
such dangers. On the day after Kaeso had 
made the proposal to the senate, three hundred 
and six Fabii, all patricians of one gens, assem- 
bled on the Quirinal at the house of Kaeso, and 
from thence marched with the consul at their 
head through the Carmental gate. They pro- 
ceeded straight to the banks of the Cremera, 
where they erected a fortress. Here they took 
up their abode along with their families and 
clients, and for two years continued to devas- 
tate the territory of Veii. They were at length 
934 



destroyed by the Veientes in 477. Ovid says 
that the Fabii perished on the Ides of February ; 
but all other authorities state that they were 
destroyed on the day on which the Romans 
were subsequently conquered by the Gauls at 
the Allia, that is, on the 15th before the Kal- 
ends of Sextilis, June the 17th. The whole 
Fabia gens perished at the Cremera with the 
exception of one individual, the son of Marcus, 
from whom all the later Fabii were descended. 
— 3. M., brother of the two preceding, was con- 
sul 483, and a second time 480. In the latter 
year he gained a great victory over the Etrus- 
cans, in which, however, his colleague the con- 
sul Cincinnatus and his brother Q. Fabius were 
killed. — 4. Q., son of No. 3, is said to have been 
the only one of the Fabii who survived the de- 
struction of his gens at the Cremera, but he 
could not have been left behind at Rome on ac- 
count of his youth, as the legend relates, since 
he was consul ten years afterward. He was 
consul 467, a second time in 465, and a third 
time in 459. Fabius was a member of the sec- 
ond decemvirate (450), and went into exile on 
the deposition of the decemvirs. 

Vibullius Rufus, L., a senator and a friend 
of Pompey, who made him praefectus fabrfim 
in the Civil war. He was taken prisoner by Cae- 
sar at Corfinium (49), and a second time in 
Spain later in the year. When Caesar landed 
in Greece in 48, he dispatched Vibullius to Pom- 
pey with offers of peace. Vibullius made the 
greatest haste to reach Pompey, in order to give 
him the earliest intelligence of the anival of 
his enemy in Greece. 

Vicentia or Vicetia, less correctly Vincen- 
tia (Vicentinus : now Vicenza), a town in Vene- 
tia, in the north of Italy, and a Roman muni- 
cipium on the River Togisonus. 

Victor, Sex. Aurelius, a Latin writer, flour- 
ished in the middle of the fourth century under 
the Emperor Constantius and his successors 
He was born of humble parents, but rose to dis- 
tinction by his zeal in the cultivation of litera- 
ture. Having attracted the attention of Julian 
when at Sirmium, he was appointed by that 
prince governor of one division of Pannonia. 
At a subsequent period, he was elevated by 
Theodosius to the high office of city preefect, 
and he is perhaps the same as the Sex. Aure- 
lius Victor who was consul along with Valen- 
tinian in A.D. 373. The following works, which 
present in a very compressed form a continu- 
ous record of Roman affairs, from the fabulous 
ages down to the death of the Emperor Theo- 
dosius, have all been ascribed to this writer ; 
but the evidence upon which the determination 
of authorship depends is very slender, and in 
all probability the third alone belongs to the 
Sex. Aurelius Victor whom we have noticed 
above : 1. Origo Gcntis Romance, in twenty- 
three chapters, containing the annals of the Ro- 
man race, from Janus and Salnrnus down to 
the era of Romulus. It is probably a produc- 
tion of some of the later grammarians, who 
were desirous of prefixing a suitable introduc- 
tion to the series. 2. Dc Viris illustribus Urbis 
Roma, in eighty-six chapters, commencing with 
the birth of Romulus and Remus, and conclud- 
ing with the death of Cleopatra. 3. De Casari- 
bus, in forty-two chapters, exhibiting short biog- 



VICTOR, PUBLIUS. 



VINDELICIA. 



rapines of the emperors from Augustus to Con- 
stantius. 4. Epitome de Casaribus, in forty- 
eight chapters, commencing with Augustus and 
concluding withTheodosius. These lives agree 
for the most part almost word for word with the 
preceding, hut variations may here and there 
be detected. Moreover, the first series term- 
inates with Constantius, but the second comes 
down as low as Arcadius and Honorius. The 
best edition of these four pieces is by Arntze- 
nius, Anst. et Traj. Bat., 1733, 4to. 

Victor, Publius, the name prefixed to an enu- 
meration of the principal buildings and monu- 
ments of ancient Rome, distributed according 
to the regions of Augustus, which has generally 
been respected as a work of great authority by 
Italian antiquaries. The best modern scholars, 
however, are agreed that this work, and a sim- 
ilar production ascribed to Sbxtus Rufus, can 
not be received in their present state as an- 
cient at all, but must be regarded as mere pieces 
of patch- work, fabricated not earlier than the 
fifteenth century. 

Victoria, the personification of victory among 
the Romans. It is said that Evander, by the 
command of Minerva, dedicated on Mount Pal- 
atine a temple of Victoria, the daughter of Pal- 
las. On the site of this ancient temple a new 
one was built by L. Posturnius during the war 
with the Samnites, and M. Porcius Cato added 
to it a chapel of Victoria Virgo. In later times 
there existed three or four sanctuaries of Vic- 
tory at Rome. Respecting the Greek goddess 
of Victory, vid. Nice. 

Victoria or Victorina, the mother of Vieto- 
rinus, after whose death she was hailed as the 
mother of camps (Mater Caslrorum) ; and coins 
were struck bearing her effigy. Feeling une- 
qual to the weight of empire, she transferred 
her power first to Marius, and then toTetricus, 
by whom some say that she was slain, while 
others affirm that she died a natural death. 

Victorinus. 1. One of the Thirty Tyrants, 
Was the third of the usurpers who in succession 
ruled Gaul during the reign of Gallienus. He 
was assassinated at Colonia Agrippina by one of 
his own officers in A.D. 268, after reigning some- 
what more than a year. — 2. Bishop of Pettaw, on 
the Drave, in Styria, hence distinguished by the 
epithet Pelavionensis or Pietaviensis, flourished 
A.D. 270-290, and suffered martyrdom during 
the persecution of Diocletian, probably in 303. 
He wrote commentaries on the Scriptures, but 
all his works are lost. — 3. C. Marius Victori- 
nus, surnamed Afer from the country of his 
birth, taught rhetoric at Rome in the middle of 
the fourth century with so much reputation that 
his statue was erected in the Forum of Trajan. 
In his old age he professed Christianity ; and 
when the edict of Julian, prohibiting Christians 
from giving instruction in polite literature, was 
promulgated, Victorinus chose to shut up his 
school rather than deny his religion. Besides 
his commentaries on the Scriptures, and other 
theological works, many of which are extant, 
Victorinus wrote, 1. Commcntarius s. Expositio 
in Ciceronis libros de Invenlione, the best edition 
*>f which is in the fifth volume of Orelli's edi- 
tion of Cicero. 2. Ars Grammatiea de Ortho- 
frapKa et Ralione Melrorum, a complete and vo- 
luminous treatise upon metres, in four books, 



printed in the Grammatical Latino. Auctores Art- 
tiqui of Putschius, Hannov., 1605, [and in the 
Scriptores hat. Rei Metr. by Gaisford, Oxford, 
1837.] The fame enjoyed by Victorinus as a 
public instructor does not gain any accession 
from his works. The exposition of the De In- 
ventione is more difficult to comprehend than 
the text which it professes to explain. — 4. 
Maximus Victorinus. We possess three short 
tracts: 1. De Re Grammatiea; 2. De Carmine 
Heroico ; 3. De Ratiune Melrorum ; all apparent- 
ly the work of the same author, and usually as- 
cribed in MSS. to a Maximus Victorinus ; but 
^whether we ought to consider him the same 
with the rhetorician who flourished under Con- 
stantius, or as an independent personage, it is 
impossible to decide. They were printed in the 
collection of Putschius, Hannov., 1605, and in 
that of Lindemann, Lips., 1831. 
Victrix. Vid. Venus. 

[Vidrus (now Vcchtl), a small stream of Ger- 
mania, between the Rhenus and the Amisia.] 

Viducasses, a tribe of the Armorici in Gallia 
Lugdunensis, south of the modern Caen. 

Vienna (Viennensis : now Vienne), the chief 
town of the Allobroges in Gallia Lugdunensis, 
situated on the Rhone, south of Lugdunum. It 
wassubsequentlyaRoman colony, and a wealthy 
and flourishing town. Under the later emper- 
ors it was the capital of the province, called aft- 
er it Gallia Viennensis. The modern town con- 
tains several Roman remains, of which the most 
important is a temple, supposed to have been 
dedicated to Augustus, and now converted into 
a museum. 

[Vigellius, M., a Stoic philosopher, who lived 
with Panaetius.] 

[Vigenna (nov? Vienne), a river of Gallia, 
rising in the country of the Lemovices, and 
falling into the Liger (now Loire).] 

Villius Annams. Vid. Annalis. 

Viminalis. Vid. Roma. 

Vincentius, surnamed Lirinensis, from the 
monastery in the island of Lerins, where he of- 
ficiated as a presbyter. He was by birth a na- 
tive of Gaul, and died in the reign of Theodo- 
sius and Valentinian, about A.D. 450. His 
fame rests upon a treatise against heretics, 
composed in 434. It commonly bears the title 
Commonitorium pro Calholica. fidei antiquitate et 
universita/c adversus prof anas omnium Hceretico 
rum novitates. The standard edition is that ol 
Baluzius, 8vo, Paris, 1663, 1669, 1684. 

Vindalum, a town of the Cavares in Gallia 
Narbonensis, situated at the confluence of the 
Sulgas and the Rhone. 

Vindelicia, a Roman province south of the 
Danube, bounded on the north by the Danube 
which separated it from Germany, on the wes. 
by the territory of the Helvetii in Gaul, on the 
south by Rajtia, and on the east by the River 
CEnus (now Inn), which separated it from Nor- 
icum, thus corresponding to the northeastern 
part of Switzerland, the southeast of Baden, 
the south of Wiirtemberg and Bavaria, and the 
northern part of the Tyrol. It was originally 
part of the province of Raetia, and was con- 
quered by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus. 
At a later time Raetia was divided into twi; 
provinces, Ralia Prima and Ratia Sccunda, 
the latter of which names was gradually sup. 

935 



VINDEX, C. JULIUS. 



VIRBIUS. 



planted by that of Vindelicia. It was drained 
by the tributaries of the Danube, of which the 
most important were the Licias or Licus (now 
Leek), with its tributary the Vindo, Vinda, or 
Virdo (now Wertach), the Isarus (now Isar), and 
CEnus (now Inn). The eastern part of the La- 
cus Brigantinus (now Lake of Constance) aiso 
belonged to Vindelicia. The greater part of 
Vindelicia was a plain, but the southern portion 
was occupied by the northern slopes of the Alpes. 
Raeticaj. It derived its name from its chief in- 
habitants, the Vindelici, a warlike people dwell- 
ing in the south of the country. Their name is 
said to have been formed from the two rivers ' 
Vindo and Licus ; but it is more likely connect- 
ed with the Celtic word Vind, which is found in 
the names Vindobona, Finriomagus, Vindonis- 
sa, &c. The Vindelici were a Celtic people, 
and were closely connected with the Raeti, with 
whom they are frequently spoken of by the an- 
cient writers, and along with whom they were 
subdued by Tiberius, as is mentioned above. 
The other tribes in Vindelicia were the Brigan- 
tii on the Lake of Constance, the Licatii or Li- 
cates on the Lech, and the Breuni in the north 
of Tyrol, on the Brenner. The chief town in 
the province was Augusta Vindelicorum (now 
Augsburg), at the confluence of Vindo and the 
Licus, which was made a Roman colony A.D. 
14, and was the residence of the governor of 
the province. This town, together with the 
other towns of Vindelicia, fell into the hands of 
the Alemanni in the fourth century, and from 
this time the population of the country appears 
to have been entirely Germanized. 

Vindex, C. Julius, propraetor of Gallia Cel- 
tica in the reign of Nero, was the first of the 
Roman governors who disowned the authority 
of Nero (A.D. 68). He did not, however, as- 
pire to the empire himself, but offered it to Gal- 
ba. Virginius Rufus, the governor of Upper 
Germany, marched with bis army against Vin- 
dex. The two generals had a conference be- 
fore Vesontio (now Besangon), in which they 
appear to have come to some agreement ; but 
as Vindex was going to enter the town, he was 
attacked by the soldiers of Virginius, and put 
an end to his own life. 

[Vindicianus, an eminent physician in the 
time of Valentinian, A.D. 364-375 : there are 
extant a letter addressed by him to the em- 
peror, and a poem on the medical art usually 
ascribed to him, though others assign it to Mar- 
cellus Empiricus. The poem is appended to 
several editions of Celsus, and is contained also 
in Burmann's Poctce Latini Minores.~\ 

Vindicius, a slave, who is said to have given 
information to the consuls of the conspiracy 
which was formed for the restoration of the 
Tarquins, and who was rewarded in conse- 
quence with liberty and the Roman franchise. 
He is said to have been the first slave manu- 
mitted by the Vindicta, the name of which was 
derived by some persons from that of the slave ; 
but it is unnecessary to point out the absurdity 
of this etymology. 

Vindili. Vid. Vandili. 

Vindilis (now Belle Isle), one of the isl- 
ands of the Veneti, off the northwestern coast 
of Gaul. 

Vindius or Vinnius, a mountain in the north- 
936 



west of Hispania Tarraconensis, forming the 
boundary between the Cantabri and Astures. 

ViNDOBONA(now Vienna, English ; Wien, Ger- 
man), a town in Pannonia, on the Danube, was 
originally a Celtic place, and subsequently a 
Roman municipium. Under the Romans it be- 
came a town of importance ; it was the chief 
station of the Roman fleet on the Danube, and 
the head quarters of a Roman legion. It was 
taken and plundered by Attila, but continued to 
be a flourishing town under the Lombards. It 
was here that the Emperor M. Aurelius died, 

A. D. 180. 

Vindonissa {now Windisch), a town in Gallia 
Belgica, on the triangular tongue of land be- 
tween the Aar and Reuss, was an important 
Roman fortress in the country of the Helvetii. 
Several Roman remains have been discovered 
on the site of the ancient town ; and the foun- 
dations of walls, the traces of an amphitheatre, 
and a subterranean aqueduct are still to be 
seen. 

[Vinicianus, M. Caxius, tribune of the plebs 

B. C. 53, exerted himself to raise Pompey to 
the dictatorship, and was, in consequence, de- 
feated when he became a candidate for the cu- 
rule aedileship in B.C. 51. In the Civil war he 
espoused the cause of Caesar, who left him in 
Pontus with two legions after the conquest of 
Pharnaces in B.C. 48.] 

[Vinicius or Vinucius. 1. L., tribune of the 
plebs B.C. 51, put his veto on a senatuscon- 
sultum, directed against Caesar : perhaps the 
same Vinicius as the one who was consul suf- 
fectus in B.C. 33. — 2. M., born at Cales, in Cam- 
pania, was consul with C. Cassius Longinus in 
A.D. 30, in which year Paterculus dedicated his 
work to him. Vid. Paterculus. In A D. 33 
Tiberius gave Julia Livilla, daughter ol Ger- 
manicus, in marriage to Vinicius ; he was con- 
sul a second time in the reign of Claudius, A.D. 
45 ; though in the following year he was put to 
death by Messalina, to whom he had become 
an object of suspicion, and whose advances he 
had repulsed.] 

Vinius, T., consul in A.D. 69 with the Em- 
peror Galba, and one of the chief advisers of 
the latter during his brief reign. He recom- 
mended Galba to choose Otho as his successor, 
but he was, notwithstanding, killed by Otho's 
soldiers after the death of Galba. 

Vipsania Agrifpina. 1. Daughter of M. Vip- 
sanius Agrippa by his first wife Pomponia, the 
daughter of T. Pomponius Atticus, the friend of 
Cicero. Augustus gave her in marriage to his 
step-son Tiberius, by whom she was much be- 
loved ; but after she had borne him a son, Dru- 
sus, Tiberius was compelled to divorce her by 
the command o f the emperor, in order to marry 
Julia, the daughter of the latter. Vipsania aft- 
erward married Asinius Gallus. She died in 
A.D. 20. — 2. Daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa 
by his second wife Julia, better known by the 
name of Agrippina. Vid. Agrippina. 

Vipsanius Agrippa, M. Vid. Agrippa. 

Virbius, a Latin divinity worshipped along 
with Diana in the grove at Alicia, at the foot 
of the Alban Mount. He is said to have been 
the same as Hippolytus, who was restored .to 
life by ^Esculapius at the request of Diana. He 
was placed by this goddess under the care of the 



VIRDO. 



VIRGILIUS. 



nymph Aricia.and received the name of Virbius. 
By this nymph he became the father of a son, 
who was also called Virbius, and whom his 
mother sent to the assistance of Turnus against 
/Eneas. 

VlRDO. Vid. VlNDELICIA- 

[Virgilianus, Q. Fabius, the legatus of Ap- 
pius Claudius Pulcher in Cilicia in B.C. 51. He 
espoused the cause of Pompey on the breaking 
out of the Civil war in B.C. 49.] 

VirgIlius or VergIlius Maro, P., the Roman 
poet, was born on the 15th of October, B.C. 70, 
j at Andes (now Pielola), a small village near 
Mantua, in Cisalpine Gaul. Virgil's father prob- 
ably had a small estate which he cultivated : 
his mother's name was Maia^ He was educa- 
ted at Cremona and Mediolanurn (now Milan), 
and he took the toga virilis at Cremona on the 
day on which he commenced his sixteenth year, 
in 55. It is said that he subsequently studied 
at Neapolis (now Naples), under Parthenius, a 
native of Bithynia, from whom he learned 
Greek. He was also instructed by Syron, an 
Epicurean, and probably at Rome. Virgil's 
writings prove that he received a learned edu- 
cation, and traces of Epicurean opinions are 
apparent in them. The health of Virgil was 
always feeble, and there is no evidence of his 
! attempting to rise by those means by which a 
Roman gained distinction, oratory and the prac- 
tice of arms. After completing his education, 
Virgil appears to have retired to his paternal 
farm, and here he may have written some of 
the small pieces which are at tributed to him, the 
Culex, Ciris, Moretum, and others. After the 
battle of Philippi (42) Octavianus assigned to 
his soldiers lands in various parts of Italy ; and 
the neighborhood of Cremona and Mantua was 
one of the districts in which the soldiers were 
planted, and from which the former possessors 
were dislodged. Virgil was thus deprived of 
his property. It is said that it was seized by a 
veteran named Claudius or Clodius, and that 
Asinius Pollio, who was then governor of Gallia 
Transpadana, advised Virgil to apply to Octa- 
vianus at Rome for the restitution of his land, 
and Octavianus granted his request. It is sup- 
posed that Virgil wrote the Eclogue which stands 
first in our editions to commemorate his grati- 
tude to Octavianus. Virgil became acquainted 
with Maecenas before Horace was, and Horace 
(Sat., i., 5, and 0, 55, &c.) was introduced to Mae- 
cenas by Virgil. Whether this introduction was 
in 41 or a little later, is uncertain ; but we may 
perhaps conclude, from the name of Maecenas not 
being mentioned in the Eclogues of Virgil, that 
he himself was not on those intimate terms with 
Maecenas which ripened into friendship until 
after they were written. Horace, in one of his 
Satires (Sat., i., 5), in which he describes the 
journey from Rome to Brundisium, mentions 
Virgil as one of the party, and in language 
which shows that they were then in the closest 
intimacy. The most finished work of Virgil, 
his Georgica, an agricultural poem, was under- 
taken at the suggestion of Maecenas (Georg., 
iii., 41). The concluding lines of the Georgica 
were written at Naples (Georg., iv., 559), and 
the poem was completed after the battle of Ac- 
tium, B.C. 31, while Octavianus was in the East. 
V (Compare Georg., iv., 560, and ii., 171.) His 



Eclogues had all been completed, and probably 
before the Georgica were begun (Georg., iv., 
565). The epic poem of Virgil, the JEneid, was 
probably long contemplated by the poet. While 
Augustus was in Spain (27), he wrote to Virgil 
to express his wish to have some monument of 
his poetical talent. Virgil appears to have com- 
menced the /Eneid about this time. In 23 died 
Marcellus, the son of Octavia, Caesar's sister, by 
her first husband ; and as Virgil lost no oppor- 
tunity of gratifying his patron, he introduced 
into his sixth book of the /Eneid (883) the well- 
known allusion to the virtues of this youth, who 
was cut off by a premature death. Octavia is 
said to have been present when the poet was 
reciting this allusion to her son, and to have 
fainted from her emotions. She rewarded the 
poet munificently for his excusable flattery. As 
Marcellus did not die till 23, these lines were 
of course written after his death, but that does 
not prove that the whole of the sixth book was 
written so late. A passage in the seventh book 
(606) appears to allude to Augustus receiving 
back the Parthian standards, which event be- 
longs to 20. When Augustus was returning 
from Samos, where he had spent the winter of 
20, he met Virgil at Athens. The poet, it is 
said, had intended to make a tour of Greece, 
but he accompanied the emperor to Megara and 
thence to Italy. His health, which had been 
long declining, was now completely broken, and 
he died soon after his arrival at Brundisium on 
the twenty.-necond of September, 19, not having 
quite completed his fifty-first year. His re- 
mains were transferred to Naples, which had 
been his favorite residence, and placed on the 
road from Naples to Puteoli (now Pozzuoli), 
where a monument is still shown, supposed to 
be the tomb of the poet. The inscription said 
to have been placed on the tomb, 

" Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc 
Parthenope. Ceclni pascua, rura, duces," 

we can not suppose to have been written by the 
poet. Virgil named, as heredes in his testa- 
ment, his half-brother Valerius Proculus, to 
whom he left one half of his property, and also 
Augustus, Maecenas, L. Varius, and Plotius Tuc- 
ca. It is said that in his last illness he wished 
to burn the ^Eneid, to which he had not given 
the finishing touches, but his friends would not 
allow him. Whatever he may have wished to 
be done with the -<Eneid, it was preserved and 
published by his friends Varius and Tucca. The 
poet had been enriched by the liberality of his 
patrons, and he left behind him a considerable 
property, and a house on the Esquiline Hill, neat 
the gardens of Maecenas. He used his wealth 
liberally, and his library, which was doubtless a 
good one, was easy of access. He used to send 
his parents money every year. His father, who 
became blind, did not die before his son had at- 
tained a mature age. Two brothers of Virgil 
also died before him. In his fortunes and his 
friends Virgil was a happy man. Munificent 
patronage gave him ample means of enjoyment 
and of leisure, and he had the friendship of all 
the most accomplished men of the day, among 
whom Horace entertained a strong affection for 
him. He was an amiable, good-tempered man, 
free from the meai passions of envy and jeal- 

937 



Y7RGILIUS. 



VIRGILIUS. 



®Ukfy ■ a»vd : <i a"J t>ul health he was prosperous. 
>"Sis fa>ae, wLich was established in his life-time, 
was cherishGd after his death, as an inheritance 
in which every Roman had 3 share ; and his 
works became school-books even before the 
death of Augustus, and continued sucli for cen- 
turies after. The learned poems of Virgil soon 
gave employment to commentators and critics. 
Aulus Gellius has numerous remarks on Virgil, 
and Macrobius, in his Saturnalia, has filled four 
books (iii.-vi.) with his critical remarks on Vir- 
gil's poems. One of the most valuable com- 
mentaries on Virgil, in which a great amount of 
curious and instructive matter has been pre- 
served, is that of Servius. Vid. Servius. Vir- 
gil is one of the most difficult of the Latin 
authors, not so much for the form of the ex- 
pression, though that is sometimes ambiguous 
enough, but from the great variety of knowledge 
that is required to attain his meaning in all its 
fullness. Virgil was the great poet of the Mid- 
dle Ages too. To him Dante paid the homage 
of his superior genius, and owned him for his 
master and his model. Among the vulgar he 
had the reputation of a conjurer, a necromancer, 
a worker of miracles : it is the fate of a great 
name to be embalmed in fable. The ten short 
poems called Rucolica were the earliest works 
of Virgil, and probably all written between 41 
and 37. These Bucolica are not Bucolica in 
the same sense as the poems of Theocritus, 
which have the same title. They have all a 
Bucolic form and coloring, but some of them 
have nothing more. They are also called Eelo- 
gee or Selections, but this name may not have 
originated with the poet. Their merit consists 
in their versification, which w r as smoother and 
more polished than the hexameters which the 
Romans had yet seen, and in many natural and 
simple touches. But as an attempt to transfer 
the Syracusan muse into Italy, they are certainly 
a failure, and we read the pastorals of Theo- 
critus and of Virgil with a very different degree 
of pleasure. The fourth Eclogue, entitled Pol- 
lio, which may have been written in 40, after 
the peace of Brundisium, has nothing of the 
pastoral character about it. It is allegorical, 
mystical, half historical and prophetical, enig- 
matical — any thing, in fact, but Bucolic. The 
first Eclogue is Bucolic in form and in treatment, 
with an historical basis. The second Eclogue, 
the Alexis, is an amatory poem, with a Bucolic 
coloring, which, indeed, is the characteristic of 
all Virgil's Eclogues, whatever they may be in 
substance. The third, the fifth, the seventh, 
and the ninth are more clearly modelled on the 
form of the poems of his Sicilian prototype ; and 
the eighth, the Pharmaceutria, is a direct imita- 
tion of the original Greek. The tenth, entitled 
Gallus, perhaps written the last of all, is a love 
poem, which, if written in elegiac verse, would 
be more appropriately called an elegy than a Bu- 
colic. The Gcorgka, or " Agricultural Poem,' - 
in four books, is a didactic poem, which Virgil 
dedicated to his patron Mascenas. He treats of 
the cultivation of the soil in the first book, of 
fruit-trees in the second, of horses and other 
cattle in the third, and of bees in the fourth. 
In this poem Virgil shows a great improve- 
ment both in his taste and in his versification. 
Neither in the Georgics nor elsewhere has Vir- 
938 



gil the merit of striking originality ; his chief 
merit consists in the skillful handling of borrow- 
ed materials. His subject, which was by no 
means promising, he treated in a manner both 
instructive and pleasing ; for he has given 
many useful remarks on agriculture, and diver- 
sified the dryness of didactic poetry by numer- 
ous allusions and apt embellishments, and some 
occasional digressions without wandering too 
far from his main matter. In the first book he 
enumerates the subjects of his poem, among 
which is the treatment of bees ; yet the man- 
agement of bees seems but meagre material for 
one fourth of the whole poem, and the author 
accordingly had to complete the fourth book 
with matter somewhat extraneous — the long 
story of Aristseus. The Georgica is the most 
finished specimen of the Latin hexameter which 
we have ; and the rude vigor of Lucretius and 
the antiquated rudeness of Ennius are here re- 
placed by a versification which in its kind can 
not be surpassed. The Georgica are also the 
most original poem of Virgil, for he found little 
in the Works and Days of Hesiod that could 
furnish him with Lints for the treatment of his 
subject, and we sre not aware that there was 
any work which he could exactly follow as a 
whole. For numerous single lines he was in- 
debted to his extensive reading of the Greek 
poets. The /Eneid, or advenSures of .tEneas 
after the fall of Troy, is an epic poem on the 
model of the Homeric poems. It was founded 
upon an old Roman tradition that JEneas and 
his Trojans settled in Italy, and were the found- 
ers of the Roman name. In the ijrst book we 
have the story of JEneas being driven by a 
storm on the coast of Africa, and bei>?g hospi- 
tably received by Dido, queen of Cartlage, to 
whom he relates in the episode of the second 
and third books the fall of Troy and his wander- 
ings. In the fourth book the poet has elabo- 
rated the story of the attachment of Dido and 
TEneas, the departure of ^Eneas in obedience 
to the will of the gods, and the suicide of the 
Carthaginian queen. The fifth book contains 
the visit to Sicily, and the sixth the landing of 
^Eneas at Cumae in Italy, and his descent to the 
infernal regions, where he sees his father An- 
chises, and has a prophetic vision of the glorious 
destinies of his race and of the future heroes of 
Rome. In the first six books the adventures of 
Ulysses in the Odyssey are the model, and these 
books contain more variety of incident and sit- 
uation than those which follow. The critics 
have discovered an anachronism in the visit of 
.<Eneas to Carthage, which is supposed not So 
have been founded until two centuries after the 
fall of Troy, but this is a matter which we may 
leave without discussion, or admit without al- 
lowing it to be a poetical defect. The last six 
books, the history of the struggles of /Eneas in 
Italy, are founded on the model of the battles 
of the Iliad. Latinus, the king of the Latini, 
offers the Trojan hero his daughter Lavinia in 
marriage, who had been betrothed to Turnns, 
the warlike king of the Rutuli. The contest vs 
ended by the death of Turnus, who falls by the 
hand of jEneas. The fortunes of -Eneas anu 
his final settlement in Italy are the subject of 
the ^Eneid, but the glories of Rome and of tliei 
Julian house, to which Augustus belonged, ato 



V1RGILIUS. 



VIRGINIUS RUFUS. 



Indirectly the poet's theme. In the first book 
the foundation of Alba Longa is promised by 
Jupiter to Venus (JEneid, i., 254), and the trans- 
fer of empire from Alba to Rome ; from the 
line of JSneas will descend the " Trojan Cae- 
sar," whose empire will only be limited by the 
ocean, and whose glory by the heavens. The 
future rivalry between Rome and Carthage, and 
the ultimate triumphs of Rome are predicted. 
The poems abound in allusions to the history of 
Rome ; and the aim of the poet to confirm and 
embellish the popular tradition of the Trojan 
j origin of the Roman state, and the descent of 
the Julii from Venus, is apparent all through the 
poem. It is objected to the ^Eneid that it has 
not the unity of construction either of the Iliad 
! or of the Odyssey, and that it is deficient in that 
antique simplicity which characterizes these 
two poems. ^Eneas, the hero, is an insipid 
kind of personage, and a much superior interest 
I is excited by the savage Mezentius, and also by 
Turnus, the unfortunate rival of ^Eneas. Virgil 
| imitated other poets besides Homer, and he has 
j occasionally borrowed from them, especially 
from Apollonius of Rhodes. If Virgil's subject 
was difficult to invest with interest, that is his 
I' apology ; but it can not be denied that many 
j parts of his poem are successfully elaborated, 
and that particular scenes and incidents are 
treated with true poetic spirit. The historical 
coloring which pervades it, and the great amount 
of antiquarian learning which he has scattered 
through it, make the ^Eneid a study for the his- 
torian of Rome. Virgil's good sense and taste 
are always conspicuous, and make up for the 
defect of originality. As a whole, the ^Eneid 
leaves no strong impression, which arises from 
the fact that it is not really a national poem, 
like the Iliad or the Odyssey, the monument of 
an age of which we have no other literary mon- 
ument ; it is a learned poem, the production of 
an age in which it does not appear as an em- 
bodiment of the national feeling, but as a mon- 
ument of the talent and industry of an individ- 
ual. Virgil has the merit of being the best of 
the Roman epic poets, superior both to Ennius 
who preceded him, and on whom he levied con- 
tributions, and to Lucan, Silius Italicus, and Va- 
lerius Flaccus, who belong to a later age. The 
passion for rhetorical display, which character- 
izes all the literature of Rome, is much less 
offensive in Virgil than in those who followed 
him in the line of epic poetry. The larger edi- 
tions of Virgil contain some short poems, which 
are attributed to him, and may have been among 
his earlier works. The Culex, or Gnat, is a kind 
of Bucolic poem, in four hundred and thirteen 
hexameters, often very obscure ; the Ciris, or 
the mythus of Scylla, the daughter of Nisus, 
king of Megara, in five hundred and forty-one 
hexameters, has been attributed to Cornelius 
Gallus and others ; the Moretum, in one hundred 
and twenty-three verses, the name of a com- 
pound mess, is a poem in hexameters, on the 
daily labor of a cultivator, but it contains only 
the description of the labors of the first part of 
the day, which consist in preparing the More- 
tum ; the Co-pa, in elegiac verse, is an invita- 
tion by a female tavern-keeper or servant at- 
tached to a Caupona, to passengers to come in 
and enjoy thenfselves. There are also fourteen 



short pieces in various metres, classed under 
the general name of Cutalecta. That addressed 
" AdVenerem" shows that the writer, whoever 
he was, had a talent for elegiac poetry. Of the 
numerous editions of Virgil, the best are by 
Burmann, Amsterdam, 1746, 4 vols. 4to ; by 
Heyne, 1767-1775, Lips., 4 vols. 8vo, of which 
the fourth edition contains important improve- 
ments by Wagner, Lips., 1830, 5 vols. 8vo ; 
and by Forbiger, Lips., 1845-1846, 3 vols. 8vo 
(second edition). 

[Vikgilius, C, praetor B.C. 62, had Q. Cicero 
as one of his colleagues. Next year, B.C. 61, 
he governed Sicily as propraetor, where P. Clo- 
dius served under him as quaestor. He was 
still in Sicily in B.C. 58, when Cicero was ban- 
ished, and refused to allow the latter refuge in 
his province. In the Civil war Virgilius es- 
poused the cause of Pompey, and had the com- 
mand of Thapsus, together with a fleet, in B.C. 
46. After the battle of Thapsus, Virgilius at 
first refused to surrender the town, but subse- 
quently, seeing resistance hopeless, he surren- 
dered the place to Caninius Rebilus.] 

Virginia, daughter of L. Virginius, a brave 
centurion, was a beautiful and innocent girl, 
betrothed to L. Icilius. Her beauty excited the 
lust of the decemvir Appius Claudius, who got 
one of his clients to seize the damsel and claim 
her as his slave. The case was brought before 
the decemvir for decision ; her friends begged 
him to postpone his judgment till her father 
could be fetched from the camp, and offered to 
give security for the appearance of the maiden. 
Appius, fearing a riot, agreed to let the cause 
stand over till the next day ; but on the follow- 
ing morning he pronounced sentence, assigning 
Virginia to his freedman. Her father, who had 
come from the camp, seeing that all hope was 
gone, prayed the decemvir to be allowed to 
speak one word to the nurse in his daughter's 
hearing, in order to ascertain whether she was 
really his daughter. The request was granted ; 
Virginius drew them both aside, and snatching 
up a butcher's knife from one of the stalls, 
plunged it in his daughter's breast, exclaiming, 
" There is no way but this to keep thee free." 
In vain did Appius call out to stop him. The 
crowd made way for him ; and, holding his 
bloody knife on high, he rushed to the gate of 
the city, and hastened to the Roman camp. 
The result is known. Both camp and city rose 
against the decemvirs, who were deprived of 
their power, and the old form of government 
was restored. L. Virginius was the first who 
was elected tribune, and he hastened to take 
revenge upon his cruel enemy. By his orders 
Appius was dragged to prison to await his trial, 
and he there put an end to his own life in order 
to avoid a more ignominious death. 

Virginia or Verginia Gens, patrician and 
plebeian. The patrician Virginii frequently filled 
the highest honors of the state during the early 
years of the republic. They all bore the cog- . 
nomen of Tricostus, but none of them are of 
sufficient importance to require a separate no- 
tice. 

Virginius, L., fatherof Virginia, whose tragic 
fate occasioned the downfall of the decemvirs, 
B.C. 449. Fid. Virginia.. 
I Virginius Rufus, consul A.D. 63, and gov- 

939 



VIRIATHUS. 



VITELLIUS. 



ernor of Upper Germany at the time of the re- 
rolt of Julius Vindex in Gaul (68). The sol- 
diers of Virginius wished to raise him to the 
empire ; but he refused the honor, and marched 
against V ; .ndex, who perished before Vesontio. 
Vid. Vindex. After the death of Nero, Vir- 
ginius supported the claims of Galba, and ac- 
companied him to Rome. After Otho's death, 
the soldiers again attempted to proclaim Virgin- 
ius emperor, and, in consequence of his refusal 
of the honor, he narrowly escaped with his life. 
Virginius died in the reign of Nerva, in his third 
consulship, A.D. 97, at eighty-three years of age. 
He was honored with a public funeral, and his 
panegyric was pronounced by the historian Tac- 
itus, who was then consul. The younger Pliny, 
of whom Virginius had been the tutor or guard- 
ian, also mentions him with praise. 

Viriathus, a celebrated Lusitanian, is de- 
scribed by the Romans as originally a shepherd 
sr huntsman, and afterward a robber, or, as he 
would be called in Spain at the present day, a 
guerilla chief. His character is drawn very 
favorably by many of the ancient writers, who 
celebrate his justice and equity, which was 
particularly shown in the fair division of the 
spoils he obtained from the enemy. Viriathus 
was one of the Lusitanians who escaped the 
treacherous and savage massacre of the people 
by the proconsul Galba in B.C. 150. Vid. Galba, 
No. 2. He was destined to be the avenger of 
his country's wrongs. He collected a formida- 
ble force, and for several successive years he 
defeated one Roman army after another. At 
length, in 140, the proconsul Fabius Servilianus 
concluded a peace with Viriathus in order to 
save his army, which had been inclosed by the 
Lusitanians in a mountain pass, much in the 
same way as their ancestors had been by the 
Samnites at the Caudine Forks. The treaty 
was ratified by the senate ; but Servilius Caepio, 
who had succeeded to the command of Further 
Spain in 140, renewed the war, and shortly aft- 
erward procured the assassination of Viriathus 
by bribing three of his friends. 

Viridomarus. 1. Or Britomartus, the lead- 
er of the Gauls, slain by Marcellus. Vid. Mar- 
cellus, No. 1. — 2. Or Virdumarus, a chieftain 
of the ^Edui, whom Caesar had raised from a 
low rank to the highest honor, but who after- 
ward joined the Gauls in their great revolt in 
B.C. 52. 

[Viridovix, the chieftain of the TJnelli, was 
conquered by Q. Titurius Sabinus, Caesar's le- 
gatus in B.C. 56 ] 

Virtus, the Roman personification of manly 
valor. She was represented with a short tunic, 
her right breast uncovered, a helmet on her 
hoad, a spear in her left hand, a sword in the 
right, and standing with her right foot on a hel- 
met. A temple of Virtus was built by Marcel- 
lus close to one of Honor. Vid. Honor. 

Viscellinus, Sp. Cassius. Vid. Cassius, 
No. 1. 

[Viscus. 1. Sumamed Thurinus, probably 
from his native place Thurii in Calabria, a poet 
and friend of Horace and Maecenas, one of the 
guests at the supper of Nasidienus described by 
Horace (Sac, ii., 8, 20). — 2. Vibius Viscus, a 
Roman knight, who, though possessed of great 
wealth and enjoying the favor of Augustus, pre- 1 
940 



ferred remaining in the equestrian order : he* 
was the father o'f the two Visci, who are praised 
as poets, and were on intimate terms with Hor- 
ace.] 

Vistula ( now Vistula, English ; Weichsel, 
German), an important river of Germany, form- 
ing the boundary between Germany and Sarma- 
tia, rising in the Hereynia Silva, and falling into 
the Mare Suevicum or the Baltic. 

Visurgis (now Wcscr), an important river of 
Germany, falling into the German Ocean. Ptol- 
emy makes it rise in Mount Melibceus, because 
the Romans were not acquainted with the south- 
ern course of the Weser below Minden. 

Vitellius. 1. L., father of the emperor, 
was a consummate flatterer, and by his arts 
gained promotion. After being consul in A.T). 
34, he had been appointed governor of Syria, 
and had made favorable terms of peace with Ar- 
tabanus. But all this only excited Caligula's 
jealousy, and he sent for Vitellius to put him to 
death. The governor saved himself by his ab- 
ject humiliation and the gross flattery which 
pleased and softened the savage tyrant. He 
paid the like attention to Claudius and Messa- 
lina, and was rewarded by being twice consul 
with Claudius, and censor. — 2. L., son of the 
preceding, and brother of the emperor, was con- 
sul in 48. He was put to death by the party of 
Vespasian on his brother's fall. — 3. A., Roman 
emperor from January 2d to December 22d, 
A.D. 69, was the son of No. 1. He was consul 
during the first six months of 48, and his broth- 
er Lucius during the six following months. He 
had some knowledge of letters and some elo- 
quence. His vices made him a favorite of Ti- I 
berius, Caius Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, who 
loaded him with favors. People were much sur- 
prised when Galba chose such a man to com- 
mand the legions in Lower Germany, for he had 
no military talent. His great talent was eat- 
ing and drinking. The soldiers of Vitellius pro- 
claimed him emperor at Colonia Agrippinensis ; 
(now Cologne) on the 2d of January, 69. His 
generals Fabius Valens and Caecina marched 
into Italy, defeated Otho's troops at the decisive 
battle of Bedriacum, and thus secured for Vi- 
tellius the undisputed command of Italy. The | 
soldiers of Otho, after the death of the latter, 
took the oath of fidelity to Vitellius. Vitellius 
reached Rome in July. He did not disturb any 
person in the enjoyment of what had been given 
by Nero, Galba, and Otho, nor did he confis- 
cate any man's property. Though some of 
Otho's adherents were put to death, he let the 
next of kin take their property. But, though he 
showed moderation in this part of his conduct, 
he showed none in his expenses. He was a 
glutton and an epicure, and his chief amuse- 
ment was the table, on which he spent enor- 1 
mous sums of money. Meantime Vespasian, 
who had at first taken the oath of allegiance to 
Vitellius, was proclaimed emperor at Alexan 
drea on the 1st of July. Vespasian was speed- 
ily recognized by all the East ; and the legions 
of Illyricum, under Antonius Primus, entered 
the north of Italy and declared for Vespasian. 
Vitellius dispatched- Caecina with a powerful 
force to oppose Primus ; but Cascina was not 
faithful to the emperor. Primus defeated the 
Vitellians in two battles, and afterward took 



VITIA. 



VOLATERILE. 



nnd pillaged the city of Cremona. Primus then 
marched upon Rome, and forced his way into 
the city, after much fighting. Vitellius was 
seized in the palace, led through the streets 
with every circumstance of ignominy, and drag- 
ged to the Gemoniae Scalae, where he was killed 
with repeated blows, His head was carried 
about Rome, and his body was dragged into the 
Tiber ; but it was afterward interred by his 
wife Galeria Fundana. A few days before the 
death of Vitellius, the Capitol had been burned 
in the assault made by his soldiers upon this 
building, where Flavius Sabinus, the brother of 
the Emperor Vespasian, had taken refuge. 

[Vitia, the mother of Fufius Geminus, was 
put to death by Tiberius in A.D. 32 because she 
had lamented the execution of her son, who 
had been consul in A.D. 29 ] 

Vitruvius Pollio, M., the author of the cel- 
ebrated treatise on Architecture, of whom we 
know nothing except a few facts contained in 
scattered passages of his own work. He ap- 
pears to have served as a military engineer un- 
der Julius Caesar, in the African war, B.C. 46, 
and he was broken down with age when he 
composed his work, which is dedicated to the 
Emperor Augustus. (The name of the emper- 
or is not mentioned in the dedication, but there 
can be no doubt that it was Augustus.) The 
object of his work appears to have had refer- 
ence to himself as well as to his subject. He 
professes his intention to furnish the emperor 
with a standard by which to judge of the build- 
ings he had already erected, as well as of those 
which he might afterward erect ; which can 
have no meaning, unless he wished to protest 
against the style of architecture which prevail- 
ed in the buildings already erected. That this 
was really his intention appears from several 
other arguments, and especially from his fre- 
quent references to the unworthy means by 
which architects obtained wealth and favor, 
with which he contrasts his own moderation 
and contentment in his more obscure position. 
In a word, comparatively unsuccessful as an 
architect, for we have no building of his men- 
tioned except the basilica at Fanum, he attempt- 
ed to establish his reputation as a writer upon 
the theory of his art ; and in this he has been 
tolerably successful. His work is a valuable 
compendium of those written by numerous 
Greek architects, whom he mentions chiefly in 
the preface to his seventh book, and by some 
Roman writers on architecture. Its chief de- 
fects are its brevity, of which Vitruvius him- 
self boasts, and which he often carries so far as 
to be unintelligible, and the obscurity of the 
style, arising in part from the natural difficulty 
of technical language, but in part also from the 
author's want of skill in writing, and sometimes 
from his imperfect comprehension of his Greek 
authorities. His work is entitled De Architec- 
ture. Libri X. In the First Book, after the ded- 
ication to the emperor, and a general descrip- 
tion of the science of architecture, and an ac- 
count of the proper education of an architect, 
he treats of the choice of a proper site for a 
city, the disposition of its plan, its fortifications, 
and the several buildings within it. The Sec- 
ond Book is on the materials used in building. 
The Third and Fourth Books are devoted to 



temples and the four orders of architecture em- 
ployed in them, namely, the Ionic, Corinthian, 
Doric, and Tuscan. The Fifth Book relates to 
public buildings, the Sixth to private houses, 
and the Seventh to interior decorations. The 
Eighthis on the subject of water; the mode of 
finding it ; its different kinds ; and the various 
modes of conveying it for the supply of cities. 
The Ninth Book treats of various kinds of sun- 
dials and other instruments for measuring time ; 
and the Tenth of the machines used in build- 
ing, and of military engines. Each book has a 
preface, upon some matter more or less con- 
nected with the subject ; and these prefaces 
are the source of most of our information about 
the author. The best editions of Vitruvius are 
those of Schneider, 3 vols., Lips., 1807, 1808, 
8vo ; of Stratico, 4 vols., Udino, 1825-30, with 
plates and a Lexicon Vilruvianum ; and ofMari- 
ni, 4 vols., Rom., 1836, fol. 

[Vivisoi. Vid. Bituriges, No. 2.] 

VocItes, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, dwell- 
ing in the neighborhood of the Tarusates, Sos- 
siates, and Elusates, probably in the modern 
Tursan or Teursan. 

Vocetios (now Bozberg), a mountain in Gal- 
lia Belgica, an eastern branch of the Jura. 

Voconius Saxa. Vid. Saxa. 

Vocontii, a powerful and important people in 
Gallia Narbonensis, inhabiting the southeastern 
part of Dauphine, and a part of Provence, be- 
tween the Drac and the Durance, bounded on 
the north by the Allobroges, and on the south 
by the Salyes and Albioeci. Their country con- 
tained large and beautiful valleys between the 
mountains, in which good wine was grown. 
They were allowed by the Romans to live un- 
der their own laws, and, though in a Roman 
province, they were the allies and not the sub 
jec!s of Rome. 

Vouekus or Vosgesus (now Vosges), a range 
of mountains in Gaul, in the territory of the 
Lingonss, running parallel to the Rhine, and 
separating its basin from that of the Mosella. 
The rivers Sequana (now Seine), Arar(now Sa- 
6ne), and the Mosella (now Moselle), rise in 
these mountains. 

Volandum, 3 strong fortress in Armenia Ma- 
jor, some days' journey west of Artaxata, men- 
tioned by Tacitus (Ann., xiii., 39). 

Volaterr^e ( Volaterranus ; now Volaterra), 
called by the Etruscans Velathri, one of the 
twelve cities of the Etruscan Confederation, 
was built on a lofty hill, about eighteen thou 
sand English feet above the level cf the sea 
rising from a deep valley, and precipitous oi 
every side. The city was about four or five 
miles in circuit. It was the most northerly citj 
of the Confederation, and possessed an extens- 
ive territory. Its dominions extended eastward 
as far as the territory of Arretium, which was 
fifty miles distant ; westward as far as the Med- 
iterranean, which was more than twenty miles 
off; and southward at least as far as Populonia, 
which was either a colony or an acquisition of 
Volaterrae. In consequence of possessing the 
two great ports of Luna and Populonia, Vola- 
terrae, though so far inland, was reckoned as one 
of the powerful maritime cities of Etruria. Vol- 
aterrae is mentioned as one of the five cities 
which, acting independently of the rest of Etru- 

941 



VOLA TERRANA VADA. 



VOLTJSIANUS. 



ria, determined to aid the Latins against Tar- 
quinius Priscus ; but its name is rarely men- 
tioned in connection with the Romans, and we 
have no record of its conquest by the latter. 
Volaterra?, like most of the Etruscan cities, 
espoused the Marian party against Sulla ; and 
such was the strength of its fortifications, that 
it was not till after a siege of two years that 
the city fell into Sulla's hands. Cicero speaks 
of Volaterrae as a municipium, and a military 
colony was founded in it under the triumvirate. 
It continued to be a place of importance even 
after the fall of the Western Empire ; and it 
was for a time the residence of the Lombard 
kings, who fixed their court here on account of 
the natural strength of the site. The modern 
town covers but a small portion of the area oc- 
cupied by the ancient city. It contains, how- 
ever, several interesting Etruscan remains. 
Of these the most important, in addition to the 
ancient walls, are the family tomb of the Cae- 
cinas, and a double gateway, nearly thirty feet 
deep, united by parallel walls of very massive 
character. 

Vol ATE R RAN a Vada. Vid. Vada, No. 3. 

Volc^e, a powerful Celtic people in Gallia 
Narbonensis, divided into the two tribes of the 
Volcas Tectosages and the Volcee Arecomici, 
extending from the Pyrenees and the frontiers 
of Aquitania along the coast as far as the 
Rhone. They lived under their own laws, 
without being subject to the Roman governor 
of the province, and they also possessed the 
Jus Latii. The Tectosages inhabited the west- 
ern part of the country from the Pyrenees as 
far as Narbo, and the Arecomici the eastern 
part from Narbo to the Rhone. The chief town 
of the Tectosages was Tolosa. A portion of 
the Tectosages left their native country under 
Brennus, and were one of the three great tribes 
into which the Galatians in Asia Minor were 
divided. Vid. Galatia. 

Volcatius Sedigitus. Vid. Sedigitus. 

[ Volcatius Tullus, C, a Roman officer, who 
was left by Cassar in charge of the bridge over 
the Rhine when he was setting out on the ex- 
pedition against Ambiorix.] 

Volci or Vulci. 1. (Volcientes, pi. : now 
Vulci), an inland city of Etruria, about eighteen 
miles northwest of Tarquinii, was about two 
miles in circuit, and was situated upon a hill 
of no great elevation. Of the history of this 
city we know nothing. It is only mentioned in 
the catalogues of the geographers and in the 
Fasti Capitolini, from which we learn that its 
citizens, in conjunction with the Volsinienses, 
were defeated by the consul Tib. Coruncanius, 
B.C. 280. But its extensive sepulchres, and 
the vast treasures of ancient art which they 
contain, prove that Vulci must at one time have 
been a powerful and flourishing city. These 
tombs were only discovered in 1828, and have 
yielded a greater number of works of art than 
have been discovered in any other parts of 
Etruria. — 2. (Volcentes, Volcentani, pi. : now 
Vallo), a town in Lucania, thirty-six miles 
southeast of Paestum, on th? road to Buxentum. 

VOLERO PuBLILIUS. VH. PdBLILIUS. 

[Volesus. Vid. Volusus.] 
Vologeses, the name of five kings of Parthia. 
Vid. Arsaces, Nos. 23, 27, 28 29, 30. 
942 



[Volscens, a Rutulian warrior in the army 
of Turnus ; he encountered Nisus and Euryalus 
as they were returning from their expedition to 
the Rutulian camp, loaded with booty, slew Eu- 
ryalus, and was himself slain by Nisus.] 

Volsci, an ancient people in Latium, but 
originally distinct from the Latins, dwelt on 
both sides of the River Liris, and extended 
down to the Tyrrhene Sea. Their language 
was nearly allied to the Umbrian. They were 
from an. early period engaged in almost unceas- 
ing hostilities with the Romans, and were no: 
completely subdued by the latter till B.C. 338, 
from which time they disappear from history. 

VolsinIi or VulsInii (Volsiniensis : now Bol- 
sena), called Velsina or Velsuna by the Etrus- 
cans, one of the most ancient and most power- 
ful of the twelve cities of the Etruscan Confed- 
eration, was situated on a lofty hill on the north- 
eastern extremity of the lake called after it 
Lacus Volsiniensis and Vulsiniensis (now 
Lago di Bolscna). Volsinii is first mentioned 
in B.C. 392, when its inhabitants invaded the 
Roman territory, but were easily defeated by 
the Romans, and were glad to purchase a twen- 
ty years' truce on humiliating terms. The Vol- 
sinienses also carried on war with the Romans 
in 311, 294, and 280, but were on each occasion 
defeated, and in the last of these years appear 
to have been finally subdued. On their final 
subjugation their city was razed to the ground 
by the Romans, and its inhabitants were com- 
pelled to settle on a less defensible site in the 
plain. The new city, on which stands the mod- 
ern Bolsena, also became a place of importance. 
It was the birth-place of Sejanus, the favorite of 
Tiberius. Of the ancient city there are scarcely 
any remains. It occupied the summit of the 
highest hill, northeast of Bolsena, above the re- 
mains of a Roman amphitheatre. From the 
Lacus Volsiniensis the River Marta issues ; and 
the lake contains two beautiful islands. 

[Voltumna, an Etrurian goddess, at whose 
temple on Mons Ciminius (q v.) the Etrurian 
Confederation used to hold their general as- 
semblies.] 

VolturcIus or Vulturcius, T., of Crotona, 
one of Catiline's conspirators, was sent by Len- 
tulus to accompany the ambassadors of the Al- 
lobroges to Catiline. Arrested along with the 
ambassadors on the Mulvian bridge, and brought 
before the senate by Cicero, Volturcius turned 
informer upon obtaining the promise of pardon. 

[Voltornus. Vid. Vulturnus.] 

Volumnia, wife of Coriolanus. Vid. Coeio- 

LANUS. 

Volupia or Voluptas, the personification of 
sensual pleasure among the Romans, was hon- 
ored with a temple near the porta Romanula. 

[Volusenus Quadratus, C, a tribune of 
soldiers under Caesar in his Gallic wars, is 
spoken of by the latter as a brave and prudent 
officer, and was therefore employed on several 
difficult and dangerous enterprises. At a later 
period in the war he was prsefectus equitum in 
the contest with Commius, king of the Atreba- 
tes, under Antony, and afterward, as tribune of 
the plebs in B.C. 43, was one of the supporters 
of Antony.] 

Volusianus, son of the Emperor Trebonianus 
Gallus, upon whom his father conferred the 



yOLUSIUS M^CIANUS. 



XANTHICLES, 



title of Caesar in A.D. 251, and of Augustus in 
252. He was slain along with his father in 
254. Vid. Gallus. 

Volusius JyLecianus, L., a jurist, was in the 
consilium of Antoninus Pius, and was one of the 
teachers of M. Aurelius. Maecianus wrote sev- 
eral works ; and there are forty-four excerpts 
from his writings in the Digest. A treatise, 
De Asse et Ponderibus, is attrihuted to him, but 
there is some doubt about the authorship. It 
is edited by Booking, Bonn, 1831. 

Volusus or Volesus. [1. One of the most 
distinguished chiefs in the army of Turnus ; 
had command of the infantry of the Volsci and 
the Rutuli.] — 2. The reputed ancestor of the 
Valeria gens, who is said to have settled at 
Rome with Titus Tatius. Vid. Valeria Gens. 

[Volux, the son of Bocchus, king of Maure- 
tania, sent by his father, at the head of a large 
body of cavalry, to meet Sulla, and escort him 
to the royal presence.] 

Vomanus, (now Vomano), a small river in 
Picenum. 

Vonones, the name of two kings of Parthia. 
Vid. Arsaces, Nos. 18, 22. 

Vopiscus, a Roman praenomen, signified a 
twin child who was born safe, while the other 
twin died before birth. Like many other an- 
cient Roman praenomens, it was afterward used 
as a cognomen. 

Vopiscus, Flavius, a native of Syracuse, and 
one of the six Scriptores Histories Augusta, flour- 
ished about A.D. 300. His name is prefixed to 
the biographies of, 1. Aurelianus ; 2. Tacitus; 
3. Florianus ; 4. Probus ; 5. The four tyrants, 
Firmus, Saturninus, Proculns, and Bonosus ; 
6. Carus ; 7. Numerianus ; 8. Carinus ; at this 
point he stops, declaring that Diocletian, and 
those who follow, demand a more elevated style 
of composition. For editions, vid. Capitolinus. 

[Voranus, a person mentioned in the Satires 
of Horace as a notorious thief, said to have been 
a freedman of Q. Lutatius Catulus.] 

VoSGESUS. Vid. VOGESUS. 

VoTIENUS MoNTANUS. Vid. MoNTANUS. 

Vulcanize Insulje. Vid. ^Eoli^e Insula. 

Vulcanus, the Roman god of fire, whose 
name seems to be connected with fulgere, ful- 
gur, and fulmen. His worship was of consid- 
erable political importance at Rome, for a tem- 
ple is said to have been erected to him close by 
the comitium as'early as the time of Romulus 
and Tatius, in which the two kings used to 
meet and settle the affairs- of the state, and 
near which the popular assembly was held. 
Tatius is reported to have established the wor- 
ship of Vulcan along with that of Vesta, and 
Romulus to have dedicated to him a quadriga 
after his victory over the Fidenates, and to 
have set up a statue of himself near the tem- 
ple. According to others, the temple was built 
by Romulus himself, who also planted near it 
the sacred lotus-tree which still existed in the 
days of Pliny. These circumstances, and what 
is related of the lotus-tree, show that the tem- 
ple of Vulcan, like that of Vesta, was regarded 
as a central point of the whole state, and hence 
it was perhaps not without a meaning that the 
temple of Concord was subsequently built with- 
in the same district. The most ancient festi- 
val in honor of Vulcan seems to have been the 



Fornacalia or Furnalia, Vulcan being the god 
of furnaces ; but his great festival was called 
Vulcanalia, and was celebrated on the 23d of 
August. The Roman poets transfer all the sto- 
ries which are related of the Greek Hephaestus 
to their own Vulcan, the two divinities having 
in the course of time been completely identi- 
fied. Respecting the Greek divinity, vid. He- 
phaestus. 

Vulci. Vid. Volci. 

Vulgientes, an Alpine people in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, whose chief town was Apta Julia 
(now Apt). 

Vulsinii. Vid. Volsinii. 

Vulso, Manlius. 1. L., consul B.C. 256 with 
M. Atilius Regulus. He invaded Africa along 
with his colleague. For details, vid. Regulus, 
No. 3. Vulso returned to Italy at the fall of 
the year with half of the army, and obtained the 
honor of a triumph. In 250 Vulso was consul a 
second time with T. Atilius Regulus Serranus, 
and with his colleague commenced the siege of 
Lilybaeum. — 2. Cn., curule asdile 197, praetoi 
with Sicily as his province 195, and consul 189. 
He was sent into Asia in order to conclude the 
peace which Seipio Asiaticus had made with 
Antiochus, and to arrange the affairs of Asia 
He attacked and conquered the Gallograeci oi 
Galatians in Asia Minor without waiting for any 
formal instructions from the senate. He set 
out on his return to Italy in 188, but in his 
march through Thrace he suffered much from 
the attacks of the Thracians, and lost a con 
siderable part of the booty he had obtained ir 
Asia. He reached Rome in 187. His triumph 
was a brilliant one, but his campaign in Asii. 
had a pernicious influence upon the morals of 
his countrymen. He had allowed his armyev 
ery kind of license, and his soldiers introduced 
into the city the luxuries of the East. 

[Vulteius Mena, an auctioneer in Rome, a 
freedman of the family of the Vulteii or Volteii 
who was leading a happy life till Marcius Phi 
lippus took him under his protection and at 
tempted to better his condition ; from the ill ef 
fects produced by this change or elevation, Hor 
ace draws a lesson of instruction.] 

Vultur, a mountain dividing Apulia and Lu- 
cania near Venusia, is a branch of the Apen- 
nines. It is celebrated by Horace as one of 
the haunts of his youth. From it the southeast 
wind was called Vulturnus by the Romans. 

[VuLTURCIUS, T. Vid. VOLTURCIUS.] 

Vulturnum (now Castel di Vollurno), a town 
in Campania, at the mouth of the River Vukur- 
nus, was originally a fortress erected by the Ro- 
mans in the second Punic war. At a later time 
it was made a colony. 

Vulturnus (now Vollurno), the chief river 
in Campania, rising in the Apennines in Sam- 
nium, and falling into the Tyrrhene Sea. Its 
principal affluents are the Calor (now Calore), 
Tamarus (now Tamaro), and Sabatus (now Sa- 
balo). 

X. 

[Xanthicles (Hav0«A^f), an Achaean, chosen 
general by the Greek mercenaries of Cyrus in 
the place of his countryman Socrates, when the 
latter had been treacherously seized by Tissa- 

943 



XANTHIPPE. 



XENOCLES. 



phernes, B.C. 401, along with Clearchus. "When 
the army reached Cotyora, Xanthicles was one 
of those fined for a deficiency in the cargoes of 
the ships which had brought the soldiers from 
Trapezus, and of which he was one of the com- 
missioners.] 

Xanthippe CEavdirnrri), wife of Socrates, said 
to be a woman of a peevish ana quarrelsome 
disposition. 

Xanthippus (Eavdnnroc). 1. Son of Ariphron 
and father of Pericles. In B.C. 490, he im- 
peached Miltiades on his return from his un- 
successful expedition against the island of Pa- 
ros. He succeeded Themistocles as command- 
er of the Athenian fleet in 479, and commanded 
the Athenians at the decisive battle of Mycale. 
— 2. The elder of the two legitimate sons of 
Pericles, Paralus being the younger. For de- 
tails, vid. Paralus. — 3. The Lacedaemonian, 
who commanded the Carthaginians against Reg- 
ulus. For details, vid. Regulus, No. 3. Xan- 
thippus appears to have left Carthage a short 
time after his victory over Regulus. 

[Xantho (Bavdu), a daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys. one of the nymphs in the train of Cy- 
rene._ 

[Xanthus (advdoc), a son of Pha;nops, broth- 
er of Thoon, a warrior in the Trojan army, slain 
by Diomedes.] 

Xanthcjs CEdvdoc). 1. A lyric poet, older 
than Stesichorus, who mentioned him in one at 
least of his poems, and who borrowed from him 
in some of them. Xanthus maybe placed about 
B.C. 650. No fragments of his poetry survive. 
— 2. A celebrated Lydian historian, older than 
Herodotus, who flourished about B.C. 480. The 
genuineness of the Four Books of Lydian Histo- 
ry which the ancients possessed under the name 
of Xanthus, and of which some considerable 
fragments have come down to us, was question- 
ed by some of the ancient grammarians them- 
selves. There has been considerable contro- 
versy respecting the genuineness of this work 
among modern scholars. It is certain that 
much of the matter in the extant fragments is 
spurious ; and the probability appears to be that 
the work from which they are taken is the pro- 
duction of an Alexandrean grammarian, found- 
ed upon the genuine work of Xanthus. [The 
fragments of Xanthus are collected in Creuzer's 
Historicorum Grac. Antiquiss. Fragmcnta, Hei- 
delb., 1806 ; and in Miiller's Hist. Grcec. Fragm., 
vol. i., p. 36-44, Paris, 1841.] 

Xanthus (advdoc), rivers. 1. Vid. Scaman- 
der. — 2. (Now Echen Chai), the chief river of 
Lycia, rises in Mount Taurus, on the borders 
of Pisidia and Lycia, and flows south through 
Lycia, between Mount Cragus and Mount Mas- 
sicytus, in a large plain called the Plain of Xan- 
thus (to ZdvOiov ■keSlov), falling at last into the 
Mediterranean Sea a little west of Patara. 
Though not a large river, it is navigable for a 
considerable part of its course. 

Xanthus {"Eavdoc : Bdvdtoc, Xanthius : ruins 
at Gunik), the most famous city of Lycia, stood 
on the western bank of the river of the same 
name, sixty stadia from its mouth. Twice in 
the course of its history it sustained sieges, 
which terminated in the self-destruction of the 
inhabitants with their property, first against the 
Persians under Harpagus, and long afterward 
944 



against the Romans under Brutus. The city 
was never restored after its destruction on the 
latter occasion. Xanthus was rich in temples 
and tombs, and other monuments of a most in- 
teresting character of art. Among its temples 
the most celebrated were those of Sarpedon and 
of the Lycian Apollo ; besides which there was 
a renowned sanctuary of Latona (to Ayruov), 
near the River Xanthus, ten stadia from its 
mouth, and sixty stadia from the city. The 
splendid ruins of Xanthus have recently been 
thoroughly explored by Sir C. Fellowes and his 
coadjutors, and several important remains of its 
works of art are now exhibited in the British 
Museum under the name of the Xanthian Mar- 
bles. 

Xenarchus (Zivapxoc). 1. Son of Sophron, 
and, like his father, a celebrated writer of mimes. 
He flourished during the Rhegian war (B.C. 
399-389), at the court of Dionysius. — 2. An 
Athenian comic poet of the Middle Comedy, 
who lived as late as the time of Alexander the 
Great. [The fragments of his comedies are 
given by Meineke, in his Comic. Grac. Fragm., 
vol. ii., p. 811-15, edit, minor.]— 3. Of Seleucia 
in Cilicia, a Peripatetic philosopher and gram- 
marian in the time of Strabo, who heard him. 
He taught first at Alexandrea, afterward at Ath- 
ens, and last at Rome, where he enjoyed the 
friendship of Augustus. 

Xeniades (aeviddri;), a Corinthian, who be- 
came the purchaser of Diogenes the Cynic 
when he was taken by pirates and sold as a 
slave. 

[Xenias (Zeviac). 1. A Parrhasian, one of 
the commanders of mercenaries in the service 
of Cyrus the younger, whom he accompanied, 
with a body of three hundred men, to court, 
when he was summoned thither by his father 
Darius in B.C. 405. After the return of Cyrus 
to Western Asia, Xenias commanded for him 
the garrisons in the several Ionian states, and 
with the greater portion of these troops, viz., 
four thousand heavy armed men, he joined the 
prince in his expedition against Artaxerxes. 
At Tarsus a large body of his troops and of 
those of Pasion left their standards for that of 
Clearchus ; and Cyrus having allowed the latter 
to retain them, Xenias and Pasion abandoned the 
army at Myriandrus, and sailed away to Greece 
— 2. An Elean of great wealth, was a proxenus 
of Sparta, and connected by private ties of hos- 
pitality with King Agis II. In B.C. 400, during 
the war between. Sparta and Elis, Xenias and 
his oligarchical partisans made an attempt to 
overpower their opponents and to subject their 
country to the Spartans, but they were defeated 
and driven into exile by Thrasidaeus, the leader 
of the democracy.] 

Xenippa (now probably Uratippa), a city of 
Sogdiana, mentioned by Curtius. 

Xenocles (Eevoicfa'/e). 1. An Athenian tragic 
poet, son of Carcinus, who was also a tragic 
poet, and a contemporary of Aristophanes, who 
attacks him on several occasions. His poetry 
seems to have been indifferent, and to have re- 
sembled the worse parts of Euripides ; but he 
obtained a victory over Euripides B.C. 415. 
There was another tragic poet of the name of 
Xenocles, a grandson of the preceding, of whom 
no particulars are recorded. — 2. An Athenian 



XENOCRATES. 



XENOPHON. 



architect, of the demos of Cholargos, was one 
I of the architects who superintended the erection 
of the temple of Ceres (Demeter) at Eleusis, in 
the time of Pericles. 

Xenocrates (ZevoKparris). I. The philoso- 
pher, was a native of Chalcedon. He was born 
B.C. 396, and died 314, at the age of eighty-two. 
Jle attached himself first to ^Eschines the So- 
tratf>, and afterward, while still a youth, to 
Plato, whom he accompanied to Syracuse. Aft- 
er the death of Plato he betook himself, with 
Aristotle, to Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus ; and, 
j after his return to Athens, he was repeatedly 
sent on embassies to Philip of Macedonia, and 
at a later time to Antipater during the Lamian 
war. He is said to have wanted quick appre- 
hension and natural grace ; but these defects 
were more than compensated by persevering 
industry, pure benevolence, freedom from all 
selfishness, and a moral earnestness which ob- 
tained for him the esteem and confidence of the 
Athenians of his own age. Yet he is said to 
have experienced the fickleness of popular fa- 
vor, and, being too poor to pay the protection- 
money (peroiKLov), to have been saved only by 
the courage of the orator Lycurgus. He be- 
came president of the Academy even before the 
death of Speusippus, who was bowed down by 
I sickness, and he occupied that post for twenty- 
; five years. The importance of Xenocrates is 
shown by the fact that Aristotle and Theophras- 
tus wrote upon his doctrines, and that Panaetius 
and Cicero entertained a high regard for him. 
Of his numerous works only the titles have 
come down to us. — 2. A physician of Aphrodis- 
ias in Cilicia, lived about the middle of the first 
century after Christ. Besides some short frag- 
ments of his writings, there is extant a little 
essay by him, entitled tlcpi rijc uiro tuv 'EvvSpuv 
Tpo^f. " De Alimento ex Aquatilibus," which 
is an interesting record of the state of Natural 
History at the time in which he lived. Edited 
by Franz, 1774, Lips., and byCoray, 1794, Neap., 
and 1814, Paris. — 3. A statuary of the school of 
Lysippus, was the pupil either of Tisicrates or 
of Euthycrates. He also wrote works upon the 
art. He flourished about B.C. 260. 

Xenocritus (Sevonpiros ), of Locri Epizephy- 
rii, in Lower Italy, a musician and lyric poet, 
was one of the leaders of the second school of 
Dorian music, which was founded by Thaletas, 
and was a composer of Paeans. 

Xenophanes (3evo<j>uvTi( ), a celebrated philos- 
opher, was a native of Colophon, and flourished 
between B.C. 540 and 500. He was a poet as 
well as a philosopher, and considerable frag- 
ments have come down to us of his elegies, and 
of a didactic poem " On Nature." According 
to the fragments of one of his elegies, he had 
left his native land at the age of twenty-five, 
and had already lived sixty-seven years in Hel- 
las, when, at the age of ninety-two, he com- 
posed that elegy. He quitted Colophon as a 
fugitive or exile, ai.d must have lived some time 
at Elea (Velia) in Italy, as he is mentioned as 
the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. 
He sung in one of his poems of the foundation 
of Velia. Xenophanes was usually regarded in 
antiquity as the originator of the Eleatic doc- 
trine of the oneness of the universe. The 
Deity was in his view the animating power of 



the universe, which is expressed by Aristotle 
in the words, that, directing his glance on the 
whole universe, Xenophanes said, " God is the 
One." [His fragments are contained in Kar 
sten's Xenophanis Col. Carminum Reliquia, Brux- 
ellis, 1830.] 

Xenophon (aevocpuv). 1. The Athenian, was 
the son of Gryllus, and a native of the demus 
Erchia. The time of his birth is not known, but 
it is approximated to by the fact that Xenophon 
fell from his horse in the flight after the battle 
of Delium, and was taken up by Socrates, the 
philosopher, on his shoulders, and carried a dis- 
tance of several stadia. The battle of Delium 
was fought B.C. 424 between the Athenians 
and Boeotians, and Xenophon therefore could 
not well have been born after 444. The time 
of his death, also, is not mentioned by any an- 
cient writer. Lucian says that he attained to 
above the age of ninety, and Xenophon himself 
mentions the assassination of Alexander of 
Pherae, which happened in 357. Between 424 
and 357 there is a period of sixty-seven years, 
and thus we have evidence of Xenophon being 
alive nearly seventy years after Socrates saved 
his life at Delium. Xenophon is said to have 
been a pupil of Socrates at an early age, which is 
consistent with the intimacy which might have 
arisen from Socrates saving his life. The most 
memorable event in Xenophon's life is his con- 
nection with the Greek army, which marched 
under Cyrus against Artaxerxes in 401. Xeno- 
phon himself mentions (Anab., iii., 1) the cir- 
cumstances under which he joined this army. 
Proxenus, a friend of Xenophon, was already 
with Cyrus, and he invited Xenophon to come 
to Sardis, and promised to introduce him to the 
Persian prince. Xenophon consulted his mas- 
ter Socrates, who advised him to consult the 
oracle of Delphi, for it was rather a hazardous 
matter for him to enter the service of Cyrus, 
who was considered to be the friend of the Lac- 
edaemonians and the enemy of Athens. Xeno 
phon went to Delphi, but he did not ask the god 
whether he should go or not : he probably had 
made up his mind. He merely asked to what 
gods he should sacrifice in order that he might 
be successful in his intended enterprise. Soc- 
rates was not satisfied with his pupil's mode 
of consulting the oracle, but as he had got an 
answer he told him to go ; and Xenophon went 
to Sardis, which Cyrus was just about to leave. 
He accompanied Cyrus into Upper Asia. In 
the battle of Cunaxa, Cyrus lost his life, his 
barbarian troops were dispersed, and the Greeks 
were left alone on the wide plains between the 
Tigris and the Euphrates. It was after the 
treacherous massacre of Clearchus and other 
of the Greek commanders by the Persian sa- 
trap Tissaphernes that Xenophon came forward. 
He had held no command in the army of Cyrus, 
nor had he, in fact, served as a soldier. He was 
now elected one of the generals, and took the 
principal part in conducting the Greeks in their 
memorable retreat along the Tigris over the 
high table-lands of Armenia to Trapezus (Tre- 
bizond), on the Black Sea. From Trapezus the 
troops were conducted to Chrysopolis, which is 
opposite to Byzantium. The Greeks were in 
great distress, and some of them, under Xeno- 
phon, entered the service of Seuthes, king of 

945 



XENOPHON. 



XENOPHON. 



Thrace. As the Lacedaemonians under Thim- 
bron were now at war with Tissaphernes and 
Pharnabazus, Xenophon and his troops were in- 
vited to join the army of Thimbron, and Xeno- 
phon led them to Pergamus to join Thimbron, 
399. Xenophon, who was very poor, had made 
an expedition into the plain of the Caicus with 
his troops before they joined Thimbron, to plun- 
der the house and property of a Persian named 
Asidates. The Persian, with his women, chil- 
dren, and all his movables, was seized ; and 
Xenophon, by this robbery, replenished his 
empty pockets (Anab., vii , 8, 23). He tells the 
story himself as if he were not ashamed of it. 
Socrates was put to death in 399, and it seems 
probable that Xenophon was banished either 
shortly before or shortly after that event. Xen- 
ophon was not banished at the time when he 
was leading the troops back to Thimbron (Anab., 
vii., 7, 57), but his expression rather seems to 
imply that his banishment must have followed 
soon after. It is not certain what he was do- 
ing after the troops joined Thimbron. As we 
know nothing of his movements, the conclusion 
ought to be that he -stayed in Asia, and prob- 
ably with Thimbron and his successor Dercyl- 
lidas. Agesilaus, the Spartan king, was com- 
manding the Lacedaemonian forces in Asia 
against the Persians in 396, and Xenophon was 
with him at least during part of the campaign. 
When Agesilaus was recalled (394), Xenophon 
accompanied him ; and he was on the side of 
the Lacedaemonians in the battle which they 
fought at Coronea (394) against the Athenians. 
It seems that he went to Sparta with Agesilaus 
after the battle of Coronea, and soon after he 
settled at Scillus, in Elis, not far from Olympia, 
a spot of which he has given a description in 
the Anabasis (v., 3, 7, &c). Here he was join- 
ed by his wife Philesia and his children. His 
children were educated in Sparta. Xenophon 
was now an exile, and a Lacedaemonian so far 
as he could become one. His time during his 
long residence at Scillus was employed in hunt- 
ing, writing, and entertaining his friends ; and 
perhaps the Anabasis and part of the Hellenica 
were composed here. The treatise on hunting 
and that on the horse were probably also writ- 
ten during this time, when amusement and ex- 
ercise of that kind formed part of his occupa- 
tion. Xenophon was at last expelled from his 
quiet retreat at Scillus by the Eleans after re- 
maining there about twenty years. The sen- 
tence of banishment from Athens was repealed 
on the motion of Eubulus, but it is uncertain in 
what year. In the battle of Mantinea, which 
was fought 362, the Spartans and the Athe- 
nians were opposed to the Thebans, and Xeno- 
phon's two sons, Gryllus and Diodorus, fought 
on the side of the allies. Gryllus fell in the 
same battle in which Epaminondas lost his life. 
There is no evidence that Xenophon ever re- 
turned to Athens. He is said to have retired 
to Corinth after his expulsion from Scillus, and 
as we know nothing more, we assume that he 
died there. The Hipparchicus and the treatise 
on the revenues of Athens were written after 
the repeal of the decree of banishment. The 
events alluded to in the Epilogus to the Cyropa- 
dia (viii., 8, 4) show that the Epilogus at least 
was written after 362. The time of his death 
946 



may have been a few years later. The follow 
ingisalistofXenophon's works : 1. The Anaba~ 
sis Ckv6.6a.aic), or the History of the Expedition 
of the Younger Cyrus, and of the retreat of the 
Greeks, who formed part of his army. It is di- 
vided into seven books. This work has immor- 
talized Xenophon's name. It is a clear and 
pleasing narrative, written in a simple style, 
free from affectation ; and it gives a great deal 
of curious information on the country which 
was traversed by the retreating Greeks, and on 
the manners of the people. It was the first 
work which made the Greeks acquainted with 
some portions of the Persian empire, and it 
showed the weakness of that extensive mon- 
archy. The skirmishes of the retreating Greeks 
with their enemies, and the battles with some 
of the barbarian tribes, are not such events 
as elevate the work to the character of a mili- 
tary history, nor can it, as such, be compared 
with Caesar's Commentaries. 2. The Hellenica 
{''EXInviKa) of Xenophon are divided into seven 
books, and comprehend the space of forty-eight 
years, from the time when the history of Thu- 
cydides ends (vid. Thocydides) to the battle of 
Mantinea, 362. The Hellenica is generally a dry 
narrative of events, and there is nothing in the 
treatment of them which gives a special inter- 
est to the work. Some events of importance 
are briefly treated, but a few striking incidents 
are presented with some particularity. 3. The I 
Cyropadia (Kvponaidcia), in eight books, is a 
kind of political romance, the basis of which is 
the history of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian 1 
monarchy. It shows how citizens are to be j 
made virtuous and brave ; and Cyrus is the | 
model of a wise and good ruler. As a history it 
has no authority at all. Xenophon adopted the 
current stories as to Cyrus and the chief events i 
of his reign, without any intention of subjecting I 
them to a critical examination ; nor have we ! 
any reason to suppose that his picture of Per- 
sian morals and Persian discipline is anything 
more than a fiction. Xenophon's object was to ! 
represent what a state might be, and he placed 
the scene of his fiction far enough off to give it 
the color of possibility. His own philosophical 
notions and the usages of Sparta were the real j 
materials out of which he constructed his polit- 
ical system. The Cyropadia is evidence enough 
that Xenophon did not like the political consti- 
tution of his own country, and that a well-or- 
dered monarchy or kingdom appeared to him 
preferable to a democracy like Athens. 4. The j 
Agesilaus ('AyrjaiXaoc) is a panegyric on Agesi 
laus II., king of Sparta, the friend of Xenophon. j 
5. The Hipparchicus ('IirnapxiKoe) is a treatise j 
on the duties of a commander of cavalry, and it 
contains many military precepts. 6. The De Re 
Equcstri, a treatise on the Horse ('l-xmicy), was i 
written after the Hipparchicus, to which treatise 
he refers at the end of the treatise on the Horse. 
The treatise is not limited to horsemanship, as 
regards the rider : it shows how a man is to 
avoid being cheated in buying a horse, how a 
horse is to be trained, and the like. 7. The 
Cxjnegeticus (KvvnyeTinoc) is a treatise on hunt- 
ing ; and on the dog, and the breeding and train- : 
ing of dogs ; on the various kinds of game, am' 
the mode of taking them. It is a treatise writ 
ten by a genuine sportsman, who loved the e.t- j 



XENOPHON. 



XERXES. 



ercise and the excitement of the chase ; and it 
may be read with delight by any sportsman who 
deserves the name. 8, 9. The Respublica Lace- 
dcemoniorum and Respublica Atheniensium, the 
two treatises on the Spartan and Athenian 
states (AaKedai/ioviuv TloTurela, and 'Adnvaiuv 
TLo^LTtia), were not always recognized as gen- 
uine works of Xenophon, even by the ancients. 
They pass, however, under his name, and there 
is nothing in the internal evidence that appears 
to throw any doubt on the authorship. The 
writer clearly prefers Spartan to Athenian insti- 
tutions. 10. The De Vectigalibas, a treatise on 
the Revenues of Athens {Uopoi fj nepl Hpocoduv) 
is designed to show how the public revenue of 
Athens may be improved. 11. The Memorabilia 
of Socrates, in four books (' Anouvrifiovevfiara 
SuKpuTovc), was written by Xenophon to defend 
the memory of his master against the charge 
of irreligion and of corrupting the Athenian 
youth. Socrates is represented as holding a 
series of conversations, in which he develops 
and inculcates moral doctrines in his peculiar 
fashion. It is entirely a practical work, such 
as we might expect from the practical nature 
of Xenophon's mind, and it professes to exhibit 
Socrates as he taught. It is true that it may 
only exhibit one side of the Socratic argument- 
ation, and that it does not deal in those subtle- 
ties and verbal disputes which occupy so large 
a space in some of Plato's dialogues. Xeno- 
phon was a hearer of Socrates, an admirer of 
his master, and anxious to defend his memory. 
The charges against Socrates for which he suf- 
fered were, that " Socrates was guilty of not 
believing in the gods which the state believed 
in, and of introducing other new daemons (Jat- 
uovia) : he was also guilty of corrupting the 
youth." Xenophon replies to these two charges 
specifically ; and he then goes on to show what 
Socrates's mode of life was. The whole treatise 
is intended to be an answer to the charge for 
which Socrates was executed, and it is, there- 
fore, in its nature, not intended to be a complete 
exhibition of Socrates. That it is a genuine pic- 
ture of the man is indisputable, and it is the most 
valuable memorial that we have of the practical 
philosophy of Socrates. 12. The Apology of Soc- 
rates ('AnoXoyia 'Zunparavg irpdf rove diKaoTuc) 
is a short speech, containing the reasons which 
induced Socrates to prefer death to life. It is 
not a first-rate performance, and is considered 
Dy some critics not to have been written by 
Xenophon. 13. The Symposium (Xvunoaiov), 
or Banquet of Philosophers, in which Xenophon 
delineates the character of Socrates. The 
speakers are supposed to meet at the house of 
Callias, a rich Athenian, at the celebration of 
the great Panathenaea. Socrates and others 
are the speakers. The piece is interesting as 
a picture of an Athenian drinking party, and of 
the amusement and conversation with which 
it was diversified. The nature of love and 
friendship is discussed. 14. The Hicro ('lepuv 
i) TvpawLKoc) is a dialogue between King Hiero 
and Simonides, in which the king speaks of the 
dangers and difficulties incident to an exalted 
station, and the superior happiness of a private 
man. The poet, on the other hand, enumerates 
the advantages which the possession of power 
gives, and the means which it offers of obliging 



and doing services. 15. GEconomicus (Otnovop.- 
inoc) is a dialogue between Socrates and Crito- 
bulus, in which Socrates gives instruction in 
the art called CEconomic, which relates to the 
administration of a household and of a man's 
property. This is one of the best treatises of 
Xenophon. All antiquity and all modern writ- 
ers agree in allowing Xenophon great merit 
as a writer of a plain, simple, perspicuous, and 
unaffected style. His mind was not adapted 
for philosophical speculation : he looked to the 
practical in all things ; and the basis of his 
philosophy was a strong belief in a divine me- 
diation in the government of the world. The 
best edition of Xenophon's complete works is 
by Schneider, Lips., 1815, 6 vols. 8vo, [of which 
the first, second, and fourth volumes have been 
re-edited and much improved by Bornemann, 
containing, the first, Cyropadia, Leipzig, 1838 ; 
the second, Anabasis, 1825; the fourth, Memora- 
bilia, 1829 ; and the sixth, containing the Opus- 
cula politica, ,equestria, venatica, by Sauppe, 1838 : 
the best separate editions of the more important 
works are, of the Cyropaidia, by Poppo, Leip- 
zig, 1821, and by Jacobitz, Leipzig, 1843; of 
the Anabasis, by Poppo, Leipzig, 1827, and by 
Kruger, Halle, 1826 ; of the Memorabilia, by 
Kiihner, Gotha, 1841 ; of the Historia Grceca, 
from the text of Dindorf, with selected note,s, 
at the University Press, Oxford, 1831 : in addi- 
tion may be mentioned, as useful in the study of 
Xenophon, Sturz's Lexicon Xenophonteum, 4 
vols. 8vo, 1801-1804.J— 2. The Ephesian, the 
author of a romance, still extant, entiled Ephe- 
siaca, or the Loves of Anthia and Abrocomas 
('E^ecrta/ca, ra Kara 'Avdiav nai 'A6poKo/njv). The 
style of the work is simple, and the story is 
conducted without confusion, notwithstanding 
the number of personages introduced. The ad- 
ventures are of a very improbable kind. The 
age when Xenophon lived is uncertain. He is 
probably the oldest of the Greek romance writ- 
ers. The best editions of his work are by 
Peerlkamp, Harlem, 1818, and by Passow, Lips., 
1833. 

Xerxes (aip^nc). 1. King of Persia B.C. 
485-465. The name is said by Herodotus (vi., 
98) to signify the warrior, but it is probably the 
same word as the Zend ksathra and the San- 
crit kshatra, " a king." Xerxes was the son of 
Darius and Atossa. Darius was married twice. 
By his first wife, the daughter of Gobryas, he 
had three children before he was raised to the 
throne ; and by his second wife, Atossa, the 
daughter of Cyrus, he had four children after 
he had become king. Artabazanes, the eldest 
son of the former marriage, and Xerxes, the 
eldest son of the latter, each laid claim to the 
succession; but- Darius decided in favor ot 
Xerxes, no doubt through the influence of his 
mother Atossa, who completely ruled Darius. 
Xerxes succeeded his father at the beginning of 
485. Darius had died in the midst of his prep- 
arations against Greece, which had been inter- 
rupted by the revolt of the Egyptians. The 
first care of Xerxes was to reduce the latter 
people to subjection. He accordingly invaded 
Egypt at the beginning of the second year of 
his reign (B.C. 484), compelled the people again 
to submit to the Persian yoke, and then re- 
turned to Persia, leaving his brother Achte- 

947 



XERXES. 

menes governor of Egypt. The next four years 
were devoted to preparations for the invasion 
of Greece. In the spring of 480 he set out from 
Sard is on his memorable expedition against 
Greece. He crossed the Hellespont by a bridge 
of boats, and continued his march through the 
Thracian Chersonese till he reached the plain 
of Doriscus, which is traversed by the River 
Hebrus. Here he resolved to number both his 
land and naval forces. Herodotus has left us a 
most minute and interesting catalogue of the 
nations comprising this mighty army, with their 
various military equipments and different modes 
of fighting. The land forces contained forty- 
six nations. (Herod., vii., 61, foil.) In his 
march through Thrace and Macedonia, Xerxes 
received a still further accession of strength ; 
and when he reached Thermopylae, the land and 
sea forces amounted to two million, six hundred 
and forty-one thousand, six hundred and ten 
fighting men. This does not include the at- 
tendants, the slaves, the crews of the provision- 
ships, &c, which, according to the supposition 
of Herodotus, were more in number than the 
fighting men ; but, supposing them to have been 
equal, the total number of male persons who 
accompanied Xerxes to Thermopylae reach the 
astounding sum of five million, two hundred 
and eighty-three thousand, two hundred and 
twenty ! Such a vast number must be dis- 
missed as incredible ; but, considering that this 
army was the result of a maximum of effort 
throughout the empire, and that provisions had 
been collected for three years before along the 
line of march, we may well believe that the 
numbers of Xerxes were greater than were ever 
assembled in ancient times, or perhaps at any 
known epoch of history. After the review of 
Doriscus, Xerxes continued his march through 
Thrace. On reaching Acanthus, near the isth- 
mus of Athos, Xerxes left his fleet, which re- 
ceived orders to sail through the canal that had 
been previously dug across the isthmus — and 
of which the remains are still visible (vid. 
Athos) — and await his arrival at Therme, aft- 
erward called Thessalonica. After joining his 
fleet at Therme, Xerxes marched through Mac- 
edonia and Thessaly without meeting with any 
opposition till he reached Thermopylae. Here 
the Greeks resolved to make a stand. Leoni- 
das, king of Sparta, conducted a land force to 
Thermopylae ; and his colleague Eurybiades 
sailed with the Greek fleet to the north of Eu- 
boea, and took up his position on the northern 
coast, which faced Magnesia, and was called 
Artemisium from the temple of Artemis be- 
longing to the town of Hestiaea. Xerxes ar- 
rived in safety with his land forces before Ther- 
mopylae, but his fleet was overtaken by a vio- 
lent storm and hurricane off" the coast of Sepias 
in Magnesia, by which at least four hundred 
ships of war were destroyed, as well as an im- 
mense number of transports. Xerxes attempt- 
ed to force his way through the Pass of Ther- 
mopylae, but his troops were repulsed again and 
again by Leonidas ; till a Malian, of the name 
of Ephialtes, showed the Persians a pass over 
the mountains of CEta, and thus enabled them 
to fall on the rear of the Greeks. Leonidas and 
his Spartans disdained to fly, and were all slain. 
Vid. Leonidas. On the same days on which 
948 



XIPHILINUS. 

Leonidas was fighting with the land forces of 
Xerxes, the Greek ships at Artemisium attack- 
ed the Persian fleet. In the first battle the s 
Greeks had the advantage, and in the following f 
night the Persian ships suffered still more from I 
a violent storm. Two days afterward the con- |i 
test was renewed, and both sides fought with 
the greatest courage. Although the Greeks at | 
the close still maintained their position, and had 8 
destroyed a great number of the enemy's ships, 
yet their own loss was considerable, and half p 
the Athenian ships were disabled. Under these 
circumstances, the Greek commanders aban 
doned Artemisium and retired to Salamis, oppo- 
site the southwest coast of Attica. It was now | 
too late to send an army into Boeotia, and Attica 
thus lay exposed to the full vengeance of the 
invader. The Athenians removed their wom- 
en, children, and infirm persons to Salamis, 
iEgina, and Troezen. Meantime Xerxes march 1 
ed through Phocis and Bceotia, and at length 
reached Athens. About the same time that 
Xerxes entered Athens, his fleet arrived in the 
bay of Phalerum. He now resolved upon an i 
engagement with the Greek fleet. The history , 
of this memorable battle, of the previous dis- i 
sensions among the Greek commanders, and of ! 
the glorious victory of the Greeks at the last, j 
is related elsewhere. Vid. Themistocles. Xerx- 
es witnessed the battle from a lofty seat, which j 
was erected for him on the shores of the main ' 
land, on one of the declivities of Mount JCga- 1 
leos, and thus beheld with his own eyes the de- i 
feat and dispersion of his mighty armament, j 
Xerxes now became alarmed for his own safe- i 
ty, and resolved to leave Greece immediately. I 
He was confirmed in his resolution by Mardo- p 
nius, who undertook to complete the conquest 
with three hundred thousand of his troops. 
Xerxes left Mardonius the number of troops j 
which he requested, and with the remainder 
set out on his march homeward. He reached 
the Hellespont in forty-five days from the time 
of his departure from Attica. On arriving at 
the Hellespont, he found the bridge of boats de- 
stroyed by a storm, and he crossed over to Asia 
by ship. He entered Sardis toward the end of 
the year 480. In the following year, 479, the |1 
war was continued in Greece ; but Mardonius 
was defeated at Plataeae by the combined forces 
of the Greeks, and on the same day another i 
victory was gained over the Persians at My- 
cale in Ionia. Next year, 478, the Persians lost 
their last possession in Europe by the capture 
of Sestos on the Hellespont. Thus the strug- 
gle was virtually brought to an end, though the 
war still continued for several years longer. 1 
We know little more of the personal history of 
Xerxes. He was murdered in 465, after a reign 
of twenty years, by Artabanus, who aspired to | 
become king of Persia. Xerxes was succeed 
ed by his son Abtaxerxes I. — II. The only le- 
gitimate son of Artaxerxes L, succeeded his ! 
father as King of Persia in 425, but was mur- 
dered after a short reign of only two months by 
his half-brother Sogdianus, who thus became 
king. 

Xiphiunus (EiQMvoc), of Trapezus, was a 
monk at Constantinople, and made an abridg- 
ment of Dion Cassius from the thirty-sixth to 
the eightieth book, at the command of the Em- 



XIPHONIa. 



ZALEUCUS. 



peror Michael VII. Ducas, who reigned from 
A.D. 1071 to 1078. The work is executed with 
carelessness, and is only of value as preserving 
the main facts of the original, the greater part 
of which is lost. It is printed along with Dion 
Cassius. 

Xiphonia (Sapuvia : now Capo di S. Croat), a 

omontory on the eastern coast of Sicily, above 
Syracuse, with a harbor (JZityuveioe Xi/xt/v). 

Xoi's or Choi's (Soi'f, E<%, Xoi'f), an ancient 
city of Lower Egypt, north of Lcontopolis, on 
an island of the Nile, in the Nomos Sebennyti- 
cus, the seat, at one time, of a dynasty of Egyp- 
tian kings. It appears to have entirely perished 
under the Roman empire, and its site is very 
doubtful. Some identify it with the Papremis 
of Herodotus. 

Xuthus (Sovdoc), son of Hellen by the nymph 
Orseis, and a brother of Dorus and ,-Eolus. He 
was king of Peloponnesus, and the husband of 
Greusa, the daughter of Erechtheus, by whom he 
became the father of Achaeus and Ion. Others 
state that after the death of his father Hellen, 
Xuthus was expelled from Thessaly by his 
brothers, and went to Athens, where he mar- 
ried the daughter of Erechtheus. After the 
death of Erechtheus, Xuthus, being chosen ar- 
bitrator, adjudged the kingdom to his eldest 
brother-in-law Cecrops, in consequence of which 
he was expelled by the other sons of Erech- 
theus, and settled in JSgialus in Peloponnesus. 
• Xyline, a town of Pisidia, between Corbasa 
and Termessus, mentioned by Livy (xxxviii., 

15). , 

Xynia or XynLe {Bvvla : Evvtsve : now Tau- 
kli), a town of Thessaly, in the district of Phthi- 
otis, east of the lake of the same name (tj Bvviac 
Mfivri : now Nizero or Dereli). 

Xypete (Evnerr] : BvnsTatuv, avnereuv, avtte- 
laiuvevc, Svirerevc, Evntrioc), said to have been 
anciently called Troja, a ctemus of Attica be- 
longing to the tribe Cecropis, near Piraeus. 

Z. 

Zabatus (ZdSarof). Vid. Lycus, No. 5. 

[Zabdicene, a district in Mesopotamia, in 
which was a city named Zabda or Bezabda.] 

Zabe (Z<t6)?), a name applied, under the later 
emperors, to the southern part of Numidia, as 
far as the border of the Great Desert. 

[Zabus, a river of Assyria, called by the Mac- 
edonians Caprus. Vid. Caprus.] 

Zacynthus (Zukvv8oc : Zanvvdios, Zacynthi- 
us : now Zante), an island in the Ionian Sea, 
off the coast of Elis, about forty miles in cir- 
cumference. It contained a large and flourish- 
ing town of the same name upon the eastern 
coast, the citadel of which was called Psophis. 
There are two considerable chains of mount- 
ains in the island. The ancient writers men- 
tion Mount Elatus, which is probably the same 
as the modern Scopo in the southeast of the isl- 
and, and which rises to the height of one thou- 
sand five hundred and nine feet. Zacynthus 
was celebrated in antiquity for its pitch wells, 
which were visited by Herodotus, and which 
still supply a large quantity of-bitumen. About 
one hundred tons of bitumen are at the present 
day annually extracted from these wells. Za- 
eynthus was inhabited by a Greek population at 



an early period. It is said to have derived its 
name from Zacynthus, a son of Dardanus, who 
colonized the island from Psophis in Arcadia; 
and, according to an ancient tradition, the Za- 
cynthians founded the town of Saguntum in 
Spain. Vid. Saguntum. The island is frequent- 
ly mentioned by Homer, who speaks of it as the 
" woody Zacynthus." It was afterward colo- 
nized by Acheeans from Peloponnesus. It form- 
ed part of the maritime empire of Athens, and 
continued faithful to the Athenians during the 
Peloponnesian war. At a later time it was sub- 
ject to the Macedonian monarchs, and on the 
conquest of Macedonia by the Romans passed 
into the hands of the latter. It is now one of 
the Ionian islands under the protection of Great 
Britain. 

Zadracarta (ZafipaKapra), one of the capital 
cities and royal residences in Hyrcania, lay at 
the northern foot of the chief pass through 
Mount Coronus. (Compare Tap^e.) 

Zagreus (Zaypcvc), a surname of the mystic 
Dionysus {biovvaos x^ovloc), whom Zeus (Ju- 
piter), in the form of a dragon, is said to have 
begotten by Persephone (Proserpina), before 
she was carried off by Pluto. He was torn to 
pieces by the Titans ; and Athena (Minerva) 
carried his heart to Zeus (Jupiter). 

Zagros or -us (6 Zdypog and to Zaypiov opoc, 
now Mountains of Kurdistan and Louristan), the 
general name for the range of mountains form- 
ing the southeastern continuation of the Tau- 
rus, and the eastern margin of the Tigris and 
Euphrates valley, from the southwestern side 
of the Lake Arsissa (now Van) in Armenia, to 
the northeastern side of the head of the Per- 
sian Gulf, and dividing Media from Assyria and 
Susiana. More specifically, the name Zagros 
was applied to the central part of the chain, the 
northern part being called the mountains of the 
Cordueni or Gordyasi, and the southern part 
Parachoathras. 

Zaitha or Zautha (Zavdu), a town of Meso- 
potamia, on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, 
twenty Roman miles south of Circesium, re- 
markable as the place at which a monument 
was erected to the murdered Emperor Gordian 
by his soldiers. 

Zaleucus {ZdlevKoc), the celebrated lawgiver 
of the Epizephyrian Locrians, is said by some 
to have been originally a slave, but is described 
by others as a man of good family. He could 
not, however, have been a disciple of Pythago- 
ras, as some writers state, since he lived up- 
ward of one hundred years before Pythagoras. 
The date of the legislation of Zaleucus is as- 
signed to B.C. 660. His code is stated to have 
been the first collection of written laws that the 
Greeks possessed. The general character of 
his laws was severe ; but they were observed 
for a long period by the Locrians, who obtained, 
in consequence, a high reputation for legal or- 
der. Among other enactments, we are told that 
the penalty of adultery was the loss of the eyes. 
There is a celebrated story of the son of Zaleu- 
cus having become liable to this penalty, and 
the father himself suffering the loss of one eye 
that his son might not be utterly blinded. It is 
further related that among his laws was one 
forbidding any citizen, under penalty of death, to 
enter the senate house in arms. On one occa 

949 



ZALMOXIS. 



ZENO. 



sion, however, on a sudden emergency in time 
of war, Zaleucus transgressed nis own law, 
which was remarked to him by one present ; 
whereupon he fell upon his own sword, declar- 
ing that he wou d himself vindicate the law. 
Other authors tell the same story of Charon- 
das, or of Diocles. t 

Zalmoxis or Zamolxis (Zufyofic, Zd.uoAfjf), 
said to have been so called from the bear's skin 
(Zdfyiff) in which he was clothed as soon as he 
was born. He was, according to the story cur- 
rent among the Greeks on the Hellespont, a 
Getan, who had been a slave to Pythagoras in 
Samos, but was manumitted, and acquired not 
only great wealth, but large stores of knowledge 
from Pythagoras, and from the Egyptians, whom 
he visited in the course of his travels. He re- 
turned among the Getae, introducing the civili- 
zation and the religious ideas which he had 
gained, especially regarding the immortality of 
the soul. He was said to have lived in a sub- 
terraneous cave for three years, and after that 
to have again made his appearance among the 
Getae. Herodotus inclines to place the age of 
Zalmoxis a long time before Pythagoras, and 
expresses a doubt not only about the story it- 
self, but as to whether Zalmoxis were a man, 
or an indigenous Getan deity. The latter ap- 
pears to have been the real state of the case. 
The Getae believed that the departed went to 
him. 

Zama Regia (Zdfia : Zamensis : now Zowa- 
reen, southeast of Kaff), a strongly-fortified city 
in the interior of Numidia, on the borders of the 
Carthaginian territory. It was the ordinary 
residence of King Juba, who had here his treas- 
ury and his harem. It was the scene of one of 
the most important battles in the history of the 
world, that in which Hannibal was defeated by 
Scipio, and the second Punic war was ended, 
B.C. 202. Strabo tells us that it was destroyed 
by the Romans ; but if so, it must have been 
restored, for we find it mentioned under the em- 
pire as a colony and a bishop's see. Pliny and 
Vitruvius speak of a fountain in its neighbor- 
hood. There were unimportant places of the 
same name in Cappadocia and Mesopotamia. 

Zancle. Vid. Messana. 

Zapaortene, a city in the southeast of Par- 
thia, in the mountains of the Zapaorteni. 

Zaradrus (now Sutlcj), a river of Northern 
India, now the southern boundary of the Punjab. 
It rises from two principal sources beyond the 
Himalaya, and falls into the Hyphasis (now 
Gharra). 

Zarangye or -i, or Sarang^e [Zapayyoi, 2a- 
payyai), a people in the north of Drangiana, on 
the confines of Aria. The close resemblance 
of their name to the generic name of all the 
people of Drangiana, that is, Drangae, suggests 
a doubt whether they ought to be specifically 
distinguished from them. 

Zarax or Zarex (Zupaf, Zup^). 1. The cen- 
tral part of the chain of mountains, extending 
along the eastern coast of Laconia from Mount 
Parnon, on the frontiers of Argolis, down to the 
promontory Malea. — 2. (Now Jcraka), a town on 
the eastern coast of Laconia, at the foot of the 
mountain o.'the same name. 

Zariaspe. Vid. Bactra. 

Zariaspis, an earlier, probably the native 
950 



name for the river on which Bactra stood, and 
which is usually called Bactrus. Vid. Bactra 
The people on its banks were called Zariaspae. 

Zela or Ziela (to Zrfka : now Zilleh), a city 
in the south of Pontus, not far south of Amasia, 
and four days' journey east of Tavium. It 
stood on an artificial hill, and was strongly for- 
tified. Near it was an ancient and famous tem- 
ple of Anaitis and other Persian deities, in which 
great religious festivals were held. The sur- 
rounding district was called Zeletis or Zelitis. 
At Zela the Roman general Valerius Triarius 
was defeated by Mithradates ; but the city is 
more celebrated for another great battle, that in 
which Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces, and of 
which he wrote this dispatch to Rome : Veni : 
Vidi : Vici. 

[Zela'rchcs (Z^apxoc), an inspector of the 
market (ayopavoixog) among the Greek mercena- 
ries of Cyrus, attacked by the soldiers for some 
real or imaginary misconduct in his official duty 
while they were at Trapezus ; avoided the at- 
tack, and escaped from Trapezus by sea ] 

Zelasium, a Thessalian town in the district 
Phthiotis, of uncertain site. 

Zelia (ZiTieia), an ancient city of Mysia, at 
the foot of Mount Ida, and on the River ^Ese- 
pus, eighty stadia from its mouth, belonging to 
the territory of Cyzicus. At the time of Alex- 
ander's invasion the head-quarters of the Per- 
sian army were fixed here. 

Zelus (Zijloc), the personification of zeal or 
strife, is described as a son of Pallas and Styx, 
and a brother of Nice. 

Zeno, Zenon (Zrjvuv). 1. The founder of the 
Stoic philosophy, was a native of Citium in Cy- 
prus, and the son of Mnaseas. He began at an 
early age to study philosophy through the writ- 
ings of the Socratic philosophers, which his fa- 
ther was accustomed to bring back from Athens 
when he went thither on trading voyages. At 
the age of twenty-two, or, according to others, 
of thirty years, Zeno was shipwrecked in the 
neighborhood of Piraeus ; whereupon he was led 
to settle in Athens, and to devote himself en- 
tirely to the study of philosophy. According to 
some writers, he lost all his property in the ship- 
wreck ; according to others, he still retained a 
large fortune j but, whichever of these accounts 
is correct, his moderation and contentment be 
came proverbial, and a recognition of his virtues 
shines through even the ridicule of the comic 
poets. The weakness of his health is said to 
have first determined him to live rigorously and 
simply ; but his desire to make himself inde- 
pendent of all external circumstances seems to 
have been an additional motive, and to have led 
him to attach himself to the cynic Crates. In 
opposition to the advice of Crates, he studied 
under Stilpo of the Megaric school ; and he sub- 
sequently received instruction from the two 
other contemporary Megarics, Diodorus Cronus 
and Philo, and from the Academics Xenocrates 
and Polemo. The period which Zeno thus de- 
voted to study is said to have extended to 
twenty years. At its close, and after he had 
developed his peculiar philosophical system, he 
opened his school in the porch adorned with the 
paintings of Polygnotus (Stoa Paalc), which, at 
an earlier time, had been a place in which poets 
met. From this place his disciples were called 



ZENOBIA. 



ZENODOTUS. 



j Stoics. Among the warm admirers of Zeno was 
Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia. The 
Athenians likewise placed the greatest confi- 
dence in him, and displayed the greatest esteem 
for him ; for, although the well-known story that 
they deposited the keys of the fortress with him, 
as the most trustworthy man, may be a later 
invention, there seems no reason for doubting 
the authenticity of the decree of the people by 
which a golden crown and a public burial in the 
Ceramicus were awarded to him. The Athe- 
nian citizenship, however, he is said to have de- 
clined, that he might not become unfaithful to 
his native land, where, in return, he was highly 
esteemed. We do not know the year either of 
Zeno's birth or death. He is said to have pre- 
sided over his school for fifty-eight years, and 
to have died at the age of ninety-eight. He is 
said to have been still alive in the one hundred 
and thirtieth Olympiad (B.C. 260). Zeno wrote 
numerous works ; but the writings of Chrysip- 
pus and the later Stoics seem to have obscured 
those of Zeno, and even the warm adherents of 
the school seem seldom to have gone back to 
the books of its founder. Hence it is difficult 
to ascertain how much of the later Stoic philos- 
ophy really belongs to Zeno. — 2. The Eleatic 
philosopher, was a native of Elea (Velia) in 
Italy, son of Teleutagoras, and the favorite dis- 
ciple of Parmenides. He was born about B.C. 
488, and at the age of forty accompanied Par- 
menides to Athens. Vid. Parmenides. Heap- 
pears to have resided some time at Athens, and 
is said to have unfolded his doctrines to men 
like Pericles and Callias for the price of one 
hundred minae. Zeno is said to have taken part 
in the legislation of Parmenides, to the mainte- 
nance of which the citizens of Elea had pledged 
themselves every year by an oath. His love 
of freedom is shown by the courage with which 
he exposed his life in order to deliver his native 
country from a tyrant. Whether he perished 
in the attempt, or survived the fall of the tyrant, 
is a point on which the authorities vary. They 
also state the name of the tyrant differently. 
Zeno devoted all his energies to explain and 
develop the philosophical system of Parmeni- 
des. Vid. Parmenides. — 3. An Epicurean phi- 
losopher, a native of Sidon, was a contemporary 
of Cicero, who heard him when at Athens. He 
was sometimes termed Coryphaus Epicureorum. 
He seems to have been noted for the disrespect- 
ful terms in which he spoke of other philoso- 
phers. For instance, he called Socrates the At- 
tic buffoon. He was a disciple of Apollodorus, 
and is described as a clear-headed thinker and 
perspicuous expounder of his views. 

Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. After the death 
of her husband Odenathus, whom, according to 
some accounts, she assassinated (A.D. 266), she 
assumed the imperial diadem as regent for her 
sons, and discharged all the active duties of a 
sovereign. But not content with enjoying the 
independence conceded by Gallienus and toler- 
ated by Claudius, she sought to include all Syr- 
ia, Asia, and Egypt within the limits of her 
away, and to make good the title which she 
claimed of Queen of the East. By this rash 
ambition she lost both her kingdom and her lib- 
erty. She was defeated by Aurelian, taken pris- 
oner on the capture of Palmyra (273), and car- 



ried to Rome, where she adorned the triumph 
of her conqueror (274). Her life was spared by 
Aurelian, and she passed the remainder of her 
years with her sons in the vicinity of Tibur 
(now Tivoli). Longinus lived at her court, and 
was put to death on the capture of Palmyra. 
Vid. Longinus. 

Zenobia (Zjjvo6ia : now Chelebi or Zelebi), a 
city of Chalybonitis, in Syria, on the west bank 
of the Euphrates, three days' journey both from 
Sura and from Circesium. It was founded by 
Zenobia. 

Zenobius (ZrjvoGcoc), lived at Rome in the 
time of Hadrian, and was the authoi of a col- 
lection of proverbs in Greek, which have come 
down to us. In this collection the proverbs are 
arranged alphabetically, and divided into hund- 
reds. The last division is incomplete, the to- 
tal number collected being five hundred and 
fifty-two. It is printed in the collection of 
Schottus {HapoLfitat 'FM^viKai, Antwerp, 1612), 
[in the Tarozmiographi Grceci of Gaisford, Ox- 
ford, 1836, and of Leutsch and Schneidewin, 
Gottingen, 1839.] 

Zenodorus, a Greek artist, who made for Ne- 
ro the colossal statue of that emperor, which he 
set up in front of the Golden House, and which 
was afterward dedicated afresh by Vespasian 
as a statue of the Sun. It was one hundred 
and ten feet in height. 

Zenodotium or -i\ ("ZtivoSotwv, Zrivodoria), a 
fortress in the north of Mesopotamia, on the 
small tributary of the Euphrates called Bilecha, 
a little above Nicephorium, and below Ichnee. 
It was a Macedonian settlement, and the only 
one of the Greek cities of Mesopotamia which 
did not revolt from the Parthians at the ap- 
proach of Crassus. 

Zenodotus (Zrjvoioroc). 1. Of Ephesus, a 
celebrated grammarian, was the first superin- 
tendent of the great library at Alexandrea, and 
flourished under Ptolemy Philadelphus about 
B.C. 208. Zenodotus was employed by Phila- 
delphus, together with his two great contempo- 
raries, Alexander the yEtolian, and Lycophron 
the Chalcidian, to collect and revise all the 
Greek poets. Alexander, we are told, under- 
took the task of collecting the tragedies, Lyco- 
phron the comedies, and Zenodotus the poems 
of Homer and of the other illustrious poets. 
Zenodotus, however, devoted his chief atten- 
tion to the Iliad and Odyssey. Hence he is 
called the first Reviser (Aiopdr/Trjc) of Homer, 
and his recension (Aiopdaaic) of the Iliad and 
Odyssey obtained the greatest celebrity. The 
corrections which Zenodotus applied to the 
text of Homer were of three kinds. 1. He ex- 
punged verses. 2. He marked them as spuri- 
ous, but left them in his copy. 3. He intro- 
duced new readings, or transposed or altered 
verses. The great attention which Zenodotus 
paid to the language of Homer caused a new 
epoch in the grammatical study of the Greek 
language. The results of his investigations re- 
specting the meaning and the use of words 
were contained in two works which ae pub- 
lished under the title of a Glossary (Tltxsaai), 
and a Dictionary of barbarous or foreign phra- 
ses. — 2. Of Alexandrea, a grammarian, lived 
after Aristarchus, whose recension of the Ho- 
meric poems he attacked. 

951 



ZEPHYRA. 



ZEUS. 



Zephyra. Vid. Halicarnassus. 

ZephyrIum (Zefvpiov, SC. (iKpcjTijpiov, i.e., the 
western promontory), the name of several prom- 
ontories of the ancient world, not all of which, 
however, faced the west. The chief of them 
were the following : I. In Europe. 1. (Now 
Capo di Brussa.no), a promontory in Bruttium, 
forming the southeastern extremity of the coun- 
try, from which the Locri, who settled in the 
neighborhood, are said to have obtained the 
name of Epizephyrii. Vid. p. 445, b. — 2. A prom- 
ontory on the western coast of Cyprus. — II. In 
Asia. 1. In Pontus (now Cape Zefreli), a head- 
land west of Tripolis, with a fort and harbor 
of the same name. — 2. Vid. Caria. — 3. In Cili- 
cia (now probably Cape Cavaliere), a far-pro- 
jecting promontory, west of Promontorium 
Sarpedon. Some make it the headland east of 
Promontorium Sarpedon, and just south of the 
mouth of the Calycadnus, which Polybius, Ap- 
pian, and Livy call by the same name as the 
river, Calycadnus. — III. In Africa (now Kasser 
Maarah), a headland on the northeastern coast 
of Cyrena'ica, west of Darnis. 

Zephyrus (Zityvpog), the personification of 
the west wind, is described by Hesiod as a son 
of Astraeus and Eos (Aurora). Zephyrus and 
Boreas are frequently mentioned together by 
Homer, and both dwelt together in a palace in 
Thrace. By the Harpy Podarge, Zephyrus be- 
came the father of the horses Xanthus and 
Balius, which belonged to Achilles ; but he 
was married to Chloris, whom he had carried 
off by force, and by whom he had a son Car- 
pus. 

[Zerna (Zernensis), a city of Dacia, a Ro- 
man colony, situated a short distance east of 
the Pons Trajani : it is sometimes called Colo- 
nia Zernensium.'] 

Zerynthus {ZfipvvBoc : Znpvvdioc), a town of 
Thrace, in the territory of ^Enos, with a temple 
of Apollo and a cave of Hecate, who are hence 
called Zeryntkins and Zerynthia respectively. 
Some writers, however, place the Zerynthian 
cave of Hecate in Samothrace. 

Zetes (Zr/rric) and Calais (Kakalc), sons of 
Boreas and Orithyia, frequently called the Bo- 
readje, are mentioned among the Argonauts, 
and are described as winged beings. Their sis- 
ter Cleopatra, who was married to Phineus, 
king of Salmydessus, had been thrown with her 
sons into prison by Phineus at the instigation 
of his second wife. Here she was found by 
Zetes and Calais, when they arrived at Salmy- 
dessus in the Argonautic expedition. They lib- 
erated their sister and his children, gave the 
kingdom to the latter, and sent the second wife 
of Phineus to her own country, Scythia. Oth- 
ers relate that the Boreada? delivered Phineus 
from the Harpies ; for it had been foretold that 
the Harpies might be killed by the sons of Bo- 
reas, but that the sons of Boreas must die if 
they should not be able to overtake the Har- 
pies. Others, again, state that the Boreadae per- 
ished in their pursuit of the Harpies, or that 
Hercules killed them with his arrows near the 
island of Tenos. Different stories were rela- 
ted to account for the anger of Hercules against 
the Boreadae. Their tombs were said to be in 
Tenos, adorned with sepulchral stelae, one of 
which moved whenever the wind blew from the 
952 



north. Calais is also mentioned as the founder 
of the Campanian town of Cales. 

Zethus {Zrjdoc), son of Jupiter (Zeus) and 
Antiope, and brother of Amphion. For details, j 
vid. Amphion. 

Zeugis, Zeugitana Regio (j? Zevyiravf) : 
northern part of Tunis), the northern district 1 
of Africa Propria. Vid. Africa. 

Zeugma {Zevyjia, i.e., Junction: now probably 
Rumkaleh), a city of Syria, on the borders of ' 
Commagene and Cyrrhestice, built by Seleucus 
Nicator, on the western bank of the Euphrates, 
at a point where the river was crossed by a 
bridge of boats, which had been constructed by 
Alexander the Great : hence the name. After- 
ward, when the ford of Thapsacus became im- 
passable for travellers, on account of the hordes | 
of Arabs who infested the banks of the Lower 
Euphrates, the bridge at Zeugma gave the only 
passage over the river. 

Zeus (Zevc), called Jupiter by the Romans, 
the greatest of the Olympian gods, was a son 
of Cronos (Saturn) and Rhea, a brother of Po- I 
seidon (Neptune), Hades (Pluto), Hestia (Ves- 
ta), Demeter (Ceres), Hera (Juno), and was also 
married to his sister Hera (Juno). When Zeus 
(Jupiter) and his brothers distributed among 1 
themselves the government of the world by lot, 
Poseidon (Neptune) obtained the sea, Hades 
(Pluto) the lower world, and Zeus (Jupiter) the 
heavens and the upper regions, but the earth 
became common to all. According to the Ho- 
meric account, Zeus (Jupiter) dwelt on Mount 
Olympus in Thessaly, which was believed to 
penetrate with its lofty summit into heaven it- 
self. He is called the father of gods and men, I 
the most high and powerful among the immor- 
tals, whom all others obey. He is the supreme 
ruler, who, with his counsel, manages every 1 
thing; the founder of kingly power, and of law 
and of order, whence Dice, Themis, and Neme- 
sis are his assistants. For the same reason, he 
protects the assembly of the people (tlyopacoc), , 
the meetings of the council (/3ov?.alor), and as 
he presides over the whole state, so also over 
every house and family (epKeioe). He also j 
watched over the sanctity of the oath (bpKioc) 
and the laws of hospitality (&vioc), and pro- j 
tected suppliants (Ueo-ioc). He avenged those 
who were wronged, and punished those who 
had committed a crime, for he watched the do- 1 
ings and sufferings of all men (hnofwr). He 
was further the original source of all prophet- 
ic power, from whom all prophetic signs and 
sounds proceeded (wavofitpalor). Every thing 
good as well as bad comes from Zeus (Jupiter) ; 
according to his own choice, he assigns good oi 
evil to mortals ; and fate itself was subordinate 
to him. He is armed with thunder and light- 
ning, and the shaking of his aegis produces storm i 
and tempest : a number of epithets of Zeus 
(Jupiter) in the Homeric poems describe him 
as the thunderer, the gatherer of clouds, and 
the like. He was married to Hera (Juno), by 
whom he had two sons, Ares (Mars) and He 
phaestus (Vulcan), and one daughter, Hebe. 
Hera (Juno) sometimes acts as an independent 
divinity ; she is ambitious, and rebels against 
her lord, but she is nevertheless inferior to him, 
and is punished for her opposition ; his amours 
with other goddesses or mortal women are m> 



ZEUS 

concealed from her, though they generally rouse 
her jealousy and revenge. During the Trojan 
[ war, Zeus (Jupiter), at the request of Thetis, 
favored the Trojans, until Agamemnon repaired 
' the wrong he had done to Achilles. Zeus (Ju- 
piter), no doubt, was originally a god of a por- 
tion of nature. Hence the oak, with its eatable 
fruit, and the fertile doves, were sacred to him 
at Dodona and in Arcadia. Hence, also, rain, 
storms, and the seasons were regarded as his 
i work ; and hence, likewise, the Cretan stories 
of milk, honey, and the cornucopia. In the Ho- 
meric poems, however, this primitive character 
of a personification of certain powers of nature 
is already effaced to some extent, and the god 
appears as a political and national divinity, as 
the king and father of men, as the founder and 
protector of all institutions hallowed by law, 
custom, or religion. Hesiod also calls Zeus 
(Jupiter) the son of Cronos (Saturn) and Rhea, 
and the brother of Hestia (Vesta), Demeter 
(Ceres), Hera (Juno), Hades (Pluto), and Po- 
seidon (Neptune). Cronos (Saturn) swallowed 
his children immediately after their birth ; but 
when Rhea was pregnant with Zeus (Jupiter), 
she applied to Uranus (Ccelus) and Ge (Terra) 
to save the life of the child. Uranus (Crelus) 
! and Ge (Terra) therefore sent Rhea to Lyctos 
J in Crete, requesting her to bring up her child 
j there. Rhea accordingly concealed Zeus (Ju- 
piter) in a cave of Mount Mgmon, and gave to 
Cronos (Saturn) a stone wrapped up in cloth, 
which he swallowed in the belief that it was 
his son. Other traditions state that Zeus (Ju- 
piter) was born and brought up on Mount Dicte 
or Ida (also the Trojan Ida), Ithome in Messe- 
nia, Thebes in Boeotia, iEgion in Achaia, or 
Olenos in ^Etolia. According to the common 
account, however, Zeus (Jupiter) grew up in 
Crete. In the mean time, Cronos (Saturn), by 
a cunning device of Ge (Terra) or Metis, was 
made to bring up the children he had swal- 
lowed, and first of all the stone, which was 
afterward set up by Zeus (Jupiter) at Delphi. 
The young god now delivered the Cyclopes 
from the bonds with which they had been fet- 
tered by Cronos (Saturn), and they, in their 
gratitude, provided him with thunder and light- 
ening. On the advice of Ge (Terra), Zeus (Ju- 
piter) also liberated the hundred-armed Gigan- 
tes, Briareos, Cottus, and Gyes, that they might 
assist him in his fight against the Titans. The 
Titans were conquered and shut up in Tartarus, 
where they were henceforth guarded by the 
Hecatoncheires. Thereupon Tartarus and Ge 
(Terra) begot Typhoeus, who began a fearful 
struggle with Zeus (Jupiter), but was con- 
quered. Zeus (Jupiter) now obtained the do- 
minion of the world, and chose Metis for his 
wife. When she was pregnant with Athena 
(Minerva), he took the child out of her body 
and concealed it in his head, on the advice of 
Uranus (Coelus) and Ge (Terra), who told him 
that thereby he would retain the supremacy of 
the world ; for if Metis had given birth to a 
son, this son (so fate had ordained it) would 
have acquired the sovereignty. Afier this, Zeus 
(Jupiter) became the father of the Horae and 
Moerae by his second wife Themis ; of the 
Charites by Eurynome ; of Persephone (Proser- 
pina) by Demeter (Ceres) ; of the Muses by 



ZEUS>. 

Mnemosyne ; of Apollo and Artemis (Diana) by 
Leto (Latona) ; and of Hebe, Ares (Mars), and 
Ilithyia by Hera (Juno). Athena was born out of 
the head of Zeus (Jupiter) ; while Hera (Juno), 
on the other hand, gave birth to Hephaestus 
(Vulcan) without the co-operation of Zeus (Ju- 
piter). The family of the Cronidae accordingly 
embraces the twelve great gods of Olympus, 
Zeus (Jupiter, the head of them all), Poseidon 
(Neptune), Apollo, Ares (Mars), Hermes (Mer- 
cury), Hephaestus (Vulcan), Hestia (Vesta), De- 
meter (Ceres), Hera (Juno), Athena (Mvnerva), 
Aphrodite (Venus), and Artemis (Diana). These 
twelve Olympian gods, who in some places 
were worshipped as a body, were recognized 
not only by the Greeks, but were adopted also 
by the Romans, who, in particular, identified 
their Jupiter with the Greek Zeus. In survey- 
ing the different local traditions about Zeus, it 
would seem that originally there were several, 
or at least three, divinities which in their re- 
spective countries were supreme, but which in 
the course of time became united in the minds 
of the people into one great national divinity. 
We may accordingly speak of an Arcadian, Do- 
donaean, Cretan, and a national Hellenic Zeus. 
1. The Arcadian Zeus (Zsvc Avualoc) was born, 
according to the legends of the country, in Ar- 
cadia, either on Mount Parrhasium or on Mount 
Lycaeus. He was brought up there by the nymphs 
Thisoa, Neda, and Hagno. Lycaon, a son of 
Pelasgus, erected a temple to Zeus Lycaeus on 
Mount Lycaeus, and instituted the festival of the 
Lycea in honor of him. Vid. Lvc^us, Lycaon. 
No one was allowed to enter this sanctuary 
of Zeus Lycaeus on Mount Lycaeus. 2. The 
Dodonaan Zeus (Zeif Audaivaioc or ILeXaayiKoc) 
possessed the most ancient oracle in Greece, at 
Dodona in Epirus, from which he derived his 
name. At Dodona Zeus was mainly a prophetic 
god, and the oak tree was sacred to him ; but 
there, too, he was said to have been reared 
by the Dodonaean nymphs (Hyades). Respect- 
ing the Dodonaean oracle of Zeus, vid. Diet, 
of Anliq., art. Oraculum. 3. The Cretan Zeus 
(Zevc LinTaloc or KpnTaysvijc). We have al- 
ready given Hesiod's account of this god. He 
was brought up in a cave of Mount Dicte by 
the Curetes and the nymphs Adrastia and Ida, 
the daughters of Melisseus. They fed him with 
the milk of the goat Amalthea, and the bees of 
the mountain provided him with honey. Crete 
is called the island or nurse of the great Zeus, 
and his worship there appears to have been very 
ancient. 4. The national Hellenic Zeus, near 
whose temple at Olympia, in Elis, the great na- 
tional panegyris was celebrated once in four 
years. There, too, Zeus was regarded as ths 
father and king of gods and men, and as tha 
supreme god of the Hellenic nation. His statue 
there was executed by Phidias, a few years be 
fore the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war, the 
majestic and sublime idea of this statue having 
been suggested to the artist by the words of 
Homer (II., i., 527). Vid. Phidias. The Greek 
and Latin poets give to Zeus or Jupiter an im- 
mense number of epithets and surnames, which 
are derived partly from the places where he was 
worshipped, and partly from his powers and 
functions. The eagle, the oak, and the sum- 
mits of mountains were sacred to him, and his 

953 



I 



ZEUXIDAMUS. 



ZONARAS. 



sacrifices generally consisted of goats, bulls, 
and cows His usual attributes are the sceptre, 
eagle, thunderbolt, and a figure of Victory in 
his hand, and sometimes also a cornucopia. 
The Olympian Zeus sometimes wears a wreath 
of olive, and the Dodonaean Zeus a wreath of 
oak leaves. In works of art Zeus is generally 
represented as the omnipotent father and king 
of gods and men, according to the idea which 
had been embodied in the statue of the Olym- 
pian Zeus by Phidias. Respecting the Roman 
god, vid. Jupiter. 

Zeuxidamus (ZevS-idafio;). I. King of Sparta, 
and tenth of the Eurypontidae. He was grand- 
son of Theopompus, and father of Anaxidamus, 
who succeeded him. — 2. Son of Leotychides, 
king of Sparta. He was also named Cyniscus. 
He died before his father, leaving a son, Archi- 
damus II. 

Zeuxis (ZeOfjf), the celebrated Greek painter, 
who excelled all his contemporaries except Par- 
r hasius, was a native of Heraclea (probably of 
the city of this name on the Euxine), and flour- 
ished B.C. 424-400. He came to Athens soon 
after the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, 
when he had already achieved a great reputa- 
tion, although a young man. He passed some 
time in Macedonia, at the court of Archelaiis, 
for whom he decorated the royal palace at Pella 
with paintings, probably soon after 413. He 
must have spent some time in Magna Graecia, 
as we learn from the story respecting the pic- 
ture of Helen, which he painted for the city of 
Croton ; and it is also probable that he visited 
Sicily, as we are told that he gave away one 
of his pictures to the Agrigentines. His travels 
through Greece itself were no doubt extensive 
We find him at Olympia, where he made an os- 
tentatious display, before the eyes of all Greece, 
of the wealth which his art had brought him, 
by appearing in a robe embroidered with his 
own name in letters of gold. After acquiring 
a great fortune by the exercise of his art, he 
adopted the custom of giving away his pictures, 
because no adequate price could be set upon 
them. The time of his death is unknown. The 
master-piece of Zeuxis was his picture of Helen, 
in painting which he had as his models the five 
most beautiful virgins of Croton, whom he was 
allowed to select for this purpose from among 
all the virgins of the city. It was painted for 
the temple of Juno at Croton. This picture 
and its history were celebrated by many poets, 
who preserved the names of the five virgins 
upon whom the choice of Zeuxis fell. The ac- 
curate imitation of inanimate objects was a de- 
partment of the art which Zeuxis and his young- 
er rival Parrhasius appear to have carried al- 
most to perfection. The well-known story of 
the trial of skill in that species of painting be- 
tween these two artists, if not literally true, in^ 
dicates the opinion which was held in ancient 
times of their powers of imitation. In this con- 
test the picture of Zeuxis represented a bunch 
of grapes, so naturally painted that the birds 
flew at the picture to eat the fruit ; upon which 
the artist, confident in this proof of his success, 
calied upon his rival no longer to delay to draw 
aside the curtain and show his picture ; but the 
picture ol Parrhasius was the curtain itself, 
which Zeuxis had mistaken for real drapery. 
954 



On discovering his error, Zeuxis honorably 
yielded the palm to Parrhasius, saying that he 
himself had deceived birds, but Parrhasius an 
artist. Besides this accuracy of imitation, many 
of the works of Zeuxis displayed great dramatic 
power. This appears to have been especially 
the case with his Infant Hercules strangling the 
Serpent, where the chief force of the composi- 
tion consisted in the terror of Alcmena and Am- 
phitryon as they witnessed the struggle. An- 
other picture, in which he showed the same 
dramatic power, applied to a very different sub- 
ject, was his Female Hippocentaur, and which 
was lost in a shipwreck off Cape Malea, on its 
way to Rome, whither it had been sent by Sulla. 

ZiKLAG(2EKeA/la, Ee/ce^g), a town in the south- 
west of Palestine, belonging to the Philistines 
of Gath, whose king Achish gave it to David 
for a residence during his exile from the court 
of Saul. On David's accession to the kingdom, 
it was united to Judah. 

[Zilia, Zelis (Z^Aif), Zeles {ZeXr/c), Zelas 
or Zilis (now Ar-Zila), an ancient Punic city 
in Mauretania Tingitana, at the mouth of a river 
of the same name, south of Tingis ; after the 
time of Augustus, a Roman colony, with the ap- 
pellation Julia Constantia : according to Strabo, 
its inhabitants were transferred to a town in 
Spain. Vid. Traducta Julia.] 

Ziobetis ([not Zioberis as commonly written, 
vid. Zumpt ad Curt., vi., 10], now Jinjeran), a 
river of Parthia, [the same as the Stibcetes 
{Hti6olt7}c) of Diodorus, flows a short distance, 
then disappears under ground ; after a subter- 
ranean course of three hundred stadia it re- 
appears, and flows on in a broader current until 
it unites with the Ridagnus. Forbiger, follow- 
ing Mannert, considers the united stream the 
Choatres of Ammianus (now Adscki-Su).~] 

Zion. Vid. Jerusalem. 

Zoar or Tsoar, ZoXra or Zoaras <Z6ap, Z6- 
apa: LXX., Zi/yup and Zoyopa : now probably 
ruins in Ghor el Mezraa, on the Wady el Beraah), 
originally called Bela, a city on the southeast 
of the Dead Sea, belonging first to the Moabites, 
and afterward to the Arabs. In the time of 
Abraham it was the smallest of the " cities of 
the plain," and was saved, at the intercession 
of Lot, from the destruction which fell upon 
Sodom and Gomorrha. 

Zostium or Zceteum (Zo'itiov, Zo'ituov ■ Zol- 
rtievc), a town of Arcadia, in the district Eutre- 
sia, north of Megalopolis. 

Zoilus (ZwiAof), a grammarian, was a native 
of Amphipolis, and flourished in the time of 
Philip of Macedon. He was celebrated for the 
asperity with which he assailed Homer. He 
found fault with him principally for introducing 
fabulous and incredible stories in his poems. 
From the list that we have of his writings, it 
also appears that he attacked Plato and Isocra- 
tes. His name became proverbial for a captious 
and malignant critic. 

Zonaras, Joannes (Jluuwne 6 Zwvapas), a 
celebrated Byzantine historian and theologian, 
lived in the twelfth century under the emperors 
Alexus I. Comnenus and Calo- Joannes. Be- 
sides his theological works, there are still ex- 
tant, 1. Annalcs (xpovixov), in eighteen books, 
from the creation of the world to the death of 
Alexis in 1118. It is compiled from various 



ZONE. 



ZYGANTES. 



Gre.sk authors, whose very words Zonaras fre- 
quently retains. The earlier part is chiefly 
taken from Josephus ; and in the portion which 
relates to Roman history, he has, for the most 
part, followed Dion Cassius. In consequence 
of the latter circumstance, the Annals of Zona- 
ras are of great importance in studying the early 
history of Rome. Of the first twenty books of 
Dion Cassius we have nothing but the abstract 
of Zonaras ; and even of the later books, of 
which Xiphilinus has made a more full epitome, 
Zonaras has preserved many statements of 
Dion which are entirely omitted by Xiphilinus. 
The best editions are by Du Fresne du Cange, 
Paris, 1686, fol. ; and by Pinder, Bonn, 1841, 
8vo. 2. A Lexicon, edited by Tittmann, Lips., 
1808, 4to. 

Zone (Z6vn : Zuvatof ), a town of Thrace, on 
a promontory of the same name in the iEgean, 
where Orpheus is said to have sung. 

Zopyrus (Zunvpoc). 1. A distinguished Per- 
sian, son of Megabyzus. After Darius Hystas- 
pis had besieged Babylon for twenty months in 
vain, Zopyrus resolved to gain the place for his 
master by the most extraordinary self-sacrifice. 
Accordingly, one day he appeared before Darius 
with his body mutilated in the most horrible 
manner ; both his ears and nose were cut off", 
and his person otherwise disfigured. After ex- 
plaining to Darius his intentions, he fled to Babr 
ylon as a victim of the cruelty of the Persian 
king. The Babylonians gave him their confi- 
dence, and placed him at the head of their troops. 
He soon found means to betray the city to Da- 
rius, who severely punished the inhabitants for 
their revolt. Darius appointed Zopyrus satrap 
of Babylon for life, with the enjoyment of its 
entire revenues. — [2. The son of Megabyzus, 
and grandson of the preceding, revolted from 
the Persians, and fled to Athens.]— 3. The Phys- 
iognomist, attributed many vices to Socrates in 
an assembly of his disciples, who laughed at 
him and at his art in consequence ; but Socrates 
admitted that such were his natural propensi- 
ties, but said that they had been overcome by 
philosophy. — [4. A Thracian, a slave of Pericles, 
assigned by him, as the least useful, from old 
age, of all his slaves, to Alcibiades as his peeda- 
gogus ] — 5. A surgeon at Alexandrea, the tutor 
of Apollonius Citiensis and Posidonius, about 
the beginning of the first century B.C. He in- 
vented an antidote, used by Mithradates, king 
of Pontus. 

Zoroaster or Zoroastres (Zupodarpiic), the 
Zarathustra of the Zendavesta, and the Zer- 
dusht of the Persians, was the founder of the 
Magian religion. The most opposite opinions 
have been held both by ancient and modern 
writers respecting the time in which he lived ; 
but it is quite impossible to come to any conclu- 
sion on the subject. As the founder of the Ma- 
gian religion, he must be placed in remote anti- 
quity, and it may even be questioned whether 
?uch a person ever existed. This religion was 



probably of Bactrian origin, and from thence 
spread eastward ; and the tradition which rep- 
resents Zoroaster a Mede sprang up at a later 
time, when the chief seat of his religion was in 
Media, and no longer in the further East. There 
were extant in the later Greek literature sev- 
eral works bearing the name of Zoroaster ; but 
these writings were forgeries of a later age, anc? 
belong to the same class of writings as the 
works of Hermes Trismegistus, Orpheus, &o 
There is still extant a collection of oracles as 
cribed to Zoroaster, which are of course spuri 
ous. They have been published by Morell 
Paris, 1595 ; by Obsopaeus, Paris, 1507, and b) 
others. 

[Zorzines or Zorsines, king of the Siraci, a 
people of Sannatia Asiatica, in whose territory 
was the city Uspe, taken by the Romans in the 
reign of Claudius.] 

[Zosimus, a learned freedman of the younger 
Pliny, remarkable for his talents as a comedian 
and musician, as well as for his excellence as 
a reader.] 

Zosimus (Zwo-t^of), a Greek historian, who 
lived in the time of the younger Theodosius. 
He wrote a history of the Roman empire in six 
books, which is still extant. This work must 
have been written after A.D. 425, as an event 
is mentioned in it which took place in that year. 
The first book comprises a sketch of the history 
of the early emperors, down to the end of the 
reign of Diocletian (305). The second, third, 
and fourth books are devoted to the history of 
the fourth century, which is treated much less 
concisely. The fifth and sixth books embrace 
the period from 395 to 410, when Attalus was 
deposed. The work of Zosimus is mainly 
(though not altogether) an abridgment or com- 
pilation of the works of previous historians. His 
style is concise, clear, pure, and not unpleasing. 
His chief fault as an historical writer is his neg- 
lect of chronology. Zosimus was a pagan, and 
comments severely upon the faults and crimes 
of the Christian emperors. Hence his credibil- 
ity has been assailed by several Christian writ- 
ers. There are, no doubt, numerous errors of 
judgment to be found in the work, and some- 
times (especially in the case of Constantine) an 
intemperate expression of opinion, which some- 
what exaggerates, if it does not distort, the truth. 
But he does not seem fairly chargeable with de- 
liberate invention or willful misrepresentation. 
The best editions are by Reitemeier, Lips., 
1784, [and by Imm. Bekker, Bonn, 1837.] 

Zoster (now Cape of Vari), a promontory on 
the west of Attica, between Phalerum and Su- 
nium. It was a sacred spot, and contained al- 
tars of Leto (Latona), Artemis (Diana), and 
Apollo. 

Zygantes or Gygantes (Zvyavrec:, Tvyavrec), 
a people of Libya, whom Herodotus places on 
-the western side of the Lake Triton. Others 
mention a city Zygantis and a people Zyges on 
the coast of Marmarica 

955 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES 



OF 



GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY, 

CIVIL AND LITERARY, 

FROM THE FIRST OLYMPIAD, B.C. 776, TO THE FALL OF 
THE WESTERN EMPIRE, A.D. 476. 

WITH 

TABLES OF GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES, 
WEIGHTS, AND MONEY. 

EDITED BY 

WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D., 

IDITOR OF THE DICTIONARIES OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, AN» 
BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY. 



[From the Dictionaries of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, and. Antiquitie*.] 



ADVERTISEMENT. 



L CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 

1. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF GREEK HISTORY, 

FROM THE FIRST OLYMPIAD, B.C. 776, TO THE FALL OF CORINTH, B.C. 146. 

2. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF ROMAN HISTORY, 

PROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CITY, B.C. 753, TO THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRIC, 

A.D. 476. 

3. PARALLEL YEARS, 

THAT IS, THE YEARS BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA, THE YEARS FROM THE FOUNDATION OP 

ROME, AND THE OLYMPIADS. 

4. LISTS OF THE ATHENIAN ARCHONS EPONYMI, AND OF THE KINGS OF 
THE MOST IMPORTANT MONARCHIES : 

Kings of Egypt, Kings of Egypt (the Ptolemies), 

Kings of Media, Kings of Pergamus, 

Kings of Lydia, Kings of Bithynia, 

Kings of Persia, Kings of Pontus, 

Kings of Sparta, Kings of Cappadocia, 

Kings of Macedonia, Kings of Rome, 

Kings of Syria, Emperors of Rome, 
And Emperors of Constantinople. 



it TABLES OF MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY, 



FROM THE DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

frt tfce construction of these Tables, the same authorities have been used as those referred to in 
he articles in the body of the work. Particular acknowledgment is due of the assistance which 
has been derived from the Tables of Hussey and Wurm. The last two Tables (of Greek and Ro- 
man money) have been taken without alteration from Mr. Hussey's, because they were thought 
incapable of improvement, except one addition in the Table of Attic Money. All the calcula- 
tions, however, have been made de novo, even where the results are the same as in Mr. Hussey's 
Tables. 

The Tables are so arranged as to exhibit the corresponding Greek and Roman measures in 
direct comparison with each other. In some of the Tables the values are given, not only in our 
several measures, but also in decimals of a primary unit, for the purpose of facilitating calcula- 
tions. In others, approximate values are given, that is, values which differ from the true ones by 
some small fraction, and which, from their simplicity, will perhaps be found far more useful foi 
ordinary purposes than the precise quantities, while the error, in each case, can easily be correct- 
ed. Fuller information will be found under Mensura, Nummus, Pondera, and the specific 
names, in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 



Table 




Table 




I. 


Greek Measures of Length. 


IX. 


Greek Measures of Capacity. 




(1.) Smaller Measures. 




(2.) Dry Measures. 


11. 


Roman Measures of Length. 


X. 


Roman Measures of Capacity. 




(1.) Smaller Measures. 




(2.) Dry Measures. 


Ill 


Greek Measures of Length. 


XI. 


Greek Weights. 




(2.) Land and Itinerary. 


XII. 


Greek Money. 


IV. 


Roman Measures of Length. 


XIII. 


Roman Weights. 




(2.) Land and Itinerary. 




(1.) The As and its Divisions. 


V. 


Greek Measures of Surface. 


XIV. 


Roman Weights. 


VI. 


Roman Measures of Surface. 




(2.) Subdivisions of the Unoia. 


VII. 


Greek Measures of Capacity. 


XV. 


Roman Money. 




(1.) Liquid Measures. 




(1.) Before Augustus. 


VIII. 


Roman Measures of Capacity. 


XVI. 


Roman Money. 




(1.) Liquid Measures. 




(2.) After Augustus. * 



W. 8. 



RULES 



FOR THE 

CONVERSION OF THE OLYMPIADS AND THE YEARS OF ROME (AU.C.) INTO YEARS 
BEFORE AND AFTER THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. 

The Olympiads commenced in the year 3938 of the Julian period, or B.C. 776. Each Olym- 
piad contains 4 years. The year of Rome commenced B.C. 753. 

To ascertain the years before or after Christ of any Olympiad, take the number of Olympiads 
actually completed, multiply that number by 4, and if the product be less than 776, subtract that 
product from 776 ; the remainder will be the years before Christ. If the product be more than 
776, subtract 776 from that product, and the remainder ■will be the years after Christ. 

We thus obtain the year before or after Christ of the last complete Olympiad : we must now 
include the single years of the current Olympiad. To put down these correctly — if before Christ, 
subtract the last completed year (viz., the number 1, 2, or 3 immediately preceding) j if after Christ, 
add the current year; the product. will be the year before or after Christ, corresponding to the 
current year of the current Olympiad. 

For Example : Let the 3d year of the 87th Olympiad be the year to be converted. The num- 
ber of Olympiads actually completed is 86 ; multiply that number by 4, and the total will be 344 
Subtract this number (being less than 776) from 776, and the remainder will be 432 ; subtract 
further the last completed year of the current Olympiad (viz., 2), and the year 430 before Christ 
will be the corresponding year. 

Suppose it were the 2d year of the 248th Olympiad. Multiply 247, the number of Olympiads 
actually completed, by 4, and the total will be 988 ; as that number is larger than 776, deduct 776 
from 988, and the remainder, 212, will be the year of the last complete Olympiad : add 2 for the 
current year of the current Olympiad, and 214 after Christ (A.D. 214) will be the corresponding 
year. 

To find the year before or after Christ which corresponds to any given year of the Building of 
Rome, add 1 year (for the current year), to 753, and from the total, 754, subtract the given year 
of Rome ; the remainder will be the corresponding year before Christ. If the given year of Rome 
exceed 753, subtract 753 from the given number, and the remainder will be the corresponding 
year after Christ. 

For Example : Caesar invaded Britaia in the year of Rome 699. Deduct 699 from 754, and 
that event is seen to correspond with the year B.C. 55. The Romans finally left Britain in the 
year of Rome 1179. Subtract 753 from 1179, and the remainder, 426, will be the year of our 
Lord in which that event took place. 
61 



I I 




i 
j 



i 

} 



i 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF GREEK HISTORY, 



FROM THE FIRST OLYMPIAD, B.C. 776, TO THE FALL OF CORINTH, B.C. 146. 



T76 Coroebus the Elean gains the victory in the foot-race 
at the Olympic games. The Olympic games were 
instituted by Iphitus the Elean about B.C. 8S4, but 
the Olympiads were not employed as a chronolog- 
ical era till the victory of Coroebus. 

775 Arctinus of Miletus, the Cyclic poet, flourished. 

774 Pandosia and Metapontum, in Italy, founded. 

765 Cinaethon of Lacedaemon, the Cyclic poet, flourished. 

761 Eumelus flourished. 

753 Antimachus of Teos flourished. 

750 Miletus at the height of its power. Many of its colo- 
nies founded about this time or a little later. 

748 Phidon, tyrant of Argos, celebrates the 8th Olympic 
games. He introduced copper and silver coinage, 
and a new scale of weights and measures, through- 
out the Peloponnesus. 

745 The first annual Prytanis at Corinth, 90 years before 
the reign of Cypselus. 

744 Eumelus of Corinth, the Cyclic poet, flourished. 

743 The beginning of the first war between the Messeni- 
ans and the Lacedaemonians. 

736 Callinus of Ephesus, the earliest Greek elegiac poet, 
flourished. 

735 Naxos, in Sicily, founded by the Chalcidians of Eu- 
bosa. 

734 Syracuse founded by Archiaa of Corinth. 
730 Leontium and Catana, in Sicily, founded. 
728 Megara Hybleea, in Sicily, founded. 

Philolaus of Corinth, the Theban lawgiver, flour- 
ished. 

723 End of the first Messenian war. The Mesaeniana were 
obliged to submit 'after the capture of Ithome, and 
to pay a heavy tribute to the Lacedemonians. 

721 Sybaris, in Italy, founded by the Achaeana. 

718 War between the Lacedemonians and Argives. 

716 Gyges begins to reign in Lydia. This dynasty reigned, 
according to Herodotus, 160 years, and terminated 
B.C. 546 by the fall of Croesus. 

/12 Astacus founded by the Megarians. 
Callmus of Ephesus flourished. 

710 Croton or Crotona, in Italy, founded by the Achas- 
ans. Soon after the foundation of Croton the Ozo- 
lian Locriana founded the Epizephyrian Locri in 
Italy. 

709 Deiocea begins to reign in Media. The Medea revolt- 
ed from the Assyrians after the death of Sennache- 
rib in B.C. 711. The Assyrians, according to He- 
rodotus, had governed Upper Asia for 520 years. 
This account gives B.C. 710 + 520 =; B.C. 1230 for 
the commencement of the Assyrian dominion. The 
Median kings reigned 150 years. See B.C. 687 and 
559. 

708 Tarentum founded by the Lacedaemonian Parthenias, 
under Phalanthus. 
Thasos and Parium, on the Propontis, founded by the 
Parians. 

Archilochua of Paroa, the Iambic poet, accompanied 
the colony to Thaaos, being then in the flower of 
his age. 



B.C. 

693 Simonides of Amorgos, the lyric poet, flourished. 
Glaucus of Chios, a statuary in metal, flourished. Ha 
was distinguished as the inventor of the art of sol- 
dering metals. 

690 Foundation of Gela in Sicily, and of Phaaelia in Pam- 
phylia. 

687 The empire of the Medee is computed by Herodotus 
to commence from this date, the 23d year of their 
independence. It lasted 128 years, and terminated 
in B.C. 559. 
Archilochus flourished. See B.C. 708. 

685 The beginning of the second Messenian war. 

683 First annual archon at Athens. 

Tyrtaeus, the Athenian poet, came to Sparta after the 
first success of the Messenians, and by his martial 
songs roused the fainting courage of the Lacedae- 
monians. 

G78 Ardya, king of Lydia, succeeded Gyges. 

675 Foundation of Cyzicus by the Megarians 

674 Foundation of Chalcedon by the Megarians. 

672 The Pisatss, led by Pantaleon, revolt from the Eleans, 
and espouse the cause of the Messenians. 
Alcman, a native of Sardis in Lydia, and the chief lyr- 
ic poet of Sparta, flourished. 

670 Psammetichus, king of Egypt, begins to reign. 

669 The Argives defeat the Lacedemonians at HysiiB. 

668 End of the second Messenian war, according to Pau- 
sania'a. 

665 Thaletas of Crete, the lyric poet and musician, flour- 
ished. 

864 A sea-fight between the Corinthians and Corcyrffians, 
the most ancient sea-fight recorded. 

662 Zaleucus, the lawgiver in Locri Epizephyrii, flour- 
ished. 

657 Byzantium founded by the Megarians. 

656 Phraortes, king of Media, succeeds Deioces. 

655 The Bacchiade expelled from Corinth. Cypselus 

begins to reign. He reigned 30 years. 
654 Foundation of Acanthus, Stagira, Abdera, and Lamp- 

sacus. 

651 Birth of Pittacus, according to Suidas. 
648 Himera in Sicily founded. 

647 Pisander, the epic poet of Camirus, in Rhodes, flour- 
ished. 

644 Pantaleon, king of Pisa, celebrates the Olympic games 
Terpander flourished. 

635 Sardis taken by the Cimmerians in the reign of Ardys. 

634 Phraortes, king of Media, slain by the Assyrians, and 
succeeded by his son Cyaxares. Irruption of tha 
Scythians into Asia, who interrupt Cyaxares in the 
siege of Nineveh. 

631 Cyrene, in Libya, founded by Battus of Thera 

630 Mimnermus flourished. 

629 Foundation of Sinope by the Milesiana. Sadyattes, 

king of Lydia, succeeds Ardys. 
625 Periander succeeds Cypselus at Corinth. He reigned 

40 years. 

Arion flourished in the reign of Periander. 
621 Legislation of Dracon at Athens. 



964 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



BC. 

620 Attempt of Cylon to make himself master of Athens. 
He had been victor in the Olympic games in B.C. 
640. Assisted by Theagenes, tyrant of Megara, 
whose daughter he had married, he seized the cit- 
adel, but was there besieged by the archon Mega- 
cles, the Alcmeeonid. Cylon and his adherents sur- 
rendered on a promise that their lives should be 
spared, but they were put to death. 

617 Alyattes, king of Lydia, succeeds Sadyattes. 

616 Neco, king of Egypt, succeeds Psammetichus. 

612 Peace between Alyattes, king of Lydia, and Miletus, 
in the 12th year of the war. 

611 Pittacus overthrows the tyranny of Melanchrus at 
Mytilene. 

Sappho, Alcasus, and Stesichorus flourished. 
610 Birth of Anaximander. 

607 Scythians expelled from Asia by Cyaxares, king of 
Media, after holding the dominion of it for 28 years. 
606 Nineveh taken by Cyaxares. 

Combat between Pittacus and Phrynon, the com- 
mander of the Athenians. 
AIcsbus fought in the wars between the Mytilenaeans 
and Athenians, and incurred the disgrace of leav- 
ing his shield on the field. 
600 Psammis, king of Egypt, succeeds Neco. 

Massilia, in Gaul, founded by the Phoceeans. 
599 Camarina, in Sicily, founded 135 years after Syracuse. 
596 Epimenides, the Cretan, came to Athens. 
595 Apries, king of Egypt, succeeds Psammis. 
Birth of Croesus, king of Lydia. 
Commencement of the Cirrhasan or Sacred War, 
which lasted 10 years. 
594 Legislation of Solon, who was Athenian archon in 

this year. 
592 Anacharsis came to Athens. 
591 Cirrha taken by the Amphictyons. 

Arcesilalis I., king of Cyrene, succeeds Battue I. 
589 Commencement of the government of Pittacus at 
Mytilene. He held the supreme power for 10 years 
under the title of JEsymnetes. 
Alcfflus the poet in exile, and opposed to the govern- 
ment of Pittacus. 
686 The conquest of the Cirrhaeans completed and the 
Pythian games celebrated. 
The seven wise men flourished. They were, accord- 
ing to Plato, Thales, Pittacus, Bias, Solon, Cleobu- 
lus, Myson, Chilon. The first four were universally 
acknowledged. Periander, whom Plato excluded, 
was admitted by some.. 
Sacadas of Argos gained the prize in music in the 
first three Pythia, B.C. 586, 582, 578. 
585 Death of Periander. 

582 Clisthenes of Sicyon, victor in the second Pythia. 

Agrigentum founded. 
581 The dynasty of the Cypselidee ended. 
579 Pittacus resigns the government of Mytilene. 
575 Battus H., king of Cyrene, succeeds Arcesilatis I. Na- 
val empire of the Phocajans. 
572 The war between Pisa and Elis ended by the subjec- 
tion of the Pisans. 

jEsopus flourished. 
570 Accession of Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum. He 

reigned 16 years. 
569 Amasis, king of Egypt, succeeds Apries. 

Death of Pittacus, 10 years after his abdication. 
666 The Panathenasa instituted at Athens. 

Eugamon flourished. 
9Si Alalia, in Corsica, founded by the Phocsans. 



B.C. 

560 Pisistratus usurps the governm*nt of Athens. 
Thales is nearly eighty years of age. 
Ibycus of Rhegium, the lyric poet, flourished. 
559 Cyrus begins to reign in Persia. The Median empire 
ended. See B.C. 687. 
Heraclea, on the Euxine, founded. 
Anacreon begins to be distinguished. 
556 Simonides of Ceos, the lyric poet, horn. 
553 Stesichorus died. 
549 Death of Phalaris of Agrigentum. 
548 The temple at Delphi burned. 

Anaximenes flourished. 
546 Sardis taken by Cyrus, and the Lydian monarchy 
overthrown. 
Hipponax, the Iambic poet, flourished. 
544 Pherecydes of Syros, the philosopher, and TheognU 

of Megara, the poet, flourished. 
539 Ibycus of Rhegium, the lyric poet, flourished. 
538 Babylon taken by Cyrus. 

Xenophanes of Colophon, the philosopher, flourished 
535 Thespis, the Athenian, first exhibits tragedy. 
532 Polycrates becomes tyrant of Samos. 
531 The philosopher Pythagoras and the poet Anacreon 
flourished. All accounts make them contemporary 
with Polycrates. 
529 Death of Cyrus and accession of Cambyses as king 
of Persia. 

527 Death of Pisistratus, 33 years after his first usurpation. 
525 Cambyses conquers Egypt in the fifth year of his 
reign. 

War of the Lacedaemonians against Polycrates of Sa- 
mos. 

Birth of iEschylus. 

Anacreon and Simonides came to Athens in the reign 
of Hipparchus. 

523 Choerilus of Athens first exhibits tragedy. 

522 Polycrates of Samos put to death. 

521 Death of Cambyses, usurpation of the Magi, and ac- 
cession of Darius, son of Hystaspes, to the Persian 
throne. 

Hecatfflus and Dionysius of Miletus, the historians, 
flourished. 

520 Melanippides of Melos, the dithyrambic poet, flour- 
ished. 

519 PlatsesB places itself under the protection of Athens. 

Birth of Cratinus, the comic poet. 
518 Birth of Pindar. 

514 Hipparchus, tyrant of Athens, slain by Harmodnu 

and Aristogiton. 
511 Phrynicus, the tragic poet, flourished. 
510 Expulsion of Hippias and his family from Athens. 
The ten tribes instituted at Athens by Clisthenes. 
Telesilla of Argos, the poetess, flourished. 
504 Charon of Lampsacus, the historian, flourished. 
503 Heraclitus of Ephesus, the philosopher, and Lasus 

of Hermicne, the lyric poet, flourished. 
501 Naxos besieged by Aristagoras and the Persians. 
Upon the failure of this attempt, Aristagoras de- 
termines to revolt from the Persians. 
Hecatssus the historian took part in the deliberations 
of the Ionians respecting the revolt. 
500 Aristagoras solicits aid from Athens and Sparta. 

Birth of Anaxagoras the philosopher. 
499 First year of the Ionian revolt The Ionians, assisted 
by the Athenians, burn Sardis. 
IEschylus, aged 25, first exhibits tragedy. 
498 Second year of the Ionian revolt. Cyprus recovered 
by the Persians. 



GREEK HISTORY. 



965 



B.C 

497 Third year of the Ionian revolt. Aristagoraa slain in 
Thrace. 

Death of Pythagoras, according to Eusebius 
496 Fourth year of the Ionian revolt. Histiaeus comes 
down to the coast. 
Birth of Hellanicus of Mytilene, the historian. 
495 Fifth year of the Ionian revolt. 

Birth of Sophocles. 
494 Sixth and last year of the Ionian revolt The Ioni- 
ans defeated in a naval battle near Miletus, and Mi- 
letus taken. 

493 The Persians take the islands of Chios, Lesbos, and 
Tenedos. Miltiades fled from the Chersonesus to 
Athens. He had been in the Chersonesus twenty- 
two years, having succeeded his brother Stesagoras 
in the government in B.C. 515. 

492 Mardonius, the Persian general, invades Europe, and 
unites Macedonia to the Persian empire. 

491 Darius sends heralds to Greece to demand earth and 
water. 

War between Athens and ffigina. 

Demaratus, king of Sparta, deposed by the intrigues 
of his colleague Cleomenes. He flies to Darius. 
490 Datis and Artaphernes, the Persian generals, invade 
Europe. They take Eretria in Euboea, and land in 
Attica under the guidance of Hippias. They are 
defeated at Marathon by the Athenians under the 
command of Miltiades. 

ffischylus fought at the battle of Marathon, set. 35. 
489 Miltiades attempts to conquer Naxus, but is repulsed. 
He is accused, and, unable to pay the fine, in which 
he was condemned, is thrown into prison, where 
he died. 

Panyasis the poet, the uncle of Herodotus, flourished. 
487 Chionides, the Athenian comic poet, first exhibits. 
486 Revolt of Egypt from the Persians in the fourth year 

after the battle of Marathon. 
485 Xerxes, king of Persia, succeeds Darius. 

Gelon becomes master of Syracuse. 
484 Egypt reconquered by the Persians. 

Herodotus born. 

•ffischylus gains the prize in tragedy. 
Achseus, the tragic poet, born. 

483 Ostracism of Aristides. He was recalled from ban- 
ishment three years afterward. 

481 Themistocles the leading man at Athens. He per- 
suades his countrymen to build a fleet of 200 ships, 
that they might be able to resist the Persians. 

480 Xerxes invades Greece. He set out from Sardis at 
the beginning of the spring. The battles of Ther- 
mopylae and Artemisium were fought at the time 
of the Olympic games. The Athenians deserted 
their city, which was taken by Xerxes. The battle 
of Salamis, in which the fleet of Xerxes was de- 
stroyed, was fought in the autumn. 
Birth of Euripides. 

Pherecydes of Athens, the historian, flourished. 
479 After the return of Xerxes to Asia, Mardonius, who 
was left in the command of the Persian army, 
passed the winter in Thessaly. In the spring 
he marches southward, and occupies Athens ten 
months after its occupation by Xerxes. At the 
battle of Plateese, fought in September, he is defeat- 
ed by the Greeks under the command of Pausanias. 
On the same day the Persian fleet is defeated off 
Mycale by the Greek fleet. Sestos besieged by the 
Greeks in the autumn, and surrendered in the fol- 
lowing spring. 



479 Antiphon, the Athenian orator, born. 
' Choerilus of Samos, the epic poet, probably born. 
478 Sestos taken by the Greeks. Hieron succeeds Gelon 
The history of Herodotus terminates at the siege of 
Sestos. 

477 In consequence of the haughty conduct of Pausanias, 
the maritime allies place themselves under the su- 
premacy of Athens. Commencement of the Athe- 
nian ascendency or empire, which lasted about sev- 
enty years — sixty-five before the ruin of the Athe- 
nian affairs in Sicily, seventy-three before the cap- 
ture of Athens by Lysander. 
Epicharmus, the comic poet, flourished in the reign 
of Hieron. 

476 Cimon, commanding the forces of the Athenians and 
of the allies, expels the Persians from Eion, on the 
Strymon, and then takes the island of Scyros, where 
the bones of Theseus are discovered. 
Phrynichus gains the prize in tragedy. 
Simonides, set, 80, gains the prize in the dithyrambic 
chorus. 

474 Naval victory of Hieron over the Tuscans. 

Death of Theron of Agrigentum. 
472 The Persa of .ffischylus performed. 
471 Themistocles, banished by ostracism, goes to Argoe. 
Pausanias convicted of treason and put to death. 
Thucydides, the historian, bora. 
Timocreon of Rhodes, the lyric poet, flourished in the 
time of Themistocles. 
469 Pericles begins to take part in public affairs, forty 

years before his death. 
468 Mycenae destroyed by the Argives. 
Death of Aristides. 
Socrates bora. 

Sophocles gained his first tragic victory. 
467 Death of Hieron. 

Andocides, the orator, bora. 

Simonides, sat. 90, died. 
466 Naxos revolted and subdued. 

Great victory of Cimon over the Persians at the Ri» 
er Eurymedon, in Pamphylia. 

Themistocles flies to Persia. 

After the death of Hieron, Thrasybulus ruled Syra- 
cuse for a year, at the end of which time a demo< 
cratical form of government was established. 
-_ Diagoras of Melos flourished. 
465 Revolt of Thasos. 

Death of Xerxes, king of Persia, and accession of Ar- 
taxerxes I. 

464 Earthquake at Sparta, and revolt of the Helots and 
Messed ans. 

Cimon marches to the assistance of the Lacedaemo- 
nians. 

Zeno of Elea flourished. 
463 Thasos subdued by Cimon. 

Xanthus of Lydia continued to write history in tha 
reign of Artaxerxes. 
461 Cimon marches a second time to the assistance of the 
Lacedaemonians, but his offers are declined by the 
latter, and the Athenian troops sent back. Ostra- 
cism of Cimon. 
Pericles at the head of public affairs at Athens. 
460 Revolt of Inaros, and first year of the Egyptian war, 
which lasted six years. The Athenians sent assist 
ance to the Egyptians. 
Democritus and Hippocrates bora, 
459 Gorgias flourished. 
458 Lysias born. 



CHRONOLOGICAL, lAmJSS OF 

B.C. 



966 

BC 

458 The Orestcia of .ffischylus performed. 

457 Battles in the Megarid, between the Athenians arid 
Corinthians. The Lacedaemonians march into Do- 
ris, to assist the Dorians against the Phocians. On 
their return, they are attacked by the Athenians at 
Tanagra, but the latter are defeated. The Atheni- 
ans commence building their long walls, which 
were completed in the following year. 
Panyasis, the uncle of Herodotus, put to death by 
Lygdamis. 

456 The Athenians, commanded by Myronides, defeat the 
Thebans at CEnophyta. 
Recall of Cimon from exile. 
Herodotus aet. 25. Thucydides set. 15. 
Herodotus is said to have recited his history at the 
Olympic games when Thucydides was a boy. The 
recitation may therefore be placed in this year, if 
the tale be true, which is very doubtful. 
Death of jEschylus, aet. 69. 
455 The Messenians conquered by the Lacedaemonians in 
the tenth year of the war. Tolmides, the Athenian 
general, settles the expelled Messenians at Naupac- 
tus. See B.C. 464. Tolmides sails round Pelopon- 
nesus with an Athenian fleet, and does great injury 
to the Peloponnesians. 
End of the Egyptian war in the sixth year. See B.C. 
460. All Egypt conquered by the Persians, except 
the marshes, where Amyrtaeus continued to hold 
out for some years. See B.C. 449. 
Euripides, aet. 25, first gains the prize in tragedy. 
454 Campaign of Pericles at Sicyon and in Acarnania. 

Cratinus, the comic writer, flourished. 
451 Ion of Chios, the tragic writer, begins to exhibit. 
450 Five years' truce between the Athenians and Pelopon- 
nesians, made through the intervention of Cimon. 
Anaxagoras, aet. 50, withdraws from Athens, after re- 
siding there thirty years. 
Crates, the comic poet, and Bacchylides, flourished. 
449 Renewal of the war with Persia. The Athenians send 
assistance to Amyrtaeus. Death of Cimon, and vic- 
tory of the Athenians at Salamis, in Cyprus. 
448 Sacred war between the Delphians and Phocians for 
the possession of the oracle and temple. The Lac- 
* edaemonians assisted the Delphians, and the Athe- 
nians the Phocians. 
447 The Athenians defeated at Coronea by the Boeotians. 
445 Revolt of Eubcea and Megara from Athens. The five 
years' truce having expired (see B.C. 450), the Lac- 
edaemonians, led by Plistoanax, invade Attica. Aft- 
er the Lacedaemonians had retired, Pericles recov- 
ers Euboea. The thirty years' truce between Athens 
and Sparta. 

444 Pericles begins to have the sole direction of public af- 
fairs at Athens. Thucydides, the son of Milesias, 
the leader of the aristocratical party, ostracized. 
Melissus and Empedocles, the philosophers, flour- 
ished. 

443 The Athenians send a colony to Thurii, in Italy. 

Herodotus, aet. 41, and Lysias, set. 15, accompany this 
colony to Tburii. 
441 Euripides gains the first prize in tragedy. 
440 Samos revolts from Athens, but is subdued by Peri- 
cles in the ninth month. 
Sophocles, aet. 55, was one of the ten Athenian gener- 
als who fought against Samos. 
Melissus, the philosopher, defends Samos against Per- 
icles. 

A decree to prohibit comedy at Athens. 



439 Athens at the height of its glory. 

437 Colony of Agnon to Amphipolis. 

The prohibition of comedy repealed. 

436 Isocrates born. 

Cratinus, the comic poet, gains the prize. 

435 War between the Corinthians and Corcyraeans on 
account of Epidamnus. The Corinthians defeated 
by the Corcyraeans in a sea-fight. 

434 The Corinthians make great preparations to carry on 
the war with vigor. 
Lysippus, the comic poet, gains the prize. 

433 The Corcyraeans and Corinthians send embassies to 
Athens to solicit assistance. The Athenians form a 
defensive alliance with the Corcyraeans. 

432 The Corcyraeans, assisted by the Athenians, defeat tho 
Corinthians in the spring. In the same year Poti- 
daea revolts from Athens. Congress of the Pelo- 
ponnesians in the autumn to decide upon war with 
Athens. 

Andocides the orator, one of the commanders of the 
Athenian fleet to protect the Corcyraeans against 
the Corinthians. 

Anaxagoras, prosecuted for impiety at Athens, with 
draws to Lampsacus, where he died about fout 
years afterward. 

Aspasia prosecuted by the comic poet Hermippus 
but acquitted through the influence of Pericles. 

Prosecution and death of Phidias. 
431 First year of the Peloponnesian war. The Thebans 
make an attempt upon PlataeaB two months before 
midsummer. Eighty days afterward, Attica is in- 
vaded by the Peloponnesians. Alliance between 
the Athenians and Sitalces, king of Thrace. 

Hellanicus aet. 65, Herodotus aet. 53, Thucydides aet 
40, at the commencement of the Peloponnesian war 

The Medea of Euripides exhibited. 
430 Second year of the Peloponnesian war. Second in 
vasion of Attica. 

The plague rages at Athens. 
429 Third year of the Peloponnesian war. Potidaea sur- 
renders to the Athenians after a siege of more than 
two years. Naval actions of Phormio in the Co- 
rinthian gulf. Commencement of the siege of Pla- 
taeae. Death of Pericles in the autumn. 

Birth of Plato, the philosopher. 

Eupolis and Phrynichus, the comic poets, exhibit 
428 Fourth year of the Peloponnesian war. Third inva- 
sion of Attica. Revolt of all Lesbos except Me- 
thymna. Mytilene besieged toward the autumn. 

Death of Anaxagoras, aet. 72. 

The Hippolytus of Euripides gains the first prize. 

Plato, the comic poet first exhibits. 
427 Fifth year of the Peloponnesian war. Fourth inva- 
sion of Attica. Mytilene taken by the Athenians 
and Lesbos recovered. The demagogue Cleon be- 
gins to have great influence in public affairs. Pla- 
taeaB surrendered to the Peloponnesians. Sedition 
at Corcyra. The Athenians send assistance to the 
Leontinians in Sicily. 

Aristophanes, the comic poet, first exhibits. He gains 
the prize with the play called AanaXtii, which is 
lost. 

Gorgias ambassador from Leontini to Athens. He 
was probably now nearly sixty years of age. 
426 Sixth year of the Peloponnesian war. The Pelopon- 
nesians do not invade Attica in consequence of an 
earthquake. 

Lustration of Delos. 



GREEK HISTORY. 



967 



126 The Babylonians of Aristophanes. 
425 Seventh year of the Peloponne9ian war. Fifth inva- 
sion of Attica. Demosthenes takes possession of 
Pylos. The Spartans in the island of Sphacteria 
surrendered to Cleon seventy-two days afterward. 
Eruption of Mount Mtna. 
Accession of Darius Nothus. 
The Acharnians of Aristophanes. 
124 Eighth year of the Peloponnesian war. Nicias rava- 
ges the coast of Laconia and captures the island of 
Cythera. March of Brasidas into Thrace, who ob- 
tains possession of Acanthus and Amphipolis. The 
Athenians defeated by the Thebans at Delium. 
Socrates and Xenophon fought at the battle of Delium. 
Thucydides, the historian, commanded at Amphipolis. 
The Knights of Aristophanes. 
423 Ninth year of the Peloponnesian war. Truce for a 
year. 

Thucydides banished in consequence of the loss of 
Amphipolis. He was 20 years in exile. 

The Clouds of Aristophanes first exhibited. 

Antiochus of Syracuse brought down his history to 
this date. 

422 Tenth year of the Peloponnesian war. Hostilities in 
Thrace between the Lacedaemonians and Atheni- 
ans. Both Brasidas and Cleon fall in battle. Athe- 
nian citizens at this time computed at 20,000. 

The Wasps of Aristophanes, and second exhibition 
of the Clouds. 

Death of Cratinus. 

Protagoras, the sophist, comes to Athens. 
421 Eleventh year of the Peloponnesian war. Truce for 
fifty years between the Athenians and Lacedaemo- 
nians. Though this truce was not formally de- 
clared to be at an end till B.C. 414, there were, not- 
withstanding, frequent hostilities meantime. 
The MapiKaS and K6\okcs of Eupolis. 
120 Twelfth year of the Peloponnesian war. Treaty be- 
tween the Athenians and Argives effected by means 
of Alcibiades. 
The "Aypioi of Pherecrates. The Avt6\vkoS of Eu- 
polis. 

419 Thirteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. Alcibia- 
des marches into Peloponnesus. 
The Peace of Aristophanes. 

418 Fourteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. The Athe- 
nians send a force into Peloponnesus to assist the 
Argive9 against the Lacedaemonians, but are defeat- 
ed at the battle of Man tinea. Alliance between Spar- 
ta and Argos. 

417 Fifteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. 

416 Sixteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. The Athe- 
nians conquer Melos. 
Agathon, the tragic poet, gains the prize. 

415 Seventeenth year of the Peloponnesian war. The 
Athenian expedition against Sicily. It sailed after 
midsummer, commanded by Nicias, Alcibiades, and 
Lamachus. Mutilation of the Hermae at Athens 
before the fleet sailed. The Athenians take Cata- 
na. Alcibiades is recalled home : he makes his es- 
cape, and takes refuge with the Lacedaemonians. 
Andocides, the orator, imprisoned on the mutilation 
of the Hermae. He escapes by turning informer. 
He afterward went to Cyprus and other countries. 
Xenocles, the tragic poet, gains the first prize. 
Archippus, the comic poet, gains the prize. 

414 Eighteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. Second 
campaign in Sicily. The Athenians invest Syra- 



cuse. Gylippus, the Lacedaemonian, comes to rh« 

assistance of the Syracusans. 
The Birds and Amphiaraus (a lost drama) of Aris- 
tophanes. 

Amipsias, the comic poet, gains the prize with his 
Ku>[iaoTat. 

413 Nineteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. Invasion 
of Attica and fortification of Decelea, on the advice 
of Alcibiades. 
Third campaign in Sicily. Demosthenes sent with a 
large force to the assistance of the Athenians. To- 
tal destruction of the Athenian army and fleet. Ni- 
cias and Demosthenes surrender and are put to 
death on the 12th or 13th of September, 16 or 17 
days after the eclipse of the moon, which took place 
on the 27th of August. 
Hegemon of Thasos, the comic poet, was exhibiting 
his parody of the Gigantomachia when the news 
arrived at Athens of the defeat in Sicily. 

412 Twentieth year of the Peloponnesian war. The Les- 
bians revolt from Athens. Alcibiades sent by the 
Lacedaemonians to Asia to form a treaty with the 
Persians. He succeeds in his mission, and forms a 
treaty with Tissaphernes, and urges the Athenian 
allies in Asia to revolt. The Athenians make use 
of the 1000 talents deposited for extreme emerg- 
encies. 

The Andromeda of Euripides. 
411 Twenty -first year of the Peloponnesian war. Democ- 
racy abolished at Athens, and the government in- 
trusted to a council of Four Hundred. This coun- 
cil holds the government four months. The Athe- 
nian army at Samos recalls Alcibiades from exile 
and appoints him one of their generals. He is aft- 
erward recalled by a vote of the people at Athens, 
but he remained abroad for the next four years at 
the head of the Athenian forces. Mindarus, the 
Lacedaemonian admiral, defeated at Cynossema. 
Antiphdn, the orator, had a great share in the estab- 
lishment of the Four Hundred. After their down- 
fall he is brought to trial and put to death. 
The history of Thucydides suddenly breaks off in tb» 

middle of this year. 
The Lysislrala and Thesmophoriazusa of Aristophanes 
Lysias returns from Thurii to Athens. 
410 Twenty-second year of the Peloponnesian war. Min- 
darus defeated and slain by Alcibiades at Cyzicus, 
409 Twenty-third year of the Peloponnesian war. 
The Philoctetes of Sophocles. 
Plato, aet. 20, begins to hear Socrates. 
408 Twenty-fourth year of the Peloponnesian war. At 
cibiades recovers Byzantium. 
The Orestes of Euripides. 
The Plutus of Aristophanes. 
407 Twenty-fifth year of the Peloponnesian war. Alcibi- 
ades returns to Athens. Lysander appointed the 
Lacedaemonian admiral and supported by Cyrus, 
who this year received the government of the coun- 
tries on the Asiatic coast. Antiochus, the lieutenant 
of Alcibiades, defeated by Lysander at Notium in 
the absence of Alcibiades. Alcibiades is in conse- 
quence banished, and ten new generals appointed. 
Antiphanes, the comic poet, born. 
406 Twenty-sixth year of the Peloponnesian war. Calli 
cratidas, who succeeded Lysander as Lacedaemo- 
nian admiral, defeated by the Athenians in the sea- 
fight off the Arginusae islands. The Athenian gen- 
erals condemned to death, because they had not 



963 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



B.C. 

picked up the bodies of those who had fallen in the 
battle. 

406 Dionysius becomes master of Syracuse. 
Death of Euripides. 
Death of Sophocles. 

Philistus of Syracuse, the historian, espoused the 
cause of Dionysius. 
405 Twenty-seventh year of the Peloponnesian war. Ly- 
sander defeats the Athenians off JEgospotami, and 
takes or destroys all their fleet with the exception 
of eight ships, which fled with Conon to Cyprus. 
The Frogs of Aristophanes acted in February at the 
Lenaea. 

404 Twenty-eighth and last year of the Peloponnesian 
war. Athens taken by Lysander in the spring, on 
the 16th of the month Munychion. Democracy 
abolished, and the government intrusted to thirty 
men, usually called the Thirty Tyrants. 
The Thirty Tyrants held their power for eight months, 
till Thrasybulus occupied Phyle and advanced to 
the Piraeus. 

Death of Alcibiades during the tyranny of the Thirty. 

Lysias banished after the battle of J3gospotami. 
403 Thrasybulus and his party obtain possession of the 
Piraeus, from whence they carried on war for sev- 
eral months against the Ten, the successors of the 
Thirty. They obtain possession of Athens before 
Hecatombaeon (July) ; but the contest between the 
parties was not finally concluded till Boedromion 
(September). The date of the amnesty, by which 
the exiles were restored, was the 12th of Boedro- 
mion. Euclides was archon at the time. 

Thucydides, aet. 68, Lysias, and Andocides return to 
Athens. 

401 Expedition of Cyrus against hi3 brother Artaxerxes. 
He falls in the battle of Cunaxa, which was fought 
in the autumn. His Greek auxiliaries commence 
their return to Greece, usually called the retreat 
of the Ten Thousand. 

First year of the war of Lacedaemon and Elis. 

Xenophon accompanied Cyrus, and afterward was 
the principal general of the Greeks in their retreat. 

Ctesias, the historian, was physician at the court of 
Artaxerxes at this time. 

The (Edipus at Colonus of Sophocles exhibited, after 
his death, by his grandson Sophocles. See B.C. 406. 

Telestes gains a dithyrambic prize. 
400 Return of the Ten Thousand to Greece. 

Second year of the war of Lacedaemon and Elis. 

The speech of Andocides on the Mysteries : he is now 
about 67 years of age. 
399 The Lacedaemonians send Thimbron with an army 
to assist the Greek cities in Asia against Tissapher- 
nes and Pharnabazus. The remainder of the Ten 
Thousand incorporated with the troops of Thim- 
bron. In the autumn Thimbron was superseded 
by Dercyllidas. 

Third and last year of the war of Lacedaemon and 
Elis. 

Death of Socrates, set. 70. 

Plato withdraws to Megara. 
398 Dercyllidas continues the war in Asia with success. 

Ctesias brought his Persian History down to this year. 

Astydamas, the tragic poet, first exhibits. 

Philoxenus, Timotheus, and Telestes flourished. 
397 Dercyllidas still continues the war in Asia. 
396 Agwilaus supersedes Dercyllidas. First campaign 
of Agesilaus in Asia. He winters at Ephesus. 



B.C. 

396 Sophocles, the grandson of the great Sophocles, b» 
gins to exhibit this year in his own name. See B.C. 
401. 

Xenocrates, the philosopher, born. 

395 Second campaign of Agesilaus in Asia. He defeats 
Tissaphernes, and becomes master of Western 
Asia. Tissaphernes superseded by Tithraustes. 
who sends envoys into Greece to induce the Greek 
states to declare war against Lacedaemon. Com- 
mencement of the war of the Greek states against 
Lacedaemon. Lysander slain at Haliartus. 
Plato, set. 34, returns to Athens. 

394 Agesilaus recalled from Asia to fight against the Greek 
states, who had declared war against Lacedaemon. 
He passed the Hellespont about midsummer, and 
was at the entrance of Boeotia on the 14th of Au- 
gust. He defeats the allied forces at Coronea. A 
little before the latter battle, the Lacedaemonians 
also gained a victory near Corinth ; but about the 
same time, Conon, the Athenian admiral, and Phar- 
nabazus, gained a decisive victory over Pisander, 
the Spartan admiral, off Cnidus. 
Xenophon accompanied Agesilaus from Asia, and 
fought against his country at Coronea. He was, in 
consequence, banished from Athens. He retired 
under Lacedaemonian protection to Scillus, where 
he composed his works. 
Theopompus brought his history down to this year. 
It embraced a period of 17 years, from the battlo 
of Cynossema, B.C. 411, to the batUe of Cnidos, 
B.C. 394. 

393 Sedition at Corinth and victory of the Lacedaemoni- 
ans at Lechteum. Pharnabazus and Conon ravage, 
the coasts of Peloponnesus. Conon begins to re- 
store the long walls of Athens and the fortifications 
of the Pirsaus. 

392 The Lacedaemonians under Agesilaus ravage the Co- 
rinthian territory, but a Spartan mora is cut to 
pieces by Iphicrates. 
The Ecclesiazuste of Aristophanes. 
391 Expedition of Agesilaus into Acarnania. 

Speech of Andocides " On the Peace." He is ban- 
ished. 

Plato, the comic" poet, exhibits. 

390 Expedition of Agesipolis into Argolis. The Persians 
again espouse the cause of the Lacedaemonians, and 
Conon is thrown into prison. The Athenians assist 
Evagoras of Cyprus against the Persians. Thra- 
sybulus, the Athenian commander, is defeated and 
slain by the Lacedaemonian Teleutias at Aspendus. 

389 Agyrrhius sent, as the successor of Thrasybulus, to 
Aspendus, and Iphicrates to the Hellespont. 
Plato, aet. 40, goes to Sicily : the first of the three voy 
ages. 

JEschines born about this time. 
388 Antalcidas, the Lacedaemonian commander on ths 
Asiatic coast, opposed to Iphicrates and Chabrias. 
The second edition of the Plutus of Aristophanes. 
387 The peace of Antalcidas. 

Antiphanes, the comic poet, begins to exhibit. 
386 Restoration of PlataesB, and independence of the towns 
of Bceotia. 

385 Destruction of Mantinea by the Lacedaemonians un 
der Agesipolis. 
Great sea-fight between Evagoras and the Persians. 
384 Birth of Aristotle. 

382 First year of the Olynthian war. The Lacedsemonl 
ans commanded by Teleutias. 



GREEK HISTORY. 



969 



B.C. 

382 Phoebidas seizes the Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes. 
This was before Teleutias marched to Olynthus. 
Birth of Demosthenes. 
381 Second year of the Olynthian war. Teleutias slain, 

and the command taken by Agesipolis. 
380 Third year of the Olynthian war. Death of Agesipo- 
lis, who is succeeded by Polybiades. 
The Panegyricus of Isocrates. 
379 Fourth and last year of the Olynthian war. The 
Olynthians surrender to Polybiades. 
Surrender of Phlius, after a siege of 20 months, to 
Agesilaus. 

The Cadmea recovered by the Theban exiles in the 
winter. 

178 Cleombrotus sent into Boeotia in the middle of win- 
ter, but returned without effecting any thing. The 
Lacedaemonian Sphodrias makes an attempt upon 
the Piraeus. The Athenians form an alliance with 
the Thebans against Sparta. First expedition of 
Agesilaus into Boeotia. 
Death of Lysias. 
877 Second expedition of Agesilaus into Bceotia 
37< Cleombrotus marches into Boeotia, and sustains a 
slight repulse at the passes of Cithaaron. 
The Lacedasmonian fleet conquered by Chabrias off 
Naxos, and the Athenians recover the dominion of 
the sea. 

Tenth and la6t year of the war between Evagoras 
and the Persians. 

Demosthenes left an orphan in his seventh year. 

Anaxandrides, the comic poet, flourished. 
375 Cleombrotus sent into Phocis, which had been invaded 
by the Thebans, who withdraw into their own coun- 
try on his arrival. 

Araros, the son of Aristophanes, first exhibits com- 
edy. 

Eubulus, the comic poet, flourished. 
374 The Athenians, jealous of the Thebans, conclude a 
peace with Lacedaemon. Timotheus, the Atheni- 
an commander, takes Corcyra, and on his return 
to Athens restores the Zacynthian exiles to their 
country. This leads to a renewal of the war be- 
tween Athens and Lacedajmon. 

Second destruction of Plattese. 

Jason elected Tagus of Thessaly. 

Isocrates advocated the cause of the Plataeans in his 
TlXaraiKos- 

373 The Lacedaemonians attempt to regain possession of 
Corcyra, and send Mnasippus with a force for the 
purpose, but he is defeated and slain by the Corey- 
rasans. Iphicrates, with Callistratus and Chabrias 
as his colleagues, sent to Corcyra. 

Prosecution of Timotheus by Callistratus and Iphic- 
rates. Timotheus is acquitted. 
372 Timotheus goes to Asia. Iphicrates continued in the 
command of a fleet in the Ionian Sea. 

The most eminent orators of this period were Leoni- 
das, Callistratus, Aristophon the Azenian, Cepha- 
lus the Colyttian, Thrasybulus the Colyttian, and 
Diophantus. 

Astydamas gains the prize in tragedy. 
371 Congress at Sparta, and general peace, from which 
the Thebans were excluded, because they would 
not grant the independence of the Boeotian towns. 

The Lacedaemonians, commanded by Cleombrotus, 
invade Bceotia, but are defeated by the Thebans 
under Epaminondas at the battle of Leuctra. 

Foundation of Megalopolis. 



370 Expedition of Agesilaus into Arcadia. 

Jason of Pheree slain. After the interval of a year, 
Alexander of Pheraa succeeds to his power in 
Thessaly. 

369 First invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans. 
They remain in Peloponnesus four months, and 
found Messene. 
368 Second invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans. 
Expedition of Pelopidas to Thessaly. He is impris- 
oned by Alexander of Pheraa, but Epaminondas 
obtains his release. 
Eudoxus flourished. 
Aphareus begins to exhibit tragedy. 
367 Archidamus gains a victory over the Arcadians. 
Embassy of Pelopidas to Persia. 
Death of the elder Dionysius of Syracuse, after a reign 

of 38 years. 
Aristotle, set. 17, comes to Athens. 
366 Third invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans. 

The Archidamus of Isocrates. 
365 War between Arcadia and Elis. 
364 Second campaign of the war between Arcadia and 
Elis. Battle of Olympia at the time of the games. 
Demosthenes, set. 18, delivers his oration against 
Aphobus. 

362 Fourth invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans. 
Battle of Mantinea, in June, in which Epaminondas 
is killed. 

Xenophon brought down his Greek history to the 

battle of Mantinea. 
.ffischines, the orator, aet. 27, is present at Mantinea, 
361 A general peace between all the belligerents, with the 

exception of the Lacedaemonians, because the latter 

would not acknowledge the independence of the 

Messenians. 

Agesilaus goes to Egypt to assist Tachos, and dies in 
the winter, when preparing to return home. 

Birth of Dinarchus, the orator. 
360 War between the Athenians and Olynthians for the 
possession of Amphipolis. Timotheus, the Atheni 
an general, repulsed at Amphipolis. 

Theopompus commenced his history from this year- 
359 Accession of Philip, king of Macedonia, aet. 23. He 
defeats Argaeus, who laid claim to the throne, de- 
clares Amphipolis a free city, and makes peace with 
the Athenians. He then defeats the Paeonians and 
DJyrians. 

Death . of Alexander of Pherse, who was succeeded 
by Tisiphonus. 
358 Amphipolis taken by Philip. Expedition of the Athe- 
nians into Eubcea. 
357 Chios, Rhodes, and Byzantium revolt from Athens- 
First year of the Social War. Chares and Chabri- 
as sent against Chios, but fail in their attempt upon 
the island. Chabrias killed. 

The Phocians seize Delphi. Commencement of the 
Sacred War. The Thebans and the Locrians are 
the chief opponents of the Phocians. 

Dion sails from Zacynthus and lands in Sicily about 
September. 

Death of Democritus, set. 104, of Hippocrates, set. 104, 

and of the poet Timotheus. 
356 Second year of the Social war 

Birth of Alexander, the son of Philip and Olympias, 

at the time of the Olympic games. 
Potidiea taken by Philip, who gives it to Olynthus. 
Bionysius the younger expelled from Syracuse by 

Dim. after a reign of 12 years. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



970 

B.C. 

356 Philistus, the historian, espouses the side of Dionys- 
ius, but is defeated and slain. 
The speech of Isocrates Dt Pace. 
35" Third and last year of the Social War. Peace con- 
cluded between Athens and her former allies. 
354 Trial and condemnation of Timotheus. 

Demosthenes begins to speak in the assemblies of the 
people. 

353 Philip seizes upon Pagasae, and begins to besiege Me- 
thone. 
Death of Dion. 
352 Philip takes Methone and enters Thessaly. He de- 
feats and slays Onomarchus, the Phocian general, 
expels the tyrants from Pherae, and becomes mas- 
ter of Thessaly. He attempts to pass Thermopy- 
lae, but is prevented by the Athenians. 
War between Lacedasmon and Megalopolis. 
The first Philippic of Demosthenes. 
351 Speech of Demosthenes for the Rhodians. 
349 The Olynthians, attacked by Philip, ask succor from 
Athens. 

The Olynthiac orations of Demosthenes. 
348 Olynthian war continued. 

The speech of Demosthenes against Midias. 
347 Olynthus taken and destroyed by Philip. 

Death of Plato, aet. 82. Speusippus succeeds Plato. 

Aristotle, upon the death of Plato, went to Atarnffl. 
Anaxandrides, the comic poet, exhibits. 
346 Peace between Philip and the Athenians. 

Philip overruns Phocis and brings the Sacred war to 
an end, after it had lasted ten years. All the Pho- 
cian cities, except Abae, were destroyed. 
Oration of Isocrates to Philip. 
Oration of Demosthenes on the Peace. 
"?45 Speech of iEschines against Timarchus. 
144 Timoleon sails from Corinth to Syracuse, to expel 
the tyrant Dionysius. 
Aristotle, after three years' stay at Atarnae, went to 
Mytilene. 

The second Philippic of Demosthenes. 
343 Timoleon completes the conquest of Syracuse. 

Dionysius was thus finally expelled. He had regained 
the sovereignty after his first expulsion by Dion. 

Disputes between Philip and the Athenians. An Athe- 
nian expedition is sent into Acamania to counteract 
Philip, who was in that country. 

The speech of Demosthenes respecting Halonnesus. 

The speeches of Demosthenes and .ffischines, Hept 
XlapairptoBtlat- 
342 Philip's expedition to Thrace. He is opposed by Di- 
opithes, the Athenian general at the Chersonesus. 

Aristotle comes to the court of Philip. 

Death of Menander. 

Isocrates, ast. 94, began to compose the Panathenaic 
oration. 

S41 /bilip is still in Thrace, where he wintered, 

/he oration of Demosthenes on the Chersonesus, in 
which he vindicates the conduct of Diopithes, and 
the third and fourth Philippics. 
Birth of Epicurus. 
I/O Philip besieges Selymbria, Perinthus, and Byzantium. 
Isocrates completes the Panathenaic oration. See 
B.C. 342. 

Ephorus brought down his history to the siege of Pe- 
rinthus. 

839 Kenewal of the war between Philip and the Atheni- 
ans. Phocion compels Philip to raise the siege 
both of Byzantium and Perinthus. 



B.C. 

339 Xenocrates succeeds Speusippus at the Academy. 

338 Philip is chosen general of the Amphictyons, to carry 
on the war against Amphissa. He marches through 
Thermopylae, and seizes Elatea. The Athenians 
form an alliance with the Thebans ; but their united 
forces are defeated by Philip at the battle of Chsa- 
ronea, fought on the 7th of Metageitnion (August). 
Philip becomes master of Greece. Congress at 
Corinth, in which war is declared by Greece against 
Persia, and Philip appointed to conduct it. 
Death of Isocrates, act. 98. 

337 Death of Timoleon. 

336 Murder of Philip, and accession of his son Alexander, 
set. 20. 

Dinarchus, ast. 26, began to compose orations. 

335 Alexander marches against the Thracians, Triballi, 
and niyrians. While he is engaged in the war, 
Thebes revolts. He forthwith marches southward 
and destroys Thebes. 
Philippides, the comic poet, flourished. 

334 Alexander commences the war against Persia. He 
crosses the Hellespont in the spring, defeats the 
Persian satraps at the Granicus in the month Thar- 
gelion (May), and conquers the western part of 
Asia Minor. 
Aristotle returns to Athens. 

333 Alexander subdues Lycia in the winter, collects his 
forces at Gordium in the spring, and defeats Darius 
at Issus late in the autumn. 

332 Alexander takes Tyre, after a siege of seven months, 
in Hecatombaeon (July). He takes Gaza in Sep- 
tember, and then marches into Egypt, which sub- 
mits to him. In the winter he visits the oracle of 
Ammon, and gives orders for the foundation of Al 
exandrea. 
Stephanus, the comic poet, flourished. 

331 Alexander sets out from Memphis in the spring, 
marches through Phoenicia and Syria, crosses the 
Euphrates at Thapsacus in the middle of the sum- 
mer, and defeats Darius again at Arbela or Gauga- 
mela on the 1st of October. He wintered at Per 
sepolis. 

In Greece, Agis is defeated and slain by Antipater. 
330 Alexander marches into Media, and takes Ecbatana. 
From thence he sets out in pursuit of Darius, who 
is slain by Bessus. After the death of Darius, Al- 
exander conquers Hyrcania, and marches in pur- 
suit of Bessus through Drangiana and Arachosia, 
toward Bactria. 

The speech of .ffischines against Ctesiphon, and the 
speech of Demosthenes on the Crown, .ffischinea, 
after his failure, withdrew to Asia. 

Speech of Lycurgus against Leocrates. 

Philemon began to exhibit comedy, during the reign 
of Alexander, a little earlier than Menander. 
329 Alexander marches across tho Paropamisus in the 
winter, passes the Oxus, takes Bessus, and reaches 
the Jaxartes, where he founds a city Alexandrea. 
He subsequently crosses the Jaxartes, and defeats 
the Scythians. He winters at Bactra. 
328 Alexander is employed during the whole of this cam 
paign in the conquest of Sogdiana. 

Crates, the cynic, flourished. 
327 Alexander con pletes the conquest of Sogdiana early 
in the spring. He marries Roxana, the daughter 
of Oxyartes, a Bactrian prince. After the subjuga- 
tion of Sogdiana, Alexander returns to Bactra, from 
whence he marches to invade India. He crosses 



GREEK HISTORY. 



971 



the Hydaspes, and defeats Porus. He continues 
his march as far as the Hyphasis, but is there com- 
pelled by his troops to return to the Hydaspes. In 
the autumn he begins to sail down the Hydaspes 
and the Indus to the ocean, which he reached in 
July in the following year. 
326 Alexander returns to Persia with part of his troops 
through Gedrosia. He sends Nearchus with the 
fleet to sail from the mouths of the Indus to the Per- 
sian Gulf. Nearchus accomplishes the voyage in 
129 days. 

325 Alexander reaches Susa at the beginning of the year. 
Toward the close of it he visits Ecbatana, where 
Hephsestion dies. Campaign against the Cosssei 
in the winter. 
324 Alexander reaches Babylon in the spring. 

Harpalus comes to Athens, and bribes many of the 
Greek oratprs. 

Demosthenes, accused of having received a bribe 
from Harpalus, is condemned to pay a fine of 50 
talents. He withdraws to Trcezen and jEgina. 
323 Death of Alexander at Babylon in June, after a reign 
of twelve years and eight months. 

Division of the satrapies among Alexander's generals. 

The Greek states make war against Macedonia, usu- 
ally called the Lamian war. Leosthenes, the Athe- 
nian general, defeats Antipater, and besieges Lamia, 
in which Antipater had taken refuge. Death of Le- 
osthenes. 

Demosthenes returns to Athens. 

Hyperides pronounces the funeral oration over those 
who had fallen in the Lamian war. 

Epicurus, set. 18, conies to Athens. 

Death of Diogenes, the cynic. 
322 Leonnatus comes to the assistance of Antipater, but 
is defeated and slain. Craterus comes to the assist- 
ance of Antipater. Defeat of the confederates at 
the battle of Crannon on the 7th of August. End 
of the Lamian war. Munychia occupied by the 
Macedonians on the 19th of September. 

Death of Demosthenes on the 14th of October. 

Death of Aristotle, set. 63, at Chalcis, whither he had 
withdrawn from Athens a few months before. 
321 Antipater and Craterus cross over into Asia, to carry 
on war against Perdiccas. Craterus is defeated and 
slain by Eumenes, who had espoused the side of 
Perdiccas. Perdiccas invades Egypt, where he is 
elain by his own troops. Partition of the provinces 
at Triparadisus. 

Menander, set. 20, exhibits his first comedy. 
320 Anb'gonus carries on war against Eumenes. 
319 Death of Antipater, after appointing Polysperchon re- 
gent, and his son Cassander chiliarch. 

Escape of Eumenes from Nora, where he had been 
long besieged by Antigonus. 

Demade8 put to death by Cassander. 
318 War between Cassander and Polysperchon in Greece. 
The Athenians put Phocion to death. Athens is 
conquered by Cassander, who places it under the 
government of Demetrius Phalereus. 
917 Eumenes is appointed by Polysperchon commander 
of the royal forces in the East, and is opposed by 
Antigonus. Battle of Gabiene, between Eumenes 
and Antigonus. 

Death of Arridasus, Philip, and Eurydice. 

Olympias returns to Macedonia, and is besieged by 
Cassander at Pydna. 
S16 Lost battle between Antigonus and Eumenes. Eu- 



menes surrendered by the Argyraspids, and put to 
death. Antigonus becomes master of Asia. Seleu- 
cus flies from Babylon, and takes refuge with Ptole 
my in Egypt 
Cassander takes Pydna, and puts Olympias to death. 
He marries Thessalonice, the daughter of Philip, 
and keeps Roxana and her son Alexander IV. in 
custody. Cassander rebuilds Thebes. 
315 Coalition of Seleucus, Ptolemy, Cassander, and Ly- 
simachus against Antigonus. First year of the war 
Polemon succeeds Xenocrates at the Academy. 
314 Second year of the war against Antigonus. Success- 
es of Cassander in Greece. Antigonus conquers 
Tyre, and winters in Phrygia. 
Death of the orator jEschines, set. 75. 
313 Third year of the war against Antigonus. 
312 Fourth year of the war against Antigonus. Ptolemy 
and Seleucus defeat Demetrius, the son of Antigo- 
nus, at Gaza. Seleucus recovers Babylon on the 
1st of October, from which the era of the Seleucl- 
dse commences. 
311 General peace. 

Murder of Roxana and Alexander IV. by Cassander. 
310 Hercules, the son of Alexander and Barsine, a pre- 
tender to the throne. 
Ptolemy appears as liberator of the Greeks. Renew- 
al of hostilities between him and Antigonus. 
Agathocles lands in Africa. 

Epicurus, 33t. 31, begins to teach at Mytilene and 
Lampsacus. 

309 Hercules murdered by Polysperchon. 

308 Ptolemy's expedition to Greece. 

307 Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, becomes master of 
Athens. Demetrius Phalereus leaves the city. 
The orator Dinarchus goes into exile. 

306 Demetrius recalled from Athens. He defeats Ptole- 
my in a great sea-fight off Salamis in Cyprus. Aft- 
er that battle Antigonus assumes the title of king, 
and his example is followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus 
Lysimachus, and Cassander. 
Antigonus invades Egypt, but is compelled to retreat. 
Epicurus settles at Athens, where he teaches about 
36 years, till his death, at the age of 72. 

305 Rhodes besieged by Demetrius. 

304 Demetrius makes peace with the Rhodians, and re- 
turns to Athens. 

303 Demetrius carries on the war in Greece with success 
against Cassander. 

302 War continued In Greece between Demetrius and 
Cassander. 

Demochares, the nephew of Demosthenes, banished. 

Archedicus, the comic poeti flourished. 
301 Demetrius crosses over to Asia. 

Battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia, about the month of Au 
gust, in which Lysimachus and Seleucus defeat An- 
tigonus and Demetrius. Antigonus, set. 81, falls in 
the battle. 

Hieronymus of Cardia, the historian, flourished. 
300 Demetrius obtains possession of Cilicia, and married 
his daughter Stratonice to Seleucus. 
Birth of Lycon, the Peripatetic. 
297 Demetrius returns to Greece, and makes an attempt 
upon Athens, but is repulsed. 
Death of Cassander, and accession of his son Philip. 
296 Death of Philip, and accession of his brother Antipater. 
Demetrius takes Salamis and jEgina, and lays siewa 

to Athens. 
Pyrrhus returns to Epirus. 



972 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



B.C. 

295 Demetrius tabes Athens 

294 Demetrius makes an expedition into Peloponnesus. 
Civil war in Macedonia between the two brothers 

Antipater and Alexander. 
Demetrius becomes king of Macedonia. 
292 Demetrius conquers Thebes. 

Dinarchus returns from exile. 
991 Lysimachus defeated, and taken prisoner by the Getae. 
Second insurrection of Thebes against Demetrius. 
Pyrrhus invades Thessaly, but is obliged to retire be- 
fore Demetrius. 
Death of Menander, aet 52. 
290 Demetrius takes Thebes a second time. He cele- 
brates the Pythian games at Athens. 
289 Demetriu3 carries on war against Pyrrhus and the 
jEtolians. He marries Lanassa, one of the wives 
of Pyrrhus, and the daughter of Agathocles. 
Posidippus, the comic poet, begins to exhibit 
288 Death of Agathocles. 

287 Coalition against Demetrius. He is driven out of 
Macedonia, and bis dominions divided between Ly- 
simachus and Pyrrhus. 
Demetrius sails to Asia. 

Pyrrhus driven out of Macedonia by Lysimachus, 

after seven months' possession. 
Strata succeeds Theophrastus. 
285 Demetrius surrenders himself to Seleucus, who keeps 

him in captivity. 
285 Ptolemy II. Philadelphus is associated in the kingdom 
by his father. 

284 Demetrius, aat. 54, dies in captivity at Apamea, in Syria. 

283 Death of Ptolemy Soter, aet. 84. 

281 Lysimachus is defeated and slain by Seleucus at the 
battle of Corupedion. 

280 Seleucus murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, seven 
months after the death of Lysimachus. 
Antiochus I., the son of Seleucus, becomes King of 
Asia, Ptolemy Ceraunus King of Thrace and Mace- 
donia. 

Pyrrhus crosses into Italy. 

Irruption of the Gauls and death of Ptolemy Cerau- 
nus. He is succeeded by his brother Meleager, who 
reigns only two months. 

Bise of the Acheean league. 

Demosthenes honored with a statue on the motion of 

his nephew Demochares. 
Birth of Chrysippus. 
s Antipater King of Macedonia for a short time. Sos- 
thenes, the Macedonian general, checks the Gauls. 
The Gauls, under Brennus, invade Greece, but Bren- 
nus and a great part of his army are destroyed at 
Delphi. Death of Sosthenes. 
K>J Antigonus Gonatas becomes King of Macedonia. 

Zeno of Cittium flourished at Athens. 
S7<5 Birth of Eratosthenes. 
274 Pyrrhus returns to Italy. 

Birth of Eaphorion. 
278 Pyrrhus invades Macedonia, and expels Antigonus 
Gonatas. 

272 Pyrrhus invades Peloponnesus, and perishes in an 
attack on Argos. Antigonus regains Macedonia. 

270 Death of Epicurus, set 72. 

262 Death of Philemon, the comic poet, sat 97. 

25} Aratus delivers Sicyon, and unites it to the Achaean 
league. 

250 Arsaces founds the Parthian monarchy. 
243 Aratus, a second time general of the Achssan league, 
delivers Corinth from the Macedonians. 



241 Agis IV., king of Sparta, put to death in consequent 
of his attempts to reform the state. 

239 Death of Antigonus, and accession of his son Deme- 
trius II. 

236 Cleomenes III. becomes King of Sparta. 

229 Death of Demetrius H., and accession of Antigonus 

Doson, who was left by Demetrius guardian of his 

son Philip. 

227 Cleomenes commences war against the Achaean 
league. 

2*6 Cleomenes carries on the war with success against 
Aratus, who is again the general of the Achaean 
league. 

225 Reforms of Cleomenes at Sparta. 

224 The Achaeans call in the assistance of Antigonus Do- 
son against Cleomenes. 

222 Mantinea taken by Antigonus and Megalopolis by 
Cleomenes. 

221 Antigonus defeats Cleomenes at Sellasia, and obtains 
possession of Sparta. Cleomenes sails to Egypt, 
where he dies. Extinction of the royal line of the 
Heraclidae at Sparta. 

220 Death of Antigonus Doson, and accession of Philip 
V., aet. 17. 

The Achasans and Aratus are defeated by the jEtoli- 
ans. The Achaeans apply for assistance to Philip, 
who espouses their cause. Commencement of the 
Social war. 

The history of Aratus ended in this year, and that cf 
Polybius commences. 
219 Successes of Philip. He invades JEtolia and El'j, 
and winters at Argos. 
Phylarchus, the historian, flourished. 
218 Continued successes of Philip. He again invadet 

jEtolia, and afterward Laconia. 
217 Third and last year of the Social war. Peace con- 
cluded. 

215 Philip ooncludes a treaty with Hannibal. 

214 Eratosthenes flourished. 

213 Philip removes Aratus by poison. 

Birth of Carneades. 
212 Death of Archimedes at the capture of Syracuse by 
the Romans. 

211 Treaty between Rome and the jEtolians against Philip 
210 The Romans take jEgina. 
209 Philip invades Elis. 

208 Philip marches into Peloponnesus to assist the Achss- 
ans. 

Philopcemen is elected general of the Achaean league, 
and effects important reforms in the army. 
207 Philopcemen defeats and slays Machanidas, tyrant of 
Lacedssmon, at the battle of Mantinea. 
Death of Chrysippus, who was succeeded by Zeno 
of Tarsus. 

205 The jEtolians make peace with Philip. 

Philip's treaty with Rome. 
202 Nabis, tyrant of Lacedaemon, takes Messene. 

Philip makes war upon the Rhodians and Attalus. 
201 Philopcemen, general of the Achaeans, defeats Nabis. 

Philip takes Chios, and winters in Caria. 
200 Philip returns to Macedonia. War between Philip 
and Rome, which continues till B.C. 197. See tho 
Roman Tables. 
Aristophanes, the grammarian, flourished. 
197 Philip defeated at the battle of Cynoscephales 
196 Greece declared free by Flamininus at the Isthmus 
games. 

194 Death of Eratosthenes, aet. 80. 



GREEK HISTORY. 



973 



B.C. 

192 Philopoemen defeats Nabis, who is afterward slain by 

the JEtolians. Lacedaemon is added by Philopca- 

men to the Achaean league. 
Antiochus comes into Greece to assist the iEtolians 

against the Romans. He winters at Chalcis. 
191 Antiochus and the iEtolians defeated by the Romans 

at the battle of Thermopylae. 
190 The Romans besiege Amphissa, and grant a truce to 

the IEtolians. 

189 The Romans besiege Ambracia, and grant peace to 
the iEtolians. 

188 Philopoemen again general of the Achaean league, sub- 
jugates Sparta, and abrogates the laws of Lycurgus. 

183 The Messenians revolt from the Achaean league. 
They capture and put to death Philopcemen, aet. 70. 

i82 Polybius, the historian, carries the urn at the funeral 
of Philopoemen. 



B.C. 

179 Death of Philip and accession of Perseus. 

171 War between Perseus and Rome, which continues 

till B.C. 168. See the Roman Tables. 
168 'Defeat and capture of Perseus by .ffimilius Paulus. 

Division of Macedonia. 
167 One thousand of the principal Achaeans are sent to 

Rome. 

Polybius is among the Achaean exiles. 
151 Return of the Achaean exiles. 

149 Andriscus, pretending to be the son of Perseus, lays 
claim to the Macedonian throne. 

148 Andriscus conquered by Metellus. 

147 Macedonia reduced to the form of a Roman province. 
War between Rome and the Achaeans. 

146 Destruction of Corinth by Mummius. Greece be- 
comes a Roman province. [Although this is deniedj 
in an able dissertation, by C. V. Hermann.] 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF ROMAN HISTORY, 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CITY, B.C. 753, TO THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE, A.D. 476 



B.C. 

753 Foundation of Rome on the Palatine Mount, on the 
Palilia, the 21st of April. This is the era of Varro. 
According to Cato, Rome was founded in B.C. 751 ; 
according to Polybius, in B.C. 750 ; according to 
Fabius Pictor, in 747. 
753 Romulus, first Roman king, reigned thirty-seven 
to . years. Rape of the Sabine women. Conquest 
716 of the Cseninenses, Crustumini, and Antemnates. 
War and league with the Sabines, who settle on 
the Capitoline and Quirinal, under their king Ta- 
tius. Tatiua slain at Laurentiim. Wars with Fi- 
denae and Veii. 
716 Interregnum for a year. 

716 Muma Pompilius, second Roman king. The length 
to of Numa's reign is stated differently. Livy makes 
673 it 43 years; Cicero, who follows Polybius, 39 years. 
Constant peace during Numa's reign. Institution 
of religious ceremonies and regulation of the year. 
673 Tullus Hostilius, third Roman king, reigned 32 years, 
to Destruction of Alba, and removal of its inhabitants 
641 to Rome. War with Veii and FidensB. League 

with the Latins. 
640 Ancus Marcius, fourth Roman king, reigned 24 years, 
to Origin of the plebeians, consisting of conquered 
616 Latins settled on the Aventine. Extension of the 

city. Ostia founded. 
616 L. Tarquinius Priscus, fifth Roman king. Greatness 
to of the Roman monarchy. Great public works un- 
578 dertaken. Conquest of the Sabines and Latins. 
The senate increased to 300. The number of the 
equites doubled. Institution of the minores gentes. 
578 Servius Tullius, sixth Roman king, reigned 44 years, 
to He adds the Esquiline and Viminalis to the city, 
534 and surrounds the city with a stone wall. Consti- 
tution of Servius Tullius. Institution of the 30 ple- 
beian tribes, and of the comitia centuriata. 
534 L. Tarquinius Superbus, last Roman king. The con- 
to stitution of Servius Tullius abrogated. Tarquin be- 
610 comes ruler of Latium. Makes war upon the Vol- 
scians, and conquers Suessa Pometia. Sends colo- 
nies to Signia and Circeii. Expulsion of the Tar- 
quins and establishment of the republic. 
809 Coss. L. Junius Brutus. Slain in battle. 

L. Tarquinius Collatinus. Abdicated. 
Sp. Lucretius Tricipitinus. Died. 
M. Horatius Pulvillus. 
P. Valerius Poplicola. 
War with the Etruscans, and death of Brutus In bat- 
tle. First treaty with Carthage. 
808 Coss. P. Valerius Poplicola II. 

T. Lucretius Tricipitinus. 
War with Porsena, king of Clusium. 
507 Coss. P. Valerius Poplicola III. 

M Horatius Pulvillus II. 
Dedication of the Capitoline temple by the consul 
Horatius. 

506 Coss. Sp. Lartius Flavus s. Rufus. 

T. Herminius Aquilinus. 
505 Coss. M. Valerius Volusus. 



P. Postumius Tubertus. 
504 Coss. P. Valerius Poplicola IV. 

T. Lucretius Tricipitinus IL 
Appius Claudius removes to Rome. 
503 Coss. P. Postumius Tubertus II. 

Agrippa Menenius Lanatus. 
Death of P. Valerius Poplicola. 
502 Coss. Opiter Virginius Tricostus. 

Sp. Cassius Viscellinus. 
501 Coss. Postumus Cominiua AuroncuB. 
T. Lartius Flavus s. Rufus. 
Institution of the dictatorship. T. Lartius Flavus a. 
Rufus was the first dictator, and Sp. Cassius Vis- 
cellinus the first magister equitum. 
500 Coss. Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus 

M. Tullius Longus. Vied. 
499 Coss. T. ^butius Elva. 

P. Veturius Geminus Cicurinus. 
498 Coss. T. Lartius Flavus s. Rufus H. 

Q. Cloelius (Volcula) Siculus. 
Diet. A. Postumius Albus Regillensis. 
Mag. Eq. T. jEbutius Elva. 

Battle of Lake Regillus, in which the Latins are de- 
feated by the Romans. Some writers place this 
battle in B.C. 496, in which year Postumius was 
consul. 

497 Coss. A. Sempronius Atratinus. 

M. Minucius Augurinus. 
496 Coss. A. Postumius Albus Regillensis. 

T. Virginius Tricostus CaBliomontanus. 
Tarquinius Superbus dies at Cuma?. 
495 Coss. Ap. Claudius Sabinus Regillensis. 
P. Servilius Priscus Structus. 
Oppression of the plebeians by the patricians. The 
tribes increased from 20 to 21 by the addition of the 
tribus Claudia. 
494 Coss. A Virginius Tricostus CEeliomontanus. 
T. Veturius Geminus Cicurinus. 
Vict. M\ Valerius Volusus Maximus. 
Mag. Eq. Q,. Servilius Priscus Structus. 
First secession of the plebs to the Sacred Mount. In- 
stitution of the Tribuni plebis and jEdiles plebis. 
Colony sent to Velitrae. 
493 Coss. Sp. Cassius Viscellinus H. 

Postumus Cominius Auruncus II. 
Treaty with the Latins concluded by Sp. Cassius. 
War with the Volscians, and capture of Corioli. 
492 Coss. T. Geganius Macerinus. 

P. Minucius Augurinus. 
Lex Icilia. Famine at Rome. Colony sent to Norb«. 
491 Coss. M. Minucius Augurinus II. 

A. Sempronius Atratinus II. 
M. Coriolanus goes into exile among the Volscians. 
490 Coss. Q, Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus. 

Sp. Lartius Flavus s. Rufus II. 
489 Coss. C. Julius Julus. 

P. Pinarius Mamercinus Rufus. 
The Volscians, commanded by Coriolanus, s Aob 
Rome. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES, ETC. 



975 



B.C 

488 Coss. Sp. Nautius Rutilus. 

Sex. Furius Medullinus Fusus. 
Successes of Volscians. Retreat of Coriolanus. 
487 Coss. T. Sicinius Sabinus. 

C. Aquilius Tuscus. 
486 Coss. Proculus Virginius Tricostus Rutilua. 
Sp. Cassius Viscellinus III. 
League concluded by Sp. Cassius with the Hernici. 
First agrarian law proposed by Sp. Cassius. 
485 Coss. Ser. Cornelius Cossus Maluginensis. 
Q. Fabius Vibulanus. 
Condemnation and death of Cassius. 
484 Coss. L. wEmilius Maraercus. 

K. Fabius Vibulanus. 
483 Coss. M. Fabius Vibulanus. 
L. Valerius Potitus. 
War with Veii, which lasts several years. Power of 
the Fabia gens. 
482 Coss. C. Julius Julus. 

Q. Fabius Vibulanus II. 
481 Coss. K. Fabius Vibulanus II. 

Sp. Furius Medullinus Fusus. 
480 Coss. Cn. Manlius Cincinnatus. 
M. Fabius Vibulanus II. 
Manlius falls in battle against the Etruscans. 
479 Coss. K. Fabius Vibulanus HI. 

T. Virginius Tricostus Rutilus. 
The Fabia gens undertakes the war with Veii, and 
stations itself on the Cremera. 
478 Coss. L. jEmilius Mamercus II. 

C. Servilius Structus Ahala. Died. 
Opiter Virginius Tricostus Esquilinus. 
477 Coss. C. Horatius Pulvillus. 

T. Menenius Lanatus. 
Destruction of the Fabii at the Cremera. 
476 Coss. A. Virginius Tricostus Rutilus. 

Sp. Servilius Priscus Structus. 
The Veientes take the Janiculum. 
475 Coss. P. Valerius Poplicola. 
C. Nautius Rutilus. 
Impeachment of the ex-consul Servilius by the trib- 
unes. 

474 Coss. A. Manlius Vulso. 

L. Furius Medullinus Fusus. 
The census taken. Lustrum VIII. Forty years' trace 
with Veii. 
473 Coss. L. JSmilius Mamercus IIL 
Vopiscus Julius Julus. 
Murder of the tribune Genucius. 
472 Coss. L. Pinarius Mamercinus Rufus. 
P. Furius Medullinus Fusus. 
PublUius Volero, trib. pi., proposes the Publilia lex 
471 Coss. Ap. Claudius Sabinus Regillensis. 

T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus. 
Publilius, again elected trib. pi., carries the Publilia 
lex, which enacted that the plebeian magistrates 
should be elected by the comitia tributa. Wars 
with the iEquians and Volscians. Ap. Claudius, 
the consul, deserted by his army. 
470 Cose. L. Valerius Potitus II. 

Ti. .ffimilhis Mamercus. 
Impeachment of the ex-consul Ap. Claudius, who 
dies before his trial. 
469 Coss. A. Virginius Tricostus Casliomontanus. 

T. Numicius Priscus. 
468 Coss. T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus II. 
Q, Servilius Priscus Structus. 
Antium taken by the Romans. 



B.C. 

467 Coss. Ti. 2Emilius Mamercus H. 
Q. Fabius Vibulanus. 
Colony sent to Antium. 
466 Coss. Sp. Postumius Albus Regillensis. 

Q. Servilius Priscus Structus II. 
465 Coss. Q. Fabius Vibulanus II. 

T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus 11L 
War with the JEquians. 
464 Coss. A. Postumius Albus Regillensis. 
Sp. Furius Medullinus Fusus. 
War with the jEquians. 
463 Coss. P. Servilius Priscus Structus. 
L. jEbutius Elva. 
Pestilence at Rome. 
462 Coss. L. Lucretius Tricipitinus. 

T. Veturius Geminus Cicurinus. 
C. Terentillus Arsa, trib. pi., proposes a revision at 
the laws. The consuls triumph over the Volscians 
and jEquians. 
461 Coss. P. Volumnius Amintinus Gallus. 

Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus. 
Struggles between the patricians and plebeians re- 
specting the law of Terentillus, which are contin- 
ued till B.C. 454. Accusation and condemnation 
of K. Quinctius, the son of Cincinnatus. 
460 Coss. C. Claudius Sabinue Regillensis. 
P. Valerius Poplicola II. Died 
L. Quinctius Cincinnatus. 
During the contentions of the patricians and plebei- 
ans, the Capitol is seized by Herdonius. The con- 
sul Valerius is killed in recovering it. 
459 Coss. Q. Fabius Vibulanus III. 

L. Cornelius Maluginensis. 
War with the Volscians and .ffiquians. Antium re 
volts, and is conquered. Peace with the iEquiana. 
458 Coss. L. Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus. 
C. Nautius Rutilus II. 
Diet. L. Quinctius Cincinnatus. 
Mag. Eq. L. Tarquitius Flaccus. 

War with the iEquians and Sabines. The Roman 
army shut in by the enemy, but delivered by the 
dictator Cincinnatus. 
457 Coss. C. Horatius Pulvillus II. 

Q. Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus. 
Tribunes of the plebs increased from five to ten. 
456 Coss. M. Valerius (Lactuca) Maximus. 

Sp. Virginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus. 
The Mons Aventinus is assigned to the plebeians by 
the law of the tribune Icilius. 
455 Coss. T. Romilius Rocus Vaticanus. 

C. Veturius Geminus Cicurinus. 
Victory over the .ffiquians. 
454 Coss. Sp. Tarpeius Montanus Capitolinus. 
A. Aternius Varus Fontinalis. 
The patricians yield. See B.C. 461. Three commis- 
sioners are sent into Greece to become acquainted 
with the Grecian laws. 
453 Coss. Sex. Quinctilius Varus. 

P. Curiatius Festus Trigeminus. 
A famine and pestilence. 
452 Coss. P. Sestius Capitolinus Vaticanus. 
T. Menenius Lanatus. 
The ambassadors return from Greece. It is resolved 
to appoint Decemviri, from whom there should be 
no appeal (provocatio). 
451 Coss. Ap. Claudius Crassinus Regillensis Sabinus II 
Abdicated. 
T. Genucius Augurinus. Abdicated. 



976 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



451 Decemtiri. Ap. Claudius Crassinus Regillensis Sabi- 
nus. 

T. Genuciua Augurinus. 

Sp. Veturius Crassus Cicurinus.' 

C. Julius Julus. 

A. Manlius Vulso. 

Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus Cornutus. 
P. Sestius Capitolinus Vaticanus. 
P. Curiatius Festus Trigeminus. 
T. Romilius Rocus Vaticanus. 
Sp. Postumius Albus ttegillensis. 
Laws of the Ten Tables promulgated. 
00 Detenmri. Ap. Claudius Crassinus Regillensis Sabi- 
nus II. 

M. Cornelius Maluginensis. 
L. Sergius Esquilinus. 
L. Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus. 
T. Antonius Merenda. 
Q. Fabius Vibulamis. 
Q. Poetilius Libo Visolus. 
K. Duilius Longus. 
Sp. Oppius Cornicen. 
M'. Rabuleius. 
Two additional tables are added, thus making the 
laws of the Twelve Tables. 
449 Coss. L. Valerius Poplicola Potitus. 
M. Horatius Barbatus. 
The decemvirs continue illegally in the possession of 
power. In consequence of the death of Virginia, 
the plebeians secede to the Mons Sacer. The de- 
cemvirs deposed, and the old form of government 
restored. Valerius and Horatius appointed consuls. 
The Leges Valerias Horatim increase the power 
of the plebeians. Successful war of the consuls 
against the .zEquians and Sabines. 
448 Coss. Lar Herminius jEquilinus (Continisanus). 
T. Virginius Tricostus Casliomontanus. 
Lex Trebonia. 
447 Coss. M. Geganius Macerinus. 
C. Julius Julus. 
The quasstors are for the first time elected by the 
people, having been previously appointed by the 
consuls. 

446 Coss. T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus IV. 
Agrippa Furius Medullinus Fnsus. 
War with the Volscians and .ffiquians. 
445 Cosa. M. Genucius Augurinus. 
C. Curtius Philo. 
Lex Canuleia establishes connubium between the pa- 
tricians and plebeians : it is proposed to elect the 
consuls from the patricians and plebeians, but it is 
enacted that Tribuni miUtum with consular power 
shall be elected indifferently from the two orders. 
444 Coss. L. Papirius Mugillanus. 

L. Sempronius Atratinus. 
Three Tribuni militum with consular power appoint- 
ed, but they are compelled to abdicate from a defect 
in the auspices. Consuls appointed in their place. 
443 Cost. M. Geganius Macerinus II. 

T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus V. 
Censorts. L. Papirius Mugillanus. 

L. Sempronius Atratinus. 
Institution of the censorship. The history of Dionys- 
ius breaks off in this year. Victory over the Vol- 
scians. 

443 Coss. M. Fabius Vibulanus. 

Postumus jEbutius Elva Cornicen. 
Colony founded at Ardei 



441 Coss. C. Furius Pacilus Fusus. 

M\ Papirius Crassus. 
440 Coss. Proculus Geganius Macerinus. 
L. Menenius Lanatus. 
A famine at Rome. A Pratfectus Annona appointed 
for the first time. Sp. Mselius distributes com to 
the poor. 

439 Coss. T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus VT. 
Agrippa Menenius Lanatus. 
Diet. L. Quinctius Cincinnatus II. 
Mag. Eq. C. Servilius Structus Ahala. 
Sp. Maelius summoned before the dictator, and kiStd 
by the magister equitum when he refused to obey 
the summons. 

438 III. Tribuni Militum consulari potestate (Liv., iv., 16). 
The inhabitants of Fidense revolt, and place them- 
selves under the protection of Veii. Murder of the 
Roman ambassadors. 
437 Coss. M. Geganius Macerinus IH. \ 
L. Sergius (Fidenas). 
Diet. Mam. jEmilius Mamercinus. 
Mag. Eq. L. Quinctius Cincinnatus. 
Fidente reconquered. The Veientes defeated. 
436 Coss. M. Cornelius Maluginensis. 

L. Papirius Crassus. 
435 Coss. C. Julius Julus II. 

L. Virginius Tricostus. 
Diet. Q. Servilius Priscus Structus (Fidenas). 
Mag. Eq. Postumus jEbutius Elva Cornicen. 
Censs. C. Furius Pacilus Fusus. 
M. Geganius Macerinus. 
434 ill. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 23.) 
433 III. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 25.) 
Diet. Mam. iEmilius Mamercinus II. 
Mag. Eq. A. Postumius Tubertus. 
The Lex JSmilia of the dictator limits the duration 
of the censorship to eighteen months. 
432 III. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 25.) 
431 Coss. T. Quinctius Pennus Cincinnatus 
C. Julius MentO. 
Diet. A. Postumius Tubertus. 
Mag. Eg. L. Julius Julus. 

Great victory over the ./Equians and Volscians at 
Mount Algidus. 
430 Coss. C. Papirius Crassus. 

L. Julius Julus. 
429 Coss. L. Sergius Fidenas II. 

Hostus Lucretius Tricipitinus. 
428 Coss. A. Cornelius Cossus. 

T. Quinctius Pennus Cincinnatus H 
427 Coss. C. Servilius Structus Ahala. 
L. Papirius Mugillanus II. 
War declared against Veii by the vote of the comitia 
centuriata. 

426 TV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 31.) 
Diet. Mam. iEmilius Mamercinus HI. 
Mag. Eg. A. Cornelius Cossus. 
War with Veii. Fidenas again revolts, is retaken and 
destroyed. 

425 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 35.) 

Truce with Veii for twenty years. 
424 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 35.) 
Censs. L. Julius Julus. 

L. Papirius Crassus. 
423 Coss. C. Sempronius Atratinus. 
Q. Fabius Vibulanus. 
War with the Volscians. Vulturnum taken by the 
Samnites. 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



977 



B.C. 

423 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, iv 42.) 
421 Coss. N. Fabius Vibulanus. 

T. Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus. 
The number of the quaestors increased from two to 
four. 

420 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv, 44.) 

Conquest of the Greek city of Cumae by the Campa- 
nians. 

419 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv, 44.) 
418 III. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liy„ iv., 45.) 
Diet. Q. Servilius Priscus Fidenas II. 
Mag. Eq. C. Servilius (Structus) Axilla. 
Censs. L. Papirius Mugillanus. 

Mam. iEmilius Mamercinus. 
Defeat of the .ffiquians, Lavici taken, and a colony 
sent thither. 
417 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 47.) 
416 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 47.) 
415 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 49.) 
414 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 49.) 

War with the ^Equians. Bola conquered. Postu- 
mius, the consular tribune, killed by the soldiers. 
From this time the power of the iEquians and 
Volscians declines, chiefly through the increasing 
might of the Samnites. 
413 Coss. A. Cornelius Cossus. 

L. Furius Medullinus. 
412 Coss. Q. Fabius Vibulanus Ambustua. 

C. Furius Pacilus. 
411 Coss. M. Papirius Mugillanus. 

C. Nautius Rutilus. 
410 Coes. M'. jEmilius Mamercinus. 

C. Valerius Potitus Volusus. 
M. Maenius, tribune of the plebs, proposes an agrarian 
law. 

409 Goss. Cn. Cornelius Cossus. 

L. Furius Medullinus II. 
Three of the four quaestors are plebeians, being the 
first time that the plebeians had obtained this office. 

406 III. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 56.) 
Diet. P. Cornelius Rutilus Cossus. 
Mag. Eq. C. Servilius (Structus) Ahala. 

407 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 57.) 
Expiration of the truce with Veii. See B.C. 425. 

The truce was made for twenty years ; but the 
years were the old Roman years of ten months. 
The Romans defeated by the Volscians. 
406 IV. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, iv., 58.) 

War with the Volscians. Anxur, afterward called 
Tarracina, taken. War declared against Veii. Pay 
decreed by the senate to the Roman soldiers for the 
first time. 

405 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 61.) 

Siege of Veii, which lasts ten years. See B.C. 396. 
404 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., iv., 61.) 

An eclipse of the sun recorded in the Annales Maxi- 
mi as occurring on the Nones of June. (Cic, de 
Rep., i., 16.) 
403 VI. Trib. Mil. coils, pot. (Liv., v, 1.) 
Censs. M. Furius Camillus. 

M. Postumius Albinus Regillensis. 
Livy counts the censors among the consular tribunes, 
whom he accordingly makes eight in number. 
402 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., v, 8.) 

Defeat of the Romans before Veii. Anxur recovered 
by the Volscians. 
101 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., v, 10.) 
400 VT Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, v, 12.) 
62 



400 Anxur recovered by the Romans. 
399 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, v, 13.) 

A pestilence at Rome. A Lectisternium instituted 
for the first time. 
398 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., v, 14.) 

An embassy sent to consult the oracle at Delphi. 
397 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, v, 16.) 
396 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., v., 18.) 
Diet. M. Furius Camillus. 
Mag. Eq. P. Cornelius Maluginensis. ! 
Capture of Veii by the dictator Camillus. 
395 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, v, 24.) 
S94 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., v, 26.) 

Peace made with the Falisci. 
393 Coss. L. Valerius Potitus. Abdicated. 

P. Cornelius Maluginensis Cossus. Abdicated. 
L. Lucretius Flavus (Tricipitinus). 
Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus. 
Censs. L. Papirius Cursor. 

C. Julius Julus. Died. 
M. Cornelius Maluginensis. 
Distribution of the Veientine territory among the 
plebeians. 
392 Coss. L. Valerius Potitus. 

M. Manlius Capitolinus. 
391 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, v, 32.) 

Camillus banished. War with Volsinii. The Gauls 
invade Etruria and lay siege to Clusium. 
390 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, v, 36.) 
Diet. M. Furius Camillus II. 
Mag. Eq. L. Valerius Potitus. 

Rome taken by the Gauls. The Romans are de- 
feated at the battle of the Allia on the 16th of July 
(Niebuhr, vol. ii, note 1179), and the Gauls entered 
Rome on the third day after the battle. Camillus 
recalled from exile and appointed dictator. The 
Gauls leave Rome after holding it seven months. 
389 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, vi, 1.) 

Diet. M. Furius Camillus III. 

Mag. Eq. C. Servilius Ahala. 

Rome rebuilt. The Latins and Hernicans renounce 
their alliance with Rome. Rome attacked by the 
surrounding nations, but Camillus gains victories 
over them. 
388 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, vi, 4.) 
387 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., vi, 5.) 

The number of the Roman tribes increased from 21 
to 25, by the addition of four new tribes, the Stella- 
tina, Tromenlina, Sabatina, and Arniensis 
386 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, vi, 6.) 

Defeat of the Antiates and Etruscans. 
385 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, vi, 11.) 
Diet. A. Cornelius Cossus. 
Mag. Eq. T. Quinctius Capitolinus. 
Defeat of the Volscians. A colony founded at Satri- 
cum. The patricians accuse M. Manlius Capitoli- 
nus of aspiring to royal power. 
384 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, vi, 18.) 

Manlius is brought to trial, condemned, and put to 
death. 

383 VI. Trib. Mil. con's, pot. (Liv, vi, 21.) 

The Ager Pomptinus assigned to the plebeians. A 
colony founded at Nepete. 
382 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., vi, 22.) 

War with Prsaneste. 
381 VI Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, vi., 22.) 

War with Praeneste and the Volscians. 
380 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv, vi, 27.) 



978 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



380 Censs. C. Sulpicius Camerinus. Abdicated. 

Sp. Postumius Regillensis Albinus. Died. 
Diet. T. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus. 
Mag. Eq. A. Sempronius Atratinus. 
Praeneste taken by the dictator. 
:S79 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., vi., 30.) 
378 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., vi., 31.) 
Censs. Sp. Servilius Priscus. 
Q. Cloelius Siculus. 
377 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pet. (Liv., vi., 32.) 
376 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. Their names are not men- 
tioned by Livy, but Diodorus (xv., 71) has pre- 
served the names of four of them. 
The Rogationes Licini.se proposed by C. Licinius 
and L. Sextius, the tribunes of the people, to im- 
prove the condition of the plebeians, and to in- 
crease their political power. 
375 C. Licinius and L. Sextius re-elected tribunes every 
to year; and as the patricians would not allow the 
371 Rogations to become laws, the tribunes prevented 
the election of all patrician magistrates during these 
years. 

370 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., vi., 36.) 

C. Licinius and L. Sextius, who are again elected 
tribunes, allow consular tribunes to be chosen this 
year, on account of the war with Velitras. Licini- 
us and Sextius continue to be re-elected down to 
B.C. 367. 

369 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., vi., 36.) 
368 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., vi., 38.) 
Diet. M. Furius Camillus IV. 
Mag. Eq. L. .iEmilius Mamercinus. 
Diet. P. Manlius Capitolinus. 
Mag. Eq. C. Licinius Calvus. 
367 VI. Trib. Mil. cons. pot. (Liv., vi., 42.) 
Diet. M. Furius Camillus V. 
Mag. Eq. T. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus. 
The Rogationes Licinije passed. One of the con- 
suls was to be chosen from the plebeians ; but a 
new magistracy was instituted, the praetorship, 
which was to be confined to the patricians. Ca- 
millus, the dictator, conquers the Gauls, and dedi- 
cates a temple to Concordia to celebrate the recon - 
ciliation of the two orders. 
366 Coss. L. iEmilius Mamercinus. 

L. Sextius Sextinus Lateranus. 
Censs. A. Postumius Regillensis Albinus. 

C. Sulpicius Peticua. 
First Plebeian Consul, L. Sextius. 
First Praetor, L. Furius Camillus. 
365 Coss. L. Genucius Aventinensis. 
Q. Servilius Ahala. 
Pestilence at Rome. Death of Camillus. 
364 Coss. C. Sulpicius Peticus. 

C. Licinius Calvus Stolo. 
The pestilence continues. Ludi scenici first insti- 
tuted. 

J63 Coss. Cn. Genucius Aventinensis. 

L. iEmilius Mamercinus II. 
Diet. L. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus. 
Mag. Eq. L. Pinarius Natta. 
Censs. M. Fabius Ambustus. 
L. Furius Medullinus. 
362 Coss. Q. Servilius Ahala II. 

L. Genucius Aventinensis II. 
Diet. Ap. Claudius Crassinus Regillensis. 
Mag. Eq. P. Cornelius Scapula. 
Half of the Tribuni Militum for the first time elected 



by the people. Earthquake at Rome. Self-devo 
tion of Curtius. 
361 Coss. C. Sulpicius Peticus II. 

C. Licinius Calvus Stolo II. 
Diet. T. Quinctius Pennus Capitolinus Crispinus. 
Mag. Eq. Ser. Cornelius Maluginensis. 
Invasion of the Gauls. T. Manlius kill; a Gaul in sin- 
gle combat, and acquires the surname of Torquatus. 
360 Coss. C. Poetelius Libo Visolus. 
M. Fabius Ambustus. 
Diet. Q. Servilius Ahala. 

Mag. Eq. T. Quinctius Pennus Capitolinus Crispi- 
nus. 

War with the Gauls and Tiburtines, who are defeated 
by the dictator. 
359 Coss. M. Popilius Laenas. 

Cn. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus. 
358 Coss. C. Fabius Ambustus. 

C. Plautius Proculus. 
Diet. C. Sulpicius Peticus. 
Mag. Eq. M. Valerius Poplicola. 
Plautius defeats the Hernicans, and Sulpicius the 
Gauls. Fabius fights unsuccessfully against the 
Tarquinienses. Renewal of the alliance with La- 
tium. Lex Poetelia de ambitu, proposed by the trib- 
une Poetelius. The number of tribes increased 
from 25 to 27 by the addition of the Pomplina and 
Publilia. 
357 Coss. C. Marcius Rutilus. 

Cn. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus II. 
Lex Duilia et Msenia de unciario fenorc, restoring the 
rate of interest fixed by the Twelve Tables. Les 
Manlia de vicesima mannmissorum. 
Privernum taken. C. Licinius fined for an infraction 
of his own law. 
356 Coss. M. Fabius Ambustus II. 
M. Popilius Laenas II. 
Diet. C. Martius Rutilus. 
Mag. Eq. C. Plautius Proculus. 
First Plebeian Dictator, C. Marcius Rutilus, con 
quers the Etruscans. 
355 Coss. C. Sulpicius Peticus III. 
M. Valerius Poplicola. 
Both consuls patricians, in violation of the Licinian 
law. 

354 Coss. M. Fabius Ambustus III. 

T. Quinctius Pennus Capitolinus Crispinus. 
Both consuls again patricians. League with the Sam- 
nites. 

353 Coss. C. Sulpicius Peticus IV. 

M. Valerius Poplicola II. 
Diet. T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus. 
Mag. Eq. A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina. 
War with Caere and Tarquinii. Truce made with 
Caere for 100 years. 
352 Coss. P. Valerius Poplicola. 

C. Marcius Rutilus II. 
Diet. C. Julius Julus. 
Mag. Eq. L. jEmilius Mamercinus. 
Quinqueviri Mensarii appointed for a general liquids 
tion of debts. 
351 Coss. C. Sulpicius Peticus V. 

T. Quinctius Pennus Capitolinus Crispinus II. 
Diet. M. Fabius Ambustu9. 
Mag. Eq. Q. Servilius Ahala. 
Censs. Cn. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus. 

C. Marcius Rutilus. 
First Plebeian Censor, C. Marcius Rutilu3. War 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



979 



with the Tarquinienses, to whom a truce for 40 
years is granted. 
350 Coss. M. Popilius Lsenas III. 
L. Cornelius Scipio. 
Diet. L. Furius Camillus. 
Mag. Eq. P. Cornelius Scipio. 
The Gauls defeated by the consul Popilius. 

340 Coss. L. Furius Camillus. 

Ap. Claudius Crassinus Regillensis. Died. 
Diet. T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus II. 
Mag. Eq. A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina II. 
Both consuls patricians. The Gauls defeated by the 
consul Camillus. M. Valerius Corvus kills a Gaul 
in single combat. 
348 Coss. M. Valerius Corvus. 

M. Popilius Leenas IV. 
Diet. C. Claudius Crassinus Regillensis. 
Mag. Eq. C. Livius Denter. 
Renewal of the treaty with Carthage. 
347 Coss. T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus. 
C. Plautius Venno Hypsseus. 
Reduction of the rate of interest. 
346 Coss. M. Valerius Corvus II. 

C. Poetelius Libo Visolus. 
Second celebration of the Ludi Saeculares. War 
with the Volscians. Satrieum taken, 
j 345 Coss. M. Fabius Dorso. 

Ser. Sulpicius Camerinus Rufus. 
Diet. L. Furius Camillus II. 
Mag. Eq. Cn. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus. 
War with the Aurunci. 
344 Coss. C. Marcius Rutilus III. 

T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus II, 
Diet. P. Valerius Poplicola. 
Mag. Eq. Q- Fabius Ambustus. 
iEdes Monetae dedicated, 
i J43 Coss. M. Valerius Corvus IIL 

A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina. 
First Samnite War. The Campanians place them- 
selves under the protection of the Romans, who 
send the two consuls against the Samnites. Vale- 
rius defeats the Samnites at Mount Gaurus. 
■342 Coss. C. Marcius Rutilus IV. 
Q. Servilius Ahala. 
Diet. M. Valerius Corvus.' 
Mag. Eq. L. iEmilius Mamercinus Privernas. 
Insurrection of the Roman army at Capua. Various 
concessions made to the plebeians : that no one 
should hold the same magistracy till after the ex- 
piration of ten years, that no one should hold two 
magistracies in the same year, and that both con- 
suls might be plebeians. Lex Genucia forbade the 
taking of interest. 

341 Coss. C. Plautius Venno Hypsseus II. 

L. .ffimilius Mamercinus Privernas. 
Peace and alliance with the Samnites. 
340 Coss. T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus III. 
P. Decius Mus. 
Diet. L. Papirius Crassus. 
Mag. Eq. L. Papirius Cursor. 

Latin War. Self-devotion of Decius and defeat of 
the Latins at Mount Vesuvius. The Latins become 
the subjects of Rome. 
339 Coss. Ti. jEmilius Mamercinus. 
Q. Publilius Philo. 
Diet. Q. Publilius Philo. 
Mag. Eq. D. Junius Brutus Scseva. 
The Latins renew the war and are defeated. The 



Leges Publilias, proposed by the dictator, (1.) giva 
to the plebiscita the force of leges (jit plebiscite om- 
nes Quirites tenerent) ; (2.) abolish the veto of the 
curiae on the measures of the comitia centuriata 
(3.) enact that one of the censors must be a ple- 
beian. 

338 Coss. L. Furius Camillus. 
C. Mainius. 
Subjugation of Latium concluded. 
337 Coss. C. Sulpicius Longus. 
P. .films Paetus. 
Diet. C. Claudius Crassinus Regillensis. 
Mag. Eq. C. Claudius Hortator. 
First Plebeian Pr^tor, Q. Publilius Philo. The 
prastorship was probably thrown open to the ple- 
beians by his laws. 
336 Coss. L. Papirius Crassus. 
K. Duilius. 
Peace with the Gauls. 
335 Coss. M. Valerius Corvus (Calenus) IV. 
M. Atilius Regulus. 
Diet. L. JEmilius Mamercinus Privernas. 
Mag. Eq. Q. Publilius Philo. 
Cales taken. 
334 Coss. T. Veturius Calvinus. 

Sp. Postumius Albinus (Caudinus) 
Diet. P. Cornelius Rufinus. 
Mag. Eq. M. Antonius. 
Colony sent to Cales. 
333 Coss. (L. Papirius Cursor. 

C. Poetelius Libo Visolus II.) 
The consuls of this year are not mentioned by any 
ancient authority, and are inserted here on con 
jecture. 

332 Coss. A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina II. 
Cn. Domitius Calvinus. 
Diet. M. Papirius Crassus. 
Mag. Eq. P. Valerius Poplicola. 
Censs. Q. Publilius Philo. 

Sp. Postumius Albinus. 
The civitas given to the Acerrani. Two new tribes 
added, Maeia and Scaptia. The Samnites and Lu- 
canians fight with Alexander, king of Epirus, who 
makes a treaty with the Romans. 
331 Coss. M. Claudius Marcellus. 

C. Valerius Potitus Flaccus, 
Diet. Cn. Quintilius Varus. 
Mag. Eq. L. Valerius Potitus. 
330 Coss. L. Papirius Crassus IL 
L. Plautius Venno. 
Revolt of Fundi and Privernum. 
329 Coss. L. jEmilius Mamercinus Privernas II. 
C. Plautius Decianus. 
Privernum taken. The civitas given to the Privet '•■ 
nates. A colony sent to Anxur (Tarracina). 
328 Coss. C. Plautius Decianus (Venox) II. 
P. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus. 
A colony sent to Fregellsa. 
327 Coss. L. Cornelius Lentulus. 
Q. Publilius Philo II. 
Diet. M. Claudius Marcellus. 
Mag. Eq. Sp. Postumius Albinus. 
War with Palaepolis. 
326 Coss. C. Poetelius Libo Visolus III. 

L. Papirius Mugillanus (Cursor II.). 
Second Samnite War. Palaepolis taken. Lex Pob- 
telia et Papiria enacted that no plebeian should be- 
come a nezus. 



9S0 CHRONOLOGIC 

B.C. 

325 Coss. L. Furius Camillus II. 

D. Junius Brutus Scaeva. 
Diet. L. Papirius Cursor. 

Mag. Eg. Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus. Abdicated. 
L. Papirius Crassus. 
324 The Dictator and Magister Equitum continued in of- 
fice this year by a decree of the senate, without any 
consuls. Defeat of the Samnites. 
323 Coss. C. Sulpicius Longus II. 

Q. Aulius Cerretanus. 
J22 Coss. Q. Fabius Masimus Rullianus. 
L. Fulvius Curvus. 
Diet., A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina. 
Mag. Eg. M. Fabius Ambustus. 
The Samnites defeated. 
321 Coss. T. Veturius Calvinus II. 

Sp. Postumius Albinus II. 
Diet. Q. Fabius Ambustus. 
Mag. Eg. P. jElius Partus. 
Diet. M. jEmilius Papus. 
Mag. Eg. L. Valerius Flaccus. 
Surrender of the Roman army to the Samnites at the 
Caudine Forks. The Romans refuse to ratify the 
peace with the Samnites made by the consul, and 
continue the war. 
320 Coss. Q. Publilius Philo HI. 

L. Papirius Cursor II. (III.). 
Diet. C. Maenius. 
Mag. Eg. M. Foslius Flaccinator. 
Diet. L. Cornelius Lentulus. 
Mag. Eg. L. Papirius Cursor It 
Diet. T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus. 
Mag. Eg. L. Papirius Crassus. 
'iil9 Coss. L. Papirius Cursor III. (Mugillanus). 
Q. Aulius Cerretanus II. 
Defeat of the Samnites by Papirius. 
318 Coss. M. Foslius Flaccinator. 
L. Plautius Venno. 
Censs. L. Papirius Crassus. 
C. Maenius. 

Truce made with the Samnites for two years. Two 
new tribes added, Ufentina and Falerina. 
317 Coss. C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus. 

Q. ^Jmilius Barbula. 
316 Coss. Sp. Nautius Rutilus. 

M. Popilius Lasnas. 
Diet. L. jEmilius Mamercinus Privernas II. 
Mag. Eg. L. Fulvius Curvus. 
The Samnites renew the war. 
315 Coss. Q.. Publilius Philo IV. 

L. Papirius Cursor IV. 
Diet. Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus. 
Mag. Eg. Q. Aulius Cerretanus. Slain in battle. 
C. Fabius Ambustus. 
314 Coss. M. Poetelius Libo. 

C. Sulpicius Longus III. 
Diet. C. Maenius II. 
Mag. Eg. M. Foslius Flaccinator II. 
Victory over the Samnites. Insurrection and subju- 
gation of the Campanians. 
313 Coss. L. Papirius Cursor V. 

C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus n. 
Colonies founded by the Romans at Saticula, Suessa, 
and the island Pontia. 
312 Coss. M. Valerius Maximus. 
P. Decius Mus. 
Diet. C. Sulpicius Longus. 
Mag. Eg. C. JuniUB Bubulcus Brutus. 



VL TABLES OF 

B.C. 

312 Censs. Ap. Claudius Ceecus. 

C. Plautius (Venox). 
The censor Claudius constructs the Via Appia and 
the Aqua Appia ; and, in order to gain popularity, | 
distributes the libertini among all the tribes. 
311 Coss. C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus III. 
Q. zEmilius Barbula IL 
The Etruscans declare war against the Romans, but I 
are defeated. Victory over the Samnites. 
310 Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus II. 
C. Marcius Rutilus (Censorinus). 
The Etruscans again defeated. Ap. Claudius contin- 
ues censor after the abdication of his colleague, in 
defiance of the Lex iEmilia. The Samnites and 
Etruscans defeated. 
309 Diet. L. Papirius Cursor II. 

Mag. Eq. C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus II. 
No consuls this year. The Samnites and Etruscans 
again defeated. 
308 Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus IIL 
P. Decius Mus II. 
The Samnites again defeated. War with the Marsi \ 
and Peligni. 
307 Coss. Ap. Claudius Cascus. 

L. Volumnius Flamma Violens. 
Censs. M. Valerius Maximus. 

C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus. 
Fabius, proconsul, defeats the Samnites at Allifaa. 
306 Coss. P. Cornelius Arvina. 

Q. Marcius Tremulus. 
Diet. P. Cornelius Scipio Barbaras. 
Mag. Eq. P- Decius Mus. 
Insurrection and subjugation of the Hernicana. 
305 Coss, L. Postumius Megellus. 

Ti. Minucius Augurinus. Slain in battle. 
M. Fulvius Curvus Paetinus. 
Victorious campaign against the Samnites. Bovia- 
num taken. 
304 Coss. P. Sulpicius Saverrio. 

P. Sempronius Sophus. 
Censs. Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus. 

P. Decius Mus. 
Peace concluded with the Samnites. The jEquiana 
defeated with great slaughter. Peace with the 
Marrucini. Marsi, Peligni. The censors place all 
the libertini in the four city tribes. 
Cn. Flavius makes known the civile jus, and publish- 1 
es a calendar of the dies fasti and nefasd. 
303 Coss. L. Genucius Aventinensis. 

Ser. Cornelius Lentulus (Rufinus). 
Colonies sent to Sora and Alba. 
302 Coss. M. Livius Denter. 

M. yEmilius Paullus. 
Diet. C. Junius Bubulcus Brutua. 
Mag. Eg. M. Titinius. 

The iEquians renew the war, but are easily defeated 
by the dictator. 
301 Diet. Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus II. 
Mag. Eq. M. .^milius Paullus. 
Diet. M. Valerius Corvus II. 
Mag. Eq. C. Sempronius Sophus. 
No consuls this year. War with the Marsi and Etrus- 
cans. 

300 Coss. Q. Appuleius Pansa. 

M. Valerius Corvus V. 
The Lex Ogulnia increases the number of the pon* 
tiffs and augurs, and enacts that four of the pontiffs 
and five of the augurs shall always be plebeians. 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



981 



300 The Lex Valeria deprovocatione re-enacted the former 
law, which had been twice before passed on the 
proposition of different members of the same gens. 
399 Coss. M. Fulvius Peetinua, 

T. Manlius Torquatus. Died. 
M. Valerius Corvus VI. 
Censs. P. Sempronius Sophus. 

P. Sulpicius Saverrio. 
Two new tribes formed, the Aniensis and Terentlna. 
A colony sent to Narnia among the Umbrians. 
298 Coss. L. Cornelius Scipio. 

Cn. Fulvius Maximus Centumalus. 
Thikd Samnite Wib. The Samnites invade the 
territory of the Lucanians, the allies of the Romans, 
which occasions a war. The Samnites defeated at 
Bovianum; the Etruscans at Volaterrae. Colony 
founded at Carseoli. 
297 Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus IV. 
P. Decius Mus HI. 
The war continued in Samnium. The Etruscans re- 
main quiet this year. 
996 Coss. L. Volumnius Flamma Violens II. 
Ap. Claudius Caacus II. 
The war continued in Samnium, and also in Etruria. 

293 Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus V. 

P. Decius Mus IV. 
Great defeat of the Samnites, Etruscans, Umbrians, 
and Gauls at Sentinum. 

294 Coss. L. Postumius Megellus H. 

M. Atilius Regulus. 
Censs. P. Cornelius Arvina. 

C. Marcius Rutilus (Censorinus). 
War continued in Samnium and Etruria. Three 
cities in Etruria, Volsinii, Perusia, and Arretium 
sue for peace : a truce is made with them for 40 
years. 

TO Coss. L. Papirius Cursor. 

Sp. Carvilius Maximus. 
The Samnites defeated with great loss. First sun- 
dial set up at Rome. 
292 Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus Gurges. 
< D. Junius Brutus Scseva. 

The consul Fabius defeated by the Samnites; but his 
father, Q. Fabius Maximus, gains a great victory 
over the Samnites, from which they never recover. 
Pontius, the Samnite general, taken prisoner. 
291 Coss. L. Postumius Megellus III. 

C. Junius Brutus Bubulcus. 
The Samnites hopelessly continue the struggle. Co- 
minium taken. A colony sent to Venusia. 
290 Coss. P. Cornelius Rufinus. 

M\ Curius Dentatus. 
Both consuls invade Samnium. The Samnites sub- 
mit, and sue for peace. Conclusion of the Samnite 
wars, which had lasted 53 years. See B.C. 343. 
289 Coss. M. Valerius Maximus Corvinus. 
Q. Caedicius Noctua. 
Triumviri Capitales instituted. Colonies sent to Cas- 
trum, Sena, and Hadria. 
288 Coss. Q. Marcius Tremulus II. 

P. Cornelius Arvina II. 
287 Coss. M. Claudius Marcellus. 

C. Nautius Rutilus. 
286 Coss. M. Valerius Maximus Potitus. 
C. J31ius Paetus. 
Diet. Q. Hortensius- 

Last secession of the plebs. The Lex Hortensia of 
the dictator confirms more fully the privileges of 



B.C. 

the plebeians. The Lex Maania was very probably 
passed in this year. 
285 Coss. C. Claudius Canina. 

M. .Emilius Lepidus. 
284 Coss. C. Servilius Tucca. 

L. Caecilius Metellus Denter. 
283 Coss. P. Cornelius Dolabella Maximus/ , 
Cn. Domitius Calvinus Maximus. 

Censs 

Q. Caedicius Noctua. Abdicated. 
The Gauls besiege Arretium, and defeat the Romans. 
In the course of the same year the Gauls and Etrus- 
cans are defeated by the Romans. 
282 Coss. C. Fabricius Luscinus. 
Q. JSmilius Papus. 
The Boii defeated : peace made with them. Tho 
Samnites revolt, but are defeated together with the 
Lucanians and Bruttians. The Romans relieve 
Thurii. The Tarentines attack a Roman fleet 
281 Coss. L. jEmilius Barbula. 

Q, Marcius Philippus. 
Pykhhus arrives in Italy. He came upon the in- 
vitation of the Tarentines, to assist them in their 
war against the Romans. 
280 Coss. P. Valerius Laavinus. 
Ti. Coruncanius. 
Diet. Cn. Domitius Calvinus Maximus. 

Mag. Eq 

Censs 

Cn. Domitius Calvinus Maximus. 
The Romans defeated by Pyrrhus near Heraclea. 
279 Coss. P. Sulpicius Saverrio. 
P. Decius Mus. 
The Romans again defeated by Pyrrhus near Ascu- 
lum. 

278 Coss. C. Fabricius Luscinus II. 
Q. iEmilius Papus II. 
Pyrrhus passes over into Sicily. The Romans carry 
on the war with success against the nations of 
Southern Italy, who had sided with Pyrrhus. 
277 Coss. P. Cornelius Rufinus II. 

C. Junius Brutus Bubulcus II. 
276 Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus Gurges H. 
C. Genucius Clepsina. 
Diet. P. Cornelius Rufinus. 

Mag. Eq 

Pyrrhus returns to Italy. 
275 Coss. M'. Curius Dentatus II. 

L. Cornelius Lentulus. 
Censs. C. Fabricius Luscinus. 

Q. .ffimilius Papus. 
Total defeat of Pyrrhus near Beneventum. He leavel 
Italy. ' 
274 Coss. M'. Curius Dentatus III. 

Ser. Cornelius Merenda. 
273 Coss. C. Claudius Canina II. 

C. Fabius Dorso Licinus. Died. 
C. Fabricius Luscinus HI. 
Embassy from Ptolemaeus Philadelphua to Rome. 
Colonies sent to Posidonia and Cosa. 
272 Coss. L. Papirius Cursor II. 

Sp. Carvilius Maximus II. 
Censs. M*. Curius Dentatus. 

L. Papirius Cursor. 
Conclusion of the war in Southern Italy. TarentuM 
submits. 
271 Coss. C. Quinctius Claudus. 

L. Genucius Clepsina. 



982 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



271 Rhegium is taken, and the soldiers of the Campanian 
legion, who had seized the city, are taken to Rome 
and put to death. 

270 Coss. C. Genucius Clepsina II. 
Cn. Cornelius Blasio. 

069 Coss. Q. Ogulnius Gallus. 

C. Fabius Pictor. 

Silver money first coined at Rome. 
268 Coss. Ap. Claudius Crassus Rufus. 
P. Sempronius Sophus. 
The Picentines defeated and submit to the Romans. 
Colonies founded at Ariminum and Beneventum. 
867 Coss. M. Atilius Regulus. 
L. Julius Libo. 
The Sallentines defeated and Brundisium taken. 
206 Coss. N. Fabius Pictor. 

D. Junius Pera. 

The Sallentines submit. Subjugation of Italy com- 
pleted. 

265 Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus Gurges III. 
L. Mamilius Virulus. 
Censs. Cn. Cornelius Blasio. 

C. Marcius Rutilus II. (Censorinus). 
264 Coss. Ap. Claudius Caudex. 
M. Fulvius Flaccus. 
First Punic Was. First year. The consul Claudi- 
lis crosses over into Sicily, and defeats the Cartha- 
ginians and Syracusans. Gladiators exhibited for 
the first time at Rome. 
263 Coss. M'. Valerius Maximus (Messala). 
M'. Otacilius Crassus. 
Diet. Cn. Fulvius Maximus Centumalus. 
Mag. Eq. Q. Marcius Philippus. 
Second year of the first Punic war. The two consuls 
cross over into Sicily, and raise the siege of Messa- 
na. Hiero makes peace with the Romans. 
262 Coss. L. Postumius (Megellus). 
Q. Mamilius Vitulus. 
Third year of the first Punic war. The two consuls 
lay siege to Agrigentum, which is taken after a 
siege of seven months. 
261 Coss. L. Valerius Flaceus. 

T. Otacilius Crassus. 
Fourth year of the first Punic war. The Carthagini- 
ans ravage the coast of Italy. 
260 Coss. Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina. 
C. Duilius. 

Fifth year of the first Punic war. The Romans first 
build a fleet. The consul Duilius gains a victory 
by sea over the Carthaginians. 
259 Coss. L. Cornelius Scipio. 

C. Aquilius Floras. 
Sixth year of the first Punic war. The consul Cor- 
nelius attacks Sardinia and Corsica. His colleague 
carries on the war in Sicily. 
858 Coss. A. Atilius Calatinus. 

C. Sulpicius Paterculus. 
Censs. C. Duilius. 

L. Cornelius Scipio. 
Seventh year of the first Punic war. The two con- 
suls carry on the war in Sicily, but without much 
success. 

S57 Coss. C. Atilius Regulus (Serranus). 
Cn. Cornelius Blasio II. 
Diet. Q, Ogulnius Gallus. 
Mag. Eq. M. Lsetorius Flancianus. 
Eighth year of the first Punic war. The consul Atili- 
us gains a naval victory off Tyndaris. 



256 Coss. L. Manlius Vulso Longus. 
Q. Caedicius. Died. 
M. Atilius Regulus II. 
Ninth year of the first Punic war. The two consuls, I 
Manlius and Regulus, defeat the Carthaginians by 
sea and land in Africa. Success of the Roman 
arms in Africa. Manlius returns to Rome with 
part of the army. Regulus remains in Africa. 
255 Coss. Ser. Fulvius Paetinus Nobilior. 
M. ./Emilius Paullus. 
Tenth year of the first Punic war. Regulus contin 
ues the war in Africa with great success, defeats the 
Carthaginians, and takes Tunis, but is afterward 
defeated by the Carthaginians under the command 
of Xanthippus, and taken prisoner. The Romans 
equip a large fleet, which defeats the Carthaginians, 
and carries off from Africa the survivors of the 
army of Regulus ; but on its return to Italy it is [ 
wrecked, and most of the ships are destroyed. 
254 Coss. Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina II. 
A. Atilius Calatinus II. 
Eleventh year of the first Punic war. The Romans, j 
in three months, build another fleet of 220 ships. 
They take Panormus. 
253 Coss. Cn. Servilius Caepio. 

C. Sempronius Blassus. 
Cmss. D. Junius Pera. Abdicated. 

L. Postumius Megellus. Died. 
Twelfth year of the first Punic war. The two con- 
suls ravage the coast of Africa. On their return to 
Italy, the Roman fleet is again wrecked. The sen- 
ate resolve not to build another fleet. Tib. Corun- | 
canius the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus. 
252 Coss. C. Aurelius Cotta. 

P. Servilius Geminus. 
Censs. M'. Valerius Maximus Messala. 

P. Sempronius Sophus. 
Thirteenth year of the first Punic war. The two con- j 
suls carry on the war in Sicily. Capture of Himera. 
251 Coss. L. Caecilius Metellus. 
C. Furius Pacilus. 
Fourteenth year of the first Punic war. The twd 
consuls carry on the war in Sicily. 
250 Coss. C. Atilius Regulus (Serranus) II. 
L. Manlius Vulso (Longus) II. 
Fifteenth year of the first Punic war. Great victory 
of the proconsul Metellus at Panormus. Regulus [ 
sent to Rome to solicit peace, or, at least, an ex- | 
change of prisoners. The Romans, on the contra- 
ry, resolve to prosecute the war with the greatest 
vigor. A new fleet built. The two consuls lay 
siege to Lilybteum. 
[Arsaces founds the Parthian monarchy.] 
249 Coss. P. Claudius Pulcher. 
L. Junius Pullus. 
Diet. M. Claudius Glicia. Abdicated. 

A. Atilius Calatinus. 
Mag. Eq. L. Caecilius Metellus. 
Sixteenth year of the first Punic war. The consul 
Claudius defeated by sea. He is commanded by 
the senate to nominate a dictator, and nominates, 
in scorn, Glicia, who had been his scribe, but who 
is compelled to resign. The fleet of the other con- 
sul is wrecked. The dictator Atilius Calatinus 
crosses over into Sicily, being the first dictatoi 
who carried on war out of Italy. 
248 Coss. C. Aurelius Cotta II. 

P. Servilius Geminus U. 

I 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



983 



248 Seventeenth year of the first Punic war. The con- 
suls carry on the war in Sicily. 
247 Coss. L. Csecilius Metellus II. 
N. Fabius Buteo. 
Censs. A. Atilius Calatinus. 

A. Manlius Torquatus Atticus. 
Eighteenth year of the first Punic war. Hamilcar 
Barca appointed general of the Carthaginians. He 
ravages the coasts of Italy. The citizens at the cen- 
sus are 251,222. 
[Birth of Hannibal.] 
246 Coss. M'. Otacilius Crassus II. 
M. Fabius Licinus. 
Diet. Ti. Coruncanius. 
Mag. Eq. M. Fulvius Flaccus. 

Nineteenth year of the first Punic war.. During this 
year, and for several successive years, the war is 
chiefly defensive. Both parties are exhausted with 
the struggle. Hamilcar carries on the war with 
great skill. 
245 Coss. M. Fabius Buteo. 

C. Atilius Bulbus. 
Twentieth year of the first Punic war. 
244 Coss. A. Manlius Torquatus Atticus. 
C. Sempronius Blaesus II. 
Twenty-first year of the first Punic war. 
243 Coss. C. Fundanius Fundulus. 
C. Sulpicius Gallus. 
Twenty-second year of the first Punic war. The con- 
sul Fundanius defeats Hamilcar in Sicily. A sec- 
ond prsetor appointed for the first time. 
242 Coss. C. Lutatius Catulus. 

A. Postumius Albinus. 
Twenty-third year of the first Punic war. The Ro- 
mans again build a fleet. 
241 Coss. A. Manlius Torquatus Atticus II. 
Q. Lutatius Cerco. 
Censs. C. Aurelius Cotta. 

M. Fabius Buteo. 
Twenty-fourth and last year of the first Punic war. 
The proconsul Catulus defeats the Carthaginians 
by sea, off the JEgates. Peace made with the Car- 
thaginians. Sicily becomes a Roman province. 
Revolt and conquest of the Falisci. War of the 
Carthaginians with the mercenaries. The citizens 
at the census are 251,000. 
240 Coss. C. Claudius Centho. 

M. Sempronius Tuditanus. 
A colony sent to Spoletium. The Sardinians revolt 

from Carthage. 
Livius Andronicus begins to exhibit tragedies at 
Rome. 

339 Coss. C. Manlius Turrinus. 
Q. Valerius Falto. 
Q. Ennius, the poet, born. 
238 Coss. Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. 
P. Valerius Falto. 
The Romans carry on war with the Boii and Liguri- 
ans. The Floralia instituted. Conclusion of the 
war of the Carthaginians against their mercenaries 
after it had lasted three years and four months. 
The Carthaginians are obliged to surrender Sar- 
dinia and Corsica to the Romans. Hamilcar sent 
into Spain. 
237 Coss. L. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus. 
Q. Fulvius Flaccus. 
War continued with the Boii and Ligurians. 
836 Coss. P. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus. 



C. Licinius Varus. 
Censs. L. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus. 

Q. Lutatius Cerco. Died. 
The Transalpine Gauls cross the Alps on the invita- 
tion of the Boii ; but, in consequence of dissensions 
with the Boii, they return home. 
The Romans carry on war with the Ligurians and 
Corsicans. 
235 Coss. T. Manlius Torquatus. 
C. Atilius Bulbus II. 
The Sardinians rebel at the instigation of the Cartha- 
ginians, but are subdued. The temple of Janus is 
shut for the second time. 
The poet Nasvius flourished. 
234 Coss. L. Postumius Albinus. 

Sp. Carvilius Maximus. 
Censs. C. Atilius Bulbus. 

A. Postumius Albinus. 
War with the Ligurians, Corsicans, and Sardinians, 
who were secretly urged by the Carthaginians to 
revolt. 
Birth of M. Porcius Cato. 
233 Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus. 
M'. Pomponius Matho. 
War with the Ligurians and Sardinians. 
232 Coss. M. jEmilius Lepidus. 

M. Publicius Malleolus. 
The two consuls carry on war in Sardinia. The 
agrarian law of the tribune C. Flaminius. 
231 Coss. M. Pomponius Matho. 
C. Papirius Ma60. 
Diet. C. Duilius. 
Mag. Eq. C. Aurelius Cotta. 
Censs. T. Manlius Torquatus. Abdicated. 

Q. Fulvius Flaccus. Abdicated. 
The Sardinians and Corsicans subdued. Sp. Carvili 
us divorces his wife, the first instance of divorce at 
Rome. Other dates are given for this event. 
230 Coss. M. jEmilius Barbula. 
M. Junius Pera. 
Censs. Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus. 

M. Sempronius Tuditanus. 
War with the Ligurians. 
229 Coss. L. Postumius Albinus II. 

Cn. Fulvius Centumalus. 
War with the Illyrians, who are easily subdued. 
Death of Hamilcar in Spain, who is succeeded in 
the command by Hasdrubal. 
228 Coss. Sp. Carvilius Maximus II. 

Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus II. 
Postumius, the proconsul, who had wintered in Illyr- 
icum, makes peace with Teuta, queen of the Illyri- 
ans. First Roman embassy to Greece. Hasdrubal 
makes a treaty with the Romans. 
227 Coss. P. Valerius Flaccus. 

M. Atilius Regulus. 
Number of pruators increased from two to four. 
226 Coss. M. Valerius Messala. 

L. Apustius Fullo. 
225 Coss. L. ^Emilius Papus. 

C. Atilius Regulus. Slain in battle. 
Censs. C. Claudius Centho. 

M. Junius Pera. 
War with the Gauls. The Transalpine Gauls 
cross the Alps and join the Cisalpine Gauls. Their 
united forces defeated by the consul jEmilius. The 
consul Atilius falls in the battle. 
Q. Fabius Pictor, the historian, served in the GaUie 



34 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



B.C 

war. He was a contemporary of the historian L. 
Cincius Alimentus. 
224 Coss. T. Manlius Torquatus n. 
Q, Fulvius Flaccus II. 
Diet. L. Caecilius Metellus. 
Mag. Eq. N. Fabius Buteo. 

Second year of the Gallic war. The Boii submit. 
Plautus, perhaps, began to exhibit in this year. See 
the article Pi-autus. 
223 Coss. C. Flaminius. 

P. Furius Philus. 
Third year of the Gallic war. The consul Flaminius 
crosses the Po and defeats the Insubrians. 
921 Coss. Cn. Cornelius Scipio Calvus. 
M. Claudius Marcellus. 
Fourth and last year of the Gallic war. The Insubri- 
ans, defeated by the consul Marcellus, submit to the 
Romans. The consul Marcellus wins the spolia 
opima. 

221 Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio Asina. 
M. Minucius Rufus. 
Diet. Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus. 
Mag. Eq. C. Flaminius. 

War with the Istri, who are subdued. Hannibal suc- 
ceeds Hasdrubal in the command of the Carthagin- 
ian army in Spain. 
220 Coss. L. Veturius Philo. 

C. Lutatius Catulus. 
Censs. L. JSmilius Papus. 

C. Flaminius. 
The censors place the libertini in the four city tribes. 
Flaminius makes the Via Flaminia and builds the 
Circus Flaminius. The citizens at the census are 
270,213. 

219 Coss. M. Livius Salinator. 

L. jEmilius Paulus. 

Second Illyrian war against Demetrius of Pharos, 
who is conquered by the consul jEmilius. Hanni- 
bal takes Saguntum after a siege of eight months, 
and winters at Carthago Nova. 

The poet Pacuvius born fifty years before Attius. 

First medical shop opened at Rome by Archagathus, 
a Greek, to whom the Romans granted the jus Qui- 
ritium. 

218 Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio. 

Ti. Sempronius Longus. 
Second Punic Wae. First year. Hannibal began 
his march from Carthago Nova at the commence- 
ment of spring, and reached Italy in five months. 
He defeats the Romans at the battles of the Ticinus 
and the Trebia, and winters in Liguria. Cn. Scipio 
carries on the war with success in Spain. 
L. Cincius Alimentus wrote an account of Hannibal's 
passage into Italy. 
217 Coss. Cn. Servilius Geminus. 

C. Flaminius II. Slaiyi in bailie. 
M. Arilius Regulus II. 
Diet. Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus II. 
Mag. Eq. M. Minucius Rufus. 
Diet. L. Veturius Philo. 
Mag. Eq. M. Pomponius Matho. 
Second year of the second Punic war. Hannibal 
marches through the marshes into Etruria, and de- 
feats Flaminius at the battle of the Lake Trasime- 
nus. Fabius Maximus, elected dictator by the peo- 
ple, will not risk a battle. Hannibal marches into 
Apulia, where he passes the winter. The war con- 
tinued in Spain. 



B.C. 

216 Coss. C. Terentius Varro. 

L. jEmilius Paulus I- Slain in battle. 
Did. M. Junius Pera. 
Mag . Eq. Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. 
Did. sine Mag. Eg. M. Fabius Buteo. 
Third year of the second Punic war. Great defeal 
of the Romans at the battle of Canna?, on the 2d 
of August Revolt of Capua and many other cities. 
The war continued in Spain. Death of Hiero. 
215 Coss. Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. 

L. Postumius Albinus III. Slain in battle. 
M. Claudius Marcellus II. Abdicated. 
Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus III. 
Fourth year of the second Pubic war. The war be- 
gins to turn in favor of the Romans. Marcellus 
gains a victory over Hannibal near Nola. The Ro- 
mans conquer the Carthaginians in Sardinia. Suc- 
cess of P. and Cn. Scipio in Spain. Treaty of Han- 
nibal with Philip, king of Macedon. The sumptua- 
ry law of the tribune C. Oppius. 
214 Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus IV. 
M. Claudius Marcellus in. 
Censs. M. Arilius Regulus. Abdicated. 

P. Furius Philus. Died. 
Fifth year of the second Punic war. Hannibal hi the 
neighborhood of Tarcntum. Marcellus is sent into 
Sicily. He besieges Syracuse, but turns the siege 
into a blockade. War continued in Spain. 
213 Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus. 

Ti. Sempronius Gracchus II. 
Did. C. Claudius Centho. 
Mag. Eq. Q. Fulvius Flaccus. 
Sixth year of the second Punic war. Hannibal con 
tinues in the neighborhood of Tarentunb. Marcel- 
lus continues the siege of Syracuse. Scicesses of 
P. and Cn. Scipio in Spain. They think of cross- 
ing over to Africa. War between the Romans and 
Philip. 

212 Coss. Q. Fulvius Flaccus HI. 

Ap. Claudius Pulcher. 
Seventh year of the second Punic war. Hannibal 
takes Tarentum. Marcellus takes Syracuse. P. 
and Cn. Scipio defeated and slain in Spain. Insfr 
tution of the Ludi Apollinares. 
Death of Archimedes. 
211 Coss. Cn. Fulvius Centumalus. 

P. Sulpicius Galba Maximus. 
Eighth year of the second Punic war. Hannibal at- 
tempts in vain to raise the siege of Capua. Tho 
Romans recover Capua. P. Scipio is sent into 
Spain toward the end of the summer. The .flJtoli- 
ans desert Philip and conclude a treaty with tht 
Romans. 

210 Coss. M. Claudius Marcellus IV. 
M. Valerius Lasvinus. 
Diet. Q. Fulvius Flaccus. 
Mag. Eq. P. Licinius Crassus Dives. 
Censs. L. Veturius Philo. Died. 

P. Licinius Crassus Dives. Abdicated. 
Ninth year of the second Punic war. Hannibal fights 
a drawn battle with Marcellus. In Sicily, Lsvinus 
takes Agrigentum. In Spain, Scipio takes Cartha- 
go Nova. The citizens at the census are 137,108. 
209 Coss. Q. Fulvius Flaccus IV. 

Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus V. 
Censs. M. Cornelius Cethegus. 

P. Sempronius Tuditanus. 
Tenth year of the second Punic war. The consul 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



985 



B.«. 

Fabius recovers Tarentum. In Spain, Scipio gains ! 
a victory near Baecula. In this year the number 
of Roman colonies was thirty. 
£88 Coss. M. Claudius Marcellus V. Slain in battle. 

T. Quinctius (Pennus Capitolinus) Crispinus. ! 
Died. 

Diet. T. Manlius Torquatus. 
Mag . Eq. C. Servilius. 

Eleventh year of the second Punic war. The two 
consuls defeated by Hannibal near Venusia ; Mar- 
cellus is slain. Continued success of Scipio in 
Spain. Hasdrubal crosses the Pyrenees and win- 
ters in Gaul. 
307 Coss. C. Claudius Nero. 

M. Livius Salinator II. 

Diet. M. Livius Salinator. 

Mag. Eq. Q. Cascilius Metellus. 

Twelfth year of the second Punic war. Hasdrubal 
crosses the Alps and marches into Italy ; is defeat- 
ed on the Metaurus and slain. The Romans carry 
on the war in Greece against Philip : they take 
Oreum, in Euboea. Continued success of Scipio 
in Spain. 

Livius Andronicus was probably still alive in this 
year. 

906 Coss. L. Veturius Philo. 

Q. Cascilius Metellus. 
Thirteenth year of the second Punic war. The con- 
suls march into Bruttii. Hannibal remains inactive. 
Scipio becomes master of Spain ; he crosses over 
into Africa, and makes a league with Syphax. 
205 Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio (Africanus). 
P. Licinius Crassus Dives. 
Diet. Q. Caecilius Metellus. 
Mag. Eq. L. Veturius Philo. 

Fourteenth year of the second Punic war. The war 
continued in Bruttii. Scipio crosses over into Sic- 
ily, where he passes the winter. Peace concluded 
between Rome and Philip. 
204 Coss. M. Cornelius Cethegus. 

P. Sempronius Tuditanus. 
Censs. M. Livius Salinator. 

C. Claudius Nero. 
Fifteenth year of the second Punic war. The war 
continued in Bruttii. Hannibal conquered near 
Croton. Scipio crosses over to Africa. The citi- 
zens at the census are 214,000. 
Ennius, the poet, is brought to Rome by the quasstor 
Cato, from Sardinia. 
203 Coss. Cn. ServiUus Caepio. 
C. Servilius. 
Diet. P. Sulpicius Galba Maximus. 
Mag. Eq. M. Servilius Pulex Geminus. 
Sixteenth year of the second Punic war. Scipio 
prosecutes the war with success in Africa. Defeat 
of the Carthaginians and Syphax ; Syphax is taken 
prisoner. Hannibal leaves Italy, and crosses over 
to Africa. 

202 Coss. M. Servilius Pulex Geminus. 
Ti. Claudius Nero. 
Diet. C. Servilius. 
Mag. Eq. P. iElius Partus. 

Seventeenth year of the second Punic war. Hanni- 
bal is defeated by Scipio at the decisive battle of 
Zama. The Carthaginians sue for peace. After 
this year no dictator was appointed for 120 years, 
till Sulla. 

Death of the poet NsBvius 



201 Coss. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus. 
P. .Elius Paitus. 
Eighteenth and last year of the second Punic war 
Peace granted to the Carthaginians. 
200 Coss. P. Sulpicius Galba Maximus II. 
C. Aurelius Cotta. 
Renewal of the war with Philip, king of Macedonia 
Sulpicius sent into Greece. War with the Insubri- 
an Gauls. Colony sent to Venusium. 
199 Coss. L. Cornelius Lentulus. 
P. Villius Tappulus. 
Censs. P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus. 

P. JEYms Paetus. 
War continued against Philip and the Gauls. Sulpi- 
cius succeeded in the command in Greece by Vil- 
lius. Colony sent to Narnia. 
198 Coss. Sex. jElius Paetus Catus. 

T. Ctuinctius Flamininus. 
War continued against Philip and the Gauls. Villius 
is succeeded by Flamininus. 
197 Coss. C. Cornelius Cethegus. 
Q. Minucius Rufus. 
War continued against Philip and the Gauls. Defeat 
of Philip by Flamininus at the battle of Cynoscepha- 
lae, in the autumn. Peace concluded with Philip. 
Number of praetors increased to six. Lex Porcia 
de provocalione. 
196 Coss. L. Furius Purpureo. 

M. Claudius Marcellus. 
War continued against the Gauls. The consuls de- 
feat the Insubrians and the Boii. Flamininus pro- 
claims the independence of Greece at the Isthmian 
games. Hannibal takes refuge at the court of An- 
tiochus. Triumviri Epulones created by the Lex 
Licinia. 

195 Coss. L. Valerius Flaccus. 
M. Porcius Cato. 
War continued against the Gauls. Flamininus march- 
es against Nabis, the tyrant of Sparta. Liberation 
of Argos. Order restored in Spain by the consul 
Cato. The Lex Oppia repealed. 
Birth of Terence. 
194 Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus II. 
Ti. Sempronius Longus. 
Cetiss. Sex. JElius Paetus Catus. 

C. Cornelius Cethegus. 
War continued against the Gauls. Flamininus and 
Cato return to Rome, and triumph. The Romans 
found several colonies this year, in Campania, Lu- 
cania, Apulia, and Bruttii. In this year the sena- 
tors receive separate seats at the Roman games. 
The citizens at the census are 143,704. 
193 Coss. L. Cornelius Merula. 

Q. Minucius Thermus. 
War continued against the Gauls. Ambassadors sent 
to Philip. 
192 Coss. L. Quinctius Flamininus. 

Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus. 
War with the Gauls continued. Philip crosses over 

into Greece on the invitation of the jEtolians. 
The Panulus of Plautus probably represented in this 
year. 

191 Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica. 
M\ Acilius Glabrio. 
War with Antiochus. The consul Acilius defeats 
Antiochus at Thermopylae. The Romans defeat the 
fleet of Antiochus. He winters in Phrygia. The 
eonsul Cornelius defeats the Boii, who submit The 



936 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



B.C. 

colony of Boncnia founded in their country in the 
following year. 
191 The Pseudolus of Plautus probably represented in 
this year. 

190 Cess. L. Cornelius Scipio (Asiaticus). 
C. Laelius. 

The consul L. Scipio crosses into Asia, and defeats 
Antiochus at the battle of Magnesia. Peace made 
with him, hut not ratified till B.C. 188. 
189 Coss. M. Fulvius Nobilior. 

Cn. Manlius Vulso. 
Ccnss. T. Quinctius Flamininus. 

M. Claudius Marcellus. 
The consul Fulvius subdues the iEtolians. Peace 
made with them. The consul Manlius conquers 
the Galatians in Asia Minor. The citizens at the 
census are 256,318. 
Ennius accompanies Fulvius into iEtolia. 
188 Cass. M. Valerius Messala. 

C. Livius Salinator. 
Manlius remains in Asia, and ratifies the peace with 
Antiochus. He returns home through Thrace and 
Macedonia, and is attacked by the Thracians. 
187 Coss. M. Gemilius Lepidus. 
C. Flaminius. 
The two consuls carry on war against the Ligurians. 
L. Scipio accused of embezzlement in the war with 
Antiochus, and is condemned. He was accused 
by the Petillii, tribunes of the plebs, at the instiga- 
tion of Cato. 
186 Coss. Sp. Postumius Albinus. 
Q. Marcius Philippus. 
War continued against the Ligurians. The Senatus- 
consultum de Bacchanalibus. 
185 Coss. Ap. Claudius Pulcher. 

M. Sempronius Tuditanus. 
War continued against the Ligurians. P. Scipio Af- 
ricanus accused by M. Neevius. He retires from 
Rome before his trial. 
184 Coss. P. Claudius Pulcher. 

L. Porcius Licinus. 
Ccnss. L. Valerius Flaccus. 

M. Porcius Cato. 
War continued against the Ligurians. Cato exer- 
cises his censorship with great severity ; expels 
Flamininus from the senate, and deprives L. Scipio 
of his equus publicus. 
Death of Plautus. 
183 Coss. M. Claudius Marcellus. 
Q. Fabius Labeo. 
War continued against the Ligurians. Death of Scip- 
io Africanus. (The year of his de»th is variously 
stated.) Death of Hannibal. 
182 Coss. Cn. Bfebius Tamphilus. 
L. jEmilius Paulus. 
War continued against the Ligurians. Two prastors 
sent into Spain. 
181 Coss. P. Cornelius Cethegus. 

M. Bajbius Tamphilus. 
War continued against the Ligurians. The Ligures 
Ingauni submit to the Romans. Lex Cornelia Bae- 
bia de ambitu. The sumptuary law of the trib- 
une Orchius. Discovery of the alleged books of 
Numa. 

180 Coss. A. Postumius Albinus. 

C. Calpurnius Piso. Vied. 
Q. Fulvius Flaccus. 
War continued against the LigurianB. The Ligures 



Apuani transplanted to Samnium. Colony sent to 
Pisa. The Lex Annalis of the tribune Villius fixes 
the age at which the magistracies might be held. 
179 Coss. L. Manlius Acidinus Fulvianus. 
Q. Fulvius Flaccus. 
Censs. L. iEmilius -Lepidus. 

M. Fulvius Nobilior. 
War continued against the Ligurians. They are de 
feated by the consul Fulvius. Tib. Gracchus, the fa 
ther of the two tribunes, subdues the Celtiberians in 
Spain. Death of Philip, king of Macedonia, and ac- 
cession of Perseus. The citizens at the census are 
273,294. 

Caecilius, the comic poet, flourished. 
178 Coss. M. Junius Brutus. 

A. Manlius Vulso. 
War with the Istrians. 
177 Coss. C. Claudius Pulcher. 

Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. 
Subjugation of the Istrians by the consul Claudius, 
who also defeats the Ligurians. Colonies founded 
at Luna and Lucca. The consul Gracchus carries 
on war against the Sardinians, who had revolted. 
176 Coss. Q. Petillius Spurinus. Slain in baale. 
Cn. Cornel. Scipio Hispallus. Died. 
C. Valerius Laevinus. 
War continued against the Ligurians. The consul 
Petillius defeated and slain by the Ligurians. Grac- 
chus subdues the Sardinians. 
175 Coss. P. Mucins Scaevola. 

M. iEmilius Lepidus II. 
War continued against the Ligurians, who are defeat 
ed by the consuls. Gracchus returns to Rome, and 
triumphs over the Sardinians. Origin of the prov- 
erb Sardi venales. 
174 Coss. Sp. Postumius Albinus Paullulus. 
Q. Mucius Scaevola. 
Censs. Q. Fulvius Flaccus. 

A. Postumius Albinus. 
The censors order the streets of Rome to be paved 
The citizens at the census are 269,015. 
173 Coss. L. Postumius Albinus. 
M. Popillius Laenas. 
Popillius defeats the Ligurians. 
Ennius is now in his 67th year. 
172 Coss. C. Popillius Laenas. 
P. jElius Ligus. 
Eumenes comes to Rome to denounce Perseus. 
171 Coss. P. Licinius Crassus. 

C. Cassius Louginus. 
War with Peiiseus. First year. The consul Licia- 
ius carries on the war with success against Per- 
seus. He winters in Bceotia and Thessaly. 
170 Coss. A. Hostilius Mancinus. 
A. Atilius Serranus. 
Second year of the war against Perseus. The consul 

Hostilius Mancinus commands in Macedonia. 
Birth of the poet Accius or Attius. 
169 Coss. Q. Marcius Philippus II. 
Cn. Servilius Cajpio. 
Censs. C. Claudius Pulcher. 

Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. 
Third year of the war against Perseus. The consul 
Marcius commands in Macedonia. The Lex Voco- 
nia. The libertini placed in the four city tribes by 
the censor Gracchus. Tne citizens at the. census 
are 312,805. 
Death of Ennius. 



KOMAN HISTORY. 



987 



168 Coss. L. vEmilius Paulus II. 
C. Licinius Crassus. 
Fourth and last year of the war against Perseus. 
The consul iEmilius Paulus defeats Perseus at the 
battle of Pydna, on the 22d of June. Perseus short- 
ly afterward taken prisoner. End of the Macedo- 
nian monarchy. War with the Illyrians : the war 
is ended in 30 days. 
Death of Caecilius, the comic poet 
167 Coss. Q. iElius Paetus. 

M. Junius Pennus. 
jEmilius Paulus settles the affairs of Greece. He de- 
stroys seventy towns in Epirus. More than 1000 
. principal Achaean3 are sent to Rome : among them 
is the historian Polybius. 
56 Coss. M. Claudius Marcellus. 
C. Sulpicius Gallus. 
The consuls defeat the Alpine Gauls and the Liguri- 
ans. 

The Andria of Terence exhibited. 
165 Coss. T. Manlius Torquatus. 
Cn. Octavius. 
The Hecyra of Terence exhibited. 
164 Coss. A. Manlius TorquatUB. 

Q. Cassius Longinus. Died. 
Cetiss. L. .ffimilius Paulus. 

Q. Marcius Philippus. 
The citizens at the census are 327,022. 
163 Coss. Ti. Sempronius Gracchus II. 
M'. Juventius Thalna. 
The Corsicans rebel, but are subdued by the consul 
Juventius. 

The Heautontimorumenos of Terence exhibited. 
L62 Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica. Abdicated. 
C. Marcius Figulus. Abdicated. 
P. Cornelius Lentulus. 
Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus. 
161 Coss. M. Valerius Messala. 
C. Fannius Strabo. 
The philosophers and rhetoricians banished from 
Rome. The sumptuary law of the consul Fannius. 
The Eunuchus and Phormio of Terence exhibited. 
160 Coss. L. Anicius Gallus. 

M. Cornelius Cethegus. 
The Pontine marshes drained. Death of L. .ffirnilius 
Paulus. 

The Adelphi of Terence exhibited at the funeral 
games of iEmilius Paulus. 
159 Coss. Cn. Cornelius Dolabella. 
M. Fulvius Nobilior. 
Censs. P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica. 

M. Popillius Laenas. 
The citizens at the census are 338,314. A water- 
clock set up at Rome by the censor Scipio. 
Death of Terence. 
158 Coss. M. jEmilius Lepidus. 

C. Popillius Lamas II. 
157 Coss. Sex. Julius Caesar. 

L. Aurelius Orestes. 
Ariarathes V. Philopator comes to Rome. A colony 
was founded at Auximum, in Picenum. 
156 Coss. L. Cornelius Lentulus Lupus. 
C. Marcius Figulus II. 
The consul Marcius carries on war against the Dal- 
matians. 

155 Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica II. 

M. Claudius Marcellus II. • 
The consul Scipio subdues the Dalmatians. The 



Athenians send an embassy to Rome, consisting 
of the philosophers Diogenes, Critolaiis; and Car- 
neades, to obtain a remission of the fine of 500 tal- 
ents, which they had been sentenced to pay after 
the war with Perseus. 
154 Coss. Q. Opimius. 

L. Postumius Albinus. Died. 
M'. Acilius Glabrio. 
Censs. M. Valerius Messala. 

C. Cassius Longinus. 
The consul Opimius is sent against the Oxybii, Trans- 
alpine Gauls. The citizens at the census are 324,000. 
The poet Pacuvius flourished. 
153 Coss. Q. Fulvius Nobilior. 
T. Annius Luscus. 
In this year the consuls for the first time enter on. 
their office on the 1st of January. War with the 
Celtiberians in Spain begins. It is conducted un- 
successfully by the consul Nobilior. 
152 Coss. M. Claudius Marcellus III. 

L. Valerius Flaccus. Died. 
The consul Marcellus conducts the war in Spain with 
more success. 
151 Coss. L. Licinius Lucullus. 

A. Postumius Albinus. 
The consul Lucullus and the praetor Sulpicius Galba 
conduct the war in Spain. Lucullus conquers the 
Vaccaei, Cantabri, and other nations ; but Galba is 
defeated by the Lusitanians. Return of the Achae- 
an exiles. 

Postumius Albinus, the consul, was a writer of Roman 
history. 

150 Coss. T. Quinctius Flamininus. 
M'. Acilius Balbus. 
Galha, at the beginning of the year, most treacherous- 
ly destroys the Lusitanians. Viriathus was among 
the few who escaped. 
Cato, set. 84, brought down his Origines to this period. 
149 Coss. L. Marcius Censorinus. 
M\ Manilius. 

Third Punic Wab. First year. The consuls land 
in Africa.- Death of Masinissa, aet. 90. The Lex 
Calpurnia of the tribune L. Calpurnius Piso de repe- 
tundis (malversation and extortion by the govern- 
ors of the provinces), which was the first law on 
the subject. A pseudo-Philippus, named Andris- 
cus, appears in Macedonia, but is defeated and slain 
within a year. 

Death of Cato, a3t. 85. 

L. Calpurnius Piso, the author of the law de repetun- 
dis, was an historian. 
148 Coss. Sp. Postumius Albinus Magnus. 
L. Calpurnius Piso CaBsonius. 
Second year of the third Punic war. The pseudo- 
Philippus defeated and taken prisoner by Q. Metel- 
lus, the praetor. Success of Viriathus in Lusitania. 
Birth of Lucilius. 
147 Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus ^milianus. 
C. Livius Drusus. 
Censs. L. Cornelius Lentulus Lupus. 

L. Marcius Censorinus. 
Third year of the third Punic war. Scipio crosses 
over to Africa. War declared between Rome and 
the Achaeans. Continued success of Viriathus in 
Lusitania. The citizens at the census are 322,000. 
146 Coss. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus. 

L. Mummius Achaicus. 
Fourth andlast year of the third Punic war. Carthage 



988 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



B.C 

146 taken by Scipio and razed to the ground : its terri- 
tory made a Roman province. The Achseans de- 
feated by Mummius, Corinth taken, and the Roman 
province of Achaia formed (but vid. p. 000 of Ta- 
bles). Continued success of Viriathus in Lusitania. 
Cassius Hemina, the historian, flourished. 
C. Fannius, the historian, serves with Scipio at Car- 
thage. 

145 Cuss. Q. Fabius Maximus jEmilianus. 
L. Hostilius Mancinus. 
The consul Fabius commands in Spain against Viria- 
thus, and carries on the war successfully. 
144 Coss. Ser. Sulpicius Galba. 
L. AureUus Cotta. 
Fabius continues in Spain as proconsul. 
143 Coes. Ap. Claudius Pulcher. 

Q. Ceecilius Metellus Macedonicus. 
Commencement of the Numantine war. The consul 
Metellus commands in Nearer Spain, to carry on 
the war against the Numantines. The prastor Q. 
Pompeius continues in Further Spain, to carry on 
the war against Viriathus and the Lusitanians. Me- 
tellus prosecutes the war with success, but Pom- 
peius is defeated by Viriathus. Another pretender 
in Macedonia defeated and slain. 
142 Coss. L. Caecilius Metellus Calvus. 

Q_. Fabius Maximus Servilianus. 
Censs. P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (jEmilianus). 

L. Mummius Achaicus. 
Q. Metellus continues in Nearer Spain as proconsul. 
The consul Servilianus, in Further Spain, carries 
on war against Viriathus. The citizens at the cen- 
sus are 328,442. 
M. Antonius, the orator, born. 
Fannius, the historian, serves in Spain. 
II Coss. Cn. Servilius Ceepio. 
Q. Pompeius. 
Fabius Servilianus remains as proconsul in Further 
Spain : is defeated by Viriathus, and makes a peace 
with him, which is ratified by the senate. The con- 
sul Pompeius succeeds Metellus in Nearer Spain : 
his unsuccessful campaign. 
140 Coss. C. Lselius Sapiens. 

Q. Servilius Caepio. 
Ceepio succeeds Fabius in Further Spain, renews the 
war with Viriathus, and treacherously causes his 
assassination. Pompeius continues as proconsul in 
Nearer Spain ; is defeated by the Numantines, and 
makes a peace with them, but afterward denies that 
he did so. 
Crassus, the orator, born. 

Attius, a3t. 30, and Pacuvius, sat 80, both exhibit in 
this year. 
139 Coss. Cn. Calpurnius Piso. 

M. Popillius Lsenas. 
Caepio remains as proconsul in Further Spain. The 
consul Popillius succeeds Pompeius in Nearer 
Spain. 

138 Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio. 
D. Junius Brutus (Callaicus). 
The consul Brutus succeeds Csepio in Further Spain : 
he subdues Lusitania. Popillius remains as consul 
in Nearer Spain, and is defeated by the Numantines. 
137 Coss. M. jEmilius Lepidus Porcina. 

C. Hostilius Mancinus. Abdicated. 
Brutus remains in Further Spain as proconsul, and 
completes the subjugation of Lusitania. The con- 
buI Mancinus succeeds Popillius in Nearer Spain : 



B.C. 

he is defeated by the Numantines, and makes a 
peace with them, which the senate refuses to ratify. 
136 Coss. L. Furius Philus. 

Sex. Atilius Serranus. 
Censs. Ap Claudius Pulcher. 

Q. Fulvius Nobilior. 
Brutus remains in Further Spain as proconsul, and 
subdues the Gallseci. The proconsul Lepidus, who 
had succeeded Mancinus in Nearer Spain, is defeat- 
ed by the Vacctei. The citizens at the census are 
323,923. 

135 Coss. Ser. Fulvius Flaccus. 

Q. Calpurnius Piso. 
The consul Piso succeeds Lepidus in Nearer Spain, 
but carries on the war without success. The con- 
sul Flaccus defeats the Vardeei in Blyricum. 
134 Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus iEmilianus II. 
C. Fulvius Flaccus. 
Scipio is elected consul to end the Numantine war. 
He receives Nearer Spain as his province, and car- 
ries on the war with vigor. Servile war in Sicily : 
the consul Fulvius sent against the slaves. 
Sempronius Asellio, the historian, served at Numantia. 
133 Coss. P. Mucius Sceevola. 

L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi. 
Numantia taken by Scipio and destroyed. The consul 
Piso defeats the slaves in Sicily. Tib. Gracchus, 
tribune of the plebs, his legislation and murder. 
132 Coss. P. Popillius Laenas. 
P. Rupilius. 

End of the Servile war in Sicily. Return and tri- 
umph of Scipio. 
131 Coss. P. Licinius Crassus Mucianus. 
L. Valerius Flaccus. 
Censs. Q. Ceocilius Metellus Macedonicus. 

Q. Pompeius Rufus. 
The consul Crassus carries on war with Aristonicus 
in Asia. The affairs of Sicily settled by Rupilius, 
the proconsul. C. Papirius Carbo, tribune of the 
plebs, brings forward laws which are opposed by 
Scipio Africanus and the aristocracy. Both cen- 
sors plebeians for the first time. The citizens are 
317,823. 

130 Coss. C. Claudius Pulcher Lentulus. 
M. Perperna. 

Aristonicus defeats and slays Crassus. He is defeat- 
ed and taken prisoner by the consul Perperna. 
129 Coss. C. Sempronius Tuditanus. 
M'. Aquillius. 

The consul Aquillius succeeds Perperna in Asia. Ar- 
istonicus put to death. The consul Sempronius car- 
ries on war against the Iapydes. Death of Scipio 
Africanus, at the age of 56. 
128 Coss. Cn. Octavius. 

T. Annius Luscus Rufus. 
127 Coss. L. Cassius Longinus Ravilla. 

L. Cornelius Cinna. 
126 Coss. M. iEmilius Lepidus. 

L. AureUus Orestes. 
The consul Aurelius puts down a rebellion in Sardinia. 
C. Gracchus goes to Sardinia as quaestor. M. Ju- 
nius Pennus, tribune of the plebs, carries a law or- 
dering all aliens to quit Rome. The Ludi Stecula- 
res celebrated for the fourth time. 
125 Coss. M. Plautius Hypsseus. 
M. Fulvius Flaccus. 
Censs. Cn. Servilius Coepio. 

L. Cassius Longinvs Ravilla. 



ROMAN HISTOKi. 



989 



125 The consul Flaccus subdues the Salluvii in Trans- 
alpine Gaul. L. Opimius, the praetor, destroys Fre- 
' gellae, which had revolted. Aurelius remains in 
Sardinia with Gracchus. The citizens are 390,736. 
124 Cobs. C. Cassius Longinus. 

C. Sextius Calvinus. 
War in Transalpine Gaul continued. The consul 
Calvinus defeats the Allobroges and Arverni. C. 
Gracchus returns to Rome from Sardinia. 
123 Coss. Q. Caecilius Metellus (Balearicus). 
T. Quinctius Flamininus, 
C. Gracchus, tribune of the plebs, brings forward his 
Leges Semproniee. A colony sent to Carthage. 
Sextius Calvinus remains in Transalpine Gaul as 
proconsul. The consul Metellus subdues the Ba- 
learian islands. 
L. Ccelius Antipater, the historian, flourished in the 
time of C. Gracchus. 
122 Coss. Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus. 
C. Fannius Strabo. 
C. Gracchus tribune of the plebs a second time. Com- 
pletion of the conquest of the Salluvii in Transal- 
pine Gaul, and foundation of Aquae Sextiae by the 
proconsul Sextius Calvinus. 
121 Coss. L. Opimius. 

Q. Fabius Maximus (Allobrogicus). 
Death of C. Gracchus. The proconsul Domitius de- 
feats the Allobroges. The consul Fabius likewise 
defeats the Allobroges and Arverni, who submit to 
the Romans. 
L20 Coss. P. Manilius. 

C. Papirius Carbo. 
Censs. L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi. 

Q. Caecilius Metellus Balearicus. 
119 Coss. L. Caecilius Metellus (Dalmaticus). 
L. Aurelius Cotta. 
C. Marius tribune of the plebs. 
The orator L. Crassus (aet. 21) accuses Carbo. 
118 Coss. M. Porcius Cato. Died. 
Q. Marcius Rex. 
The consul Marcius conquers the Stoeni, a Gallic na- 
tion. A colony founded at Narbo Martins. Death 
of Micipsa. 

L17 Coss. P. Caecilius Metellus Diadematus. 
Q. Mucius Sceevola. 
The consul Metellus subdues the Dalmatians. Ambas- 
sadors are sent to Numidia, who restore Adherbal. 
116 Coss. C. Licinius Geta. 

Q. Fabius Maximus Eburnus. 
Birth of Varro. 
115 Coss. M. jEmilius Scaurus. 

M. Caecilius Metellus. 
Censs. L. Caecilius Metellus Dalmaticus. 

Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus. 
The citizens at the census are 394,336. 
114 Coss. M. Acilius Balbus. 
C. Porcius Cato. 
The consul Cato defeated by the Scordieci in Thrace. 
Birth of the orator Hortensius. 
113 Coss. C. Caecilius Metellus Caprnrius. 
Cn. Papirius Carbo. 
Commencement of the war against the Cimbri and 
Teutoni. They defeat the consul Carbo near No- 
reia, but, instead of penetrating into Italy, cross into 
Gaul. The consul Metellus carries on the war suc- 
cessfully against the Thracians. 
112 Coss. M. Livius Drusus. 

L. Calpurnius Piso Caesonius. 



112 Jugurtha kills Adherbal. The consul Drusus com- 
mands in Thrace, and defeats the Scordieci. 
Ill Coss. P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica. Died. 
L. Calpurnius Bestia. 
Jugurthine Wah. First year. The consul Calpur 
nius Bestia is bribed by Jugurtha, and grants him 
peace. 

110 Coss. M. Minucius Rufus. 

Sp. Postumius Albinus. 
Second year of the Jugurthine war. Jugurtha cornea 
to Rome, but quits it again secretly, in consequenco 
of the murder of Massiva. The consul Albinus com- 
mands in Africa, but returns to Rome to hold the 
comitia, leaving his brother Aulus in the command. 
The consul Minucius fights against the Thracians. 
109 Coss. Q. Caecilius Metellus (Numidicus). 
M. Junius Silanus. 
Censs. M. jEmilius Scaurus. Abdicated. 

M. Livius Drusus. Died. 
Third year of the Jugurthine war. Aulus is defeated 
in January by Jugurtha, and concludes a peace, 
which the senate refuses to ratify. The consul 
Metellus sent into Africa, and carries on the war 
with success. The consul Silanus is defeated by 
the Cimbri. The proconsul Minucius defeats tha 
Thracians. 
Birth of T. Pomponius Atticus. 
108 Coss. Ser. Sulpicius Galba. 

L. Hortensius. Condemned. 
M. Aurelius Scaurus. 
Censs. Q. Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus. 

C. Licinius Geta. 
Fourth year of the Jugurthine war. Metellus con- 
tinues in the command as proconsul, and defeats 
Jugurtha. 

107 Coss. L. Cassius Longinus. Slain. 
C. Marius. 

Fifth year of the Jugurthine war. The consul Marina 
succeeds Metellus in the command. The consul 
Cassius defeated and slain by the Cimbri and their 
allies. 

106 Coss. C. Atilius Serranus. 

Q. Servilius Caepio. 
Sixth and last year of the Jugurthine war. Marius 
continues in the command as proconsul. Jugurtha 
is captured. Birth of Cn. Pompeius on the 30th 
of September. 
Birth of Cicero at Arpinum on the 3d of January. 
105 Coss. P. Rutilius Rufus. 

Cn. Mallius Maximus. 
The Cimbri defeat Q. Servilius Caepio, proconsul, 
and Cn. Mallius, consul. 
104 Coss. C. Marius II. 

C. Flavius Fimbria. 
Triumph of Marius. Preparations against the Cim- 
bri, who march into Spain. The Lex Domitia of 
the tribune Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus gives to the 
people the right of electing the priests. 
103 Coss. C. Marius III. 

L. Aurelius Orestes. Died. 
Continued preparations against the Cimbri. 
The Tereus of Attius exhibited. 
Death of Lucilius. 
102 Coss. C. Marius IV. 

Q. Lutatius Catulus. 
Censs. Q Caecilius Metellus Numidicus. 

C. Cs«ci!ius Metellus Caprarius. 
The Cimbri return from Spain into Gaul. Mariui 



990 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



completely defeats the Teutoni at the battle of 
Aqua? Sextiae. The consul Catulus stationed in 
Northern Italy. A second servile war arises in 
Sicily, and was ended by the proconsul Aquilius 
in B.C. 99. It was badly conducted by L. Lucul- 
lus and C. Servilius. 
101 Coss. C. Harms V. 

M'. Aquilius. 

Marius joins the proconsul Catulus in Northern Italy. 
They defeat the Cimbri in the Campi Raudii, near 
Verona. The consul Aquilius sent against the slaves 
in Sicily. 
100 Coss. C. Marius VI. 

L. Valerius Flaccus. 

Sedition and death of L. Appuleius Saturnirius, the 
tribune of the plebs. Banishment of Metellus Nu- 
midicus. Birth of C. Julius Cffisar on the 12th of 
July. 

99 Coss. M. Antonius. 

A. Postumius Albinus. 
Return of Metellus Numidicus to Rome. The servile 
war in Sicily ended by M'. Aquilius, the proconsul. 
98 Coss. Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos. 
T. Didius. 

War with the Celtiberians breaks out. Didius com- 
mands in- Spain. Q. Sertorius serves under him. 
Lex Cfecilia. 

97 Coss. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus. 

P. Licinius Crassus. 
Censs. L. Valerius Flaccus. 
M. Antonius. 

Didius remains in Spain as proconsul, and fights suc- 
cessfully against the Celtiberians. 

98 Coss. Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus. 

C. Cassius Longinus. 
Ptolemaeus, king of Cyrene, dies, and leaves his king- 
dom to the Romans. 
95 Coss. L. Licinius Crassus. 

Q. Mucius Scasvola. 
Eirth of Lucretius. 
94 Coss. C. Coelius Caldus. 

L. Domitius Ahenobarbus. 
93 Coss. C. Valerius Flaccus. 

M. Herennius. 
92 Coss. C. Claudius Pulcher. 
M. Perperna. 
Censs. Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus. 

L. Licinius Crassus. 
Sulla, propraetor, is sent to Asia ; he restores Ario- 
barzanes to the kingdom of Cappadocia, and re- 
ceives an embassy from the king of the Parthiane, 
the first public transaction between Rome and Par- 
thia. 

91 Coss. L. Marcius Philippus. 
Sex. Julius Caesar. 
M. Livius the tribune of the plebs. His legislation. 
He attempts to give the franchise to the Italian al- 
lies, but is assassinated by his opponents. 
Death of the orator Crassus. 
90 Coss. L. Julius Caesar. 

P. Rutilius Lupus. Slain, 
The Maksic on Social Wak. The Lex Julia of the 
consul gives the franchise to all the Latins. 
89 Coss. Cn. Pompeius Strabo. 

L. Porcius Cato. Slain. 
Censs. P. Licinius Crassus. 

L. Julius Caesar. 
Successes of the Romans in the Marsic war Ascu- 



lum taken. The franchise granted to all the coa- 
federate towns of Italy, and the Latin franchise to 
the Transpadani. The new citizens enrolled by the 
census in eight new tribes. 

Cicero serves under Pompeius in the Marsic war. 
88 Coss. L. Cornelius Sulla (Felix). 

Q. Pompeius Rufus. Slain. 

End of the Marsic war. The Samnites alone continue 
in arms. Sulla receives the command of the war 
against Mithradates. This occasions the civil wars 
of Marius and Sulla. Marius expels Sulla from 
Rome, and receives from the tribes the command 
of the Mithradatic war. Sulla marches upon Rome 
with his army, enters the city, and proscribes Ma- 
rius and the leading men of his party. 

Cicero hears Philo and Molo at Rome. 
87 Coss. Cn. Octavius. Slain. 

L. Cornelius Cinna. Abdicated. 
L. Cornelius Merula. Slain. 

Sulla crosses over to Greece to conduct the war 
against Mithradates. He is opposed by Archelaiis, 
the general of Mithradates ; lays siege to Athens. 
The consul Cinna espouses the side of Marius. 
Cinna and Marius enter Rome, and massacre their 
opponents. The consul Octavius, the orator M. 
Antonius, and other distinguished men, put to 
death. 

Sisenna, the historian, described these times. 
Birth of Catullus. 
86 Coss. L. Cornelius Cinna II. 

C. Marius VII. Vied. 
L. Valerius Flaccus H. 
Censs. L. Marcius Philippus. 
M. Perperna. 

Death of Marius, ast. 70. Sulla continues the war 
against Mithradates; takes Athens on the 1st of 
March ; defeats Archelaiis in Boeotia. Flaccus, who 
is elected consul in Marius's place, receives the 
command of the Mithradatic war, and crosses over 
to Asia ; he is murdered by Fimbria. 
Birth of Sallust. 
85 Coss. L. Cornelius Cinna III. 
Cn. Papirius Carbo. 
Sulla begins to treat with Archelaiis respecting the 
terms of peace. Fimbria prosecutes the war in 
Asia with success against Mithradates. 
84 Coss. Cn. Papirius Carbo II. 

L. Cornelius Cinna IV. Slain. 
Peace concluded between Mithradates and Sulla. 
After the conclusion of the peace, Sulla marches 
against Fimbria, who kills himself. 
83 Coss. L. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus. 
L. Norbanus Balbus. 
Sulla returns to Italy at the beginning of the year. 
Civil war between him and the Marian party. Cn. 
Pompeius (a?t. 23) takes an active part in Sulla's 
favor. Q. Sertorius flies to Spain. The Capitol 
burned on the 6th of July. L. Murcua, the pro- 
praetor, renews the war against Mithradates. 
82 Coss. C. Marius. Slew himself. 

Cn. Papirius Carbo III. Slain. 
Vict. L. Cornelius Sulla Felix. 
Mag. Eq. L. Valerius Flaccus. 
Victories of Sulla and his generals. Capture of Pras- 
neste, and death of the younger Marius, the consul. 
Sulla is undisputed master of Italy. He is appoint- 
ed dictator for an indefinite period ; proscribes hia 
opponents. Cn. Pompeius is sent to Sicily, to cor 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



991 



B.C. 

ry on war against the J/.arians. Q. Sertorius holds 
out in Spain. 
82 Birth of P. Terentius Varro Atacinus, the poet. 

Birth of C. Licinius Calvus, the orator. 
81 Coss. M. Tullius Decula. 

Cn. Cornelius Dolabella- 
Sulla continues dictator. His legislation. Successful 
campaign of Cn. Pompeius in Africa; returns to 
Rome, and triumphs. 
Cicero's (set. 26) oration Pro Quintio. 
Valerius Cato, the grammarian and poet, flourished. 
80 Coss L. Cornelius Sulla Felix II. 
CL. Caecilius Metellus Pius. 
Sulla continues dictator, but holds the consulship as 
well. Siege and capture of Mytilene, in Asia : C. 
Julius Caesar (set. 20) was present at the siege. 
Cicero's (set. 27) oration Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino. 
79 Coss. P. Servilius Vatia (Isauricus). 
Ap. Claudius Pulcher. 
Sulla lays down his dictatorship. Metellus, procon- 
sul, goes to Spain to oppose Sertorius. 
Cicero (set. 28) goes to Athens. 
78 Coss. M. .ffimilius Lepidus. 

Q. Lutatius Catulus. 
Death of Sulla, aet. 60. The consul Lepidus attempts to 
rescind the laws of Sulla, but is opposed by his col- 
league Catulus. Metellus continues the war against 
Sertorius. P. Servilius Vatia is sent as proconsul 
against the pirates on the southern coasts of Asia 
Minor. 

Cicero (aet. 29) hears Molo at Rhodes. 
Sallust's history began from this year. 
77 Coss. D. Junius Brutus. 

Mam. iEmilius Lepidus Livianus. 
Lepidus takes up arms, is defeated by Catulus at the 
Mulvian bridge, and retires to Sardinia, where he 
dies in the course of the year. Sertorius is joined 
by M. Perperna, the legate of Lepidus. Cn. Pom- 
peius is associated with Metellus in the command 
against Sertorius. 
Cicero (aet. 30) returns to Rome. 
76 Coss. Cn. Octavius. 

L. Scribonius Curio. 
Metellus and Pompeius cany on the war against Ser- 
torius unsuccessfully. 
Cicero (eet. 31) engaged in pleading causes. 
Birth of Asinius Pollio. 
• 75 Coss. L. Octavius. 

C. Anrelius Cotta. 
War with Sertorius continued. The proconsul P. 
Servilius Vatia, who was sent against the pirates 
in B.C. 78, subdues the Isaurians, and receives the 
surname of Isauricus. The proconsul C. Scribo- 
nius Curio commands in Macedonia, subdues the 
Dardani, and penetrates as far as the Danube. 
, Cicero (aet. 32) quaestor in Sicily. 
74 Coss. L. Licinius Lucullus. 
M. Aurelius Cotta. 
War with Sertorius continued. Renewal of the war 
with Mithradates : Lucullus appointed to the com- 
mand ; he carries on the war with success, and 
relieves Cyzicus, which was besieged by Mithra- 
dates. 

Cicero (eet. 33) returns from Sicily to Rome. 
13 Coss. M. Terentius Varro Lucullus. 
C. Cassius Varus. 
War with Sertorius continued. Mithradates is de- 
feated by Lucullus near Cyzicus. Commencement 



of the war in Italy against the gladiators command- 
ed by Spartacus. The consul M. Lucullus succeeds 
Curio in Macedonia, and subdues the Bessi in this 
or the following year. 
72 Coss. L. Gellius Poplicola. 

Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. 
Murder of Sertorius; defeat and death of Perperna; 
end of the war in Spain. Lucullus follows Mithra- 
dates into Pontus. The two consuls are defeated 
by Spartacus. 
71 Coss. P. Cornelius Lentulus Sura. 
Cn. Aufidius Orestes. 
War with Mithradates continued. Mithradates flics 
into Armenia to his son-in-law Tigranes. Sparta- 
cus defeated and slain by M. Licinius Crassus, prae- 
tor. Pompeius, on his return from Spain, falls in 
with and destroys some of the fugitives. 
70 Coss. Cn. Pompeius Magnus. 

Licinius Crassus Dives. 
Censs. L. Gellius Poplicola. 

Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. 
War with Mithradates continued, but no active oper- 
ations this year. Lucullus is engaged in regulating 
the affairs of Asia Minor : Mithradates remains in 
Armenia. Pompeius restores to the tribunes the 
power of which they had been deprived by Sulla. 
The Lex Aurelia enacts that the judices are to be 
taken from the senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii, 
instead of from the senators exclusively, as Sulla 
had ordained. 
Cicero (aet. 37) impeaches Verres ; he delivers the 
orations In Q. Cacilium Divinatio and Actio I. in 
Verrem. 
Birth of Virgil. 
69 Coss. Q.. Hortensius. 

Q. Caecilius Metellus (Creticus). 
War with Mithradates continued. Lucullus invades 
Armenia, defeats Tigranes, and takes Tigranocerta. 
The Capitol dedicated by Q. Catulus. 
Cicero (aet. 38) curule aedile. His orations Pro M. 
Fonteio and Pro A. Carina. 
68 Coss. L. Caecilius Metellus. Died. 
Q. Marcius Rex. 
War with Mithradates continued. Lucullus defeats 
Tigranes and Mithradates on the Arsanias, and lays 
siege to Nisibis. Q. Metellus, proconsul, conducts 
the war in Crete. 
67 Coss. C. Calpurnius Piso. 

M\ Acilius Glabrio. 
War with Mithradates continued. Mutiny in the army 
of Lucullus. He rnarches*back to Pontus, whither 
Mithradates had preceded him, and had defeated C. 
Triarius, the legate of Lucullus. The war against 
the pirates is committed to Cn. Pompeius by the 
Lex Gabinia. Metellus concludes the war in Crete 
either in this or the following year. L. Roscius 
Otho, tribune of the plebs, carried a law that tho 
equites should have separate seats in the theatre. 
M. Terentius Varro serves under Pompeius in the 
war against the pirates. 
66 Coss. M\ jEmilius Lepidus. 
L. Volcatius Tullus. 
War with Mithradates continued. The conduct of it 
is committed to Cn. Pompeius by the Lex Manilia. 
He had already brought the war against the pirates 
to a close. He invades Armenia, and makes peace 
with Tigranes. Mithradates retires into the Cim- 
merian Bosporus. 



9!»2 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



66 CiTo (set. 41), praetor, delivers the orations Pro 

Lege Manilla and Pro A. Clumtio. 
65 Coss. T. Cornelius Sulla. 



j Did not enter upon office. 



P. Autronius Paetus. 
L. Aurelius Cotta. 
L. Manlius Torquatus. 
Censs. Q. Lutatius Catulus. Abdicated. 

M. Licinius Crassus Dives. Abdicated. 
War with Mithradates continued. Pompeius pursues 
Mithradates, and fights against the Albanians and 
Iberians. Catiline's first conspiracy. Caesar (set. 
35) is curule aedile. 
Birth of Q. Horatius Flaccus. 
Gi Coss. L. Julius Caesar. 

C. Marcius Figulus. 
Censs. L. Aurelius Cotta. 

Pompeius returns from the pursuit of Mithradates. 
He makes Syria a Roman province, and winters 
there. 

Cicero's (aet. 43) oration In Toga Candida. 
33 Coss. M. Tullius Cicero. 
C. Antonius. 

Death of Mithradates. Pompeius subdues Phoenicia 
and Palestine, and takes Jerusalem after a siege of 
three months. Catiline's second conspiracy detect- 
ed and crushed by Cicero. Birth of Augustus. 

Cicero (ait. 44) delivered many orations in his consul- 
ship. Those which are extant were delivered in 
the following order: (1.) De Lege Agraria ; (2.) 
Pro C. Rabirio ; (3.) In Catilinam ; (4.) Pro Mu- 
rena. 

62 Coss. D. Junius Silanus. 

L. Licinius Murena. 
Defeat and death of Catiline. Pompeius returns to 
Italy. Caesar (set. 38) is praetor ; Cato is tribune 
of the people. 
Cicero's (ast. 45) oration Pro P. Sulla. 
61 Coss. M. Pupius Piso Calpurnianus. 
M. Valerius Messala Niger. 
Triumph of Pompeius on the 28th and 29th of Sep- 
tember. Trial and acquittal of P. Clodius. Caesar 
(aet. 39), propraetor, obtains the province of Fur- 
ther Spain. 
Cicero's (sat. 46) oration Pro Archia. 
£0 Coss. L. Afranius. 

Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer. 
Caesar's victories in Spain. He returns to Rome. 
His coalition with Pompeius and Crassus, usually 
called the First Triumvirate. 
59 Coss. C. Julius Caesar (aet. 41). 
M. Calpurniifs Bibulus. 
The agrarian law of Caesar. The acts of Pompeius 
in Asia ratified. Caesar receives the provinces of 
Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul and lllyricum for 
five years. 
Cicero's (aet. 48) oration Pro L. Flacco. 
Birth of T. Livius, the historian. 
58 Coss. L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus. 
A. Gabinius. 

Caesar's (aet. 42) first campaign in Gaul ; he defeats 
the Helvetii and Ariovistus. P. Clodius is tribune 
of the plebs. 
Cicero (set, 49) is banished. 
57 Coss. P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther. 
Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos. 
Caesar's (aet. 43) second campaign in Gaul. He de- 
feats the Belgse. The superintendence of the an- 
nona committed to Pompeius, with extraordinary 



B.C. 

powers, for five years. Ptolemasus Auletes come* 
to Rome. 

Cicero (aet. 50) recalled from banishment. 
56 Coss. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus. 
L. Marcius Philippus. 
Caesar's (aet. 44) third campaign in Gaul. He con- 
quers the Veneti in the northwest of Gaul. Caesar 
met Pompeius and Crassus at Luca in April, and 
made arrangements for the continuance of their 
power. Clodius is curule aedile. 
Cicero's (aet. 51) orations, (1.) Pro Sa:tio ; (2.) In Va- 
tinium ; (3.) De Harttspicum Responsis ; (4.) De Pro- 
zinciis Consularibus ; (5.) Pro M. Calio Rufo ; (6.) 
Pro L. Cornelia Balbo. 
55 Coss. Cn. Pompeius Magnus II. 
M. Licinius Crassus II. 
Censs. M. Valerius Messala Niger. 

P. Servilius Vatia Isauricus. 
Caesar's (cet. 45) fourth campaign in Gaul. He cress- 
es the Rhine : he invades Britain. Assignment of 
the provinces to the triumvirs by the Lex Trebo- 
nia. Caesar receives the Gauls and lllyricum for 
five years more ; Pompeius the Spains, and Cras- 
sus. Syria. Ptolemaeus Auletes restored to Egypt 
by A. Gabinius. 
Cicero (aet. 52) composes his De Oratore. His speech 

In Pisonem. 
Virgil (aet. 16) assumes the toga virilis. 
54 Coss. L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
Ap. Claudius Pulcher. 
Caesar's (aet. 46) sixth campaign in Gaul. His second 
expedition into Britain : war with Ambiorix in the 
winter. Crassus marches against the Parthians. 
Cicero (aet. 53) composes his De Republica. His ora- 
tions Pro 31. Scauro, Pro Plancio, Pro C. Rabirio 
Poslumo. 
53 Coss. Cn. Domitius Calvinus. 

M. Valerius Messala. 
t Caesar's (sat. 47) seventh campaign in Gaul. He agam 
crosses the Ehine. Defeat and death of Crassus 
by the Parthians. 
Cicero (aet. 54) elected augur. 
52 Coss. Cn. Pompeius Magnus III. Sole consul for tht 
first part of the year. 
EzKal. Sextil. Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio. 
Caesar's (aet. 48) eighth campaign in Gaul. Insurrec- 
tion in Gaul ; Caesar takes Alesia and Vercingeto- 
rix. Death of Clodius in January : riots at Rome : 
Pompeius sole consul. 
Cicero's (aet. 55) oration Pro Milone. He compose* 

his De Legibus. 
Death of Lucretius. 
51 Coss. Ser. Sulpicius Rufus. 

M. Claudius Marcellus. 
Caesar's (aet. 49) ninth campaign in Gaul. Subjuga 
tion of the country. The consul Marcellus pro 
poses measures against Caesar. 
Cicero (aet. 56) goes as proconsul to Cilicia. 
50 Coss. L. iEmilius Paulus. 

C. Claudius Marcellus. 
Censs. Ap. Claudius Pulcher. 

L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus. 
Caesar (aet. 50) spends the year in Cisalpine GaaL 

Measures of Pompeius against Caesar. 
Cicero (set. 57) leaves Cilicia, and reaches Brundiat 

um at the end of the year. 
Death of Hortens : us. 
Sallust is expelled the senate. 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



993 



B.C. 

49 Cost. C. Claudius Marcellus. 

L. Cornelius Lentulus Crus. 
Diet, without Mag. Eq. C. Julius Caesar. 
Commencement of the civil war between Caesar (set. 
51) and Pompeius. Caesar marches into Italy, and 
pursues Pompeius to Brundisium. Pompeius leaves 
Italy in March, and crosses over to Greece. Caesar 
goes to Rome, and then proceeds to Spain, where 
he conquers Afranius and Petreius, the legati of 
Pompeius. He returns to Rome, is appointed dic- 
tator for the election of the consuls, resigns the of- 
fice at the end of 11 days, and then goes to Brun- 
disium, in order to cross over into Greece. 
Cicero (aet. 58) comes to Rome, but crosses over to 
Greece in the month of June. 
18 Coss. C. Julius Caasar II. 

P. Servilius Vatia Isauricus. 
Caesar (aet. 52) lands in Greece, defeats Pompeius at 
the battle of Pharsalia in the month of August. 
Murder of Pompeius (aet. 58) before Alexandrea. 
Caesar comes to Egypt : Alexandrine war. 
Cicero (aet. 59) returns to Italy after the battle of 
Pharsalia, and arrives at Brundisium. 
7 Diet. C. Julius Caesar II. 
Mag. Eq. M. Antonius. 
Coss. Q. Fufius Caleuus. 
P. Vatinius. 

Caesar (aet. 53) dictator the whole year. The consuls 
Calenus and Vatinius were only appointed at the 
end of the year. Caesar concludes the Alexandrine 
war, marches into Pontus, and conquers Pnarna- 
oes ; arrives in Italy in September. He crosses 
over to Africa before the end of the year, to carry 
on war against the Pompeians. 

Cicero (aet. 60) meets Caesar at Brundisium, is par- 
doned by him, and returns to Rome. 
16 Coss. C. Julius Caesar III. 

M. .ffimilius Lepidus. 

Caesar (aet. 54) defeats the Pompeians at the battle of 
Thnpsus in April. Death of Cato, aet. 48. Caesar 
returns to Rome and triumphs. Reformation of 
the calendar by Caesar. 

Cicero (aet. 61) composes his Brutus and Partitiones 
Oratorite. His orations Pro Mareello and Pro Li- 
gario. 

Sallust praetor, and accompanies Caesar in the Afri- 
can war. 
15 Diet. C. Julius Caesar III. 
Mag. Eq. M. jEmilius Lepidus. 
Cos. without colleague. C. Julius Caesar IVi 
Coss. Q. Fabius Maximus. Died. 
C. Caninius Rebilus. 
C. Trebonius. 
Caesar (aet. 55) defeats tue Pompeians in Spain at the 
battle of Munda in March. Triumph of Caesar. 
He is made consul for ten years, and dictator and 
censor for life. 
Cicero (aet. 62) divorces Terentia ; marries Publilia ; 
loses his daughter Tullia ; divorces Publilia. He 
composes his Orator, Academica, De Finibus. His 
oration Pro Ddotaro. 
44 Diet. C. Julius Caesar IV. 

Mag. Eq. M. iEmilius Lepidus II. 
Mag. Eq. C. Octavius. 

Mag. Eq. Cn. Domitius Calvinus. Dia, not enter upon. 
Coss. C. Julius Caesar V. Assassinated. 

M. Antonius. 

P. Cornelius Dolabella 

63 



EC, 

44 Murder of Cjesar (aet. 56) on the 15th of March. Oo 
tavianus, on the death of Caesar, comes from Apol- 
lonia to Rome. M. Antonius withdraws from Rome, 
and proceeds to Cisalpine Gaul at the end of Novem- 
ber, to oppose D. Brutus : he is declared a public 
enemy by the senate. 
Cicero (aet. 63) composes his Tusculance IlsputaHo- 
nes, De Natura Deorum, De Divinatione, De Fata, 
De Amicitia, De Senectute, De Gloria, Topiea, De Of- 
Jiciis. His orations Philippiea I., in the senate ; Phi- 
lippiea II. (not spoken) ; Philippiea III., in the sen- 
ate ; Philippiea IV., before the people. 

43 Coss. C. Vibius Pansa. Died. 
A. Hirtius. Slain. 

C. Julius Caesar Octavianus. Abdicated. 

C. Carrinas. 

Q. Pedius. Died. 

P. Ventidius. 

Siege of Mutina : death of the consuls Panse and Hir- 
tius. M. Antonius is defeated, and flies to GauL 
Octavianus comes to Rome, and is elected consul. 
The murderers of Caesar outlawed. Second Tri- 
umvirate formed by Octavianus, Antonius, and Le- 
pidus : they take the title Triumviri Reipublica Con- 
stituenda: they proscribe their enemies. 

Cicero (aet. 64) proscribed and put to death ; the re- 
maining Philippic orations delivered in this year 

Birth of Ovid. 

Death of Laberius, the mimographer. 
42 Coss. L. Munatius Plancus. 

M. jEmilius Lepidus II. 
Censs. L. Antonius Pietas. 
P. Sulpicius. 

War in Greece, between the triumvirs and the repub- 
lican party. Battle of Philippi, and death of Caa 
sius. Second battle of Philippi, and death of Bru- 
tus. Birth of Tiberius, afterward emperor. 

Horace (set. 23) fights at the battle of Philippi. 
41 Coss. L. Antonius Pietas. 

P. Servilius Vatia Isauricus II. 

War of Perusia. The consul L. Antonius and Fulvia, 
the wife of M. Antonius, oppose Octavianus. An- 
tonius is besieged in Perusia toward the end of the 
year. 

40 Coss. Cn. Domitius Calvinus II. Abdicated. 
C. Asinius Pollio. 
L. Cornelius Balbus. 
P. Canidius Crassus. 
Capture of Perusia. Death of Fulvia. Reconciliation 
between Octavianus and M. Antonius, who conclude 
a peace at Brundisium : M. Antonius marries Octa- 
via, the sister of Octavianus. Labienus and the 
Parthians invade Syria. 
Cornelius Nepos flourished. 
39 Coss. L. Marcius Censorinus. 
C. Calvisius Sabinus. 
Octavianus and Antonius have an interview with Sex, 
Pompeius at Misenum, and conclude a peace with 
him. M. Antonius spends the winter at Athens. 
Ventidius, the legatus of Antonius, defeats the Par- 
thians : death of Labienus. Birth of Julia, the 
daughter of Octavianus. 
Horace (aet. 26) is introduced to Maecenas by Virgil 
and Varius. 
38 Coss. Ap. Claudius Pulcher 
C. Norbanus Flaccus. 
War between Octavianus and Sex. Pompeius. Octa- 
vianus marries Livia. \ entidius again defeats tho 



994 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



Parthians, and drives them out of Syria. Death 
of Paeorus. Sossius, the legatus of Antonius, con- 
quers the Jews. 
38 Horace (set. 27) is engaged upon the first book of his 

Satires. 
37 Coss. M. Agrippa. 

L. Caninius Gallus. Abdicated. 
T. Statilius Taurus. 
Antonius comes to Italy. Renewal of the Triumvi- 
rate for another period of five years. Octavianus 
employs this year in preparations against Sex. Pom- 
peius. Agrippa crosses the Rhine. 
Varro (set. 80) composes his De Re Rustica. 
36 Coss. L. Gellius Poplicola. Abdicated. 
M. Cocceius Nerva. Abdicated. 
L. Munatius Plancus II. 
C. Sulpicius Quirinus. 
Defeat of Sex. Pompeius, who flies to Asia. Lepidus 
ceases to he one of the triumvirs. M. Antonius in- 
vades the Parthian dominions late in the year, and 
is obliged to retreat with great loss. 
35 Coss. L. Cornificius. 

Sex. Pompeius. 
Sex. Pompeius (eet. 39) is put to death in Asia. Oc- 
tavianus defeats the niyrians. 
34 Coss. L. Scribonius Libo. 

M. Antonius. Abdicated. 
L. Sempronius Atratinus. 
Ex Cat. Jul. Paul. jEmilius Lepidus. 

C. Memmius. 
Ex Kal. Nov. M. Herennius Picens. 
Octavianus defeats the Dalmatians. Antonius invades 

and subdues Armenia. 
Death of Sallust. 
33 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus II. Abdicated. 
L. Volcatius Tullus. 
P. Autronius Paetus. 
Ex Kal. Mai. L. Flavius. 
Ex Kal. Jul. C. Fonteius Capito. 

M\ Acilius (Aviola). 
Ex Kal. Sept. L. Vinucius. 
Ex Kal. Oct. L. Laronius. 
Rupture between Octavianus and Antonius. Both 
parties prepare for war. In this year Octavianus 
is called, in the Fasti, Imperator Caesar Augustus, 
though the titles of Imperator and Augustus were 
not conferred upon him till B.C. 27. Agrippa eedile. 
Horace (aat. 32) probably publishes the second book 
of his Satires. 
32 Coss. Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus. 
C. Sosius. 

Ex Kal. Jul. L. Cornelius. 
Ex Kal. Nov. N. Valerius. 
Antonius divorces Octavia. War declared against 

Antonius at the conclusion of the year. 
Death of Atticus. 
31 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus III. 

M. Valerius Messala Corvinus. 
Ex Kal. Mai. M. Titius. 
Ex Kal. Oct. Cn. Pompeius. 
Antonius defeated at the battle'of Actium on the 2d 

of September. Octavianus proceeds to the East. 
Horace (aetat 34) probably publishes his book of 
Epodes. 

30 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus IV. 
M. Licinius Crassus. 
Ex Kal. Jul. C. Antistius Vetus. 
Ex Id. Sept. M. Tullius Cicero. 



Ex Kal. Nov. L. Saenius. 
Death of Antonius (aet. 51) and Cleopatra. Egypt 

made a Roman province. Octavianus passes the 

winter at Samos. 
Octavianus sole bcler of the Roman World. 
Cornelius Gallus, the poet, appointed praefect of 

Egypt. 

29 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus V. 
Sex. Appuleius. 

Ex Kal. Jul. Potitus Valerius Messala. 
Ex Kal. Nov. C. Furnius. 

C. Cluvius. 

Octavianus returns to Rome and celebrates three tri- 
umphs, Dalmatian, Actian, Alexandrine. Temple 
of Janus closed. 
28 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus VI. 
M. Agrippa II. 
Census taken by the consuls. The citizens at the 

census are 4,164,000. 
Death of Varro. 
27 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus VII. 
M. Agrippa III. 
Octavianus receives the title of Augustus, and accepts 
the government for ten years. Division of the prov- 
inces between him and the senate. Augustus goes 
into Spain. Messala triumphs on account of his 
conquest of the Aquitani, probably in the preceding 
year. 

Tibullus accompanied Messala into Aquitania. 
26 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus VIII. 
T. Statilius Taurus II. 
Augustus conducts the war in Spain. Death of Cor 
nelius Gallus. 
25 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus IX. 
M. Junius Silanus. 
Augustus continues to conduct the war in Spain, and 
subdues the Cantabri. The Salassi subdued by A. 
Terentius Varro, and the colony of Augustus Pre- 
toria (Aosta) founded in their country. The tem- 
ple of Janus shut a second time. Marcellus mar- 
ries Julia, the daughter of Augustus. 
24 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus X. 
C. Norbanus Flaccus. 
Augustus returns to Rome, .ffilius Gallus marches 

against the Arabians. 
Virgil is now employed upon the jEneid. 
Horace (set. 41) publishes the first three books of his 
Odes in this or the following year. 
23 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus XI. Abdicated. 
A. Terentius Varro Murena. Died 
L. Sestius. 
Cn. Calpurnius Piso. 
Augustus is invested with the tribunician power lor 
life. Death of Marcellus. An embassy from the 
Parthians: Augustus restores the son of Phraates, 
but keeps Tiridates at Rome. 
22 Coss. M. Claudius Marcellus iEserninus 
L. Arruntius. 
Censs. L. Munatius Plancus. 

Paul. iEmilius Lepidus. 
Conspiracy of Murena detected and punished. Can- 
dace, queen of the ./Ethiopians, invades Egypt. Re- 
volt of the Cantabri in Spain. 
21 Coss. M. Lollius. 

Q. jEmilius Lepidus. 
Augustus goes to the East, and spends the winter at 
Samos. Agrippa marries Julia, the Jav-ghtcr of 
Augustus and widow of Marcellus. 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



996 



20 Coss. M. Appuleius. 

F. Silius Nerva. 
The Parthians restore the Roman standards. Ambas- 
sadors come to Augustus from the Indians. Augus- 
tus winters again at Samos. Birth of C. Caesar, the 
grandson of Augustus. 
19 Coss. C. Sentius Saturninus. 

Q. Lucretius Vespillo. 
Ex Kal. Jul. M. Vinucius. 
Augustus returns to Rome. The Cantabri are finally 

subdued. 
Death of Virgil. 
18 Coss. P. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus. 
C. Cornelius Lentulus. 
Augustus accepts the empire for five years. The 

Lex Julia of Augustus De Mariutndis Ordinibus. 
Death of Tibullus. 

Horace (aet. 47) publishes the first book of his Epis- 
tles about this time. 
17 Coss. C. Furnius. 

C. Junius Silanua. 
The Ludi Sceculares celebrated. Birth of L. Caesar, the 

grandson of Augustus. Agrippa is sent into Asia. 
Horace (aet. 48) writes his Carmen Sceculare. 
16 Coss. L. Domitius Ahenobarbus. 
P. Cornelius Scipio. 
Ex Kal. Jul. L. Tarius Rufus. 
Agrippa is in Asia, where his friendship is cultivated 
by Herod. The Germans defeat the Roman army 
under Lollius. Augustus sets out for Gaul. 
15 Coss. M. Livius Drusus Libo. 
L. Calpurnius Piso. 
Augustus remains in Gaul. Tiberius and Drusus sub- 
due the Raeti and Vindelici. 
14 Coss. M. Licinius Crassjis. 

Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Augur. 
Augustus remains in Gaul. 
13 Coss. Ti. Claudius Nero (afterward Ti. Caesar Augus- 
tus). 

P. Quinctilius Varus. 
Augustus returns from Gaul, and Agrippa from Asia. 
Horace (aet. 52) publishes the fourth book of his Odes. 
12 Coss. M. Valerius Messala Barbatus Appianus. Died. 
P. Sulpicius Quirinus. Abdicated. 
C. Valgius Rufus. Abdicated. 
C. Caninius Rebilus. Died. 
L. Volusius Saturninuf. 
Death of Agrippa in March, in his 51st year. Death 
of Lepidus. Augustus becomes pontifex maximus. 
1 1 Coss. Q. jEHus Tubero. 

Paul. Fabius Maximus. 
Drusus carries on war against the Germans, and Ti- 
berius against the Dalmatians and Pannonians. Ti- 
berius marries Julia. Death of Octavia, the sister 
of Augustus. 
10 Coss. Julius Antonius. 

Q. Fabius Maximus Africanus. 
Augustus is in Gaul. He returns to Rome at the end 
of the year with Tiberius and Dru6vis. Birth of 
Claudius, afterward emperor. 
9 Coss. Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus. Died. 

T. Quinctius (Pennus Capitolinufl) Crispinus. 
Drusus sent against the Germans, and dies during the 
war. 

The history of Livy ended with the death of Drusus. 
8 Coss. C. Marcius Censorinus. 
C. Asinius Gallus. 
Augustus accepts the empire a third time. The month 



B.C. 

of Sextilis receives his name. Tiberius succeeds 
his brother in the war against the Germans. Cen- 
sus taken by Augustus. Death of Maecenas 
Death of Horace, set. 57. 
7 Coss. Ti. Claudius Nero II. 
Cn. Calpurnius Piso. 
Tiberius returns to Rome from Germany, but soon 
afterward sets out again to the same country. 
6 Coss. D. Laelius Balbus. 

C. Antistius Vetus. 
Tiberius receives the tribunician power for five years, 
and retires to Rhodes, where he remained seven 
years. 

5 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus XII. ■ 
L. Cornelius Sulla. 
C. Caesar receives the toga virilis. 
4 Coss. C. Calvisius Sabinus. 
L. Passienus Rufus. 
Birth of Jesus Christ. Death of Herod, king of 
Judaea. 

3 Coss. L. Cornelius Lentulus. 

M. Valerius Mes6alinus. 
Birth of Galba, afterward emperor. 
2 Coss. Imp. Caesar Augustus XIII. Abdicated. 
M. Plautius Silvanus. Abdicated. 
Q. Fabricius. 
L. Caninius Gallus. 
L. Caesar receives the toga virilis. Banishment ol 
Julia. 

Ovid publishes his poem De Arte Amandi. 
1 Coss. Cossus Cornelius Lentulus. 
L. Calpurnius Piso. 
Birth of Jesus Christ, according to the common 
era. C. Caesar is sent into the East 

AD. 

1 Coss. C. Caesar. 

L. iEmilius Paulus. 
War in Germany. 

2 Coss. P. Vinucius. 

P. Alfenius Varus. 

Ex Kal. Jul. P. Cornelius Lentulus Scipio. 

T. Quinctius Crispinus Valeria- 
nus. 

Interview of C. Caesar with Phraates, king of Parthia. 
L. Caesar dies at Massilia, on his way to Spain. Ti- 
berius returns to Rome. 
• Velleius Paterculus serves under C Caesar. 

3 Coss. L. jElius Lamia 

M. Serviliue. 

Ex Kal. Jul. P. Silius. 

L. Volusius Saturninus. 
Augustus accepts the empire for a fourth period of 
ten years. 

4 Coss. Sex. jElius Catus. 

C. Sentius Saturninus. 

Ex Kal. Jul. C. Clodius Licinus. 

Cn. Sentius Saturninus. 
Death of C. Caesar in Lycia. Tiberius adopted by Au- 
gustus. Tiberius sent to carry on the war against 
the Germans. 
Velleius Paterculus serves under Tiberius in Ger 

many. 
Death of Asinius Pollio. 

5 Coss. L. Valerius Messala Volesus. 

Cn. Cornelius Cinna Magnus. 
Ex Kal. Jul. C. Ateius Capito. 

C. Vibius Postumus. 
Second campaign of Tiberius in Germany 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 

A.D. 



U96 

A.D 

6 Cose. M. jEmilius Lepidus. 

h. Atruntius. Abdicated. 
L. Nonius Asprenas. 
Third campaign of Tiberius in Germany. Revolt of 
the Pannonians and Dalmatians. 

7 Coss. A. LiciniuB Nerva Silianus. 

Q. Ceecilius Metellus Creticus. 
Germanicus is sent into Germany. First campaign 

of Tiberius in Illyricum against the Pannonians and 

Dalmatians. 
Velleius Paterculus quaestor. 

8 Coss. M. Furius Camillus. 

Sex. Nonius Quinctilianus. 
Ex Kal. Jul. L. Apronius. 

A. Vibius Habitus. 
Second campaign of Tiberius in Illyricum. 

9 Coss. C. Poppaeus Sabinus. 

Q. Sulpicius Camerinus. 

Ex Kal. Jul. M. Papius Mutilus. 

Q. Poppaeus Secundus. 
Third and last campaign of Tiberius in Illyricum. 
Subjugation of the Dalmatians. Defeat of Quintil- 
ius Varus, and destruction of his army. The Ro- 
mans lose all their conquests in Germany east of 
the Rhine. Birth of Vespasian, afterward emperor. 
Exile of Ovid. 

10 Coss. P. Cornelius Dolabella. 

C. Junius Silanus. 

Ex Kal. Jul. Ser. Cornelius Lentulus Malugi- 
nensis. 

Tiberius again sent to Germany. 

11 Coss. M. .ffimilius Lepidus. 

T. Statilius Taurus. 
Ex Kal. Jul. L. Cassius Longinus. 
Tiberius and Germanicus cross the Rhine, and carry 
on war in Germany. 

12 Coss. Germanicus Caesar. 

C. Fonteius Capita. 

Ex Kal. Jul. C. Visellius Varro. 
Tiberius returns to Rome and triumphs. 
Birth of Caligula. 
Ovid publishes his Tristia. 

1 3 Coss. C. Silius. 

L. Munatius Plancus. 
Augustus accepts the empire a fifth time for ten years. 

14 Coss. Sex. Pompeius. 

Sex. Appuleius. 

Census taken : the citizens are 4,197,000. Death of 
Augustus at Nola, in Campania, on the 19th of Au- 
gust, in the 76th year of his age. 

Tiberius (sst. 56) succeeds Augustus as emperor. 
Revolt of the legions in Pannonia and Germany. 
Death of Agrippa Postumus, the grandson, and of 
Julia, the daughter, of Augustus. 

15 Coss. Drusus Cffisar. 

C. Norbanus Flaccus. 
Tiberii 2. — Germanicus carries on war against the 
Germans. 

16 Coss. T. Statilius Sisenna Taurus. 

L. Scribonius Libo. 
Ex Kal. Jul. P. Pomponius Graecinus. 
Tiberii 3. — Germanicus continues the war in Germa- 
ny, but is recalled by Tiberius. Rise of Sejanus. 
IT Coss. C. Cascilius Rufus. 

L. Pomponius Flaccus. 
Tiberii 4. — Germanicus returns to Rome and tri- 
umphs. He is sent into the East. Great earth- 
quake in Asia War in Africa against Tacfarinas. 



18 Coss. Ti. Caesar Augustus III. Abdicated. 

Germanicus Caesar H 

L. Seius Tubero. 
Tiberii 5. — Germanicus is in the East 
Death of Ovid and of Livy. 

19 Coss, M. Junius Silanus. 

L. Norbanus Balbus. 
Tiberii 6. — Germanicus visits Egypt, and returns to 
Syria, where he dies in his 34th year. Drusus car. 
ries on war in Germany with success. The Jews 
are banished from Italy. 

20 Coss. M. Valerius Messala. 

M. Aurelius Cotta. 
Tiberii 7.— Agrippina, the wife of Germanicus, comes 
to Rome. Trial and condemnation of Piso. 

21 Coss. Ti. Caesar Augustus IV. 

Drusus Caesar II. 
Tiberii 8. — Junius Blaesus is sent into Africa against 
Tacfarinas. 

22 Coss. D. Haterius Agrippa. 

C. Sulpicius Galba. 

Ex Kal. Jul. M. Cocceius Nerva. 

C. Vibius Rufinus. 
Tiberii 9. — The tribunician power is granted to Dru- 
sus. 

23 Coss. C. Asinius Pollio. 

C. Antistius Vetus. 
Tiberii 10. — Death of Drusus : he is poisoned by Se- 
janus. 

24 Coss. Ser. Cornelius Cethegus. 

L. Visellius Varro. 
Tiberii 11. — End of the African war by the death of 

Tacfarinas. 
Birth of the elder Pliny. 

25 Coss. M. Asinius Agrippa. 

Cossus Cornelius Lentulus. 
Tiberii 12. — Cremutius Cordus, the historian, is ac- 
cused, and dies of voluntary starvation. 

26 Coss. C. Calvisius Sabinus. 

Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus. 
Ex Kal. Jul. Q. Marcius Barea. 

T. Rustius Nummius Gallus. 
Tiberii 13. — Tiberius withdraws into Campania, and 
never returns to Rome. Poppaeus Sabinus carries 
on war successfully against the Thracians. 

27 Coss. M. Licinius Crassus Frugi. 

L. Calpurnius Piso. 
Tiberii 14. 

28 Coss. Ap. Junius Silanus. 

P. Silius Nerva. 
Suf. Q. Junius Blaesus. 
L. Antistius Vetus. 
Tiberii 15. — Death of Julia, the grand-daughter of Au- 
gustus. Agrippina,- the daughter of Germanicus, is 
married to Domitius Ahenobarbus : Nero was the 
issue of this marriage. Revolt of the Frisii. 

29 Coss. L. Rub^llius Geminus. 

C. Fufius Geminus. 
Sttf. A. Plautius. 

L. Nonius Asprenas. 
Tiberii 16.— Death of Livia, the mother of Tiberlu*. 

30 Coss. M. Vinucius. 

L. Cassius Longinus. 
Suf. C. Cassius Longinus. 
L. Najvius Surdinus. 

Tiberii 17. 

Asinius Gallus is imprisoned. 

Velleius Paterculus writes his history in this year 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



99V 



31 Coss. Ti. Caesar Augustus V. 

L. Julius Sejanus. 
Suf. vu. Id. Mai. Faust. Cornelius Sulla. 

Sextidius Catullinua. 
Kal. Jul. L. Fulcinius Trio. 
Kal Oct. P. Memraius Regulus. 
Tiberii IS. — Fall and execution of Sejanus. 

32 Coss. Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus. 

M. Furius Camillus Scribonianus. 
Suf. Kal. Jul. A. Vitellius. 
Tiberii 19.— Birth of Otho. 

33 Coss. Ser. Sulpicius Galba (afterward Caes. Aug.). 

L. Cornelius Sulla Felix. 
Suf. Kal. Jul. L. Salvius Otho. 
Tiberii 20. — Agrippina and her son Drusus are put to 
death. 

Death of Asinius Gallus and of Cassius Severua. 

34 Coss. L. Vitellius. 

Paul. Fabius Persicus. 
Tiberii 21. 
Birth of Persius. 

35 Coss. C. Cestius Gallus Camerinus. 

M. Servilius Nonianus. 
Tiberii 22. 

36 Coss. Sex. Papinius Allienus. 

Q. Plautius. 
Tiberii 23. 

37 Coss. Cn. Acerronius Proculus. 

C. Petronius Pontius Nigrinus. 
Suf. Kal. Jul. C. Csesar Augustus Germanicus. 

Ti. Claudius (afterward Caes. 
Aug.). 

Death of Tiberius (ait, 78), March 16th. 
Caligula emperor (aet. 25). He puts to death Tibe- 
rius, the son of Drusus. Birth of Nero. 

38 Coss. M. Aquilius Julianus. 

P. Nonius Asprenas. 
Caligulae 2. — Death of Drusilla, the sister of Caligula. 
Birth of Josephus. 
30 Coss. C. Caesar Augustus Germanicus II. 
L. Apronius Caesianus. 

Suf. Kal. Febr. Sanquinius Maximus. 

Jul. Cn. Domitius Corbulo. 
Sept. Domitius Afer. 
Caligula? 3. — Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee, is 
deposed, and his dominions given to Agrippa. Ca- 
ligula sets out for Gaul. 

10 Coss. C. Caasar Augustus Germanicus III. (Sole con- 

sul.) » 

Snf. Id. Jan. L. Gellius Poplicola. 

M. Cocceius Nerva. 
(Kal. Jul. Sex. Junius Celer. 

Sex. Nonius Quinctilianus.) 
Caligulae 4. — Caligula is at Lugdunum (Lyon) on the 
1st of January. His mad expedition to the Ocean : 
he returns to Rome in triumph. 
Philo Judaeus is sent from Alexandrea as an ambas- 
sador to Caligula. 
The poet Lucan is brought to Rome. 

11 Coss. C. Caesar Augustus Germanicus IV. 

Cn. Sentius Saturninus. 
Suf. vn. Id. Jan. Q. Pomponiue Secundus. 
Caligula (set. 29) slain, January 24th. 
Claudius emperor (aet. 49). Agrippa receives Judea 
and Samaria. The Germans defeated by Galba and 
Gabinius. 

Seneca publishes his De Ira Libri ires. He is exiled 
in this year 



42 Coss. Ti. Claud. Cass. Aug. Germanicus II. 

C. Caecina Largus. 
Suf. Kal. Mart. (C. Vibius Crispus). 
Claudii 2. — Mauretania is conquered and divided into 

two provinces. Deaths of Paetus and Arria. 
Asconius Pedianus flourished. 

43 Coss. Ti. Claud. Caes. Aug. Germanicus III. 

L. Vitellius II. 
Suf. Kal. Mart. (P. Valerius Asiat.). 
Claudii 3. — Expedition of Claudius into Britain. 
Martial born March 1st. 

44 Coss. L. Quinctius Crispinus Secundus. 

M. Statilius Taurus. 
Claudii 4. — Claudius returns to Rome and triumphs. 
Death of Agrippa, king of Judea. 

45 Coss. M. Vinucius II. 

Taurus Statilius Corvinus. 
Suf. M. Cluvius Rufus. 
Pompeius Silvanus. 

Claudii 5. 

Domitius Afer flourished. 

46 Coss. . . . Valerius Asiaticus II. 

M. Junius Silanus. 
Suf. P. Suillius Rufus. 
P. Ostorius Scapula. 

Claudii 6. 

47 Coss. Ti. Claud. Caes. Aug. Germanicus IV. 

L. Vitellius III. 
Suf. Kal. Mart. (Ti. Plautius Silvanus jElia- 
nus.) 

Claudii 7. — Ludi Sasculares celebrated. Corbulo com- 
mands in Lower Germany, and reduces the Frisii 
to submission. 

48 Coss. A. Vitellius (afterward Aug.). 

L. Vipstanus Poplicola. 
Suf. Kal. Jul. L. Vitellius. 

(C. Calpurnius Piso.) 
Censs. Ti. Claudius Caes. Aug. Germanicus. 
L. Vitellius. 

Claudii 8. — Messalina, the wife of Claudius, is put to 
death. 

49 Coss. Q. Veranius. 

C. (A.) Pompeius Gallus. 
(Suf. L. Memmius Pollio. 
Q. Allius Maximus.) 
Claudii 9. — Claudius marries Agrippina. 
Seneca recalled from exile. 

50 Coss. C. Antistius Vetus. 

M. Suillius Nerulinus. 
Claudii 10. — Claudius adopts Domitius Ahenobarbaa 
(afterward the Emperor Nero), the son of Agrippi- 
na. In Britain, the Silures are defeated by Ostori- 
us, and their leader, Caractacus, is captured. 

51 Coss. Ti. Claud. Caes. Aug. Germanicus V. 

Ser. Cornelius Orfitus. 
Suf. Kal. Jul. (C. Minicius Fundanus. 

C. Vetennius Severus.) 
Kal. Nov. T. Flavius Vespasjanus (after- 
ward Cms. Aug.). 
Claudii 11. — Nero receives the toga virilis. Burma 
appointed praefect of the praetorians by the influ- 
ence of Agrippina. 

52 Coss. Faustus Cornelius Sulla. 

L. Salvius Otho Titianus. 
(Suf. Kal. Jul. Servilius Barea Soranua, 
C. Licinius Mucianu6.) 
Kal. Nov. L. Come Sua Sulla. 

T. Flavius Sabinus. 



998 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



A.D. 

Claadii 12. 

53 Coss. D. Junius Silanus. 

Q. Haterius Antoninus. 
Claudii 13. — Nero marries Octavia, the daughter of 
Claudius. 

54 Coss. M. Asinius Marcellus. 

M'. AciUus Aviola. 
Claudius (set. 63) poisoned October 12th. 
Nebo emperor (set. 17). Corbulo appointed to the 
command in Armenia, and continues in the East 
somo years. 
85 Coss. Nero Claud. Caas. Aug. Germanicus. 
L. Antistius Vetus. 
Neronis 2. — Britannicus (art. 14) is poisoned. 

56 Coss. Q. Volusius Saturninus. 

P. Cornelius Scipio. 
Neronis 3. 

Seneca publishes his De Clementia Libri II. 

57 Coss. Nero Claud. Caes. Aug. Germanicus II. 

L. Calpurnius Piso. 

Suf. L. Ca»sius Martialis. 
Neronis 4. 

58 Coss. Nero Claud. Caes. Aug. Germanicus III. 

M. Valerius Messala. 
Neronis 5. — Corbulo drives Tigranes out of Armenia, 
and takes Artaxata, his capital. Nero is in love with 
Poppaea Sabina, the wife of Otho. Otho is sent inta 
Lusitania, where he remained ten years. 

59 Coss. C. Vipstanus Apronianus. 

C. Fonteius Capito. 
Neronis 6. — Agrippina, the mother of Nero, is mur- 
dered by his order. 
Death of Domitius Afer. 

60 Coss. Nero Claud. Caes. Aug. Germanicus IV. 

Cossus Cornelius Lentulus. 
Neronis 7.— Complete subjugation of Armenia by Cor- 
bulo. The Quinquennalia instituted by Nero. 

61 Coss. C. Petronius Turpilianus. 

C. Ceesonius Peetus. 

Neronis 8. — Insurrection in Britain under Boadicea : 
she is conquered by Suetonius Paullinus. Galba 
commands in Spain, where he continued till he 
was elected emperor. 

Birth of Pliny the younger. 

62 Coss. P. Marius Celsus. 

L. Asinius Gallus. 
Suf. L. Annseus Seneca. 
Trebellius Maximus. 
Neronis 9. — Nero divorces Octavia, and puts her to 
death shortly afterward. He marries Poppsea Sa- 
bina. Death of Burrus, the praetorian praafect. 
Death of Persius. 

63 Coss. C. Memmius Regulus. 

L. Virginius Rufus. 
Neronis 10. 

Seneca completes his Naturales Queestiones after this 
year. 

64 Coss. C. Lfecanius Bassus. 

M. Licinius Crassus Frugi. 
Neronis 11. — Great fire at Rome. First persecution 
of the Christians. 

65 Coss. A. Licinius Nerva Silianus. 

M. Vestinus Atticus. 
Neronis 12. — Piso's conspiracy against Nero detected 

and suppressed. Death of Poppeea Sabina. 
Seneca the philosopher, and Lucan the poet, put to 

death. 

66 Coss. C. Lucius Telesinus. 



C. Suetonius Paullinus. 

Neronis 13. — Tiridates comes 1 1 Rome, and receires 
the crown of Armenia from the emperor. Nero 
then goes to Greece. The Jewish war begins, and is 
continued for some years. It is finished in A.D. 70. 

Martial comes to Rome. 

67 Coss. L. Fonteius Capito. 

C. Julius Rufus. 
Neronis 14. — Nero, in Greece, enters the contests at 
the Olympic games. He puts Corbulo to death. 
He returns to Rome at the end cf the year. Ves- 
pasian conducts the war against the Jews. 

68 Coss. Silius Italicus. Abdicated. 

Galerius Trachalus. Abdicated. 
Nero Claud. Caes. Aug. Germanicus V. (without 
colleague). ■ 

Suf. Kal. Jul. M. Plautius Silvanus. 

M. Salvius Otho (afterward 
Cebs. Aug.). 
Suf. Kal. Sept. C. Bellicus Natalis. 

P. Cor. Scip. Asiaticus. 
In Gaul; Vindex revolts, and proclaims Galba em- 
peror. Nero (aet. 30) kills himself on June 9th. 
Galea emperor. Vespasian continues the war against 
the Jews. 

69 Coss. Ser. Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus II. 

T. Vinius (Junius). Slain. 

Ex Kal. Marl. T. Virginius Rufus. 

L. Pompeius Vopiscus. 
Ex Kal. Mai. M. Ctelius Sabinus. 

T. Flavius Sabinus. 
Ex Kal. Jul. T. Arrius Antoninus. 

P. Marius Celsus II. 
Ex Kal. Sept. C. Fabius Valens. 

A. Licin. Case. Condemned. 
Ex pr. Kal. Not). Roscius Regulus. 
Ex Kal. Nov. Cu. Csecilius Simplex. 

C. Quinctius Atticus. 
Galba (set. 73) is slain January 15th. Otho had formed 

a conspiracy against him. 
Otho (set. 36) emperor from January 15th to his 
death, April 16th, was acknowledged as emperor 
by the senate on the death of Galba. 
Vitellius (aet. 54) was proclaimed emperor at Co- 
logne on January 2d, acknowledged as emperor by 
the senate on the death of Otho, and reigned till 
his death, December 22d. 
Vespasian (set. 60) was proclaimed emperor at Al- 
exandrea on July 1st, and was acknowledged as 
emperor by the senate on the death of Vitellius. 
On the death of Galba followed the civil war between 
Otho and Vitellius. The generals of Vitellius march 
into Italy, and defeat the troops of Otho at the bat- 
tle of Bedriacum. Thereupon Otbo put an end to 
his own life at Brixellum, April 16th. Vitellius is 
in Gaul at the time of Otho's death ; he visits the 
field of battle toward the end of May, and then pro- 
ceeds to Rome. Meantime the generals of Vespa- 
sian invade Italy, take Cremona, and march upon 
Rome. They force their way into Rome, and kill 
Vitellius, December 22d. The Capitol burned. Tha 
war against the Jews suspended this year. 

70 Coss. Imp. T. Flavius Vespasianus Augustus II. 

T. Caesar Vespasianus. 

Ex Kal. Jul. C. Licinius Mucianus II. 

P. Valerius Asiaticus 
Ex Kal. Nov. L. Annius Bassus. 

C. Caeeina Pcetus. 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



990 



70 Vespasiani 2. — Vespasian proceeds to Italy, and leaves 

his son Titus to carry on the war against the Jews. 
Titus takes Jerusalem, after a siege of nearly five 
months. Insurrection in Batavia and Gaul, headed 
by Civilis ; it commenced in the preceding year, 
before the capture of Cremona. It is put down in 
this year by Cerialis. 

71 Coss. Imp. T. Flavius Vespasianus Augustus III. 

M. Cocceius Nerva (afterward Imp. Caes. Aug.). 
Ex Kal. Mart. T. Caesar Domitianus. 

Cn. Pedius Castas. 
C. Valerius Festus. 
Vespasiani 3. — Titus returns to Italy. Triumph of 
Vespasian and Titus. The temple of Janus closed. 

72 Coss. Imp. T. Flavius Vespasianus Augustus IV. 

T. Caesar Vespasianus II. 
Vespasiani 4. — Commagene is reduced to a province. 

73 Coss. T. Caesar Domitianus II. 

M. Valerius Messalinus. 
Vespasiani 5. 

74 Coss. Imp. T. Flavius Vespasianus Augustus V. 

T. Caesar Vespasianus III. Abdicated. 
Ex Kal. Jul. T. Caesar Domitianus III. 
Censs. Imp. T. Flavius Vespasianus Augustus. 

T. Caesar Vespasianus. 
Vespasiani 6. — Censors appointed for the last time. 
The dialogue De Oratoribus is written in the 6th of 
Vespasian. 

70 Coss. Imp. T. Flavius Vespasianus Augustus VI. 

T. Caesar Vespasianus IV. 

Ex Kal. Jul. T. Caesar Domitianus IV. 

M. Licinius Mucianus III. 
Vespasiani 7. — Temple of Peace completed. 

71 Coss. Imp. T. Flavius Vespasianus Augustus VII. 

T. Caesar Vespasianus V. 
Ex Kal. Jul. T. Caes. Domitianus V. (T. Plau- 
tius Silvanus iElianus II.). 
Vespasiani 8.— Birth of Hadrian. 

77 Coss. Imp. T. Flavius Vespasianus Augustus VIII. 

T. Caesar Vespasianus VI. 
Ex Kal. Jul. T. Caesar Domitianus VI. 
Cn. Julius Agricola. 
Vespasiani 9. — Pliny dedicates his Historia Naturalis 
to Titus, when consul for the sixth time. 

78 Coss. L. Ceionius Commodus. 

D. Novius Priscus. 
Vespasiani 10.— Agricola takes the command in Brit- 
ain : he subdues the Ordovices, and takes the island 
of Mona. 

79 Coss. Imp. T. Flavius Vespasianus Augustus IX. 

T. Caesar Vespasianus VII. 

Death of Vespasian (aet. 69), June 23d. 

Titus emperor (aet. 38). Second campaign of Agric- 
ola in Britain. Eruption of Vesuvius on August 
24th, and destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 

Death of the elder Pliny (aet. 56) in the eruption of 
Vesuvius. The younger Pliny was now 18. 

80 Coss. Imp. Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus VIII. 

T. Caesar Domitianus VII. 
Suf. L. iElius Plautius Lamia. 

Q. Pactumeius Fronto. 
Suf. M. Tillius (Tittius) Frugi. 
T. Vinicius Julianus. 
Titi 2. — Great fire at Rome. Completion of the Am- 
phitheatre (Colosseum) and Baths commenced by 
Vespasian : Titus exhibits games on the occasion 
for 100 days. Third campaign of Agricola in Brit- 
ain : he advances as far as the Frith of Tay. 



A.D. 

81 Coss. L. Flavius Silva Nonius Bassus. 

Asinius Pollio Verrucosus. 

Ex Kal. Mai. L. Vettius Paullus. 

T. Junius Montanus. 
Death of Titus (aet. 40) on September 13th. 
Domitian emperor (aet. 30). Fourth campaign of 
Agricola in Britain. 

82 Coss. Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus VIII. 

T. Flavius Sabinus. 
Domitiani 2. — The Capitol restored. Fifth campaign 
of Agricola in Britain. 

83 Coss. Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus IX. 

Q. Petilius Rufus II. 
Domitiani 3. — Expedition of Domitian against the 
Catti. Sixth campaign of Agricola in Britain: he 
defeats the Caledonians. 

84 Coss. Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus X. 

Ap. Junius Sabinus. 
^ Domitiani 4. — Domitian returns to Rome and tri- 
umphs ; he assumes the title of Germanicus, and 
receives ten consulships -and the censorship for 
life. Seventh campaign of Agricola in Britain : he 
defeats Galgacus. 

85 Coss. Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XI. 

T. Aurelius Fulvus. 
Domitiani 5.— Agricola recalled to Rome. 

86 Coss. Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XII. 

Ser. Cornelius Dolabella Petronianus. 
Suf. C. Secius Campanus. 
Domitiani 6. — The Dacians, under Decebalus, make 
war upon the Romans. Birth of Antoninus Pius. 

87 Coss. Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XIII. 

A. Volusius Saturninus. 
Domitiani 7. 

88 Coss. Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XIV. 

L. Minucius Rufus. 
Domitiani 8. — The Ludi Saeculares celebrated. 
Tacitus praetor. 

89 Coss. T. Aurelius Fulvus II. 

A. Sempronius Atratinus. 
Domitiani 9. 

Quintilian teaches at Rome. 

Tacitus leaves Rome four years before the death ot 
Agricola. See A.D. 93. 

90 Coss. Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XV. 

M. Cocceius Nerva IX 

Domitiani 10. — The philosophers expelled from 
Rome. Domitian defeated by the Quadi and Mar- 
comanni. He purchases a peace of Decebalus. 

Pliny (aet. 29) praetor. 

91 Coss. M'. Acilius Glabrio. 

M. Ulpius Trajanus (afterward Imp. Caes. Aug.). 
Suf. Q. Valerius Vegetus. 
P. Met(ilius Secundus). 
Domitiani 11. — Domitian celebrates a triumph on ac- 
count of his pretended victory over the Dacian.s. 
Insurrection of L. Antonius in Germany, who is 
defeated by the generals of Domitian. 

92 Coss. Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XVI. 

Q. Volusius Saturninus. 

Ex Id. Jan. L. Venu(leius Apronianus). 

Ex Kal. Mai. L. Stertinius Avitus. 

Ti 

Ex Kal. Sept. C. Junius Silanus. 

Q. Arv 

Domitiani 12. 
E3 Coss. Pompeius Collega. 

Cornelius Priscus. 



1000 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



A.D.' 

93 Suf. M. Lollius Paullinus Valerius Asiaticus 

Satuminus. 
C. Antius Aulus Julus Torquatns. 
Domitiani 13. — Sarmatian war. Domitiaii Bet forth 
in May, A.D. 93, and returned in January, A.D. 94. 
Death of Agricola (set. 56). 
Josephus (set. 56) finishes his Antiquities. 

94 Coss. L. Nonius Torquatus Asprenas. 

T. Sextius Magius Lateranus. 
Suf. L. Sergius Paullus. 
Domitiani 14. 

Statius publishes his Thebais about this time. 

95 Coss. Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus XVII. 

T. Flavius Clemens. 
Domitiani 15. — The consul Clemens put to death. 
Persecution of the Christians. 

96 Coss. C. Manlius Valens. 

C. Antistius Vetus. 
Domitian (aet. 44) slain September 18th. « 
Nerva emperor (aet. 63). 

97 Coss. Imp. Nerva Caesar Augustus III. 

T. Virginius Rufus III. 
Nervae 2. — M. Ulpius Trajanus is adopted by Nerva. 
Frontinus is appointed Curator Aquarum. 

98 Coss. Imp. Nerva Caesar Augustus IV. 

Nerva Trajanus Caesar II. 

Ex Kal. Jul. C. Sosius Senecio. 

L. Licinius Sura. 
Ex Kal. Oct. Afranius Dexter. 
Death of Nerva (aet. 65), January 25th. 
Trajan emperor (set. 41). Trajan, at his accession, 

is at Cologne. 
Pliny is appointed Praefectus jErarii. 

99 Coss. A. Cornelius Palma. 

C. Sosius Senecio (II.). 
Trajani 2. — Trajan returns to Rome. 
Martial publishes a second edition of book x. of his 
Epigrams. 

100 Coss. Imp. Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus III. 

Sex. Julius Frontinu9 III. 

Ex Kal. Mart. M. Cornelius Fronto. 

Ex Kal. Sept. C. Plinius Caeeilius Secundus. 

Cornutus Tertullus. 
Ex Kal. Nov. Julius Ferox. 

Acutius Nerva. 

L. Roscius jElianus. 

Ti. Claudius Sacerdos. 

Trajani 3. 

Pliny, consul, delivers his Panegyricus in the senate 
in the beginning of September. Pliny and Tacitus 
accuse Marius Priscus. 

Martial probably published book xi. at Rome in this 
year. In the course of the year he withdrew to 
Spain, from which he had been absent 35 years. 

101 Coss. Imp. Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus IV. 

Sex. Articuleius Paetus. 

Ex Kal. Mart. Cornelius Scipio Orfitua. 

Ex Kal. Mai. Baebius Macer. 

M. Valerius Paullinus. 
Ex Kal. Jul. C. Rubrius Gallus. 

Q. Caelius Hispo. 
Trajani 4. — First Dacian war. Trajan commands in 
person, and crosses the Danube. Hadrian quaestor. 
103 Coss. C. Sosius Senecio III. 
L. Licinius Sura II. 
Ex Kal. Jul. M'. Acilius Rufus. 

C. Caeeilius Classicus. 
Trajani 5. — Dacian war continued. 



103 Coss. Imp. Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus V. 

L. Appius Maximus II. 

(Suf. C. Minieius Fundanus. 
C. Vettennius Severus.) 
Trajani 6. — Trajan defeats the Dacians, and grants 
peace to Decebalus. He returns to Rome, tri- 
umphs, and assumes the name of Dacicus. 
Pliny arrives at his province of Bithynia in Septem- 
ber. 

104 Coss Suranus. 

P. Neratius Marcellus. 
Trajani 7. — Second Dacian war. Hadrian serves un- 
der Trajan in this war. 
Pliny writes from his province to Trajan concerning 
• the Christians. 

Martial (aet. 62) publishes book xii. at Bilbilis, in Spain. 

105 Coss. Ti. Julius Candidus II. 

C. Antius Aulus Julius Quadratus II. 
Trajani 8. — Dacian war continued. • Trajan builds a 
stone bridge over the Danube. 

106 Coss. L. Ceionius Commodus Verus. 

L. Titius Cerealis. 
Trajani 9. — End of the Dacian war, and death of De- 
cebalus. Dacia is made a Roman province. Tra 
jan returns to Rome, and triumphs a second time 
over the Dacians. Arabia Petraea conquered by 
Cornelius Palma. 

107 Coss. L. Licinius Sura HI. 

C. Sosius Senecio IV. 
-S«/. .... Suranus II. 

C. Julius Servilius Ursus Servianus. 

Trajani 10. 

108 Coss. Ap. Annius Trebonius Gallus. 

M. Atilius Metilius Bradua. 
Suf. (C. Julius Africanus. 
Clodius Crispinus.) 
L. Verulanus Severus. 

Trajani 11. 

109 Coss. A. Cornelius Palma IL 

C. Calvisius Tullus II. 
Suf. P. iElius Hadrianus (aftertoard Imp. 
Caes. Aug.). 
M. Trebatius Priscus. 

Trajani 12. 

110 Coss. Ser. Salvidienus Orfitus. 

M. Peducaeus Priscinus. 
Suf. (P. Calvisius Tullus. 
L. Annius Largus.) 

Trajani 13. 

111 Coss. M. Calpurnius Piso. 

L. Rusticus Junianus Bolanus. 
Suf. C. Julius Servilius Ursus Servianus IL 
L. Fabius Justus. 

Trajani 14. 

112 Coss. Imp. Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus VI. 

T. Sextius Africanus. 
Trajani 15. 

113 Coss. L. Publicius Celsus U. 

C. Clodius Crispinus. 
Trajani 16. — The column of Trajan erected. 

114 Coss. Q. Ninnius Hasta. 

P. Manilius Vopiscus. 
Trajani 17.— Parthian war. Trajan leaves Italy in tho 
autumn, and spends the winter at Antioch. 

115 Coss. L. Vipstanus Messala. 

M. Pedo Vergilianus. 
Trajani 18. — Parthian war continued. Trajan con- 
quers Armenia. Great earthquake at Antioch at 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



1001 



A.D 

the beginning of the year. Sedition ci the Jews in 
Greece and Egypt. 
Martyrdom of Ignatius. 

116 Coss. (iEmilius) .lElianus. 

(L.) Antistius Vetus. 
Trajani 19.— Parthian war continued. Trajan takes 
Ctesiphon, and sails down the Tigris to the ocean. 
Revolt of the Parfhians suppressed by the generals 
of Trajan. Trajan assumes the name of Parthicus. 

117 Coss. Quinctius Niger. 

C. Vipstanus Apronianus. 

Ex Kal. Jul. M. Erucius Claims. 

Ti. Julius Alexander. 
Sedition of the Jews in Cyrene and Egypt suppressed. 
Trajan (set. 60) dies at Selinus, in Cilicia, on his re- 
turn to Italy, August 8th. 
Hadrian emperor (set. 42). He was at Antioeh at 
the death of Trajan. 

118 Coss. Imp. Caesar Trajanus Hadrianus Augustus II. 

Ti. Claudius Fuscus Salinator. 

Hadriani 2.— Hadrian comes to Rome : he sets out 
for Mcesia, in consequence of a war with the Sar- 
matians ; a conspiracy against him discovered and 
suppressed; he returns to Italy, and intrusts the 
command of Dacia to Marcius Turbo. 

Juvenal flourished. 

119 Coss. Imp.' Caesar Trajanus Hadrianus Augustus III. 

C. Junius Rusticus. 
Hadriani 3. — Turbo i3 appointed praetorian praefect 
in the place of Attianus, and Clarus in the place of 
Similis. 

120 Coss. L. Catilius Severus. 

T. Aurelius Fulvus (afterward Imp. Caes. Anto- 
ninus Aug. Pius). • 
Hadriani 4. — Hadrian begins a journey through all the 
proT'inces of the empire. He visits Gaul aad Ger- 
many. 

121 Coss. M. Annius Verus II. 

Augur. 

Hadriani 5. — Hadrian visits Britain and Spain. He 
passes the winter at Tarraco, in Spain. Birth of 
M. Aurelius. 

122 Coss. M\ Acilius Aviola. 

C. Corellius Pansa. 
Hadriani 6. — Hadrian visits Athens, where he passes 
the winter. 

123 Coss. Q. Articuleius Paetinus. 

L. Venuleius Apronianus. 
Hadriani 7. 

124 Coss. M'. Acilius Glabrio. 

C. Bellicius Torquatua. 
Hadriani 8. 

125 Coss. Valerius Asiaticus II. 

Titius Aquilinus. 
Hadriani 9.— Hadrian is at Athens. 

126 Coss. M. Annius Verus III. 

... Eggius Ambibulus. 
Hadriani 10. — Birth of Pertinax. Death of Similis. 

127 Coss. T. Atilius Titianus. 

M. Squilla Gallicanus. 
Hadriani 11. 

128 Coss. L. Nonius Torquatus Asprenas II. 

M. Annius Libo. 
Hadriani 12. 

129 Coss. P. Juventius Celsus II. 

Q. Julius Balbus. 
Suf. C. Neratius Marcellus II. 
Cn Lollius Gallus. 



A.D. 

Hadriani 13. — Hadrian passes the winter at Athens. 

130 Coss. Q. Fabius Catullinus. 

M. Flavius Aper. 
Hadriani 14. — Hadrian visits Judea and Egypt. 

131 Coss. Ser. Octavius Laenas Pontianus, 

M. Antonius Eufinus. 
Hadriani 15. — Hadrian visits Syria. The Jewish war 
begins. 

132 Coss. C. Serius Augurinus. 

C. Trebius Sergianus. 
Hadriani 16. — The Jewish war continues. The Edio- 
turn Perpctuum promulgated. 

133 Coss. M. Antonius Bjberus. 

Nummius Sisenna. 
Hadriani 17. — The Jewish war continues. 

134 Coss. C. Julius Servilius Ursus Servianus 111. 

C. Vibius Juventius Varus. 
Hadriani 18. — The Jewish war continues. 

135 Coss Lupercus. 

Atticus. 

Suf. . . . Pontianus. 
. . . Atilianus. 
Hadriani 19. — The Jewish war continues. 

136 Coss. L. Ceionius Commodus Verus. 

Sex. Vetulenus Civica Pompeianus. 
Hadriani 20. — The Jewish war ended. Hadrian adopts 
L. .ffilius Verus, and confers upon him the title of 
Csesar. 

137 Coss. L. jElius Verus Caesar II. 

P. Coelius Balbinus Vibulius Pius. 
Hadriani 21. 

138 Coss Niger. 

Camerinua. 

Death of L. Verus, January 1st. Hadrian adopts 
Antoninus Pius, and gives him the title of Caesar, 
February 25th. Death of Hadrian (set. 62), July 
10th. 

Antoninus Pros emperor (set. 51). 

139 Coss. Imp. T. Ml. Caesar Ant. Augustus Pius II. 

C. Bruttius Praesens II. 
Antonini 2. 

140 Coss. Imp. 1'. Ml. Caesar Ant. Augustus Pius III. 

M. iElius Aurelius Verus Caesar (afterward Imp. 
Augustus). 
Antonini 3. 

141 Coss. M. Peducaeus Stloga Priscinus. 

T. Hoenius Severus. 
Antonini 4.— Death of Faustina. 

142 Coss. L. Statius Quadratus. 

C. Cuspius Rufinus. 
Antonini 5. 

143 Coss. C. Bellicius Torquatus. 

Ti. Claudius Atticus Herodes. 
Antonini 6. 
Fronto flourished. 

144 Coss. P. Lollianus Avitus. 

C. Gavius Maximus. 
Antonini 7. 

Valentinus, the heretic, flourished. 

145 Coss. Imp. T. Ml. Caes. Ant. Aug. Pius IV. 

M. Aurelius Caesar II. 
Antonini 8 

146 Coss. Sex. Erucius Clarus H. 

Cn. Claudius Severus. 
Antonini 9. — Birth of Severus. 

147 Coss. C. Amiius Largus. 

C. Prast. Pacatus Messalinus. 
Antonini 10. — M. Aurelius marries Faustina, the era- 



i002 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



peror's daughter, and receives the tribunician pow- 
er. The Ludi Sseculares celebrated. 

Galen (aet. 17) begins to study medicine. 

Appian published his Histories about this time. 

148 Coss Torquatus. 

Salvius Julianus. 
Antonini 11. 

149 Coss. Ser. Scipio Orfitus. 

Q. Nonius Priscus. 
Antonini 12. 

150 Coss Gallicanus. 

. . Antistius Vetus. 
Antonini 13. t , 
Marcian, the heretic, flourished. 

151 Coss. Sex. Quintilius Condianus. 

Sex. Quintilius Maximus. 
Antonini 14. 

Justin Martyr publishes his Apology. 

152 Coss. M. Acilius Glabrio. 

M. Valerius Homullus. 
Antonini 15. 
Hegesippus flourished. 

153 Coss. C. Bruttius Praesens. 

A. Junius Rufinus. 
Antonini 16. 

154 Coss. L. jElius Aurelius Commodus (afterward, Imp. 

Caes. Aug.). 
T. Sextius Lateramis. 
Antonini 17. 
Birth of Bardesanes. 
755 Coss. C. Julius Severus. 

M. Junius Rufinus Sabinianus. 
Ex. Kal. Nov. Antius Pollio. 

Opimianus. 

Antonini 18. 
156' Coss. M. Ceionius Silvanus. 

C. Serius Augurinus. 
Antonini 19. 

157 Coss. M. Civica Barbaras. 

M. MetUius Regulus. 
Antonini 20. 

158 Coss. Sex. Sulpicius Tertullus. 

C. Tineius Sacerdos. 
Antonini 21. 

159 Coss. Plautius Quintilius. 

Statius Priscus. 
Antonini 22. 

Galen (net. 29) at Pergamus. 

160 Coss. Ap. Annius Atilius Bradua. 

T. Clodius Vibius Varus. 
Antonini 23. 

161 Coss. M. iElius Verus Caesar III. 

L. JElius Aurelius Commodus II. 

Death of Antoninus Pius (aet. 74), March 7. 

M. Aukeltus (aet. 39) emperor. He associates with 
him in the empire L. Veeus (aet. 31). There are 
thus two Augusti. Birth of Commodus, son of M. 
Aurelius, on August 31st. 

162 Coss. Q. Junius Rusticus. 

C. Vettius Aquilinus. 
Suf. Q. Flavius Tertullus. 
Aurelii 2. — War with the Parthians. Verus sets forth 
to the East, to conduct the war against the Parthi- 
ans, M. Aurelius remains at Rome 

163 Coss. M. Pontius Leelianus. 
• Pastor. 

Suf. Q. Mustius Priscus. 
Aurelii 3. — Parthian war continued 



164 Coss. M. Pompeius Macrinus. 

P. Juventius Celsus. 
Aurelii 4. — Parthian war continued. Marriage of Va- 
rus and Lucilla. 

165 Coss. M. Gavius Orfitus. 

L. Arriu3 Pudens. 
Aurelii 5. — Parthian war continued. 

166 Coss. Q. Servilius Pudens. 

L. Fufidius Pollia. 
Aurelii 6. — Parthian war finished. Triumph of M. 

Aurelius and Verus. Commodus receives the title 

of Caesar. 
Martyrdom of Polycarp. 

167 Coss. Imp. Caes. L. Aur. Verus August. III. 

M. Ummidius Quadratus. 
Aurelii 7.— A pestilence at Rome. War with the Mar- 
comanni and Quadi. Both emperors leave Rome, 
in order to carry on this war, and winter at Sir- 
mium. 

Galen (aet. 37) practices medicine at Rome during the 
pestilence. 

168 Coss. L. Venuleius Apronianus II. 

L. Sergius Paullus II. 
Aurelii 8. — The barbarians submit to the emperors, 

but soon renew the war. 
Athenagoras writes his Apology. 

169 Coss. Q. Sosius Priscus Senecio. 

P. Coslius Apollinaris. 
Aurelii 9.— Death of Verus (aet. 39). 

170 Coss. M. Cornelius Cethegus. 

C. Erucius Clarus. 
Aurelii 10. — Aurelius continues the war against the 
Marcomanni. 

171 Coss, T. StatiUus Severus. 

L. Alfidius Herennianus. 
Aurelii 11. 

172 Coss Maximus. 

Orfitus. 

Aurelii 12. — Aurelius continues the war against the 
Marcomanni ; he assumes the title Germanicus, 
which is also conferred upon Commodus. 

173 Coss. M. Aurelius Severus II. 

Ti. Claudius Pompeianus. 
Aurelii 13. 

174 Coss Gallus. 

Flaccus. 

Aurelii 14. — Aurelius continues the war against the 
Marcomanni. Victory over the Quadi. Miracle 
of the Thundering Legion. (Vid. p. 131, b.) 

175 Coss. Calpurnius Piso. 

M. Salvius Julianus. 
Aurelii 15. — Peace concluded with the Marcomanni 
and the other barbarians. Revolt of Cassiu3 Avidi- 
us in the East : he is slain after three months. Au- 
relius goes to tne East. Commodus receives the 
toga virilis. Death of Faustina. 

176 Coss. T. Vitrasius Pollio II. 

M. Flavius Aper II. 
Aurelii 16. — Aurelius visits Athens on his return from 
the East. He triumphs on December 23d with 
Commodus. 

177 Coss. Imp. L. Aurelius Commodus Aug. 

M.'Plautius Quintilius. 
Aurelii 17. — Commodus receives the tribunician pow 

er. Persecution of the Christians in Gaul. 
Irenaeus becomes Bishop of Lyon in Gaul. 

178 Coss. Gavius Orfitus. 

Julianus Rufus. 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



1003 



Aurelii 18. — Renewal of the war with the Marcoman- 
ni and the northern barbarians. Aurelius sets out 
with Commodus to Germany. Earthquake at 
Smyrna. 

179 Coss. Imp. L. Aurelius Commodus Aug. II. 

P. Marcius Verus. 

Ez Kal. Jul. P. Helvius Pertinax (afterward 
Imp. Cass. Aug.). 
M. Didius Severus Julianus (after- 
ward Imp. Caes. Aug.). 
Aurelii 19. — Defeat of the Marcomanni. 

180 Coss. C. Bruttius Praesens. 

Sex. Quintilius Condianus. 
Death of M. Aurelius (set. 58) at Vindobona (Vienna) 

or Sirmium, March 17th. 
Commodus (aet. 19) emperor. Commodus makes 

peace with the Marcomanni and other barbarians, 

and returns to Rome. 

181 Coss. Imp. M. Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Aug. III. 

L. Antistius Burrus. 
Commodi 2. 

182 Coss Mamertinus. 

Rufus. 

Ex Kal. Jul. iEmilius Juncus. 

Atilius Severus. 

Commodi 3. 

183 Coss. Imp. M. Aurelius CommodusAntoninusAug.lv. 

C. Aufidius Victorinus II. 

Ex Kal. Febr. L. Tutilius Pontius Gentianus. 

Ex Kal. Mai. M. Herennius Secundus. 

M. Egnatius Postumus. 

T. Pactumeius Magnus. 

L. Septintius F 

Commodi 4. — Conspiracy of Lucilla, the .sister of 
Commodus, against the emperor, but it is sup- 
pressed. 

184 Coss. L. Cossonius Eggius Marullus. 

Cn. Papirius iElianus. 
Suf. C. Octavius Vindex. 
Commodi 5. — Ulpius Marcellus defeats the barbarians 
in Britain. 

1S5 Coss Maternus. 

Bradua. 

Commodi 6. — Death of Perennis. 
Birth of Origen. 

186 Coss. Imp. M. Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Aug. V. 

(M'. Acilius) Glabrio II 
Commodi 7. 

187 Coss Crispinus. 

iElianus. 

Commodi 8. 
183 Coss Fuscianus II. 

M. Servilius Silanus II. 
Commodi 9. — Birth of Caracalla. 

189 Coss. Junius Silanus. 

Servilius Silanu3. 
Commodi 10. — Death of Cleander. 

190 Coss. Imp. M. Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Aug. VI. 

M. Petronius Septimianus. 
Commodi 11. 

191 Coss. (Cass)ius Pedo Apronianus. 

M. Valerius Bradua (Mauricus). 
Commodi 12. — Fire at Rome. Commodus assumes 
the name of Hercules. 

192 Coss. Imp. L. JElius Aurelius Commodus Aug. VII. 

P. Helvius Pertinax II. 
Commodi 13. — Commodus (set. 31) slain on Decem- 
ber 21st. 



193 Coss. Q. Sosius Falco. 

C. Julius Erucius Clarus. 

Suf. Flavius Claudius Sulpicianua. 

L. Fabius Cilo Septimianus 
Suf. Kal. Mai. Silius Messala. 
Suf. Kal. Jul. MYms. 

Probus. 

Pertinax (aet. 66) emperor, reigned from January 
1st to March 28th, when he was slain. Thereupon 
the praetorian troops put up the empire to sale, 
which was purchased by M. Didius Salvius Julianus. 

Julianus (aet. 56) emperor, reigned from March 28rh 
to June 1st. 

ISeptimius Severus (aet. 46) is proclaimed emperor 
by the legions in Pannonia. He comes to Rome 
and is acknowledged as emperor by the senate. 
After remaining a short time at Piome he proceeds 
to the East, where the legions had declared Pescen- 
nius Niger emperor. Severus confers the title of 
Ceesar upon Clodius Albinus in Britain. 

194 Coss. Imp. Caes. L. Septimius Severus Augustus II. 

D. Clodius Albinus Caesar. 

Severi 2. — Defeat and death of Niger. Severus lays 
siege to Byzantium, which continues to hold out 
after the death of Niger. 

195 Coss. Scapula Tertullus. 

Tineius Clemens. 
Severi 3. — Siege of Byzantium continued. Severus 
crosses the Euphrates, and subdues the Mesopota- 
mian Arabians. 

196 Coss. C. Domitius Dexter II. 

L. Valerius Messala Thrasia Priscus. 
Severi 4. — Capture of Byzantium. Severus returns 
to Rome. He confers the title of Caesar upon his 
son Bassianus, whom he calls M. Aurelius Antoni- 
nus, but who is better known by his nickname Car- 
acalla. Severus proceeds to Gaul to oppose Albi- 
nus. 

197 Coss. Ap. Claudius Lateranus. 

Rufinus. 

Severi 5. — Albinus defeated and slain by Severus, 
February 19th. Severus proceeds to the East to 
carry on war against the Parthians. 

198 Coss Saturninus. 

Gallus. 

Severi 6. — Severus carries on the Parthian war with 
success : he takes Ctesiphon. Caracalla is declared 
Augustus, and his brother, L. Septimius Geta, Caa- 
sar. 

199 Coss. P. Cornelius Annulinus II. 

M. Aufidius Fronto. 
Severi 7. — Severus lays siege to Atra, but is repulsed. 

200 Coss. Ti. Claudius Severus. 

C. Aufidius Victorinus. 
Severi 8. — Severus continues in the East 

201 Coss. L. Annius Fabianus. 

M. Nonius Arrius Mucinus. 
Severi 9. — Severus continues in the East with Cara 
calla. Caracalla receives the toga virilis. 

202 Coss. Imp. Caes. L. Septim. Severus Aug. III. 

Imp. Caes. M. Aurel. Antoninus Aug. 
Severi 10.— Persecution of the Christians. Severus 
returns to Rome. He celebrates the Decennalia 
and the marriage of Caracalla and Plautilla 

203 Coss. C. Fulvius Plautianus II. 

P. Septimius Geta. 
Severi 11. — Plautianus slain. The arch of Severus, 
celebrating his victories, is dedicated in this year. 



1004 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



A.D. 

On gen (set. 18) teaches at Alexandrea. 

204 Coss. L. Fabius Cilo Septimianus II. 

M. Anniug Flavius Libo. 
Severi 12. — The Ludi Saeculares are celebrated. 

205 Coss. Imp. Cass. M. Aurel. Antoninus Aug. II. 

P. Septimius Geta Ceesar. 
Severi 13. 

206 Coss. M. Nurnmius Albinus. 

Fulvius /Emilianus. 
Severi 14. 

207 Coss Aper. 

. Maximus. 
Severi 15. — War in Britain. 
Tertullian publishes his work against Marcion. 

208 Coss. Imp. Cees. M. Aurelius Antoninus Aug. III. 

P. Septimius Geta Ceesar II. 
Severi 16. — Severus goes to Britain with his two sons 
Caracalla and Geta. 

209 Coss. Civica Pompeianus. 

Lollianus Avitus. 
Severi 17. — Severus invades Caledonia. Geta re- 
ceives the title of Augustus. 
Tertullian writes his treatise Do Pallio. 

210 Coss. M'. Acilius Faustinus. 

Triarius Rufinus. 
Severi 18. — The wall in Britain completed by Seve- 
rus. 

Papinian, the jurist and the prsefect of the praetorians, 
was with Severus in Britain. 

211 Coss. (Q. Hedius Rufus) Lollianus Gentianus. 

Pomponius Bassus. 
Death of Severus (set. 64) at Eboracum (York), Feb- 
ruary 4th. 

Caracalla (ast. 23) emperor ; but his brother Geta 
(a;t. 22) had been associated with him in the em- 
pire by their father. Caracalla and Geta return to 
Rome. 

Tertullian publishes his letter ad Scapulam. 

212 Coss. C. Julius Asper II. 

C. Julius Asper. 

Caracallse 2. — Geta murdered by his brother's orders. 
Papinian and many other distinguished men put to 
death. 

213 Coss. Imp. M. Aurelius Antoninus Aug. IV. 

D. Ccelius Balbinus II. 

Suf. (M. Antonius Gordianus (afterward Imp. 
Cees. Aug.). 
Helvius Pertinax.) 
Caracallea 3. — Caracalla goes to Gaul. 

214 Coss Messalla. 

Sabinus. 

Caracalla? 4. — Caracalla attacks the Alemanni, visits 
Dacia and Thracia, and winters at Nicomedia. 

215 Coss Leetus II. 

Cerealis. 

Caracallse 5. — Caracalla goes to Antioch and thence 
to Alexandrea. 

216 Coss. Vatius Sabinus II. 

Cornelius Anulinus. 
Caracallee 6. — Caracalla passes the Euphrates and 
makes war against the Parthians. Ho winters at 
Edessa. 

217 Coss. C. Bruttius Prasens. 

T. Messius Extricatus II. 

Caracalla (eet. 29) slain near Edessa, April 8th. 

Machinus (est. 53) emperor. He confers the title of 
Caesar upon his son Diadumenianus. He is de- 
feated by the Parthians, and purchases peace by the 



A.D. 

payment of a large sum of money. He then re- 
tires to Syria. 
Dion Cassius is at Rome at the time of Caracalla'a 
death. 

218 Coss. Imp. Cees. M. Opil. Sev. Mac. Aug. II. 

C. Oclatinus Adventus. 
Suf. Imp. Caas. M. Aurelius Antoninus (Ela- 
gabalus) Aug. 
Sedition of the army during their winter in Syria : a 
great part espouse the cause of Elagabalus. Ma- 
crinus is defeated near Antioch, June 8th, and is 
shortly afterward put to death. 
Elagabalus (ast. 14) emperor. He winters at Nico- 
media. 

Dion Cassius is governor of Pergamus and Smyrna. 

219 Coss. Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus (Elagabalus) 

Aug. II. 
Q. Tineius Sacerdos II. 
Elagabali 2. — Elagabalus comes to Rome. 

220 Coss. Imp. Cees. M. Aurel. Anton. (Elagabalus) Aug. 

III. 

P. Valerius Eutychianus Comazon II. 
Elagabali 3. 

221 Coss. Gratus Sabinianus 

Claudius Seleucus. 
Elagabali 4. — Elagabalus adopts and confers the title 
of Ceesar upon Bassianus Alexianus (eet. 13), better 
known by the name of Alexander Severus. 

222 Coss. Imp. Cees. M. Aurel. Anton. (Elagabalus) Aug. 

IV. 

M. Aurelius Alexander Cassar. 
Elagabalus (eet. 18^ slain March 11th. 
Alexander Sevekus emperor (set. 14) 
The jurists Ulpian and Paulus are among the coun. 
sellors of Alexander Severus. 

223 Coss. L. Marius Maximus II. 

L. Roscius jElianus. 
Alexandri 2. 

224 Coss. Claudius Julianus II. 

L. Bruttius Qninctius Crispinus. 
Alexandri 3. 

225 Coss Fuscus II. 

Dexter. 

Alexandri 4. 

226 Coss. Imp. Cees. M. Aur. Sev. Alex. Aug. II. 

. .' Marcellus II. 

Alexandri 5. — The Parthian empire overthrown by 

Artaxerxes (Ardishir), who founds the new Persian 

kingdom of the Sassanidee. 
Origen at Antioch. 

227 Coss Albinus. 

Maximus. 

Altxandri 6. 

228 Coss Modestus II. 

Probus. 

Alexandri 7. — Ulpian killed by the soldiers. 
Origen a presbyter. 

229 Coss. Imp. Cees. M. Aur. Sev. Alex. Aug. III. 

Cassius Dio II. 
Alexandri 8. 

Dion Cassius consul a second time : after his second 

consulship, he retired to Bithynia, 
Origen composes several works at Alexandrea. 

230 Coss. L. Virius Agricola. 

Sex. Catius Clementinus. 
Alexandri 9. 

231 Coss. . . . Claudius Pompeianus. 

T. Fl. . . . Pelignianus. 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



1005 



L.O. 

Alexandri 10. — Alexander marches against the Per- 
sians. 

Origen leaves Alexandrea and settles at Caesarea. 

232 Coss Lupus. 

Maximus. 

Alexandri 11. — Alexander defeats the Persians in Mes- 
opotamia, and returns to Antioch. 

Gregory of Neocaesarea is the disciple of Origen at 
Caesarea. 

233 Coss Maximus. 

Paternus. 

Alexandri 12.— Alexander returns to Rome and tri- 
umphs. 
Birth of Porphyry. 

234 Coss Maximus II. 

(C. Coelius) Urbanus. 
Alexandri 13. — Alexander carries on war against the 
Germans. 

235 Ooss Severus. 

Quinctianus. 

Alexander (set. 27) slain by the soldiers in Gaul, Feb- 
ruary 10th. His mother Mammaea slain along with 
him. 

Maximinus emperor. 

Origen writes his De Martyrio. 

236 Coss. Imp. Maximinus Pius Aug. 

....... Africanus. 

Maximini 2. — Maximinus defeats the Germans. 

237 Coss. (P. Titius) Perpetuus. 

(L. Ovinius Rusticus) Cornelianus. 
Suf. Junius Silanus. 

Messius Gallicanus. 
Maximini 3. — Maximinus again defeats the Germans 
and winters at Sirmium. 

238 Coss Pius. 

Proculus Pontianus. 
Suf. Ti. Claudius Julianus. 
. . Celsus JEliami*. 

Gobdianus I. and II., father and son, were proclaim- 
ed emperors in Africa, and are acknowledged by 
the senate : they were proclaimed in February and 
were slain in March. After their death, M. Clo- 
dius Pupienus Maximus and D. Caelius Balbinus 
are appointed emperors by the senate : they confer 
the title of Caesar upon Gurdianus, a grandson of 
Gordianus I. Maximinus hears of the elevation of 
the Gordians in his winter quarters at Sirmium, and 
forthwith marches toward Italy. When he reaches 
Hemona, about 240 miles from Sirmium, he hears 
of the elevation of Maximus and Balbinus. He 
reaches Aquileia (60 miles from Hemona), and is 
there slain by his soldiers, along with his son Maxi- 
mus, in April. Maximus, the emperor, was then at 
Ravenna: he returns to Rome, and is slain along 
with Balbinus, about the middle of June. The sol- 
diers proclaim 

Gobdianus III. emperor (aet. 12). 

239 Coss Imp. Caes. M. Antonius Gordianus (III.) Aug. 

M. Acilius Aviola. 
Gordiani 2. 

Philostratus flourished. 

240 Coss Sabinus II. 

Venustu's. 

Gordiani 3. — Sedition in Africa suppressed. 

241 Cos. Imp. Caes. M. Antonius Gordianus (III.) -Pius 

Fel. II. 

Gordiani 4. — Gordian marries the daughter of Misith- 
eus, and seta out to the East to carry on the war 



against the Persians. Sapor I. succeeds his father 
Artaxerxes as King of Persia. 

242 Coss. C. Vettius Atticus. 

C. Asinius Praetextatus. 
Gordiani 5. — Gordian, with the assistance of his fa- 
ther-in-law Misitheus, defeats the Persians. 
Plotinus is in Persia. 

243 Coss. L. Annius Arrianus. 

C. Cervonius Papus. 
Gordiani 6. — Death of Misitheus. 

244 Coss. (L. Armenius) Peregrinus. 

(A. Fulvius) jEmilianus. 
Gordian (aet. 18) is slain by the contrivance of Phil- 
ip, the praetorian praefect in Mesopotamia, in tbo 
spring. 

Philippus I. emperor. Philip confers the title of Cae- 
sar upon his son, the younger Philip, and returns to 
Rome. 

Plotinus is at Rome. 

245 Coss. Imp. Csssar M. Julius Philippus Augustus. 

. . . Junius Titianus. 
Philippi 2. — War with the Carpi, on the Danube. 

246 Coss Praesens. 

Albinus. 

Philippi 3. 

Origen (aet. 61) composes his work against Celsus 
about this time. 

247 Coss. Imp. Caesar M. Julius Philippus Augustus II. 

M. Julius Philippus Caesar. 
Philippi 4. — Philip bestows the rank of Augustus upon 
his son, the younger Philip. 

248 Coss. Imp. Caesar M. Julius Philippus (I.) Aug. III. 

Imp. Caesar M. Julius Philippus (II.) Aug. II. 
Philippi 5. — The Ludi Saeculares are celebrated. 
Cyprian is appointed Bishop of Carthage. 

249 Coss. (A. Fulvius) jEmilianus II. 

. . Junius Aquilinus. 
The two Philips are slain in September or October, 
at Verona. 

Decius emperor. He confers the title of Caesar upon 
his son Herennius Etruscus. 

250 Coss. Imp. Caesar C. Messius Quintus Trajanus De- 

cius Aug. II. 
Annius Maximus Gratus. 
Decii 2. — Great persecution against the Christians, in 
which Fabianus, bishop of Rome, perishes. 

251 Coss. Imp. Caesar C. Messius Quintus Trajanus De- 

cius Aug. III. 
Q. Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius Caesar. 
Decius carries on war against the Goths. He is slain 
in November, together with his son Herennius 
Etruscus. 

Gallus Trebonianus emperor. The title of Augus- 
tus is conferred upon Hostilianus, a younger soa 
of Decius. Gallus confers the title of Caesar upon 
his son Volusianus. 

252 Coss. Imp.Caes.CVibiusTrebonianusGallusAug.il, 

C. Vibius Volusianus Caesar. 
Galli 2. — Volusianus is elevated to the rank cf Augus- 
tus. Gallus returns to Rome. Commencoment of 
a great pestilence, which rages for 15 years. Death 
of Hostilianus. 

253 Coss. Imp. Caesar C. Vibius Volusianus Augustus IL 

M. Valerius Maximus. 
Galli 3. — ^Emilianus is proclaimed emperor in Moe- 
sia. Valebianus is proclaimed emperor in Raetia. 
Death of Origen (aet 68). 

254 Coss. Imp. Caes. P. Licinius Valeriauus Augustus II 



1006 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



IB. 

Imp. Caes. P. Licinius Gaiienus Augustus. 
iEmilianus marches into Italy. Gallus and Volusia- 
nus slain by tlicir own troops in February. jEmil- 
ianus slain by his own troops in May. Valerianus 
emperor. His son Gallienus is made Augustus. 

255 Coss. Imp. Caes. P. Licinius Valerianus Augustus III. 

Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Augustus II. 
Valeriani et Gallieni 3. — The barbarians begin to in- 
vade the empire on all sides. The Goths invade 
Illyricum and Macedonia. Gallienus is in Gaul. 

256 Coss. (M.) Valerius Maximus II. 

(M\ Acilius) Glabrio. 
Val. et Gallieni 4. — The Franks invade Spain. 

257 Coss. Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Valerianus Aug. IV. 

Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Aug. III. 
(Suf. a. d. XI. K. Jun. M. Ulpius Crinitus. 

L. Domitius Aurelia- 
nus (afterward Imp. 
Cass. Aug.). 

Val. et Gallieni 5. — Aurelian defeats the Goths. 
858 Coss. Memmius Tuscus. 

Bassus. 

Val. et Gallieni 6. — Valerian sets out for the East, to 
carry on war against the Persians. Persecution of 
the Christians. While the empire is invaded by the 
barbarians, and Valerian is engaged in the Persian 
war, the legions in different parts of the empire pro- 
claim their own generals emperors. These usurp- 
ers are known by the name of the Thirty Tyrants. 
Postumus is proclaimed emperor in Gaul. The 
Goths take Trapezus. 

Martyrdom of Cyprian. 

259 Coss jEmilianus. 

Bassus. 

Val. et Gallieni 7.— The Goths plunder Bithynia. 

260 Coss. P. Cornelius Saecularis II. 

. . Junius Donatus (II.). 
Val. et Gallieni 8. — Saloninus, the son of Valerian, put 
to death by Postumus. Valerian is taken prisoner 
by Sapor, the Persian king. The Persians are driv- 
en back by Odenathus, the ruler of Palmyra. In- 
genuus and Regalianus are proclaimed emperors. 

261 Coss. Imp. Csesar P. Licinius Gallienus Aug. IV. 

L. Petronius Taurus Volusianus. 
Gallieni 9. — Macrianus, Valens, and Calpurnius Piso 
are proclaimed emperors : the two latter are easily 
put down, but Macrianus marches from Syria to at- 
tack Gallienus. 

262 Coss. Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Aug. V. 

Faustinus. 

Gallieni 10. — Aureolus is proclaimed emperor: he de- 
feats and slays Macrianus, with his two sons, in Il- 
lyricum. The Goths ravage Greece and Asia Minor. 
The Persians take and plunder Antioch. 

263 Coss. Albinus II. 

Maximus Dexter. 
Gallieni 11. 

Porphyry is at Rome in this and the following year 

264 Coss. Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus Aug. VI. 

Saturninus. 

Gallieni 12. — Odenathus is declared Augustus. First 
council upon Paul of Samosata. 

265 Coss. P. Licinius Valerianus Valeriani Aug. f. II. 

(L. Caesonius) Lucillus (Macer Rufinianus.) 
Gallieni 13. — Postumus continues emperor in Gaul, 

and repels the barbarians : he associates Victorinus 

with him in the empire. 
Death of Dionysius of Alexandres. 



266 Coss. Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Gallienus VTL 

Sabinillus. 

Gallieni 14. • 

267 Coss Paternus. 

Arcesilaus. 

Gallieni 15. — Odenathus is slain, and is succeeded by 
his wife Zenobia, who governs with Vabalathus. 
Postumus is slain : many usurpers in succession 
assume the empire in Gaul : it is at last in posses- 
sion of Tetricus. 

26S Coss Paternus II. 

Marinianus. 

Gallienus slain in March by the arts of Aureoms. 
Claudius II., surnamed Gothicus, emperor. Aureo- 
lus slain. Claudius defeats the Alemanni. 
Porphyry retires to Sicily. 

269 Coss. Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Claudius Aug. II. 

....... Paternus. 

Claudii 2. — Claudius gains a great victory over the 
Goths. Zenobia invades Egypt. 

270 Coss Antiochianus. 

Orfitus. 

Claudius again defeats the Goths. Death of Clandius, 
at Sirmium, in the summer. Aurelian proclaimed 
emperor at Sirmium, and Quintillus, the brother 
of Claudius, at Rome. Quintillus puts an end to 
his own life. 

Aurelian emperor. He comes to Rome, and then 
proceeds to Pannonia, to repel the barbarians. Be- 
fore the end of the year he returns to Italy, to at- 
tack the Marcomanni and Alemanni, who are in 
Italy. 

Death of Plotinus in Campania. 
Paul of Samosata deposed. 

271 Coss. Imp. Caesar L. Domitius Aurelianus Aug. II. 

Ceiouius Virius Bassus II. 
Aureliani 2. — Aurelian defeats the Marcomanni and 
Alemanni in Italy. Aurelian returns to Rome, and 
begins to rebuild the walls. 

272 Coss Quietus. 

Voldumianus. 

Aureliani 3. — Aurelian goes to the East, and makes 
war upon Zenobia, whom he defeats and besieges 
in Palmyra. Hormisdas succeeds Sapor as King 
of Persia. 

Manes flourished. 

273 Coss. M. Claudius Tacitus (aftcncard Imp. Caesar 

Aug.). 
. . Placidiahus. 
Aureliani 4. — Aurelian takes Zenobia prisoner. He 
proceeds to Egypt, and puts down the revolt of 
Firmus. Varanes I. succeeds Hormisdas as King 
of Persia. 

Longinus put to death on the capture of Palmyra. 
2! 4 Coss. Imp. Caesar L. Domitius Aurelianus Aug. III. 
C. Julius Capitolinus. 
Aureliani 5. — Aurelian goes to Gaul to put down Tet- 
ricus, who had reigned there from the end of A.D. 
267. Submission of Tetricus. Aurelian returns to 
Rome and triumphs : both Zenobia and Tetricus 
adorn his triumph. Aurelian founds a temple to 
the Sun. 

275 Coss. Imp. Caesar L. Domitius Aurelianus Aug. IV. 
T. Nontus Marcellinus. 
Suf. Aurelius Gordianus. 

Vettius Cornificius Gordianus. 
Aurelian slain in March. After an interregnum of six 
months, M. Claudius Tacitus is proclaimed emperor 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



,007 



Tacitus emperor. 

276 Coss. Imp. Caesar M. Claudius Tacitus Aug. II. 

jEmilianua. 

Suf. .ffilius Scorpianus. 
Death of Tacitus. Florianus, the brother of Tacitus, 
is proclaimed emperor at Rome, and M. Aurelius 
Probus in the East. Florianus sets out to the East 
to oppose Probus, but is slain at Tarsus. 
Pbobus emperor. Varanes II. succeeds Varanes I. 
as King of Persia. 

277 Coss. Imp, Caesar M. Aurelius Probu3 Aug. 

M. Aurelius Paullinus. 
Probi 2. — Probus defeats the barbarians in Gaul. 

278 Coss. Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Probus Aug. II. 

Lupus. 

Probi 3. — Probus defeats the barbarians in niyricum. 

279 Coss. Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Probus Aug. III. 

Nonius Paternus II. 

Probi 4. — Probus reduces the Isaurians and the Blem- 
myes. Saturninus revolts in the East 

280 Coss Messalla. 

Gratus. 

Probi 5. — Saturninus is slain. Probus returns to 
Rome, and then proceeds to Gaul, where he puts 
down the revolt of Proculus and Bonosus, either in 
this year or the following. 

Cyrillus is^ Bishop of'Antioch. 

281 Coss. Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Probus Aug. IV. 

Tiberianus. 

Probi 6. 

282 Coss. Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Probus Aug. V. 

Victorinus. 

Probus is slain at Sirmium in September. 
Carets emperor. 

283 Coss. Imp. Caes. M. Aurelius Carus Aug. 

M. Aurelius Carinus Cari Aug. f. Csesar. 

Stif. M. Aurelius Numerianus Cari Aug. f. 
Caesar. 
Matronianus. 

Carinus and Numerianus, the sons of Carus, are as- 
sociated with their father in the empire. Carinus 
is sent into Gaul ; and Carus, with Numerianus, pro- 
ceeds to the East. Carus subdues the Sarmatians 
on his march from Sirmium to the East. Carus 
carries on the war against the Persians with suc- 
cess, but dies near Ctesiphon. 
£84 Coss. Imp. Caes. M. Aurelius Carinus Aug. II. 

Imp. Caes. M. Aurelius Numerianus Aug. II. 
Suf. C. Valerius Diocletianus (afterward, Imp. 
Aug.). 
Annius Bassus. 
{Suf. M. Aur. Valer. Maximianus [afterward 
Imp. Caes. Aug.] 
M. Junius Maximus,) 
Numerianus returns from Persia with the army, but 
is slain by Aper at Perinthus in the beginning of 
September. 
Diocletian emperor. 

285 Coss. Imp. Caes. C. Valerius Diocletianus Aug. II. 

Aristobulus. 

Diocletiani 2. — War between Diocletian and Carinus 
in Moesia. Carinus is slain. Diocletian winters at 
Nicomedia. 

286 Coss. M. Junius Maximus II. 

Vettius Aquilinus. 
Diocletiani 3. — Maximianus is declared Augustus on 
April 1st, and is sent by Diocletian into Gaul. Max- 
imianus defeats tfie barbarians in Gaul. 



287 Coss. Tmp. Caes. C. Val. Diocletianus Aug III. 

Imp. Caes. M. Aur. Val. Maximianus Aug. 
Diocletiani 4 : Maximiani 2. — Maximianus again de- 
feats the barbarians in Gaul. Carausius assumes 
the purple in Britain. 

288 Coss. Imp. Caes. M. Aur. Val. Maximianus Aug. II. 

Pomponius Januarius. 
Diocletiani 5 : Maximiani 3. — Preparations of Maxim 
ianus against Carausius. 

289 Coss. M. Macrius Bassus. 

L. Ragonius Quintianus. 
Diocletiani 6 : Maximiani 4. — Naval war between Ca- 
rausius and Maximianus. Carausius defeats Max- 
imianus. 

Mamertinus delivers his Panegyricus Maximiano. 

290 Coss. Imp. Caes. C. Valerius Diocletianus Aug. IV. 

Imp. Caes. M. Aur. Val. Maximianus Aug. III. 

Diocletiani 7 : Maximiani 5. — The emperors grant 
peace to Carausius 4 and allow him to retain inde- 
pendent sovereignty. 

Lactantius flourished in the reign of Diocletian. 

291 Coss Tiberianus II. 

Cassius Dio. 

Diocletiani 8 : Maximiani 6. — Diocletian and Maximi- 
anus have a conference at Milan. Maximianus cel- 
ebrates the CAuinquennalia. 

Mamertinus delivers the Genethliacus Maximiano. 

292 Coss Hannibalianus. 

Asclepiodotus. 

Diocletiani 9 : Maximiani 7. — Constantius Chlorus and 
Galerius are proclaimed Caesars ; and the govern- 
ment of the Roman world is divided between the 
two Augusti and the two Caesars. Diocletian had 
the government of the East, with Nicomedia as his 
residence : Maximianus, Italy and Africa, with Mi- 
lan as his residence : Constantius, Britain, Gaul, and 
Spain, with Treves as his residence : Galerius, Illyr- 
icum, and the whole line of the Danube, with Sir- 
mium as his residence. 

293 Coss. Imp. Caes. C. Valerius Diocletianus Aug. V. 

Imp. Caes. M. Aur. Val. Maximianus Aug. IV. 
Diocletiani 10 : Maximiani 8. — Carausius is slain by 
Allectus, who assumes the purple, and maintains 
the sovereignty in Britain for three years. Varanes 
III. succeeds Varanes II. as King of Persia, and is 
himself succeeded by Narses in the course of fho 
same year. 

294 Coss. Fl. Val. Constantius Caesar. 

Gal. Val. Maximianus Cassar. 
Diocletiani 11 : Maximiani 9. 

295 Coss Tuscus. 

Anulinus. 

Diocletiani 12 : Maximiani 10. — Defeat of the Carpi. 

296 Coss. Imp.- Caes. C. Valerius Diocletianus Aug. VI. 

Fl. Val. Constantius Caesar II. 
Diocletiani 13 : Maximiani 11. — Constantius reco^ era 
Britain. 

Arnobius published his work Adversus Genles. 

297 Coss. Imp. Caes. M. Aur. Val. Maximianus Aug. V. 

Gal. Val. Maximianus Caesar II. 

Diocletiani 14 : Maximiani 12. — Diocletian defeats 
Achilleus in Egypt. Maximianus defeats the Quin 
quegentiani in Africa. Galerius carries on war 
against the Persians unsuccessfully. 

Eumenius delivers the Panegyricus Conslantio 

298 Coss. Anicius Faustus (II.). 

Virius Gallus. 
Diocletiani 15 : Maximiani 13. — Galerius collects fresh 



AL TABLES OF 

A.D 



1008 CHRONOLOGIC 

A.D. 

forces and defeats the Persians in Armenia. Narseo 
concludes a peace with the Romans. 

299 Coss. Imp. Cebs. C. Valerius Diocletianus Aug. VII. 

Imp. Caes. M. Aur. Val. Maximianus Aug. VI. 
Diocletiani 16 : Maximiani 14. — Defeat of the Mareo- 
manni. 

Eumenius delivers his oration Pro Instaurandis 
Scholis. 

300 Coss. Fl. Val. Constantius Caesar III. 

Gal. Val. Maximianus Caesar III. 
Diocletiani 17 : Maximiani 15. 

301 Coss Titianus II. 

Nepotianus. 

Diocletiani 18 : Maximiani 16. — Hormisdas II. suc- 
ceeds Narses, king of Persia. 

302 Coss. Fl. Val. Constantius Caesar IV. 

Gal. Val. Maximianus Caesar IV. 
Diocletiani 19 : Maximiani 17. — Diocletian and Max- 
imianus triumph. 

303 Coss. Imp. Cass. C. Valerius Diocletianus Aug. VIIL 

Imp. Caes. M. Aur. Val. Maximianus Aug. VII. 
Diocletiani 20 : Maximiani 18.— Persecution of the 
Christians. Diocletian celebrates the Vicennalia at 
Rome. 

304 Coss. Imp. Caes. C. Valerius Diocletianus Aug. IX. 

Imp. Caes. M. Aur. Val. Maximianus Aug. VIII. 
Diocletiani 21 : Maximiani 19. — Diocletian enters upon 
his consulship at Ravenna on January 1st, and is at 
Nicomedia at the close of the year. 

305 Coss. Fl. Val. Constantius Caesar V. 

Gal. Val. Maximianus Caesar V 
Diocletian abdicates at Nicomedia on May 1st, and 
compels Maximianus to do the same. Constantius 
and Galerius, the Caesars, are declared Augusti ; and 
Severus and Maximums Daza are declared the 
Caesars. 

Constantius I. and Galerius emperors. 

306 Cas. Imp. Caes. Fl. Val. Constantius Aug. VI. 

Imp. Caes. Gal. Val. Maximianus Aug. VI. 
Suf. P. Cornelius Anulinus. 

Constantii 2 : Galerii 2. — Death of Constanti as at 
York, in Britain. Constantinus, who was in Brit- 
ain at the time, assumes the title of Caesar, and is 
acknowledged as Caesar by Galerius. Severus, 
the Caesar, was proclaimed Augustus by Galerius. 
Maxentius, the son of Maximianus, is proclaimed 
emperor by the prajtorian troops at Rome, but his 
authority is not recognized by the two Augusti and 
the two Caesars. The commencement of Constan. 
tine's reign is placed in this year, though he did not 
receive the title of Augustus till A.D. 308. 

Constantinus I. begins to reign.. 

Vopiscus publishes the life of Aurelian. 

307 Coss. M. Aur. Val. Maximianus IX. 

Fl. Val. Constantinus Caesar. 

Constantini 2 : Galerii 3. — Severus is defeated and 
slain by Maxentius in Italy. Galerius makes an un- 
successful attack upon Rome. 

Licinius is declared Augustus by Galerius. Galerius 
confers the title of Fiiii Augustorum upon Constan- 
tine and Maximimis. 

308 Coss. M. Aur. Val. Maximianus X. 

Imp. Cass. Gal. Val. Maximianus Aug. VII. 
Constantini 3 : Galerii 4 : Licinii 2. — Galerius de- 
clares Constantine and Maximinus Augusti. There 
are thus four Augusti : 1. Galerius. 2. Licinius. 
3. Constantine. 4. Maximinus, besides the usurper 
Maxentius. 



309 First year after consulship of M. Aur. Val. Maximia- 

nus X. 
Imp. C. G. V. Maximi- 
anus Aug. VII. 
Constantini 4 : Galerii 5 : Licinii 3. — Sapor U. suo- 
ceeds Hormisdas II. as King of Persia. 

310 Second year after consulship of M. Aur. Val. Maximi- 

anus X. 
Imp. C. G. V. Maxim, 
ianus Aug. VII. ' 
Constantini 5 : Galerii 6 : Licinii 4. — Maximianus, the 
colleague of Diocletian, is put to death at Massilia. 
Euraenii Panegyricus Constantino. 

311 Coss. Imp. Caes. Gal. Val. Maximianus Aug. VIII. 

(Imp. Caes. Val. Licinianus Licinius Aug.) 

Constantini 6 : Licinii 5. — Edict to stop the persecu- 
tion of the Christians. Death of Galerius. Licinius 
and Maximinus divide the East between them. 

Eumenii Gratiarum Actio Constantino. 

312 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Val. Constantinus Aug. II. 

Imp. CasH. Val. Licinianus Licinius Aug. II. 

Constantini 7 : Licinii 6. — War of Constantine and 
Maxentius. Constantine marches into Italy. Max- 
entius is finally defeated at Saxa Rubra, not far from 
the Cremera, and perishes in his flight, in the Tiber, 
Oct. 27. . The Jndictions commence Sept. 1st. 

Iamblichus flourished. 

313 Coss. Imp. Cass. F). Val. Constantinus Aug. III. 

Imp. Caes. Val. Licinianus Licinius Aug. III. 
Constantini 8 : Licinii 7. — Constantine and Licinius 
meet at Milan ; Licinius marries Constantia, the 
sister of Constantine. War between Licinius and 
Maximinus : the latter is defeated at Heraclea on 
April 30th, and dies a few months afterward at Tar- 
sus. Constantine and Licinius thus become the 
sole Augusti. Edict in favor of the Christians 
Death of Diocletian. 

314 Coss. C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus II. 

Annianus. 

Constantini 9 : Licinii 8. — War between Constantine 
and Licinius. Licinius is defeated first at Cibalis in 
Pannonia, and afterward at Adrianople. Peace is then 
concluded on condition that Licinius should resign 
to Constantine Illyricum, Macedonia, and Achaia. 

315 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Val. Constantinus Aug. IV. 

Imp. Caes. Val. Licinianus Licinius Aug. IV. 
Constantini 10 : Licinii 9. 

316 Coss Sabinus. 

Rufinus. 

Constantini 11 : Licinii 1 

317 Coss. Gallicanus. 

Bassus. 

Constantini 12 : Licinii 11. — The rank of Caesar is con. 
ferred upon Crispus and Constantine, the sons of 
the Emperor Constantine, and upon Licinius, the 
son of the Emperor Licinius. 

318 Coss. Imp. Caes. Val. Licinianus Licinius Aug. V. 

Fl. Jul. Crispus Caesar. 
Constantini 13 : Licinii 12. 

319 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Val. Constantinus Aug. V. 

Fl. Val. Licinianus Licinius Cajsar. 
Constantini 14 : Licinii 13. 

320 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Val. Constantinus Aug. VI. 

Fl. CI. Constantinus Caesar. 
Constantini 15: Licinii 14. — Crispus defeats the Franta 
in Gaul. 

321 Coss. Fl. Jul. Crispus Ca»sar II. 

Fl. CI. Constantinus Caesar 11 



I 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



1009 



Constantini 16 : Lieinii 15. 

Nazarii Panegyrious Constantino. 
3iS Coss. Petronius Probianus. 
Anicius Julianus. 
Constantini 17 : Lieinii 16. — Constantine defeats the 
Sarmatians, and pursues them across the Danube. 
823 Coss. Acilius Severus. 

Vettius Rufinus. 
Constantini 18. — War between Constantine and Li- 
cinius. Constantine defeats Licinius near Adriano- 
ple on July 3d, and again at Chalcedon on Septem- 
ber 18th. Licinius surrenders himself to Constan- 
tine. Constantius, the son of Constantine, is ap- 
pointed Caesar November 8th. Constantine is now 
sole Augustus, and his three sons, Crispus, Con- 
stantine, and Constantius, are Caesars. 

324 Coss. Fl. Jul. Crispus Coesar lit. 

Fl. CI. Constantinus Caesar III. 
Constantini 19.' — Licinius is put to death by command 
of Constantine. 

325 Coss Faullinus. 

Julianus. 

Constantini 20.— The Vicennalia of Constantine. The 
Christian council of Nicaea (Nice) : it is attended 
by 318 bishops, and adopts the word bnaoioiov. 

326 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Val. Constantinus Aug. VII. 

Fl. Jul. Constantinus Caesar. 
Constantini 21. — Constantine celebrates the Vicenna- 
lia at Rome. Crispus and the younger Licinius 
are put to death. Constantine leaves Rome, and 
never returns to it again. 

327 Coss Constantinus. 

Maximus. 

Constantini 22. — Death of Fausta. Constantine founds 
Helenopolis, in honor of his mother Helena. 

328 Coss Januarinus. 

Justus. 

Constantini 23. 

Libanius (ast. 14) is at Antioch. 

329 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Val. Constantinus Aug. VIII. 

Fl. CI. Constantinus Caesar IV. 
Constantini 24. 

330 Coss Gallicanus. 

Symmachus. 

Constantini 25. — Dedication of Constantinople, which 
Cop stantine makes the capital of his empire. 

331 Coss (Annius) Bassus. 

Ablavius. 

C' .nstantim 26. — Birth of Julian. 
Lirfh of Hieronymus (St. Jerome). 

332 Coss Pacatianus. 

Hilarianus. 

Constantini 27. — War with the Goths : they are de- 
feated by Constantine Caesar. 
.333 Coss. Fl. Jul. Delmatius (afteraard Caesar). 

Zenophilus. 

Constantini 28. — Constans, the son of Constantine, is 
made Caesar. Famine and pestilence in Syria. 

334 Coss. L. Ranius Acontius Optatus. 

Anicius Paullinus. 
Constantini 29.— The Sarmatians receive settlements 
in the empire. Calocaerus, a usurper in Cyprus, is 
slain by Delmatius. 

335 Coss. Julius Constantius. 

Ceionius Rufus Albinus. 
Constantini 30. — The Tricennalia of Constantine. 
Delmatius or Dalmatius, and Hanniballianus, the 
nephews of the emperor, are made Caesars. A 
fi4 



fresh distribution of the provinces made among 

the five Caesars. 
Athanasius, bishop of Alexandrea, is deposed by tha 
council at Tyre, and goes into exile. 

336 Coss. Fl. Popillius Nepotianus. 

Facundus. 

Constantini 31. — Marriage of Constantius. 

337 Coss Felicianus. 

T. Fabius Titianus. 
Death of Constantine in May : he is baptized before 
his death by Eusebius of Nicomedia. He was at 
the time making preparations for war with the 
Persians. 

Constantinus II., Constantius II., and Constans 
are declared Augusti. The Caesars Delmatius and 
Hanniballianus, and the other relations of the late 
emperor, are put to death. 

338 Coss Ursus. 

Polemius. 

Constantini II., Constanta II., Constantis 2. — Constan- 
tius carries on the war against the Persians. First 
siege of Nisibis by the Persians. 

Athanasius returns from exile. 

339 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Jul. Constantius Aug. II. 

Imp. Caes. Fl. Jul. Constans Aug. 
Constantini II., Constantii II., Constantis 3. — Constan- 
tius carries on the war against the Persians. Con- 
stantine is at Treves, and Constans at Sirmium 

340 Coss Acindynus. 

L. Aradius Val. Proculus. 

Constantii II., Constantis 4. — War between Consfrm- 
tine II. and Constans. Constantine II. is defeated 
and slain : Constans, in consequence, becomes sale 
emperor of the West. 

Acacius succeeds Eusebius as Bishop of Caesarea. 

341 Coss. Antonius Marcellinus. 

Petronius Probinus. 
Constantii II., Constantis 5. — Constans carries or war 
against the Franks. A law against pagan sacrifices 
promulgated. Arian synod of Antioch. Athanasius 
is deposed by the synod of Antioch: he goes to 
Rome, and is protected by Constans. 

342 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Jul. Constantius Aug. III. 

Imp. Caes. Fl. Jul. Constans Aug. II. 
Constantii II., Constantis 6. — Constans defeats the 
Franks. Sedition at Constantinople. 

343 Coss. M. Maecius Memmius Furius Placidus. 

(Fl. Pisidius) Romulus. 

Constantii II., Constantis 7. — Constans, in Britain, car- 
ries on war against the Picts and Scots. 

Firmicus Matemus addresses his work Ve Errort 
Profanarum Religionum to Constantius and Con- 
stans. 

344 Coss Leontius. 

Sallustius. 

Constantii II., Constantis 8. — Earthquake in Pontus 

345 Coss Amantius. 

Albinus. 

Constantii II., Constantis 9.— Earthquakes in Greece 
and Italy. 

346 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Jul. Constantius Aug. IV. 

Imp. Caes. Fl. Jul. Constans Aug. III. 
Constantii II., Constantis 10. — Second siege of Nisibi» 

by the Persians. 
Libanius is at Nicomedia. 

347 Coss Rufinus. 

Eusebius. 

Constantii II., Constantis 11.— Council of Sardics, 



1010 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



which pronounced the Council of Nice to be suffi- 
cient. 

Athanasius restored by the Council of Sardica. 
Themistius's oration 7repi <f>i\avdpu-ias- 
3-lS Coss. Fl. Philippus. 
Fl. Salia. 

Constantii II., Constantis 12.— The Persians invade 

Mesopotamia : battle of Singara. 
Prudentius born. 

M9 Coss Limenius. 

Aco Catulinus. 
Constantii II., Constantis 13. 

Libanius's Panegyric upon Constantius and Constans. 

Athanasius returns to Alexandrea. 

330 Coss Sergius. 

Nigrinianus. 

Constantii II. 14. — Death of Constans at Helena. 

Magnentius assumes the purple at Augustodunum 
(Autun), in Gaul, Nepotianus at Rome, and Vara- 
nio at Mursa, in Pannonia. Nepotianus is slain in 
28 days after his elevation. Constantius marches 
to the West, and deposes Vetranio in December, 10 
months after his elevation. Third siege of Nisibis 
by the Persians during the absence of Constantius 
in the West. 

351 Coss. Magnentius Aug. 

Gaiso. 

Constantii II. 15. — Constantius appoints his cousin 
Gallus Caesar, and Eends him to the East to conduct 
the war against the Persians. Magnentius appoints 
his brother Decentius Caesar. War between Con- 
stantius and Magnentius. Constantius defeats Mag- 
nentius at the battle of Mursa. Julian abandons 
Christianity. 

352 Coss. Decentius Caas. 

Paullus. 

Constantii II. 16. — Constantius drives Magnentius into 
Gaul. Revolt of the Jews. 

353 Coss. Imp. Css. Fl. Jul. Constantius Aug. VI. 

Fl. Jul. Constantius Gallus Caesar II. 

Constantii II. 17. — Magnentius is defeated by Constan- 
tius in Gaul, and puts an end to his own life. Mar- 
riage of Constantius and Eusebia. Gallus acts with 
cruelty at Antioch. 

Ammianus Marcellinus in the East with Ursicinus. 

Libanius is at Antioch. 

354 Coss. Imp. Cses. Fl. Jul. Constantius Aug. VII. 

Fl. Jul. Constantius Gallus Caesar III. 

Constantii II. 18. — Constantius is in Gaul in the early 
part of the year, and winters at Milan. By his or- 
ders Gallus is put to death at Pola, in Istria. 

Ammianus Marcellinus is at Milan. 

Birth of Augustine. 

355 Coss. Fl. Arbitio. 

Fl. Lollianus. 

Constantii II. 19. — Silvanus assumes the purple in 
Gaul, but is slain. Julian is declared Csesar, and 
appointed to the command of Gaul. Synod of Mi- 
lan, by which Athanasius is condemned. 

Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil of Caesarea study at 
Athens together. 

356 Coss. Imp. Cees. Fl. Jul. Constantius Aug. VIIL 

Fl. CI. Julianus Caesar. 
Constantii II. 20.— First campaign of Julian in Gaul. 
Athanasius is expelled from Alexandrea, and retires 
to the desert. 
337 Coss. Imp. Cses. Fl. Jul. Constantius Aug. IX. 
Fl. CI. Julianus Catsar II. 



A.D. 

Constantii n. 21. — Second campaign of Julian : ae de- 
feats the Alemanni, and crosses the Rhine. Con- 
stantius visits Rome. 
Ammianus Marcellinus is at Sirmium. 

358 Coss Datianus. 

Neratius Cerealis. 

Constantii II. 22. — Third campaign of Julian : he de- 
feats the Franks, and again crosses the Rhine. Con- 
Etantius crosses the Danube, and carries on war 
against the Quadi. Earthquake at Nicomedia 
Aurelius Victor flourished. 

359 Coss. Fl. Eusebius. 
Fl. Hypatius. 

Constantii II. 23. — Fourth campaign of Julian: ho 
crosses the Rhine a third time, and lays waste the 
country of the Alemanni : he winters at Paris. Sa- 
por invades Mesopotamia, and takes Amida after n 
long siege. Synods of Ariminum and Seleucia. 
Ammianus Marcellinus serves in the war against Sa- 
por. 

360 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Jul. Constantius Aug. X. 
Fl. CI. Julianus Caesar III. 

Constantii II. 24. — Julian is proclaimed Augustus by 
the soldiers at Paris. Constantius winters at Con- 
stantinople, and carries on war in person against 
Sapor. Successes of the Persians, who take Sin- 
gara. Constantius winters at Antioch. 

361 Coss. Fl. Taurus. 
Fl. Florentius. 

Preparations for war between Constantius and Julian. 
Constantius sets out for Europe, but dies on his 
march in Cilicia. Julian meantime had moved 
down the Danube to Sirmium, and heard of the 
death of Constantius before reaching Constantinople. 
Julianus emperor. 
Aurelius Victor still alive. 

362 Coss. CI. Mamertinus. 
Fl. Nevitta. 

Juliani 2. — Julian spends the first part of the year at 
Constantinople and then sets out for Antioch, where 
he winters. He favors the pagans. 
Julian wrote his Casares and many of his other works 

in this year. 
Libanius is patronized by Julian. 
Athanasius, who had returned to Alexandrea, is driven 
out again by Julian. 

363 Coss. Imp. Cees. Fl. CI. Julianus Aug. IV. 
Fl. Sallustius. 

Julian attempts to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem. 
He sets out from Antioch against the Persians, en- 
ters Mesopotamia, takes several towns, crosses the 
Tigris, but is obliged to retreat through want of 
provisions : in his retreat he is slain. 
Jovian emperor. He is compelled to conclude a dis- 
graceful peace with the Persians : he winters at 
Ancyra. 

Athanasius is restored by Jovian. 

364 Coss. Imp. Cees. Fl. Jovianus Aug. 
Fl. Varronianus Joviani Aug. f. N. P 

Jovian dies in February. 

Valentinian I. is proclaimed emperor on February 
6tb. He associates his brother Valens with him 
in the empire. Valentinian undertakes the govern- 
ment of the West and gives to Valens the East 
Eutropius concludes his history. 

365 Coss. Imp. C«e6. Fl. Valentinianus Aug. 
Imp. Caes. Fl. Valens Aug. 

Valentiniani I., Valentis 2. — Valentinian sets out for 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



1011 



Gaul to repel the Alemanni. Revolt of Procopius 
in the East. "War between Valens and Procopius. 
Libanius (set. 51) composes his Funeral Oration on 
Julian. 

366 Coss. Fl. Gratianus Valentiniani Aug. f. N. P. 

Dagalaiphus. 

Valentiniani I., Valentis 3. — The Alemanni are defeat- 
ed in Gaul. Procopius is defeated and slain. 
Apollinarius, the heretic, flourished. 

367 Coss. Fl. Lupicinus. 

Fl. Jovinus. 

Valentiniani I., Valentis 4. — Valens carries on war 
against the Goths. In Britain Theodosius defeats 
the Picts and Scots. Gratianus, the son of Valen- 
tinian, is declared Augustus. 

368 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Valentinianus Aug. II. 

Imp. Caes. Fl. Valens Aug. II. 
Valentiniani I., Valentis 5 : Gratiani 2.— Second cam- 
paign of the Gothic war. The Alemanni take and 
plunder Moguntiacum. Valentinian crosses the 
Rhine and defeats the Alemanni. 

369 Coss. Fl. Valentinianus Valentiniani Aug. f. N. P. 

Victor. 

Valentiniani I., Valentis 6: Gratiani 3. — Third cam- 
paign of the Gothic war. Valentinian fortifies the 
Rhine. ' 

370 Coss. Imp. Cms. Fl. Valentinianus Aug. III. 

Imp. Caes. Fl. Valens Aug. III. 
Valentiniani I., Valentis 7 : Gratiani 4. — Valens con- 
cludes a peace with the Goths. Irruption of the 
Saxons : they are routed by Severus. 

371 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Gratianus Aug. II. 

Sex. Anicius Petronius Probus. 
Valentiniani I., Valentis 8: Gratiani 5. — Valentinian 
passes the Rhine. 

372 Coss. Fl. Domitius Modestus. 

Fl. Arintheus. 
Valentiniani I., Valentis 9 : Gratiani 6. — Revolt of 
Firmus in Mauretania. 

373 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Valentinianus Aug. IV. 

Imp. Caes. Fl. Valens Aug. IV. 
Valentiniani I., Valentis 10 : Gratiani 7. — Theodosius 

sent against Firmus. 
Death of Athanasius on May 2d. 
574 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Gratianus Aug. III. 
C. Equitius Valens. 
Valentiniani I., Valentis 11 : Gratiani 8. — The Quadi 
and Sarmatians invade Pannonia. Murder of Para, 
king of Armenia, by order of Valens. 
375 Coss. Post Consulalum Gratiani III. 

Equitii. 

Valentiniani I., Valentis 12 : Gratiani 9. — Valentinian 
goes to Carnnntum and represses the barbarians. 
He dies at Bregetio November 17th. 
Valentinian II., the younger son of Valentinian I., 

is proclaimed Augustus. 
Ambrosius bishop of Milan. 
Epiphanius writes Ylepi a'lpiotwv. 
176 Coss. Imp. Caes. Fl. Valens Aug. V. 

Imp. Caes. Fl. Valentinianus (II.) Aug. 
Valentis 13 : Gratiani 10 : Valentiniani II. 2. — The 
Huns expel the Goths. The Goths cross the Dan- 
ube, and are allowed by Valens to settle in Thrace. 
Theodosius slain at Carthage. 
377 Coss. Imp. Cajs. Fl. Gratianus Aug. IV. 
Fl. Merobaudes. 
Valentis 14 : Gratiani 11 : Valentiniani 'I. 3 — The 
Goths rebel : war with the Goths. 



378 Coss. Imp. Fl. Valens Aug. V. 

Imp. Fl. Valentinianus (II.) Aug. II. 
Valentis 15 : Gratiani 12 : Valentiniani II. 4. — The 
Goths defeat the Romans with immense slaughter 
near Adrianople : Valens falls in the battle. Gra- 
tian had previously defeated the Leutienses Ale- 
manni at Argentaria, and was advancing to the as- 
sistance of Valens, when he heard of the death of 
the latter. 

Ammianus Marcellinus concludes his history. 
The Chronicon of Hieronymus ends at the death of 
Valens. 

379 Coss. D. Magnus Ausonius. 

Q. Clodius Hermogenianus Olybrius. 
Gratiani 13 : Valentiniani II. 5 : Theodosii I. 1. 
Theodosius I. is proclaimed Augustus by Gratianus, 
. and placed over the East. Theodosius defeats the 
Goths. The Lombards appear. Artaxerxes suc- 
ceeds Sapor II. as king of the Persians. 
Ausonius returns thanks to Gratian, who had appoint- 
ed him consul (ad Gratianum gratiarum actio pro 
consulatu). 

380 Coss. Imp. Fl. Gratianus Aug. V. 

Imp. Fl. Theodosius (I.) Aug. 

Gratiani 14 : Valentiniani II. 6 : Theodosii I. 2.— The- 
odosius again defeats the Goths. He expels the 
Arians from the churches, and is zealous for the 
Catholic faith. 

Death of Basil of Caesarea. 

381 Coss. Fl. Syagrius. 

Fl. Eucherius. 

Gratiani 15 : Valentiniani II. 7 : Theodosii I. 3. — Death 
of Athanaric, king of the Visigoths. Council of 
Constantinople. 

Gregory of Nazianzus is declared bishop of Constan- 
tinople : he withdraws into retirement, and Neeta- 
rius is chosen in his stead. 

382 Coss. Antonius. 

Afranius Syagrius. 
Gratiani 16 : Valentiniani II. 8 : Theodosii I. 4. — 

Peace with the Goths. Alaric begins to reign. 
Ausonius brought down his Fasti to the consuls of 

this year. 

383 Coss. Fl. Merobaudes II. 

Fl. Saturninus. 
Valentiniani II. 9 : Theodosii I. 5. — Arcadius is pro- 
claimed Augustus by his father Theodosius. Re- 
volt of Maximus in Britain. War between Gratia- 
nus and Maximus in Gaul. Gratianus is slain. 
Theodosius makes a peace with Maximus, by which 
Maximus is acknowledged emperor of Spain, Gaul, 
and Britain, and Valentinian is secured in the pos- 
session of Italy and Africa. Accession of Sapor III., 
king of Persia. 

384 Coss. Fl. Ricomer. 

Fl. Clearchus. 
Valentiniani II. 10 : Theodosii I. 6.— Birth of Hona- 
rius, the son of Theodosius. Treaty with Persia. 
Symmachus, prarfect of the city, addresses the em- 
perors, urging them to replace the altar of Victory 
in the senate ; but is opposed by Ambrose, 

385 Coss. Imp. Fl. Arcadius Aug. 

Bauto. 

Valentiniani II. 11 : Theodosii I. 7. — Sacrifices pro 

hibited in the East by a law of Theodosius. 
Augustine is at Milan. 

386 Coss. Fl. Honorius Theodosii Aug. t. N. P. 

Euodius. 



013 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



i.D. 

Valentiniani II. 12 : Theodosii I. 8.— The Greothingi 
conquered on the Danube, and transplanted to 
Phrygia. 

Hieronymus (St. Jerome) visits Egypt and returns to 

Bethlehem. 
Chrysostom a presbyter. 
187 Coss. Imp. Fl. Valentinianus (II.) Aug. III. 
Eutropius. 

Valentiniani II. 13 : Theodosii I. 9. — Sedition at Anti- 
och. Valentinian is expelled from Italy by Max- 
imus. Theodosius prepares for war with Maximus. 
The orations of Libanius and Chrysostom respecting 
the riots at Antioch. 
388 Coss. Imp. Fl. Theodosius (I.) Aug. II. 
Cynegius. 

Valentiniani II. 14 : Theodosii I. 10. — War between 
Theodosius and Maximus. Maximus is slain at Aqui- 
leia : his son Victor is slain in Gaul by Arbogastes, 
the general of Theodosius. Theodosius winters at 
Milan. Accession of Varanes IV., king of Persia. 
'389 Coss. FL Timasius. 

Fl. Promotus. 

Valentiniani II. 15 : Theodosii I. 11. — Theodosius 
visits Rome. He winters at Milan. 

Drepanius delivers his Panegyricus at Rome in the 
pi'esence of Theodosius. 

390 Coss. Imp. Fl. Valentinianus (II.) Aug. IV. 

Neoterius. 

Valentiniani II. 16: Theodosii I. 12. — Massacre at 
Thessalonica by order of Theodosius : he is in con- 
sequence excluded from the church -at Milan by 
Ambrose for eight months. The temple of Serapis 
at Alexandrea is destroyed. 

Death of Gregory of Nazianzus. 

391 Coss. Tatianus. 

Q. Aurelius Symmachus. 
Valentiniani II. 17 : Theodosii I. 13. — Theodosius re- 
turns to Constantinople. 

392 Coss. Imp. Fl. Arcadius Aug. IL 

Fl. Rufinus. 

Theodosii 1. 14. — Valentinian II. is slain by Arbogastes, 

who raises Eugenius to the empire of the West. 
Hieronymus writes his work De Viris Illuslribus. 

393 Coss. Imp. Fl. Theodosius (I.) Aug. III. 

Abundantius. 

Theodosii I. 15. — Honorius is proclaimed Augustus 
by his father Theodosius. Preparations for war 
between Theodosius and Eugenius. 

Hieronymus (St. Jerome) publishes his work In Jo 

vianum. 

394 Coss. Imp. Fl. Arcadius Aug. III. 

Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. II. 
Theodosii 1. 16. — War between Theodosius and Eu- 
genius. Victory of Theodosius near Aquileia : Eu- 
genius is slain, and Arbogastes kills himself two days 
after the battle. 

395 Coss. Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius. 

Anicius Probinus. 

Death of Theodosius at Milan. 

Arcadius (aet. 18) and Honorius (eet. 11) emperors : 
Arcadius of the East, and Honorius of the West. 
Honorius is committed to the care of Stilicho. 
Marriage of Arcadius. Arcadius is at first governed 
by Rufinus, who is slain in November, and then by 
Eutropius. Alaric ravages Thrace and the north 
of Greece. Stilicho crosses the Alps to attack him. 

Claudian, the poet, flourished. 

Socrates, the ecclesiastical historian, flourished. I 



396 Coss. Imp. Fl. Arcadius Aug. IV. 

Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. III. 
Arcadii et Honorii 2. — Alaric ravages the south »f 

Greece. Stilicho's second expedition against Alaric. 
Claudian's De III. Consulatu Honorii Aug. and In 

Rujinum. Hieronymus (St. Jerome) continues to 

write. 

397 Coss. Fl. Cffisarius. 

Nonius Atticus. 
Arcadii et Honorii 3.— Revolt of Gildo in Africa, and 

consequent scarcity of food at Rome. Birth of 

Flacilla, the daughter of Arcadius. 
Symmachus writes (Ep., St., 4) to Stilicho. 
Death of Ambrose. 

Hieronymus (St. Jerome) continues to write. 

398 Coss. Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. IV. 

Fl. Eutychianus. 
Arcadii et Honorii 4. — Marriage of Honoiins with 
Marin, the daughter of Stilicho. Defeat and death 
of Gildo. 

Claudian's De IV. Consulatu Honorii Aug., Epithala- 
mium Honorii Aug. et Maria, De Bella Gildonico. 

Chrysostom succeeds Nestorius as bishop of Con- 
stantinople. 

399 Coss. Eutropius. Slain in office. 

FL Mallius Theodorus. 

Arcadii et Honorii 5. — Birth of Pulcheria, the second 
daughter of Arcadius. Tribigildus ravages Phrygia. 
Fall of Eutropius in his own consulship : he is first 
banished to Cyprus, and then recalled and put to 
death at Chalcedon. Accession of Yezdijird I., 
king of Persia. 

Claudian's In Fl. Mallii Theodori consulatum and In 
Eutropium. 

400 Coss. Fl. Stilicho. 

Aurelianus. 

Arcadii et Honorii 6.— Revolt of Gainas : he is de. 

feated, and retires beyond the Danube. 
Claudian's In Primum Consulatum Fl. Stilichonis. 
Sulpicius Severus flourished 

401 Coss. Fl. Vincentius. 

Fl. Fravitta. 

Arcadii et Honorii 7. — Gainas is slain in Thrace, and 
his head is brought to Constantinople. Birth of 
Theodosius II., the son of Arcadius. 

402 Coss. Imp. Fl. Arcadius Aug. V. 

Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. V. 
Arcadii et Honorii 8. — Alaric invades Italy. 
Hieronymus writes Adv. Rujinum, and other works. 

403 Coss. Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. 

Fl. Rumoridus. 
Arcadii et Honorii 9.— Battle of Pollentia, and retreat 

of Alaric. 
Claudian's De Bella Getico. 
Prudentius writes In Symmackum. 
Chrysostom is banished by means of Eudoxia: a tu 

mult followed, and he is recalled. 

404 Coss. Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. VI. 

Arista?netus. 

Arcadii et Honorii 10. — Ravages of the Isanrinns. 

Death of Eudoxia. 
Claudian's De VI. Consulatu Honorii Aug. 
Chrysostom is banished a second time. 

405 Coss. Fl. Stilicho II. 

Anthemius. 

Arcadii et Honorii 11. — The ravages of the Isauriani 
continue. Radagaisus invades Italy, but is defeated 
by Stilicho. 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



1013 



JL.D. 

Chrysostom is in exile at Cucusus. 
406 Coss. Imp. Fl. Arcadius Aug. VI. 

Anicius Petrotiius Probus. 
Arcadii et Honorii 12. — The ravages of the Isaurians 

continue. The Vandals enter Gaul. 
Chrysostom is in exile at Arabissus. 
Hieronymus writes Adversus Vigilantium. 
•107 Coss. Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. VII. 

Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. II. 
Arcadii et Honorii 13. — The ravages of the Isaurians 
continue. Revolt of Coustantine in Britain. Death 
of Chrysostom on his way from Arabissus to Pityus. 
408 Coss. Anicius Bassus. 
Fl. Philippus. 
Honorii 15 : Theodosii II. 1. — Death of Arcadius and 
accession of Theodosius II. (a3t. 7). Stilicho is 
slain at Ravenna. Alaric invades Italy and besieges 
Rome : he retires on the payment of a large sum 
of money. 
499 Coss. Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. VIII. 

Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. III. 
Honorii 15 : Theodosii II. 2. — Alaric besieges Rome 
a second time, and by his influence Attalus is 
proclaimed emperor in place of Honorius. Pla- 
cidia, the daughter of Theodosius I., is taken pris- 
oner by Alaric. Revolt of Gerontius in Spain : he 
proclaims Maximus emperor. The Vandals invade 
Spain. 

410 Coss. Fl. Varanes. 

(Tertullus). 

Honorii 16 : Theodosii II. 3. — Attalus is deposed. 
Alaric besieges Rome a third time, which he takes 
and plunders. Death of Alaric near Rhegium, on 
his way to Sicily. He is succeeded by Ataulphus. 
The history of Zosimus ends. 
, Birth of Proclus. 

411 Cos. Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. IV. (without col- 

league). 

Honorii 17: Theodosii II. 4. — War between the usurp- 
ers Constantine and Gerontius. Expedition of Con- 
stant! us, the general of Honorius, against Constan- 
tine and Gerontius. Death of Constantine and Ge- 
rontius. 

412 Coss. Imp. FL Honorius Aug. IX. 

Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. V. 
Honoiii 18 : Theodosii II. 5. — Jovinus is proclaimed 

emperor in Gaul. Ataulphus makes peace with 

Honorius and enters Gaul. 
Cyril succeeds Theophilus at Alexandrea. 

413 Coss. Lucius. 

Heraclianus. Slain in office. 
Honorii 19 : Theodosii II. 6. — Jovinus is slain in Gaul 
by Ataulphus. Heraclianus revolts in Africa and 
invades Italy, but is defeated and slain 

414 Coss. Fl. Constantius. 

Fl. Constans. 

Honorii 20 : Theodosii II. 7. — Marriage of Ataulphus 
and Placidia, the daughter of Theodosius 1. Af 
talus is again proclaimed emperor by Ataulphus. 
Ataulphus passes into Spain. Pulcheria, the sister 
of Theodosius II., is proclaimed empress at Con- 
stantinople. Persecution of the Christians in Persia. 

415 Coss. Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. X. 

Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. VI. 
Honorii 21 : Theodosii II. 8. — Ataulphus is slain in 

Spain, and is succeeded by Wallia. 
Orosius writes his Apologia contra Pelagium de Ar 

Mtrii Libcrlate. 



416 Coss. Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. VII. 

Junius Quartus Palladius. 
Honorii 22: Theodosii II. 9. — Wallia makes peac6 

with Honorius, restores to him his sister Placidia, 

and surrenders Attalus. 
Pelagius is in Palestine, where Hieronymus (St Je 

rome) is still alive. 
Rutilius Numatianus writes his Ilincrarium. 

417 Coss. Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. XI. 

Fl. Constantius II. 

Honorii 23 : Theodosii II. 10. — Honorius, who has no 
children, gives his sister Placidia in marriage to 
Constantius. War of the Goths in Spain. 

Orosius ends his history. 

418 Coss. Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. XII. 

Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. VIII. 
Honorii 24: Theodosii II. 11 — The Goths subdue 
Spain, and return to Gaul: death of Wallia, who 
is succeeded by Theodoric I. Aquitania is ceded 
to the Goths, whose king resides at Tolosa. 

419 Coss. Monaxius. 

Plintas. 

Honorii 25 :— Theodosii II. 12. — Birth of Valentinian 
III., the son of Constantius and Placidia. War be- 
tween the Suevi and Vandals in Spain. 

420 Coss. Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. IX. 

Fl. Constantius III. 
Honorii 26 : Theodosii II. 13. — Accession of Varanes 
V., king of Persia. Persecution of the Christians 
in Persia. 

421 Coss. Eustathius. 

Agricola. 

Honorii 27 : Theodosii II. 14. — Constantius is deelar 
ed Augustus, but dies at the end of seven months 
Theodosius marries Eudocia (originally named 
Athenais). War with the Persians. 

422 Coss- Imp. Fl. Honorius Aug. XIII. 

Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. X. 
Honorii 28 : Theodosii II. 15. — Birth of Eudoxia, the 
daughter of Theodosius and Eudocia. Peace con- 
cluded with the Persians. 

423 Coss. Asclepiodotus. 

Fl. Avitus Marinianus. 
Honorii 29 : Theodosii II. 16. — Death of Honorius in 
August. 

424 Coss. Castinus. 

Victor. 

Theodosii II. 17. — Valentinian, the son of Constan 
tius and Placidia, is appointed Caesar by Theodo 
sius at Thessalonica. Joannes immediately as- 
sumes the purple at Ravenna. 

425 Coss. Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. XI. 

Fl. Placidius Valentinianus Ceesar. 
Theodosii II. 18 : Valentiniani III. 1.— Valentinian 

III. is declared Augustus, and placed over the West. 

Defeat and death of the usurper Joannes. Aetius 

attacks the Goths in Gaul. 
Philostorgius concludes his history. 

426 Coss. Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. XII. 

Imp. Fl. Placidius Valentinianus (III.) Aug. II. 
Theodosii II. 19 : Valentiniani III. 2. 
Proclus studies at Alexandrea. 

427 Coss. Hierius. 

Ardaburius. 

Theodosii II. 20; Valentiniani III. 3.— Revolt of Bold 

facius in Africa. 

428 Coss. Fl. Felix. 

Taurus. 



10 u 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF 



Theodosii II. 21 : Valentiniani III. 4. — Aetius carries 
on war in Gaul against the Franks. Death of Gun- 
deric, king of the Vandals, and accession of Gen- 
seric. 

Nestorius, the heretic, appointed patriarch of Con- 
stantinople. 

429 Coss. Florentius. 

Dionysius. 

Theodosii n. 22 : Valentiniani III. 5.— The Vandals 
cross over into Africa under their king Genseric: 
they were called into Africa by Bonifacius. 

430 Coss. Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. XIII. 

Imp. Fl. Placidius Valentinianus (III.) Aug. IIL 
Theodosii II. 23: Valentiniani III. 6. — Bonifacius is 
reconciled with Placidia. War of Bonifacius with 
the Vandals. Siege of Hippo. 
Death of Augustine (eet. 75). 
£U Coss. Bassus. 

Fl. Antiochus. 
Theodosii II. 24 : Valentiniani III. 7. — Capture of 
Hippo. Defeat of Bonifacius, who leaves Africa. 
The Vandals masters of the greater part of Africa. 
Council of Ephesus. 
Nestorius is deposed at the council of Ephesus. 

432 Coss. Aetius. 

Valerius. 

Theodosii II. 25 : Valentiniani III. 8. — War between 
Bonifacius and Aetius. Death of Bonifacius. 

433 Coss. Imp. FL Theodosius 01.) Aug. XIV. 

Petronius Maximus. 
Theodosii II. 26 : Valentiniani III. 9. 

434 Coss. Ariovindus. 

Aspar. 

Theodosii n. 27 : Valentiniani HI. 10.— Attila and his 
brother Bleda become kings of the Huns. Honoria 
(set 16), the sister of Valentinian, is banished from 
Constantinople on account of incontincncy : she is 
said, in consequence, to have written to Attila to 
offer herself as his wife, and to invite him to invade 
the empire. 

Vincentius Lirinensis writes Adtersus Hcerelicos. 

435 Coss. Imp. Fl. Theodosius (II.) Aug. XV. 

Imp. Fl. Placid. Valentinianus (III.) Aug. IV. 
Theodosii II. 28 : Valentiniani III. 11.— Peace with 
Genseric. Aetius defeats the Burgundians in Gaul. 

436 Coss. Fl. Anthemius Isidorus. 

Senator. 

Theodosii II. 29 : Valentiniani III. 12.— War with the 
Burgundians and the Goths in Gaul. Theodoric, 
king of the Goths, lays siege to Narbo. 

437 Coss. Aetius II. 

Sigisbuldus. 

Theodosii H 30: Valentiniani III. 13.— The war with 
the Burgundians and Goths continues. Aetius de- 
feats the Burgundians, and raises the siege of Nar- 
bo. Genseric persecutes the Catholics in Africa. 
Valentinian comes to Constantinople, and marries 
Eudoxia, the daughter of Theodosius. 

Proclus in Athens. 
433 Coss. Imp. Fl Theodosius (II.) Aug. XVI. 
Anicius Acilius Glabrio Faustus. 

Theodosii II. 31 : Valentiniani HI. 14. — The war with 
the Goths continues. The Codex Theodosianus is 
published. 

439 Coss. Imp. FL Theodosius (II.) Aug. XVII. 
Festus. 

Theodosii II. 32: Valentiniani III. 15.— Theodoric, 
who is besieged at Tolosa, sallies forth and defeats 



A.D. 

Litorius. the Roman general. Peace is made witfc 
the Goths. Carthage is taken by Genseric. 
Nestorius is 6till living in exile. 

440 Coss. Imp. Fl. Placid. Valentinianus (IH.) Aug. V. 

Anatoli us. 

Theodosii II. 33 : Valentiniani IH 16. — Genseric in- 
vades Sicily. 
Leo is made Bishop of Rome. 
Salvianus publishes his work De Gubernatione Vet. 

441 Cos. Cyrus (without colleague). 

Theodosii II. 34 : Valentiniani IH. 17.— War with th« 
Vandals. The Huns, under Attila, pass the Danube 
and lay waste Illyricum. 

442 Coss. Eudoxius. 

FL Dioscorus. 
Theodosii II. 35: Valentiniani III. 18.— The Huns cod 
tinue their ravages in Illyricum and Thrace. 

443 Coss. Petronius Maximus II. 

Paternus s. Paterius. 
Theodosii II. 36 : Valentiniani IH. 19. 

444 Coss. Imp. FL Theodosius (II.) Aug. XVIII 

Albinus. 

Theodosii II. 37 : Valentiniani III. 20.— Eudocia re- 
tires to Jerusalem. 

445 Coss. Imp. Fl. Placid. Valentinianus (III.) Aug. VI. 

Nonius s. Nomus. 
Theodosii II. 38 : Valentiniani III. 21. 

446 Coss. Aetius III. 

Q. Aurelius Symmachus. 
Theodosii II. 39 : Valentiniani III. 22.— In Spain, the 
Vandals defeat Vitus, the Roman general, and lay 
waste the Roman dominions. The Britons beg as- 
sistance of Aetius to defend them against the PictJ 
and Scots, but it is refused them. 

447 Coss. Callepius s. Alypius. 

Ardaburius. • 
Theodosius II. 40 : Valentiniani III. 23. — Attila crosses 
the Danube, and lays waste the provinces of the 
Eastern empire in Europe : he penetrates as far as 
Thermopylae. Arrival of the Saxons in Britain. 

448 Coss. Rufius Prsetextatus Postumianus. 

Fl. Zeno. 

Theodosii II. 41 : Valentiniani III. 24. — Embassies to 
and from Attila. Rechiarius, the king of the Suevi, 
ravages the Roman dominions in Spain. 

Priscus, the Byzantine writer, accompanies the em- 
bassy to Attila. 

449 Coss. Protogenes. 

Asterius. 

Theodosii II. 42 : Valentmiani III. 25. — A new embas- 
sy is sent to Constantinople. Council of Constan- 
tinople, which condemns Eutyches. Council of 
Ephesus, which condemns Flavianus. 

450 Coss. Imp. FL Placid. Valentinianus (III.) Aug. VII. 

Gennadius Avienus. 
Valentiniani III. 26 : Marciani 1. — Death of Theodb 

sius, who left no children. 
Mahcian is declared emperor of the East : he marries 

Pulcheria. Attila threatens both the Eastern and 

Western empires. 

451 Coss. Imp. Fl. Marcianus Aug. 

Adelphius. 

Valentiniani III. 27: Marciani 2. — Attila invades Gaul. 
He is defeated at Chalons by Aetius and Theodoric, 
the king of the Goths. Theodoric falls in the battle, 
and is succeeded by his son Torismond. Council 
of Chalcedon, at which Mercian was present 

452 Coss. Asporacius. 



ROMAN HISTORY. 



1015 



Fl. Herculanus. 
Valentiniani HI. 28 : Marciani 3. — Attila invades Italy, 
and takes Aquileia after a siege of three months : 
after ravaging the whole of Lombardy, he recross- 
es the Alps. Death of Torismond, and accession 
of Theodoric II. 
Leo, bishop of Rome, was sent as ambassador to Attila. 
153 Coss. Vincomalus. 
Opilio. 

Valentiniani III. 29: Marciani 4.— Death of Attila and 
dispersion of his army. Death of Pulcheria. 
xoi Coss. Aetius. 

Studiu3. 

Valentiniani III. 30 : Marciani 5. — Aetius is slain by 
Valentinian. 

i55 Coss. Imp. Fl. Placid. Valentinianus (III.) Aug. VIII. 

Procopius Anthemius (afterward Imp. Aug.). 
Marciani 6. — Valentinian is slain in March by Petro- 

nius Maximus, whose wife he had violated. 
Maximus is proclaimed emperor of the West, but 
is slain in July, when Genseric was approaching 
Rome. 

Genseric takes and plunders Rome. 

Avitus is proclaimed in Gaul emperor of the West, 

in July, through the means of Theodoric II., king 

of the Goths. 
Leo intercedes with Genseric. 

456 Coss. Varanes. 

Joannes. 

Marciani 7. — Theodoric invades Spain, conquers the 
Suevi, and kills their king Rechiarius. Ricimer, 
the commander of Avitus, gains a naval victory 
over Genseric. Avitus is deposed by means of Ri- 
cimer. 

Sidonius Apollinaris, the son-in-law of Avitus, writes 
his Panegyricus Avilo. 

457 Coss. Fl. Constantinus. 

Rufus. 

Leonis 1 : Majoriani 1.— Death of Marcian at the be- 
ginning of the year. 

Leo I., emperor of the East, is raised to the empire 
by Aspar. 

Majorian, emperor of the West, is raised to the em- 
pire by Ricimer. 

458 Coss. Imp. Fl. Leo (I.) Aug. 

Imp. Jul. Majorianus Aug. 

Leonis 2: Majoriani 2. — The Vandals land in Africa 
and are defeated. Naval preparations of Majorian 
against the Vandals. Majorian crosses the Alps in 
the winter, in order to settle the affairs of Gaul be- 
fore invading Africa. Earthquake at Antioch. Ac- 
cession of Firoze or Peroses as a king of Persia. 

Sidonius Apollinaris addresses his Panegyricus Majo- 
riano. 

459 Coss. Patricius. 

Fl. Ricimer. 

Leonis 3 : Majoriani 3. — Majorian defeats Theodoric 
II., king of the Goths ; peace is concluded between 
Majorian and Theodoric. 

460 Coss. Magnus. 

Apollonius. 

Leonis 4 : Majoriani 4. — Majorian marches into Spain, 
intending to pass over into Africa, but his fleet is 
completely destroyed by the Vandals at Carthage- 
na. Majorian concludes a treaty with Genseric ; 
he returns to Gaul, and winters there. 

461 Cuss. Severinus. 

Dagalaiphus. 



Leonis 5: Majoriani 5.— Majorian returns to Italy 
where he is deposed and put to death by order ol 
Ricimer, who raises Libius Severus to the fimpire 

Severus emperor of the West. 

462 Coss. Imp. Fl. Leo (I.) Aug. II. 

Imp. Lib. Severus Aug. 
Leonis 6 : Severi 2. — Genseric renews the war, turn 
ravages Italy. Theodoric II. renews the war in 
Gaul, and obtains possession of Narbo. 

463 Coss. Fl. Caecina Basilius. 

Vivianus. 

Leonis 7 : Severi 3. — Theodoric II. attempts to ob- 
tain possession of the whole of the Roman domin- 
ion in Gaul, but is defeated by jEgidius. Theodorio 
rules over the greater part of Spain. 

464 Coss. Ru6ticus. 

Fl. Anicius Olybrius. 
Leonis 8: Severi 4. — Death of jEgidius. 

465 Coss. Fl. Basiliscus. 

Herminericus s. Arminericus. 
Leonis 9. — Death of Severus. No emperor of the 
West is appointed for this and the following year : 
Ricimer keeps the power in his own hands. 

466 Coss. Imp. Fl. Leo (I.) Aug. III. 

(Tatianus.) 

Leonis 10. — Theodoric II. is slain by his brother Eu- 
ric, who succeeds him. 

467 Coss. Pusaeus. 

Joannes. 

Leonis 11 : Anthemii 1. — Ricimer applies to Leo to 
appoint an emperor of the West: Leo appoints 
Procopius Anthemius. 

Anthemius emperor of the West. He gives hi* 
daughter in marriage to Ricimer. 

Sidonius Apollinaris comes to Rome. 

468 Cos. Imp. Proc. Anthemius Aug. II. (.without col- 

league). 

Leonis 12 : Anthemii 2. — War with Genseric. Tha 
Roman forces land in Africa, but the expedition 
fails through the misconduct of Basiliscus. 

Sidonius Apollinaris writes his Panegyricus Anthemio 
bis Consuli. 

469 Coss. Fl. Marcianus. 

Fl. Zeno (afterward Imp. Cass. Aug.). 
Leonis 13 : Anthemii 3. — Zeno, the Isaurian, after- 
ward the emperor, marries Ariadne, the daughter 
of Leo. This excites the jealousy of the powerful 
minister Aspar. 

470 Coss. Jordanes. 

Severus. 

Leonis 14 : Anthemii 4. — Euric, king of the Visigoths, 
takes Arelate and Massilia, and defeats the Britons 
who had come to the assistance of the provincials 

471 Coss. Imp. FJ. Leo (I.) Aug. IV. 

Anicius Probianus. 
Leonis 15 : Anthemii 5. — Aspar is slain by order of 
Leo. 

472 Coss. Festus. 

Marcianus. 

Leonis 16. — War between Ricimer and Anthemius. 
Ricimer appoints Anicius Olybrius emperor, and 
lays siege to Rome, which he takes by storm in 
July: Anthemius perishes in the assault. Both Ric- 
imer and Olybrius die later in the year. 

473 Cos. Imp. Leo (I.) Aug. V. (without colleague). 
Leonis 17. — Leo associates with him in the empiro 

his grandson Leo. Gltcebius is proclaimed em 
peror in the West 



1016 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF ROMAN HISTORY 



A.D. 

474 Cos. Imp. Leo (II.) Aug. (without colleague). 

Death of Leo t, and accession of Leo II. The latter 
associates his father with him in the empire. Leo 
II. dies toward the end of the year, and is succeed- 
ed by Zeno. Glycerius is deposed, and Jdlics 
Nepos appointed emperor of the West. 

475 Cos. Imp. Zeno Aug. II. (without colleague). 
Zenonis 2.— Julius Nepos is deposed by Orestes, who 



makes his own son Romulus Augustulus em- 
peror of the West. 
476 Coss. Fl. Baslliscus II. 
Armatus. 

Zenonis 3. — The barbarians invade Italy under Odo- 
acer. Orestes is defeated and slain. Romulus Au- 
gustulus is deposed. Odoacer is acknowledged aa 
King of Italy. End of the Westeen Empire. 



The preceding Chronological Tables have been drawn up chiefly from the Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Romani of Mr 
Clinton, from the Griechische and Romische Zeittafeln by Fischer and Soetbeer, and from the Annales Velenim Reg- 
norw% et Populorum by Zumpt. 



PAR ALL 



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OL. 


B.C. 


U.C. 


OL. 


776 




i.l 


689 


65 


4 


602 


152 


3 


515 


239 


2 


428 


326 


88.1 


341 


413 


4 


254 


500 


3 


775 




2 


688 


66 


23. 1 


601 


153 


4 


514 


240 


3 


427 


327 


2 


340 


414 


110.1 


253 


501 


4 


774 




3 


687 


67 


2 


600 


154 


45.1 


513 


241 


4 


426 


328 


3 


339 


415 


2 


252 


502 


132. 1 


773 




4 


686 


68 


3 


599 


155 


2 


512 


242 


67.1 


425 


329 


4 


338 


416 


3 


251 


503 


2 


772 




2.1 


685 


69 


4 


598 


156 


3 


511 


243 


2 


424 


330 


89.1 


337 


417 


4 


250 


504 


3 


771 




2 


684 


70 


24.1 


597 


157 


4 


510 


244 


3 


423 


331 


2 


336 


418 


111.1 


249 


505 


4 


770 




3 


683 


71 


2 


596 


158 


46. 1 


509 


245 


4 


422 


332 


3 


335 


419 


2 


248 


506 


133. 1 


769 




4 


682 


72 


3 


595 


159 


2 


508 


246 


68.1 


421 


333 


4 


334 


420 


3 


247 


507 


2 


768 




3.1 


681 


73 


4 


594 


160 


3 


507 


247 


2 


420 


334 


90. 1 


333 


421 


4 


246 


508 


3 


767 




2 


680 


74 


25. 1 


593 


161 


4 


506 


248 


3 


419 


335 


o 


332 


422 


112.1 


245 


509 


4 


766 




3 


679 


75 


2 


592 


162 


47.1 


505 


249 


4 


418 


336 


3 


331 


423 


2 


244 


510 


134. 1 


765 




4 


678 


76 


3 


591 


163 


2 


504 


250 


69.1 


417 


337 


4 


330 


424 


3 


243 


511 


2 


764 




4.1 


677 


77 


4 


590 


164 


3 


503 


251 


2 


416 


338 


91.1 


329 


425 


4 


242 


512 


3 


763 




2 


676 


78 


26. 1 


589 


165 


4 


502 


252 


3 


415 


339 


2 


328 


426 


113. 1 


241 


513 


4 


762 




3 


675 


79 


g 


588 


166 


48.1 


501 


253 


4 


414 


340 


3 


327 


427 


2 


240 


514 


135. 1 


761 




4 


674 


80 


3 


587 


167 


2 


500 


254 


70. 1 


413 


341 


4 


326 


428 


3 


239 


515 


2 


760 




5.1 


673 


81 


4 


586 


168 


3 


499 


255 


2 


412 


342 


92.1 


325 


429 


4 


238 


516 


3 


759 




2 


672 


82 


27. 1 


585 


169 


4 


498 


256 


3 


411 


343 


2 


324 


430 


114.1 


237 


517 


4 


758 




3 


671 


83 


2 


584 


170 


49.1 


497 


257 


4 


410 


344 


3 


323 


431 


2 


236 


518 


136, 1 


757 




4 


670 


84 


3 


583 


171 


2 


496 


258 


71.1 


409 


345 


4 


322 


432 


3 


235 


519 


2 


756 




6.1 


669 


85 


4 


582 


172 


3 


495 


259 


2 


408 


346 


93.1 


321 


433 


4 


234 


520 


3 


755 




2 


668 


86 


28. 1 


581 


173 


4 


494 


260 


3 


407 


347 


2 


320 


434 


115.1 


233 


521 


4 


754 




3 


667 


87 


. 2 


580 


174 


50. 1 


493 


261 


4 


406 


348 


3 


319 


435 


2 


232 


522 


137.1 


753 


1 


4 


666 


88 


3 


579 


175 


2 


492 


262 


72.1 


405 


349 


4 


318 


436 


3 


231 


523 


2 


752 


2 


7.1 


665 


89 


4 


578 


176 


3 


491 


263 


2 


404 


350 


94.1 


317 


437 


4 


230 


524 


3 


751 


3 


2 


664 


90 


29. 1 


577 


177 


4 


490 


264 


3 


403 


351 


o 


316 


438 


116.1 


229 


525 


4 


750 


4 


3 


663 


91 


2 


576 


178 


51.1 


489 


265 


4 


402 


352 


3 


315 


439 


2 


228 


526 


138.1 


749 


5 


4 


662 


92 


3 


575 


179 


2 


488 


266 


73.1 


401 


353 


4 


314 


440 


3 


227 


527 


2 


748 


6 


8. 1 


661 


93 


4 


574 


180 


3 


487 


267 


2 


400 


354 


95.1 


313 


441 


4 


226 


528 


3 


747 


7 


2 


660 


94 


30.1 


573 


181 


4 


486 


268 


3 


399 


355 


2 


312 


442 


117. 1 


225 


529 


4 


746 


8 


■ 3 


659 


95 


2 


572 


182 


52.1 


485 


269 


4 


398 


356 


3 


311 


443 


2 


| 224 


530 


139.1 


745 


9 


4 


658 


96 


3 


571 


183 


2 


484 


270 


74. 1 


397 


357 


4 


310 


444 


3 


223 


531 


2 


744 


10 


9.1 


657 


97 


4 


570 


184 


3 


483 


271 


2 


396 


358 


96. 1 


309 


445 


4 


222 


532 


3 


743 


11 


2 


656 


98 


31.1 


569 


185 


4 


482 


272 


3 


395 


359 


2 


308 


446 


118.1 


221 


533 


4 


742 


12 


3 


655 


99 


2 


568 


186 


53.1 


481 


273 


4 


394 


360 


3 


307 


447 


2 


220 


534 


140.1 


741 


13 


4 


654 


100 


3 


567 


187 


o 


480 


274 


75.1 


393 


361 


4 


306 


448 


3 


219 


535 


2 


740 


14 


10.1 


653 


101 


4 


566 


188 


3 


479 


275 


2 


392 


362 


97.1 


305 


449 


4 


218 


536 


3 


739 


15 


2 


652 


102 


32.1 


565 


189 


4 


478 


276 


3 


391 


363 


2 


304 


450 


119.1 


217 


537 


4 


738 


16 


3 


651 


103 


2 


564 


190 


54.1 


477 


277 


4 


390 


364 


3 


303 


451 


2 


216 


538 


141.1 


737 


17 


4 


650 


104 


3 


563 


191 


2 


476 


278 


76.1 


389 


365 


4 


302 


452 


3 


215 


539 


2 


736 


18 


11.1 


649 


105 


4 


562 


192 


3 


475 


279 


2 


388 


366 


98.1 


301 


453 


4 


214 


540 


3 


735 


19 


o 


648 


106 


33.1 


561 


193 


4 


474 


280 


3 


387 


367 


2 


300 


454 


120.1 


213 


541 


4 


734 


20 


3 


647 


107 


2 


560 


194 


55. 1 


473 


281 


4 


386 


368 


3 


299 


455 


2 


212 


542 


142.1 


733 


21 


4 


646 


108 


3 


559 


195 


2 


472 


282 


77.1 


385 


369 


4 


298 


456 


3 


211 


543 


2 


732 


22 


12. 1 


645 


109 


4 


558 


196 


3 


471 


283 


2 


384 


370 


99.1 


297 


457 


4 


210 


544 


3 


731 


23 


2 


644 


110 


34.1 


557 


197 


4 


470 


284 


3 


383 


371 


2 


296 


458 


121. 1 


209 


545 


4 


730 


24 


3 


643 


111 


2 


556 


198 


56.1 


469 


285 


4 


382 


372 


3 


295 


459 


2 


208 


546 


143.1 


729 


25 


4 


642 


112 


3 


555 


199 


2 


468 


286 


78. 1 


381 


373 


4 


294 


460 


3 


207 


547 


2 


728 


26 


13.1 


641 


113 


4 


554 


200 


3 


467 


287 


2 


380 


374 


100. 1 


293 


461 


4 


206 


548 


3 


727 


27 


2 


640 


114 


35.1 


553 


201 


4 


466 


288 


3 


379 


375 


2 


292 


462 


122.1 


205 


549 


4 


726 


28 


3 


639 


115 


2 


552 


202 


57.1 


465 


289 


4 


378 


376 


3 


291 


463 


2 


204 


550 


144.1 


725 


29 


4 


638 


116 


3 


551 


203 


2 


464 


290 


79.1 


377 


377 


4 


290 


464 


3 


203 


551 


2 


724 


30 


14. 1 


637 


117 


4 


550 


204 


3 


463 


291 


2 


376 


378 


101.1 


289 


465 


4 


202 


552 


3 


723 


31 


2 


636 


118 


36. 1 


549 


205 


4 


462 


292 


3 


375 


379 


2 


288 


466 


123. 1 


201 


553 


4 


722 


32 


3 


635 


119 


2 


548 


206 


58. 1 


461 


293 


4 


374 


380 


3 


287 


467 


2 


200 


554 


145.1 


721 


33 


4 


634 


120 


3 


547 


207 


2 


460 


294 


80.1 


373 


381 


4 


286 


468 


3 


199 


555 


2 


720 


34 


15. 1 


633 


121 


4 


546 


208 


3 


459 


295 


2 


372 


382 


102.1 


285 


469 


4 


198 


556 


3 


719 


35 


2 


632 


122 


37.1 


545 


209 


4 


458 


296 


3 


371 


383 


2 


284 


470 


124. 1 


197 


557 


4 


718 


36 


3 


631 


123 


2 


544 


210 


59.1 


457 


297 


4 


370 


384 


3 


283 


471 


2 


196 


558 


146. 1 


717 


37 


4 


630 


124 


3 


543 


211 


2 


456 


298 


81. 1 


369 


385 


4 


282 


472 


3 


195 


559 


2 


716 


38 


16.1 


629 


125 


4 


542 


212 


3 


455 


299 


2 


368 


386 


103.1 


281 


473 


4 


194 


560 


3 


715 


39 


2 


628 


126 


38.1 


541 


213 


4 


454 


300 


3 


367 


387 


2 


280 


474 


125.1 


193 


561 


4 


714 


40 


3 


627 


127 


2 


540 


214 


60. 1 


453 


301 


4 


366 


388 


3 


279 


475 


2 


192 


562 


147. 1 


713 


41 


4 


626 


128 


3 


539 


215 


2 


452 


302 


82.1 


365 


389 


4 


278 


476 


3 


191 


563 


2 


712 


42 


17.1 


625 


129 


4 


538 


216 


3 


451 


303 


2 


364 


390 


104.1 


277 


477 


4 


190 


564 


3 


711 


43 


2 


624 


130 


39. 1 


537 


217 


4 


450 


304 


3 


363 


391 


2 


276 


478 


126.1 


189 


565 


4 


710 


44 


3 


623 


131 


2 


536 


218 


61.1 


449 


305 


4 


362 


392 


3 


275 


479 


2 


188 


566 


148. 1 


709 


45 


4 


622 


132 


3 


535 


219 


2 


448 


306 


83.1 


361 


393 


4 


274 


480 


3 


187 


567 


2 


708 


46 


18. 1 


621 


133 


4 


534 


220 


3 


447 


307 


2 


360 


394 


105. 1 


273 


481 


4 


186 


568 


3 


707 


47 


2 


620 


134 


40. 1 


533 


221 


4 


446 


308 


3 


359 


395 


2 


272 


482 


127. 1 


185 


569 


4 


706 


48 


3 


619 


135 


2 


532 


222 


62. 1 


445 


309 


4 


358 


396 


3 


271 


483 


2 


184 


570 


149. 1 


705 


49 


4 


618 


136 


3 


531 


223 


2 


444 


310 


84. 1 


357 


397 


4 


270 


484 


3 


183 


571 


2 


704 


50 


19. 1 


617 


137 


4 


530 


224 


3 


443 


311 


2 


356 


398 


106.1 


269 


485 


4 


182 


572 


3 


703 


51 


2 


616 


138 


41. 1 


529 


225 


4 


442 


312 


3 


355 


399 


2 


268 


486 


128. 1 


181 


573 


4 


702 


52 


3 


615 


139 


2 


528 


226 


63. 1 


441 


313 


4 


354 


400 


3 


267 


487 


2 


180 


574 


150. 1 


701 


53 


4 


614 


140 


3 


527 


227 


2 


440 


314 


85.1 


353 


401 


4 


266 


488 


3 


179 


575 


2 


700 


54 


20.1 


613 


141 


4 


526 


228 


3 


439 


315 


2 


352 


402 


107. 1 


265 


489 


4 


178 


576 


3 


699 


55 


2 


612 


142 


42.1 


525 


229 


4 


438 


316 


3 


351 


403 


2 


264 


490 


129. 1 


177 


577 


4 


698 


56 


3 


611 


143 


2 


524 


230 


64.1 


437 


317 


4 


350 


404 


3 


263 


491 


2 


176 


578 


151.1 


697 


57 


4 


610 


144 


3 


523 


231 


2 


436 


318 


86.1 


349 


405 


4 


262 


492 


3 


175 


579 


2 


696 


58 


21.1 


609 


145 


4 


522 


232 


3 


435 


319 


2 


348 


406 


108.1 


261 


493 


4 


174 


580 


3 


695 


59 


2 


608 


146 


43.1 


521 


233 


4 


434 


320 


3 


347 


407 


2 


260 


494 


130.1 


173 


581 


4 


694 


60 


3 


607 


147 


2 


520 


234 


65. 1 


433 


321 


4 


346 


408 


3 


259 


495 


2 


172 


582 


152. 1 


693 


61 


4 


606 


148 


3 


519 


235 


2 


432 


322 


87.1 


345 


409 


4 


258 


496 


3 


171 


583 


2 


692 


62 


22.1 


605 


149 


4 


518 


236 


3 


431 


323 


2 


344 


410 


109.1 


257 


497 


4 


170 


584 


3 


691 


63 


2 


604 


150 


44.1 


517 


237 


4 


430 


324 


3 


343 


411 


2 


256 


498 


131.1 


169 


585 


4 


690 


64 


3 


603 


151 


2 


516 


238 


66.1 


429 


325 


4 


342 


412 


3 


255 


499 


2 


108 


580 


153. 1 



1018 PARALLEL YEARS. 



B.C. 1 U.C. 


OL. 


B.C. 


U.C. 


OL 


i.D. 


U.C. 


OL. 


A.I). 


U.C. 


OL. 


A.D. 


U.C. 


OL. 


A.D. 


U.C. 


OI. 


A.D. 


U.C. 


OL 


167 


587 


2 


75 


679 


2 


17 


770 


199. 1 


109 


862 


222.1 


201 


954 


245. 1 


293 


1046 


268.1 


385 


1138 


291. 1 


16f< 


588 


3 


74 


680 


3 


18 


771 


2 


110 


863 


2 


202 


955 


2 


294 


1047 


2 


386 


1139 


o 


165 


J39 


4 


73 


681 


4 


19 


772 


3 


111 


864 


3 


203 


956 


3 


295 


1048 


3 


387 


1140 


3 


164 


590 


154. 1 


72 


682 


177.1 


20 


773 


4 


112 


865 


4 


204 


957 


4 


296 


1049 


4 


388 


1141 


4 


163 


591 


2 


71 


683 


2 


21 


774 


200. 1 


113 


866 


223. 1 


205 


958 


246.1 


297 


1050 


269.1 


389 


1142 


292.1 


162 


592 


3 


70 


684 


3 


' 22 


775 


2 


114 


867 


2 


206 


959 


2 


298 


1051 


2 


390 


1143 


2 


161 


593 


4 


69 


6g5 


4 


23 


77<5 


3 


115 


868 


3 


207 


960 


3 


299 


1052 


3 


391 


1144 


3 


160 


594 


155.1 


68 


686 


178.1 


24 


777 


4 


116 


869 


4 


208 


961 


4 


300 


1053 


4 


392 


1145 


4 


159 


595 


2 


67 


687 


2 


25 


778 


201.1 


117 


870 


224. 1 


209 


962 


247.1 


301 


1054 


270.1 


393 


1146 


293. I 


158 


596 


3 


66 


688 


3 


26 


779 


2 


118 


871 


2 


210 


963 


2 


302 


1055 


2 


394 


1147 


2 


157 


597 


4 


65 


689 


4 


27 


780 


3 


119 


872 


3 


211 


964 


3 


303 


1056 


3 


395 


1148 


3 


156 


598 


156.1 


64 


690 


179.1 


28 


781 


4 


120 


873 


4 


212 


965 


4 


304 


1057 


4 


396 


1149 


4 


155 


599 


2 


63 


691 


2 


29 


782 


202.1 


121 


874 


225. 1 


213 


966 


248.1 


305 


1058 


271.1 


397 


1150 


294. 1 


154 


600 


3 


62 


692 


3 


30 


783 




122 


875 


2 


214 


967 


2 


306 


1059 


2 


398 


1151 


2 


153 


601 


4 


61 


693 


4 


31 


784 


3 


123 


876 


3 


215 


968 


3 


307 


1060 


3 


399 


1152 


3 


152 


602 


157.1 


60 


694 


180. 1 


32 


785 


4 


124 


877 


4 


216 


969 


4 


308 


1061 


4 


400 


1153 


4 


151. 


603 


2 


59 


695 


2 


33 


786 203. 1 


125 


878 


226.1 


217 


970 


249.1 


309 


1062 


272.1 


401 


1154 


295. 1 




604 


3 


58 


696 


3 


34 


787 


2 


126 


879 


2 


218 


971 


2 


310 


1063 


2 


402 


1155 


o 


149 


605 


4 


57 


697 


4 


35 


788 


3 


127 


8S0 


3 


219 


972 


3 


311 


1064 


3 


403 


1156 


3 


148 


606 


158.1 


56 


698 


181.1 


36 


789 


4 


128 


881 


4 


220 


973 


4 


312 


1065 


4 


404 


1157 


4 


147 


607 


2 


55 


699 


o 


37 


790 


204.1 


129 


882 


227. 1 


221 


974 


250. 1 


313 


1066 


273.1 


405 


1158 


296.1 


146 


608 


3 


54 


700 


3 


38 


791 


2 


130 


883 


2 


222 


975 


2 


314 


1067 


2 


406 


1159 


2 


145 


609 


4 


53 


701 


4 


39 


792 


3 


131 


884 


3 


223 


976 


3 


315 


1068 


3 


407 


1160 


3 


144 


610 


159.1 


52 


702 


182.1 


40 


793 


4 


132 


S85 


4 


224 


977 


4 


316 


1069 


4 


408 


1161 


4 


143 


611 


2 


51 


703 


o 


41 


794 


205.1 


133 


886 


228.1 


225 


978 


25i. 1 


317 


1070 


274.1 


409 


1162 


297.1 


142 


613 


3 


50 


704 


3 


42 


795 


2 


134 


887 


2 


226 


979 


2 


318 


1071 


2 


410 


1163 


2 


141 


613 


4 


49 


705 


4 


43 


796 


3 


135 


888 


3 


227 


930 


3 


319 


1072 


3 


411 


1164 


3 


140 


614 


160. 1 


48 


706 


183.1 


44 


797 


4 


136 


889 


4 


228 


981 


4 


320 


1073 


4 


412 


1165 


4 


139 


615 


2 


47 


707 


2 


45 


798 


206.1 


137 


890 


229. 1 


229 


982 


252.1 


321 


1074 


275. 1 


413 


1166 


298.1 


138 


616 


3 


46 


708 


3 


46 


799 


2 


138 


891 


2 


230 


983 


2 


322 


1075 


2 


414 


1167 


2 


137 


617 


4 


45 


709 


4 


47 


800 


3 


139 


892 


3 


231 


984 


3 


323 


1076 


3 


415 


1168 


3 


136 


618 


161.1 


44 


710 


184.1 


48 


801 


4 


140 


893 


4 


232 


985 


4 


324 


1077 


4 


416 


1169 


4 


135 


619 


2 


43 


711 


2 


49 


802 


207.1 


141 


894 


230.1 


233 


986 


253.1 


325 


1078 


276.1 


417 


1170 


299.1 


134 


620 


3 


42 


712 


3 


50 


803 


2 


142 


895 


2 


234 


987 


o 


326 


1079 


2 


418 


1171 


2 


133 


621 


4 


41 


713 


4 


51 


804 


3 


143 


896 


3 


235 


988 


3 


327 


1080 


3 


419 


1172 


3 


132 


622 


162. 1 


40 


714 


185.1 


52 


805 


4 


144 


897 


4 


236 


989 


4 


328 


1081 


4 


420 


1173 


4 


131 


623 


2 


39 


715 


2 


53 


806 


208.1 


145 


898 


231.1 


237 


990 


254. 1 


329 


1082 


277.1 


421 


1174 


300.1 


130 


624 


3 


38 


716 


3 


54 


807 


2 


146 


899 


2 


238 


991 


2 


330 


1083 


2 


422 


1175 


2 


129 


625 


4 


37 


717 


4 


55 


808 


3 


147 


900 


3 


239 


992 


3 


331 


1084 


3 


423 


1176 


3 


128 


626 


163.1 


36 


718 


186.1 


56 


809 


4 


148 


901 


4 


240 


993 


4 


332 


1085 


4 


424 


1177 


4 


127 


627 


o 


35 


719 


2 


57 


810 


209.1 


149 


902 


232.1 


241 


994 


255. 1 


333 


1086 


278.1 


425 


1178 


301.1 


125 


628 


3 


34 


720 


3 


58 


811 


2 


150 


903 


2 


242 


995 


2 


334 


1087 


2 


426 


1179 


2 


125 


629 


4 


33 


721 


4 


59 


812 


3 


151 


904 


3 


243 


996 


3 


335 


1088 


3 


427 


1180 


3 


124 


630 


164. 1 


32 


722 


187.1 


60 


813 


4 


152 


905 


4 


244 


997 


4 


336 


1089 


4 


428 


1181 


4 


123 


631 


o 


31 


723 


2 


61 


814 


210.1 


153 


906 


233.1 


245 


998 


256.1 


337 


1090 


279.1 


429 


1182 


302.1 


122 


632 


3 


30 


724 


3 


62 


815 


2 


154 


907 


2 


246 


999 


2 


338 


1091 


2 


430 


1183 


2 


121 


633 


4 


29 


725 


4 


63 


816 


3 


155 


908 


3 


247 


1000 


3 


339 


1092 


3 


431 


1184 


3 


120 


634 


165. 1 


28 


726 


188.1 


64 


817 


4 


156 


909 


4 


248 


1001 


4 


340 


1093 


4 


432 


1185 


4 


119 


635 


2 


27 


727 


2 


65 


818 


211.1 


157 


910 


234.1 


249 


1002 


257. 1 


341 


1094 


280.1 


433 


1186 


303.1 


118 


636 


3 


26 


728 


3 


66 


819 


2 


158 


911 


2 


250 


1003 


2 


342 


1095 


2 


434 


1187 


2 


117 


637 


4 


25 


729 


4 


67 


820 


3 


159 


912 


3 


251 


1004 


3 


343 


1096 


3 


435 


1188 


3 


116 


638 


166. 1 


24 


730 


189. 1 


68 


821 


4 


160 


913 


4 


252 


1005 


4 


344 


1097 


4 


436 


1189 


4 


115 


639 


2 


23 


731 


2 


69 


822 


212.1 


161 


914 


235.1 


253 


1006 


258.1 


345 


1098 


281.1 


437 


1190 


304.1 


111 


640 


3 


22 


732 


3 


70 


823 


q 


162 


915 


2 


254 


1007 


2 


346 


1099 


2 


438 


1191 


2 


113 


641 


4 


21 


733 


4 


71 


824 


3 


163 


916 


3 


255 


1008 


3 


347 


1100 


3 


439 


1192 


3 


:i2 


642 


167.1 


20 


734 


190. 1 


72 


825 


4 


164 


917 


4 


256 


1009 


4 


348 


1101 


4 


440 


1193 


4 


in 


643 


o 


19 


735 


2 


73 


826 


213.1 


165 


918 


236.1 


257 


1010 


259.1 


349 


1102 


282.1 


441 


1194 


305.1 


110 


644 


3 


18 


736 


3 


74 


827 


2 


166 


919 


2 


258 


1011 


2 


350 


1103 


2 


442 


1195 


2 


109 


645 


4 


17 


737 


4 


75 


828 


3 


167 


920 


3 


259 


1012 


3 


351 


1104 


3 


443 


1196 


3 


108 


646 


168.1 


16 


738 


191.1 


76 


829 


4 


168 


921 


4 


260 


1013 


4 


352 


1105 


4 


444 


1197 


4 


107 


647 


2 


15 


739 


2 


77 


830 


214.1 


169 


922 


237.1 


261 


1014 


260.1 


353 


1106 


283.1 


445 


1198 


306.1 


106 


648 


3 


14 


740 


3 


78 


831 


2 


170 


923 


2 


262 


1015 


2 


354 


1107 


2 


446 


1199 


o 


105 


649 


4 


13 


741 


4 


79 


832 


3 


171 


924 


3 


263 


1016 


3 


355 


1108 


3 


447 


1200 


3 


104 


650 


169.1 


12 


742 


192.1 


80 


833 


4 


172 


925 


4 


264 


1017 


4 


356 


1109 


4 


448 


1201 


4 


103 


651 


2 


11 


743 


2 


81 


8341215. 1 


173 


926 


238.1 


265 


1018 


261..1 


357 


1110 


284. 1 


449 


1202 


307.1 


102 


652 


3 


10 


744 


3 


82 


835 


2 


174 


927 


2 


266 


1019 


2 


358 


1111 


2 


450 


1203 


2 


101 


653 


4 


9 


745 


4 


83 


836 


3 


175 


928 


3 


267 


1020 


3 


359 


1112 


3 


451 


1204 


3 


100 


654 


170. 1 


8 


746 


193.1 


84 


837 


4 


176 


929 


4 


268 


1021 


4 


360 


1113 


4 


452 


1205 


4 


99 


655 


2 


7 


747 


2 


85 


838 


216.1 


177 


930 


239.1 


269 


1022 


262. 1 


361 


1114 


285.1 


453 


1206 


308.1 


98 


656 


3 


6 


748 


3 


86 


839 


2 


178 


931 


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270 


1023 


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362 


1115 


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454 


1207 


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97 


657 


4 


5 


749 


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179 


932 


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271 


1024 


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363 


1116 


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96 


658 


171.1 


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750 


194.1 


88 


841 


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180 


933 


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272 


1025 


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364 


1117 


4 


456 


1209 


4 


95 


659 




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751 


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89 


842 


217.1 


181 


934 


240.1 


273 


1026 


263.1 


365 


1118 


286.1 


457 


1210 


309. 1 


94 


660 


3 


2 


752 


3 


90 


843 


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182 


935 


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274 


1027 


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366 


1119 


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458 


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93 


661 


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91 


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936 


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275 


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1120 


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92 


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172.1 


i.D. 






92 


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184 


937 


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276 


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363 


1121 


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460 


1213 


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91 


663 


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754 


195.1 


93 


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218.1 


185 


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241.1 


277 


1030 


264. 1 


369 


1122 


287. 1 


461 


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310.1 


90 


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847 


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196.1 


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219.1 


189 


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242.1 


281 


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265.1 


373 


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288.1 


465 


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311.1 


86 


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377 1130 


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197 


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289 


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290.1 


473 


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384lll37 


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476 


1229 


4 



THE ATHENIAN ARCHONS EPONYMI, 



FROM B.C. 496 TO B.C. 292. 



OT.. 


B.C. 




OL. 


B.C. 




OL. 


B.C. 




71 


496 


Hipparchus. 




426 


r. in ii \ nils . 




357 


Agattiocies. 




495 


Phi lip pus. 




425 


Strotocles. 


... 
10b 


ooo 


Eipines. 




494 


Pythocritus. 


do 

Oil 


424 


Isarchua. 




355 


Callistratua. 




493 


1 h croistoclos . 




423 


Amynias. 




354 


Diotimus, 


72 


492 






422 


Alcteus. 




353 


I'heodemus. 




491 


Hybrilid6s. 




421 


Aristion. 


107 


352 


Aristodemus. 




490 


Phasnippus. 


yo 


420 


Astyphilus. 




351 


Theasalus. 




489 


Aristidcs. 




419 


Archias. 




350 


Apollodorus. 


4o 


488 


Anchiscs. 




lio 


Antiphon. 




349 


Callimachus. 










AT7 


Euphemus. 


AO 

108 


9,1 Q 
olo 


Theophilus. 








yi 


416 


Arimnestus. 




347 


Themistocles. 




485 


Philocrates. 




415 


Chabrias. 




346 


Archias. 


74 


d 84 


L c o stratus . 




414 


Pissnder. 




345 


Eubulus. 




483 


Nicodemus. 




413 


Cleocritus. 


1U9 


344 


Lyciscus. 




482 


Themistocles 1 


92 


412 


cauias. 




343 


Pythodotus. 




481 


Cebris ? 




411 


Theopompus. 




342 


Sosigenes. 


70 


480 


Cull ia.de s. 




a i n 


Glaucippus. 




Oil 


Nicomachus. 




tit 


Xanthippus. 
Timosthenes. 




409 


Diocles. 


110 


340 


Theophrastus 






yo 


408 


Euctemon. 




339 


Lysimachides 




477 


A di nifiii t us. 




407 


Antigenes. 




338 


Chaerondas. 


76 


476 


Phasdon. 




406 


C alii as. 




337 


Phrynichus. 




475 


Dromoclides. 




405 


Alexias. 


111 


336 


Py thodemus. 




474 


Acestorides- 


94 


404 


(Pythodorus) . 






Evaenetus. 




473 


Af enon. 




403 


Euclides. 




334 


Ctesicles, 


i t 


472 


Chares. 




9U.5 


Micon. 




333 


Nicocrates. 




471 


Praxiergus. 




401 


Xcu senctus. 


112 


332 


Nicetas (NiceratV"** 






Demotion. 


95 


400 


Laches. 






Aristophanes. 




469 


Apsephion, 




399 


Aristoc rates* 




330 


Aristophon. 


7Q 


468 


Theagenides. 
Lysistratus. 




398 


Ithycles. 




329 


Cephisophon. 




467 




397 


Suniades. 


113 


328 


Euthycritufl. 




46G 


Lysanias. 


96 


396 


Phormion. 




327 


Hegemon. 




485 


Lysitheus. 




oyJ 


Diophantus. 




326 


Chremes. 


/y 


464 


Archidemides. 




394 


Eubulides. 




325 


Anticle6. 




463 


Tlepolemus. 




393 


Demostratus. 


114 


324 


Hegesias. 




462 


Conon. 


97 


392 


Philocles. 




323 


Cephisodorus 




^A 


Evippus, 




391 


Nicoteles. 




322 


Philocles. 


on 

80 


4o0 


Phrasiclides. 




390 


Dernostratua. 




321 


Arcbippus. 






Philocles. 




389 


Antipater. 


115 


320 


Neaschmus. 






Bion. 


yo 


388 


Pyrrhion. 




319 


Apollodorus 




457 


Mnesithides. 




387 


Theodotus. 




318 


Archippus. 


81 


456 


Pnllifi« 
KjUllxao. 




386 


Mysti chides. 




317 


Demogenes. 




455 


Sosistratus. 




385 


Dexitheus. 


116 


316 


Democlides. 




454 


A riston. 


99 


364 


Diotrephes. 




315 


Praxibulus. 




453 


Lysicrutes, 




383 


Phanostratus. 




314 


Nicodorus. 


o2 


452 


Chaerephanes. 




382 


Evander. 




313 


Theophrastus. 




451 


Antidotus. 




381 


Demophilus. 


117 


312 


Polemon. 




450 


Euthydemus, 


100 


380 


Pytheas, 




311 


Simonides. 




449 


Pedicus. 




379 


Nicon. ^ 




310 


Hieromnemon. 


83 


448 


Philiscus. 




378 


pJausmicus. 




309 


Demetrius. 




'ii / 


Timarchidcs. 




377 


oainas. 


J-J-O 


308 


Chai'inus. 




446 


Callimachus. 


ini 

lui. 


376 


Chari sander. 




307 


Anaxicrates. 




445 


Lysirnachides. 




375 


Hippodamas. 




306 


Corcebus. 


84 


444 


Praxiteles. 




374 


Socratides. 




305 


Xenippus. 




443 


Lysanias. 




373 


Asteus. 


119 


304 


Pherecles. 




442 


Diphilus. 


102 


372 


Alcisthenes. 




303 


Leostratus. 




441 


Timocles. 




371 


Phrasiclides. 




302 


Nicocles, 


85 


440 


Morychides. 




370 


Dysnicetus. 




301 


Calliarchus 




439 


Glaucides. 




369 


Lysistratus. 


120 


300 


Hegemachus. 




438 


Theodorus. 


103 


368 


Nausigenes. 




299 


Euctemon. 




437 


Euthymenes. 




367 


Polyzelus. 




298 


Mnesidemus. 


8G 


436 


Lysimachug. 




366 


Cephisodorus. 




297 


Antiphates. 




435 


Antiochidea. 




365 


Chion. 


121 


296 


Nicias. 




434 


Crates. 


104 


364 


Titnocrates 




295 


Nicostratus. 




433 


Apseudes. 




363 


Chariclides 




294 


OlympiodoruB. 


67 


432 


Pythodorus. 




362 


Molon. 




293 






431 


Euthydemus. 




361 


Nicopbemus. 


122 


292 


Philippus. 




430 


Apollodorus. 


105 


360 


Callimedes. 




291 






429 


Epaminon. 




359 


Eucharistus. 




290 




88 


428 


Diotimus. 




358 


Cephisodotus. 




289 






427 


Eucles (Euclides). 













LISTS OF KINGS. 







I. KINGS OF EGYPT. 




4. Alyattea 


Yrs. 


B.C. B.C 






Yrs. m. 


B.C. B.C. 


reigned 57 


617-560 


1. 


Paammetichus reigned 54 


671-617 


5. Croesua 




14 


560-546 


2. 


Neco 


" 16 


617-601 










3. 


Psammis 


" 6 


601-595 


IV. KINGS OF PERSIA. 






4. 


Apvies 


25 


595-570 




Yrs. 


m. 


B.C. B.C 




Amasis 


" 44 




1. Cyrua 


reigned 30 
7 

" 





juy— o - 


6'. 


Psammenitua 


6 


526-525 


2. Cambyaea 

3. Smerdia 


5 
7 


529-522 
522-522 






II. KINGS OF MEDIA. 




4. Dariua I. Hyataapia. 


" 36 





521-185 






Ym. 


B.C. B.C. 


5. Xerxea I. 


" 20 





485-465 


1. 


Deiocea 


reigned 53 
22 


709-656 


6. Artabanua 


" 


7 


465-465 


2. 


Phraortea 


656-634 


7. Artaxerxea I. Longimanus 


" 40 





465-425 


3. 


Cyaxarea 


40 


634-594 


8. Xerxea II. 


" 


2 


425-425 


4. 


Astyagea 


35 


594-559 


9. Sogdianua 


" 


7 


425-425 








10. Dariua II. Nothus 


» 19 





424-405 






III. KINGS OF LYDIA. 




11. Artaxerxea II. Mnemon 


" 46 





405-359 






Yrs. 


B.C. B.C. 


12. Ochua 


" 21 





359-338 


1. 


Gygea 


reigned 38 
" 49 


716-678 


13. Arae8 


" 2 





333-336 


2. 


Ardya 


678-629 


14. Dariua III. Codomannua 


" 4 11 


336-331 


3. 


Sadyattea 


" 12 


629-617 











2. EunYSTHENES. 

3. Agia I. 

4. Echestratua. 

5. Labotas. 

6. Doryaaua. 

7. Agesilaua L 

8. Archelaus. 

9. Teleclua. 

10. Alcamenes. 

11. Polydorua. 

12. Eurycratea. 

13. Anaxander. 

14. Eurycratides. 

15. Leon. 

16. Anaxandride3 

17. Cieomenea 

18. Leonidas 

19. Pliatarchua 

20. Plistoanax 

21. Pausaniaa 

22. Agesipolia I. 

23. Cleombrotua I. 

24. Ageaipolia II. 

25. Cieomenea II. 



26. Areua I. 

27. Acrotatua 

28. Areus II. 

29. Leonidas II. 

30. Cleombrotua II. 
Leonidaa again. 

31. Cieomenea III. 

32. Ageeipolia III. 



V. KINGS OF SPARTA. 
1. awstoeemus. 

2. Pbocles. 

3. Soila. 

4. Eurypon 

5. Pry tan ia 

6. Eunomua. 

7. Polydectea. 

8. Charilaua. 

9. Nicander. 

10. Theopompus. 



11. Zeuxidamua. 

12. Anaxidamua. 

13. Archidamua I. 

14. Ageaiclea. 

15. Ariaton. 

16. Demaratus. 

17. Leotychidea 



Yn. B.C. BC. 

reigned 520 

29 520-491 

" 11 491-480 

" 22 480-458 

" 50 458-408 

" 14 408-394 

" 14 394-380 

" 9 380-371 

" 1 371-370 

" 61 370-309 



44 309-265 
[11 265-[264] 
[8] [264]-[256J 



" 16 236-220 



VI. KINGS OF MACEDONIA. 

Yr». m. B.C. B.C. 



Perdiccaa I. 
Argseua. 
Philippua I. 
Aeropua. 
Alcetaa. 
Amynta8 I. 
Alexander I. 
Perdiccaa II. 
Archelaua 

Orestes and Aeropus 
Pauaaniaa 
Amyntaa II. 
Alexander II. 
Ptolemaeua Alorites 
Perdiccaa III. 
Philippua II. 
Alexander III. the Great 
Philippua III. Aridseua 
Olympiaa 
Cassander 
Philippua IV. 







I540]-[5001 






500]-[454 




[4541- 413 


reigned 14 





413-399 


" 5 





399-394 


" 1 





394-393 


" 24 





393-369 


" 2 





369-367 


" 3 





367-364 


" 5 





364-359 


23 





359-336 


13 





336-323 


" ' 7 





323-316 


» 1 





316-315 


" 19 





315-296 


" 1 





296-295 



18. Archidamua II. 

19. Agia II. 

20. Agesilaus II. 



21. Archidamua III. 

22. Agia III. 

23. Eudamidaa I. 

24. Archidamua IV. 

25. Eudamidaa II. 

26. Agia IV. 

27. Eurydamidaa. 

28. Archidamua V. 



20. Demetriua Poliorcetea 

21. Pyrrhua 

22. Lysimachua 
Ptolemaaua Ceraunua ' 
Meleager 
Antipater 
Sosthenea 
Ptolemseua 
Alexander 
Pyrrhua again 

23. Antigonua Gonataa 

24. Demetriua II. 

25. Antigonus Doaon 

26. Philippua V. 

27. Perseus 



Yrs. B.C. B.C 



reigned 22 491-469 

" 42 469-427 

" 29 427-398 

" 37 398-361 



23 361-338 
8 338-330 



4 244-240 



Yr«. m. B.C. B.C 

reigned 7 294-287 

" 7 287-286 

" 5 6 286-288 



3 280-277 



44 283-239 

10 239-229 
9 1 229-220 

42 220-178 

11 178-167 



VII. KINGS OF SYRIA. 



1. Seleucus I. Nicator 

2. Antiochus I. Soter 

3. Antiochua II. Theoa 

4. Seleucua II. Callinicua 



Yrs. B.C. B.C. 
reigned 32 312-280 
" 19 280-261 
" 15 261-246 
" 20 246-2ii6 



LISTS OF KINGS. 



1021 



36 
12 
11 

2 
12 

5 



5. Seleucus III. Ceraunus reigned 

6. Antioehus III. the Great 

7. Seleucus IV. Philopator 

8. Antioehus IV. Epiphanea 

9. Antioehus V. Eupator 

10. Demetrius I. Soter 

11. Alexander Bala 

12. Demetrius II. Nicator } 
Antioehus VI. \ 
Trypho ) 

13. Antioehus VII. Sidetes 
Demetrius II. Nicator (again) 

14. Seleucus V. 

15. Antioehus VIII. Grypus } 

16. Antioehus IX. Cyzicenus \ 

17. Seleucus VI. 

18. Antioehus X. Eusebes 

19. Philippus 

20. Demetrius III. Eucserus 

21. Antioehus XI. Epiphanes 

22. Antioehus XII. Dionysus 
Tigranes, king of Armenia " 14 

23. Antiochu3 XIII. Asiaticus " 4 

VIII. KINGS OF EGYPT. 



Yrs. B.C. B.C. 
3 226-223 
223-187 
187-175 
175-164 
164-162 
162-150 
150-146 

146-137 

137-128 
128-125 
125-125 

125- 95 



95- 83 



83- 69 
69- 65 



1. Ptolemaeus I. Soter 

2. Ptolemasus II. Philadelphus 

3. Ptolema;us III. Evergetes 

4. Ptolempeus IV. Philopator 

5. Ptolemaeus V. Epiphanes 

6. Ptolemaeus VI. Philometor 

7. Ptolemaeus VII. Evergetes II. 

or Physcon 

8. Ptolemaeus VIII. Soter II. or 

Lathyrus 
[Ptolemaeus IX. Alexander I.] 
Cleopatra. 

Ptolemasus X. Alexander II. 

9. Ptolemaius XI. Dionysus or 

Auletes 
10. Cleopatra 

[Ptolemaeus XII. 
Ptolemasus XIII.] 



Yrs. B.C. B.C. 
reigned 38 (40) 323-285 
36 (38) 285-247 



25 
17 
24 
35 



247-222 
222-205 
205-181 
181-146 



29 146-117 
36 ' 117- 81 



29 
21 



81- 80 



80- 51 
51- 30 



IX. KINGS OF PERGAMUS. 



1. Philetterus 

2. Eumenes I. 

3. Attalus I. 

4. Eumenes II. 

5. Attalus II. Philadelphus 

6. Attalus III. Philometor 



Yrs B C B C 

reigned 17 280-263 

22 263-241 

" 44 241-197 

" 38 197-159 

" 21 159-138 

" 5 138-133 



X. KINGS OF BITHYNIA. 

Yrs. 



1. Zipcetes. 

2. Nicomedes I. 

3. Zielas 

4. Prusias I. 

5. Prusias II. 

6. Nicomedes II. Epiphanes 
r Nicomedes III. Philopator 



B.C. B.C. 



reigned [28] 278 -[250] 
[22] [250]-[228J 
" [46| 228 -[180] 
" [31] [180]- 149 
" 58 149 - 91 
" 17 91 - 74 



XI. JONGS OF PONTUS. 



Yrs. B.C. B.C. 



1. Ariobarzanes I. 

2. Mithradates I. 

3. Ariobarzanes II. reigned 26 363 - 337 

4. Mithradates II. " 35 337 - 302 

5. Mithradates III. " 36 302 - 266 

6. Ariobarzanes III. " . [26] 266 -[240] 

7. Mithradates IV. " [50] [240]-[190] 

8. Pharnaces I. " [34] [190]-[156J 

9. Mithradates V. Evergetes " [36] [156]-[120J 

10. Mithradates VI. Eupator " 57 120 - 63 

11. Pharnaces II. " 16 63 - 47 



XII. KINGS OF CAPPADOCIA. 



1. Datames. 

2. Ariamnes I. 

3. Ariarathes I. 

4. Ariarathes II. 

5. Ariamnes II. 

6. Ariarathes III. 

7. Ariarathes IV. 

8. Ariarathes V. 

9. Ariarathes VI. 

10. Ariobarzanes I. 

11. Ariobarzanes II, 



Yrs. B.C. B.C. 



reigned 7 315-308 



58 
32 
34 
30 
21 



220-162 
162-130 
130- 96 
93- 63 
63- 42 I 



12. Ariarathes VII. 

13. Archelaiis 



Yrs. B.C. B.C 
reigned 6 42- 36 
A.D. 

« 50 36- 15 



XIII. KINGS OF PARTHIA. 
The kings of Parthia are given in chronological order 
under Absaces. 

XIV. KINGS OF PERSIA (SASSANIDjE). 
A list of these kings is given on p. 777-9. 

XV. KINGS OF ROME. 



1. Romulus 

2. Numa Pompilius 

3. Tullus Hostilius 

4. Ancus Marcius 

5. L. Tarquinius Priscus 

6. Servius Tullius 

7. L. Tarquinius Superbus 



Yrs. B.C. B.C. 
reigned 38 753-715 
42 

" 32 
24 
38 

u 44 
25 



715-673 
673-641 
641-616 
616-578 
578-534 
534-510 



XVI. EMPERORS OF ROME. 



Augustus 
Tiberius 
Caligula 
Claudius 
Nero 
Galba 
Otho 
Vitellius 
Vespasian 
Titus 
Domitian 
Nerva 
Trajan 
Hadrian 
Antoninus Pius 
C M. Aurelius 
\ L. Verus 
Commodus 
Pertinax 
Julianus 

Septimius Severus 

C Caracalla 

) Geta 

Macrinus 

Elagabalus 

Alexander Severus 

Maximinus 

C Gordianus I. J 

\ Gordianus II. J 

C Pupienus Maximus ? 

\ Balbinus .J 

Gordianus III. 

Philippus 

Decius 

Trebonianus Gallus 
iEmilianus 

C Valerian 

( Gallienus 

Claudius H. 

Aurelian 

Tacitus 

Florianus 

Probus 

Carus 

< Carinus ) 
I Numerianus 3 
C Diocletian 

I Maximian 
Constantius I. Chlorus 
( Galerius 

< Constantine I. the Great 
( Licinius 

C Constantine II. 

< Constantius II. 
( Constans I. 
Julian 

Jovian 



reigned 23 





4 




13 


„ 


14 


11 

..'« I 




ii 


10 


II 


2 




15 




2 




19 




21 




23 




19 




8 

12 




18 




6 


u 


1 




1 




4 


u 


13 


It 


3 


II 


6 




5 




2 




3 




7 


u 


15 


u 


2 




5 


II 


1 



Yrs. A.D. A.D. 

14 

14- 37 
37- 41 
41- 54 
54- 68 



69- 



69 
69 

69- 79 
79- 81 
81- 96 
96- 98 
98-117 
117-138 
138-161 
101-180 
161-169 
180-192 
193-193 
193-193 
193-211 
211-217 
211-212 

217- 218 

218- 222 
222-235 
235-238 

238-238 

238-238 

238-244 
244-249 
249-251 
251-254 
253-253 
253-260 
253-268 
268-270 
270-275 

275- 276 

276- 276 
6 276-282 
1 282-283 

1 283-284 



21 
19 
1 
6 
31 
16 
3 
24 
13 



284- 303 

285- 30O 
305-306 

305- 311 

306- 337 

307- 323 
337-340 
337-361 
337-350 
361-363 
363-364 



WESTERN EMPIRE. 



Valentinian I. 
G rati an 
Valentinian II. 



reigned 11 
16 
17 



Theodosius I. (Emperor of the West 
as well as of the East) " 3 

Honorius " 28 

Theodosius II. (Emperor of the West 
as well as of the East) " 2 423-425 



A.D. A.D. 
364-375 
3H7-383 
375-392 

392-395 
295-423 



1023 



LISTS OF KINGS. 



Valentinian III. 

Petronius Maximus 

Avitus 

Majorian 

Libius Severus 

Anthemius 

Olybrius 

Glycerius 

Julius Nepos 

Romulus Augustulus 



Trs. A.D. A.D. 
reigned 30 425-455 
" 455-455 
" 1 455-456 
" 4 457-461 
4 461-465 
" 5 467-472 
" 472-472 
473-474 
« 474-475 
" 475-476 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 



Valens 

Theodosius I. 
Arcadius 
Theodosius II. 
Marcian 
Leo I. Thrax 
Leo II. 
Zeno 

Anastasius I 
Justin I. 
Justinian L 
Justin II. 
Tiberius II. 
Mauricius 
Phocas 
Heraclius I. 

Constantine III., also called ) 
Heraclius II. 5 
Heracleonas 
Constans II, 

Constantine IV. Pogonatus 
Justinian II. Rhinotmetus 
Leontius 

Tiberius Absimarus 
Justinian II. (again) 
Philippicus or Philepicus 
Anasta9ius II. 
Theodosius III. 
Leo III. Isaurus 
Constantine V. Copronymus 

(Artavasdes, usurper.] 
Leo IV. Chazarus 
Constantine VI. 
Irene 

Nieephorus 
Stauracius 
Michael I. Rhangabc 
Leo V. Armenius 
Michael II. Balbus 
Theophilus 
Michael III. 
Basil I. Macedo 
Leo VI. Sapiens 

Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus 
Alexander, colleague of Constan- ) 

tine VII. j 
Romanus I. Lecapenus, colleague > 

of Constantine VII. j 



Yrs. A.D. A.D. 

reigned 14 364-378 

" 16 378-395 

" 13 395-408 

" 42 408-450 

" 7 450-157 

17 457-474 

" 474-474 

" 17 474-491 

" 27 491-518 

" 9 518-527 

" 39 527-565 

13 565-578 

" 4 578-5.82 

" 20 582-602 

" 8 602-610 

31 610-641 

" 641-641 

641-641 
641-668 
668-685 
685-695 
695-698 
698-704 
704-711 
711-713 
713-716 

716- 717 

717- 741 
741-775 

775-780 
780-797 
797-802 
802-811 
811-811 
811-813 
813-820 
820-829 
829-842 
842-867 
867-886 
886-911 
911-959 



27 
17 
10 
3 
6 
7 
2 
3 
1 
24 
34 

5 
17 
5 
9 

2 
7 

9 
12 
25 
19 
25 
48 

1 911-912 
25 919-944 



Constantine VIII., Stephanus, f 

sons of Romanus I., reigned > reigned 
five weeks y 

Romanus II. " 

Nieephorus II. Phocas " 

Joannes I. Zimisces " 

Basil II., colleague of Joannes I. ? „ 

for seven years y 
Constantine IX., colleague of Basil J „ 



II. for forty-nine years 
Romanus III. Argyrus 
Michael IV. Paphlago 
Michael V. Calaphates 
Zoe and Theodora 
Constantine X. Monomachus 
Theodora (again) 
Michael VI. Stratioticus 
Isaac I. Comnenus 
Constantine XI. Ducas 
Romanus IV. Diogenes 
Michael VII. Ducas 
Nieephorus III. Botaniates 
Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus 
Joannes II. Comnenus or Calo- ? 

Joannes 5 
Manuel I. Comnenus 
Alexis I. or Alexius II. Comnenus 
Andronicus I. Comnenus 
Isaac II. Angelus 
Alexis or Alexius III. Angelus 
Alexis or Alexius IV. Angelu9 
Alexis or Alexius V. Ducas 



LATIN EMPERORS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 



Yrs. 


A.D. A.J) 




944-944 


i 


959- 963 


6 


963- 969 


7 


969- 976 


56 




Da 




6 


1028-1034 


7 


1034-1041 




1041-1042 




1042-1042 


12 


1042-1054 


2 


1054-1056 


1 


1056-1057 


2 


1057-1059 


8 


1059-1067 


4 


1067-1071 


7 


1071-1078 


3 


1078-1081 


37 


1081-1118 


Mo 


mo n jo 


38 


1143-1181 


2 


1181-1183 


2 


1183-118 i 


10 


1185-119.) 


8 


1195-1203 


1 


1203-1204 




1204-1204 



Baldwin I. 
Henry 
Peter 
Robert 
Baldwin II. 



Yrs. 

reigned 1 
10 

" 7 
33 



A.D. A.D. 

1204-1205 

1206-1216 

1217- 

1221-1228 

1228-1261 



GREEK EMPERORS OF NICjEA. 

Yrs. A.D A.D 

Theodorus I. Lascaris reigned 16 1206 1222 

Joannes III. Vatatzes " 33 1222-1255 

Theodorus II. Lascaris " 4 1255-1259 

Joannes IV. Lascaris " 1 1259-1260 

Michael VIII. Palffiologus " 1 1260-1261 

GREEK EMPERORS OF CONSTANTINOPLE AGAIN. 



Michael VIII. Pateologus 
Andronicus II. Pateologus 
Michael IX. Palaeologus (associated 
with Andronicus II. in the em- 
pire). 

Andronicus III. Pal«ologus 
Joannes V. Cantacuzenus 
Joannes VI. Palseologus 
Manuel II. Palasologus 
Joannes VII. Palffiologus 
Constantine XIII. Palseologug 



Yrs. 

reigned 21 
46 



A.D. A.D 
1261-1282 
1282-1328 



1328-1341 
1342-1355 
1355-1391 
1391-1425 
1425-1448 
1448 1453 



TABLES 

op 



MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY 



1024 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



oo r-» »o 

to CO 

i-H CO CD 

lO o o 



CO 
CO 



CM 

00 
CM 

CO 



V3 

cm 

O CO 



oo 



«3 

»0 VO 

00 O} !> 

CO O O 

rH CM CD 



iH CO 



CO 



CO 



CO 



CD 



















CD 














00 


CD 


o 


CM 




CM 


CD 




OS 


CO 




CO 


CD 


CM 


>o 


CM 


lO 


00 


T— < 


I-- 




CO 


O 


i> 


CD 




>o 


o 


CO 


Oi 






CO 


CD 


»— ( 


>o 


CO 


O 


i— t 


CM 


>o 


CO 


CO 


!> 


o 




CM 


*? 




CO 






















t— 1 




CO 



X 

O 

z 
w 
1-1 

. fa 

M O 
W H 

CO D 
*T CO 

t* g 



■a 
< 























•H- 
O 


O 




















W 
H 
X 


I«I 


— |m 




a. 














-3 
R 


>R 
R 


CO 






c? 

«o 
o 
t< 












R 


-i« 

T-l 


niui 
CO 






s> 
« 

< 

f-t 
o 

*^ 










v< 




r-i 


-# 


-Ira 

>o 




-1— 
?» 
o 

«3 






I" 

i? 


o 
R 


-|» 

T— I 




-]n 


-In 


CO 




^s? 
a. 




o 

Q_ 

'3 
«o 
o 






cq|rt 
i— 1 


CM 


CO 


00 




< 

o 


g 
a. 


-t— 

c^ 


Q> 
Q_ 
O 






1—1 




CM 


CD 


CO 




Q_ 

'3 
< 


u 

o 

<3 


J° 
H 

T-H 


-i« 
*— t 




H 


CM 


CM 


-l« 
!> 


«l«o 

a> 




1- 
b 

3 

<-< 

o 
R 


-if 




r-i« 


CM 


-|„ 

CM 


-IN 

CM 


CO 


a> 


CM 

— H 


o 


CM 


CM 


CM 


CO 




-,N 


»o 


CO 


00 

PH 


CM 


Kov 


CM 




>o 


-|n 
lO 


CO 


00 




o 


CM 


o 

CO 


CO 


CM 




00 


o 






CD 


00 


o 


CM 


cm 

£> 


CO 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



.006 





00 




<N 


to 






QO 


o 






OS 


0} 






1> 


*— i 


CO 




tO 




J> 




Oi 




tp 










OJ 


00 


I— 1 



































to 


OS 


!> 


I— 1 


00 


»o 




o 


o 




00 


o 


CO 


to 


to 


00 




<M 


r-» 


t— 4 




o 


o 






OS 


CM 














T-H 


T-t 



as 

H 

O 
Z 

w 

fa 

o 
w 

M 
D 

DQ 



03 
H 

3 

D 



Ph 



bo 

(5 



o 



m 



is, 
e 



K 

= 8 

•§s 

<u a 

a ° 

«)i2 ? 
wo 'o 
p. M O 

a> 5 9 
S » 

= -°.ts 
do a a m 

« Si" 

o s> a o 
« 8*5 

-a a-g 

Sua 
«3 a S 

§ s s 

u S » 
|sa 

5 2 St 
I --a £ 

« O <B g 

^ IS 3 *.d 
5 rt w 

s « » & 

is 5 a 

■ 

^R■ « £ ** g 

tail's 

b a » I 3 

eo (U « 'o 
<_'S » of 

Jo g-g J 

| § 3 £ - 

OJ rt <y 

g « a 2 

CO H « " 
* -^—JS O 

3 



.9 



<2 eV 



65 



1026 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



nchcs. I 


CO 


2025 


3375 


CO 


CO 


i-H 








- 


- 




- 


- 


t-H 


o 


CO 


to 


o 


i-H 


GO 


i-H 


o> 


to 






to 






| Feet. 


i-H 


i-H 


CM 


to 


o 

i-H 


O 
CO 


I-H 

o 


to 
o 


CO 
CM 


I> 

CM 




CM 
CO 
CO 


CO 


o 




















CM 




CM 


kf 


lO 


™ 
























CO 


to 


00 

to 


























































































o 






























aals of a Mi 


o 
o 


00 
CM 

o 
o 
o 


00 

o 
o 
o 


OS 
i-H 

o 


>o 

i-H 

o 


(35 
O 


o 


*!■ 


GO 
CT3 
CM 
CM 


to 

Ci 

*o 


CO 




00 

•^H 

C5 
00 


oo 

GO 
C5 


c 
'5 

Q 
























CO 


o 


CO 

to 






















































. o 






63 
63 






; 


1 


'. 

i 














d 

a. 

H 

J 


t^. 

^a 
b 
a 


1 tw> 

o 

iS 
5 


3 

H 

o 








• 




'■ 


• 






• 






o 






'. 




\ 








o 
< 






< 


§- 
K 




CM 








• 




1 
1 












o 
PR 


CO 


f> 












I 




















* 

S3 




\ 


• 


I 






• 


sh 
o 




1 — 1 


CM 


Hn 
It— 




o 


<! 
Ph 
53 










s|> 
S 
o 
t: 

v a 






O 

<\ 


a 

<4 


CM 






CO 


o 
o 

CO 


I-H 






j 




a 

CO 

< 




o 


< 
Eh 


CM 




00 


o 

CO 


o 
to 


o 
o 
to 


Q 










•A 


















ND AN 




] 


- 


* 


o 

8. 

a 
a 


a 


eg" 

v w 
<-< 

a 


to 


CM 

T-H 


CM 


GO 


o 

00 

i-H 


o 

to 

CO 


o 
o 
to 

CO 


MEASURES. — LA 










a 
<! 

cji 
o 


a_ 

< 
ft 


i-H 


o 

i-H 


o 

CM 


O 


O 

00 


o 
o 

CO 


o 
o 
to 


o 
o 
o 
to 


1 






J— 4 


a_ 
a 
<< 

v a 

M 


to 


o 

1-H 


o 
to 


o 

CM 


o 
■*H 

CM . 


o 

GO 
t# 


o 
o 

CO 

I-H 


o 

o 
to 

CO 


o 
o 

CO 

to" 

CO 


P3 

a 

PS 
«?! 




• 




5H 
Eh 
Oh 
O 


Jn 

T-H 


o 

i-H 


ci!« 
CO 

i-H 


o 
o 


o 

O 
CM 


O 

o 
^ 


O 
O 

CO 


o 
o 
o 

CO 


o 
o 
o 
to 


o 
o 

CO 

o" 

CO 


K, 




M 


a 

IB" 

P5 


CM 


4 


cm 


o 


o 

CM 


O 

CO 


o 
to 

Oi 


o 

CM 
OS 
I-H 


o 
o 

CM 


o 
o 

T-H 


o 
o 
o 

Tj<" 

■tf 
rt 








r)i 


CO 


o 
"tf< 


to 

CO 


o 
o 


o 

o 

GO 


o 
o 
to 

I-H 


o 
o 

CM 
CO 


o 
o 
o 

cm" 

t-H 


o 
o 

CM 


o 
o 
o_ 
o" 

CM 








-*» 


CO 


O 


o 


o 
o 


o 
o 


O 

o 

CM 

i-H 


o 
o 

CM 


o 
o 

00 

"* 


o 
o 
o 


o 

o 
o_ 


o 
o 
©_ 




o 
1=1 


i-H 


CM 


i-H 


CO 




to 


oo" 


to" 

CO 


o" 

CO 

CO 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



1037 



<! 

fi 

z 
< 

I 

CO 

P 

03 
<l 

K 
3 

B3 
a 
C3 



to 

(73 
«5 



00 
CM 



to 

OS 



CM 
OS 



00 



00 

o 



00 


!> 


to 


CO 


CO 


«o 


OS 


OS 


00 


t-- 


«o 






cm 


^* 


OS 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 



00 
CO 
00 
1—1 

o 
o 



60 

a 



Pi 

H 



to 
s 



CD 



Pi 



Pi 

s 



CO 
w 

Pi 



3 

Sh 

CD 



Pi 



s 
O 



w 
Pi 



CM 



CO 



win 

to 



on 



CO 



O 

CO 



O 
O) 



«|w 
i— ) 



O 

o 



o 
o 
o 



-In 
CO 
CO 
CO 
CO 



-In 
(M 

to 



O 



o 
o 
o 



o 



GO 

to 



to 


CO 




00 


o 


as 


as 


00 


CM 








CM 


as 


CO 


as 






ri 


do 








to 



# 

H 
B 

d 
o 

K 

A 



CO 



o 
o 
o 



o 
>o 

CM 

o 
o 
o 



09 J3 

«1p 



09 as 



— 3 
"8 £ 



a> E 
•2 » 

9.3 



t-5 . C . 



« a 
to-3 rt 
o « S as 



I 2 83 

c 09 E S 
a a o?S 



*3 ™ a ,L 



09 ^ 09 — 

"3 09 13 J9 

a « leg 

„ 09 

C 3 g"" 

.2 £ ° 09 

ta 09-|"3 

*" „ - a 

0> o *9 CO 

5 2.2 S 

^ 3 J o, 

"> g 6» 



■31 



« 1 

t--1 2 
W ■£ 

H 2 
o * 

EH 2 

03 

H Eg 
EH T3 

"a 

^ Hi ° 

2- B ,09 

* ca 

^ s 

2 -a. 

09 

* SB 



1623 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



pa 
< 

« 

ta 

fa 

>° 
n m 

n 3 

o 
H 
W 

o 







CO 










CO 




co 










CM 




CM 




J> 


GO 


* 


Qi 




CO 


CO 


!>■ 




CM 


O 


CO 


(N 


"Ctj 


00 


CO 


o 




CO 


CM 


>o 


o 


CO 


CO 




CO 


o 


CO 




o 


>o 












T— * 










CO 


CO 


CI 


CO 





CO 


CO 










CO 




CO 


00 


CO 


^< 


CO 


CM 




(M 


CO 




XI 


»o 


CM 




CO 


00 




CO 


CO 


o 


GO 


(M 


tH 


CO 


lO 


CM 


T-t 


CO 


cm 


OJ 




CO 


CO 




CO 


o 




o 


>o 


CM 








CO 


!>• 


lO 


CM 










1— t 


CM 


o" 














T— 1 



3 
72 

H 
O 



ST" 
«© 



CO 
CO 



c^> 
o 

§■ 

ID 

^3 



g< 

CO 

a 
3 
< 



Ha 
CM 



O 
O 



8 

§■ 
o 



CO 



co 



CO 
CM 



CO 
CO 
CO 



eifn 
CO 



CO 



CD 
CO 
CO 



CO 



o 
o 

lO 
CM 



S3 

O 
CD 

w 

<j 

B 



H» 
CM 



o 
o 
o 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

















*0 






CM 


00 




cm 


t— i 


GO 






o 


do 




OS 


CD 


CO 














I— 1 


CO 







4-f- 


i4n 






CO 


!> 


O) 


CO 


HO 


CO 


O 


GO 


iC 


CM 


!>• 


*o 










<§ 


CM 


CO 


GO 


o 


CO 




I— 1 


CM 


t-H 


«— 1 


I-l 


CM 


03 




C5 


O 







CM 



# 



H3 

3 

ci 

CD 



» 
H 

<! 
PS 
P 
«■! 
D 

7! 
D 

H 

o 



s 



3 

a 

CD 

u 



Hi 

w 

C5 

1-5 



CO 
m 
H 

o 
51 



g 

6 



3 

3 



& 

H 

«« 
Pi 
Q 

'■«! 
to 

o* 

CO 

H 



3 
&i 
3 

r— < 

o 
CO 



o 
o 



o 

GO 



CM 



o 
o 
-« 

CM 



o 

CO 



CO 



o 

CO 



o 
o 



o 

«5 



— H 

CM 



O 
CM 



tO 
K3 



o 
o 

CM 



o 
o 



o 
o 



o 

CM 



o 
o 
o 



o 

o 



o 
o 
o 
o~ 
to 



GO 











































CM 




t> 






GO 




CM 








"* 






CO 


t-H 


CO 


?>• 








CM 


CO 


GO 


GO 


co 




CM 


CM 


co 






CM 




CM 




CM 


»b 




CO 




Cl 




to 


OS 




. 


GO 


CM 


o 








CM 


. co 


»o 




CM 


<o 


t-H 








CM 


CO 


co" 




■>* 


GO" 


•<* 












T— 1 


CM 




CM 




















"=* 










































CM 



CO 



o 
o 
o 
cn 



02 <a 
8 S 

3 



•a 



2 



e 
■I 



bog 

s I 
ad 



<0 

^ a § 

3 _ s 2 

10 -a ^ oo 



•a co S 



1030 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



jraato." | 


Pints. | 


lo 

1- 


lo 
to 


1=> 
If 


J* 


J" 

H 




-If 




t-H 


to 






Appros 


Gallons. 


1 




- 


- 


- 


- 


; 


- 


- 


- 


to 


o 


xn 

a 
Ph 


CO 
O 

o 


so 
o 


CM 

o 


o 


00 

o 




eg 


CO 

"? 


to 


to 


CO 

o 
to 


CM 
i— 1 

>b 


Gallons. 
























CO 



H 

Hi 
o 



E- 1 
I'l 



o 



Si 

o 
a 



o 

fc4 



■e- 
e 

O 



X 



CM 



O 
CO 



I? 



-In 

CM 



O 
CO 



CO 



o 

to 



o 

CM 



CO 



CM 



00 
CM 



O 
O 
CO 



1M 



<! 

s 

o 

Pi 



qo 



to 
o 



CM 



CO 
CO 



CO 
CM 



CO 
CO 
C\! 



o 
o 



H 
H 
W 
cu 
H 

§ 

— 

o 

•9- 



CM 



GO 
CO 
CM 



tO 



00 
OJ 



to 
o 



CM 
CO 



O 

O 

CO 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



1031 



6 

13 
S 


Pints. | 


l» 

it 


1- 


-l» 






r-4 


tO 




= 




I Appro* 


Gallons. | 
















co 


to 


o 

(M 

1— 1 


Pints. 


CM 

o 


00 

o 


CM 

T-H 


-<ti 

CM 


00 


to 
cs 


to 


7-04 


80-9 


to 

T-H 


Gallons. 
















CM 




>o 

T-H 



o 

OS 



i 



o 



3 
3 



s 



o 
to 



* s 

H 

W 
CO 



g 
3 

o 
O 



m 



H 



3 
be 



CM 



00 



CM 



00 



1^ 



CO 

00 

cm 



CM 



CO 



to 

C7i 



CO 
00 
CM 



CM 



pS 
p 

« 
o 
a 

Oh 
S 
"3 



00 



to 

OS 



00 
CO 



to 



o 

CO 
CM 



3 

o 



o 

CM 



o 



o 

to 



o 

CM 
OS 



o 

ao 

CO 



o 

00 

to 
1^ 



o 

CM 



o 

00 

© 
to" 

TH 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



1033 



imate.* | 


Pints. | 


|C3 


J" 




-If 




rH 






H 

O 
u 

p. 


CO 




a, 


Gallc 














I— 1 


(M 


Pints. 


(M 
O 


00 

o 


(M 
1—1 




00 


to 
o 


7-68 


7-36 


Gallons. 



















3 

I 
I 

4) 



o 

b 

a 

of a> 

.3 W 



H 

H 
CO 



02 



S g 

s 



S3 
H 

X 
P 



s 

to 



00 



<N> 
CO 



to 



to 



00 
CO 



CO 



to 



00 



CTS 



00 

to 



.034 



TABLES Or WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



TABLE XI. 

GRECIAN WEIGHTS. 



1. Ratios of the three chief Systems. 



^Eginetan : Euboic or old Attic 


:: 6 


: 5 


iEginetan : Solonian or later Attic* 


:: 5 


: 3 


j Euboic : Solonian : . 


::138f 


■ 100 




or : : 100 


72 




or : : 25 


: 18 



The iEginetan Talent=6000 iEginetan Drachma; =7200 Euboic=10,000 Solonian 
Euboic " =5000 " =6000 " = 83331 " 

Solonian* " =3600 " =4320 " = 6000 " 



* Also called the Attic Silver Talent. When Attic weights are spoken of without any further distinction, these 
are generally intended. * 



2. -Sginetan Weights. 


Exact* 


Approximate. 


lb. 


oz. 


grs. 


lb. 


oz. 


grs. 


Obol foPoAo's) 


tt 

1 
95 


it 

9 
it 


18-472f 
110-831 
145-831f 


tt 
it 

100 


It 

1 
tt 
tt 


20 

fcl 
i I 
it 




600 j 100 | Mina (MvS.) 


[_36,000 | 6000 | 60 | Talent (TaKavrov) . . 



* In this and the other tables the English weights used are those of the avoirdupois scale as fixed by statute ; 
namely, the grain = the Troy grain, the ounce = 437£ grains, the pound = 16 ounces = 7000 grains, 
t Or ^ of an ounce. 



3. Euboic or Attic Commercial Weights.* 


Exact. 


Approximate. 


lb. 


oz. 


grs. 


lb. 


OZ. 


grs. 


Obol 


tt 
it 

1 

79 


. 1* 

5 

2 


15-39314 
92-36111 
48-61l£ 
291-63.1 


it 
it 

n 

80 


it 

it 
it 
It 


151 

931 

a 


600 | 100 | Mina 

36,000 | 6000 | 60 | Talent 



* See Diet, of Antiq., p. 933, b., 934, a. It is here assumed that the Attic commercial mina was exactly 138j| tilvei 
drachmas, not 138, as stated in the decree. The difference is not quite half a grain in the drachma. 



4. Attic Commercial Weights Increased.* 


Exact. 


Approximate. 


lb. 


oz. 


grs. 


lb. 


oz. 


grs. 


1 Talent — 65 Mina? (commercial) 


1 

P. 
88f 


6 
14 
" 


350 
291-6| 
145-81 


H 

71 
90 


It 


ti 



* See Diet of Antiq.. page 934, a. 

t Here, as in the preceding table, the commercial mina is taken as equal to 138| drachma?, not 138. 



5. Attic Silver Weights. 


Exact. 


Approximate. 


■ lb. 


oz. 


grs. 


lb. 


oz. 


grs. 


Obol . . . 








11-08331 


tt 


.4* ' 


12 


6 




tt 


tt 


66-5* 






70 


600 


| 100 | Mina 




15 


87-5f 


1 


It 




36,000 


| 6000 | 60 | Talent 


57 






60 







* This value is, if any thing, too small. Bockh makes it 67-4. Respecting other scales of weight see Pondera, 
io Diet, of Antiq. 
t Or i of an ounce. 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



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H P «i 3 IE 5 
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103fi 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



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o 






















o 


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ciln 




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ciln 




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CO 




to 


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to 




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GO 


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to 


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© 


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GO 


i— < 




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lO 




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CO 


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to 


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o 


to 


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to 


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to 


to 





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to 



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CM 



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TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



1037 

























to 


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CO 










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r- < 


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ts 




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CM 


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CO 
00 
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CM 



to 

C5 



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CO 



to 



00 
CM 



038 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 





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i— 1 


CM 


CO 










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00 


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cm 




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pj 
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CO 



to 



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a 
S 

o 

Pi 



H 

a 



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a 
A 



a 



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W 

co 



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TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



1039 









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to 


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CO 


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CM 



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to 
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fa 
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S3 

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H 
K 
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p3 

fa 



g 
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pj 
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d 
3 



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CD 



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| 

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£ ° 

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